Objectives

- To measure & plot velocity profile of air flowing in a pipe section.

- To calculate the mean velocity of the flowing air by two methods:
1. The mass flow rate method
2. Velocity profile method

Introduction & Theory

In any fluid flow in pipes, the fluid in direct contact with the pipe wall has the same velocity as
the wall. This condition is known as “no-slip condition”. Based on that, the velocity of the fluid
at the stationary pipe wall is zero. However, the bulk fluid is moving, which indicates the
existence of velocity gradient in the flow. In other words, the fluid particles don’t move with the
same velocity inside the pipe.
Pipe flows is divided into laminar flow and turbulent flow based on the Reynold’s number of the
flow. In fact, the velocity profile of the fluid or the curve which represents the velocity variation
across the pipe depends on the flow type. For laminar flow, the velocity profile has parabolic
shape, while for turbulent flow, the velocity profile has flatter velocity distribution as shown in
figure1. .

Figure 1. Velocity profile for (a) laminar flow (b) turbulent flow

In order to measure and plot the velocity profile of air flow in a pipe, a pitot tube can be utilized
to measure the local velocity of the air at a certain point across the pipe. Simply, the pitot tube
consists of two concentric tubes. The inner tube has an opening at its end, which is directed to
oppose the fluid flow. The other tube is closed at the end, but is has a side opening. When this
instrument is set within the fluid stream as shown in figure2., the air particles will impinge on the
opening of the inner tube and they will become at rest. The kinetic energy of these particles will
be converted to an increase in pressure inside the tube.

1
 Figure 2. Pitot tube device

The pressure of the central tube is called stagnation pressure and it is equal to the static pressure
plus the dynamic pressure, while the outer tube pressure is equal to the static pressure. A
differential manometer is used to measure this pressure difference which is equal to the dynamic
pressure. Then, the local velocity can be calculated as follows:
- Assuming that the fluid is incompressible(i.e the density of the air is constant) , the relationship
between the local velocity and the measured pressure difference can be derived from Bernoulli’s
equation [1]:

𝑣1 𝑃 𝑣2 𝑃
+ 𝑧1 + 𝜌𝑔1 = + 𝑧2 + 𝜌𝑔2 Eq.1
2𝑔 2𝑔

Where point 1 is located at the opening of the outer tube, while point 2 is located at the opening
of the inner tube.
Since 𝑧1 = 𝑧2 and 𝑣2 = 0 , the equation reduces to
𝑣1 𝑃 𝑃
+ 𝜌𝑔1 = + 𝜌𝑔2 Eq.2
2𝑔

Hence, the local velocity of the air is given by:

2( 𝑃2 −𝑃1 )
𝑣1 = √ 𝜌
Eq.3

Where,
𝑃2 − 𝑃1 is the pressure difference measured by the differential manometer (Pa)
𝜌 is the density of the air (kg/m3)

2
At normal ambient conditions, the air behaves as an ideal gas, and therefore, the ideal gas law
can be used to calculated the density of the air as shown below[1]:
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇 Eq.4
𝑚 𝑃
𝜌= = 𝑅𝑇 Eq.5
𝑉

Where,
𝑃 is the air pressure (kPa)
𝑇 is the air temperature (K)
𝑅 is the air gas constant 𝑅 = 0.2871 𝑘𝐽/𝐾. 𝑘𝑔

Regarding the mean velocity of the air, it can be calculated using two methods as explained
below:
a) Mass flow rate method
The mass flow rate of a fluid is given by [1]:
𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑉̅ 𝐴 Eq.6
Where,
𝜌 is the density of the fluid (kg/m3)
𝑉̅ is the mean velocity of the fluid across the pipe (m/s)
𝐴 is the cross-sectional area of the pipe (m2)
Rearranging the above equation yields:
𝑚̇
𝑉̅ = 𝜌 𝐴 Eq.7

In the experiment, the mass flow rate of the air can be measured with the aid of an orifice plate.
It is given by the following formula [1]:
𝑚̇ = 𝐶𝑑 𝜌𝐴𝑜 𝑉̅ Eq.8
Where,
𝐶𝑑 = 0.613 is the orifice discharge coefficient
𝜌 is the air density (kg/m3)
𝐴𝑜 is the cross-sectional area of the orifice (m2)
𝑉̅ is the mean velocity of the air across the orifice (m/s)
The air mean velocity across the orifice plate is calculated using Bernoulli’s equation
2∆𝑃
𝑉̅ = √ 𝜌 Eq.9

Where,
∆𝑃 is the pressure difference across the orifice plate (Pa)
𝜌 is the air density (kg/m3)

3
b) Velocity profile method
After plotting the velocity profile, one can find the mean velocity of the air using the volume
flow rate equation, which is given by [1]:
∀̇= 𝑉̅ 𝐴 = ∫ 𝑉𝑑𝐴 Eq.10
Where,
𝑉̅ the mean velocity of the fluid (m/s)
𝐴 the cross-sectional area of the pipe (m2) 𝑹
𝑉𝑑𝐴 is the volume flow rate through a differential area (m3/s)
Rearranging the above equation gives
1
𝑉̅ = 𝐴 ∫ 𝑉𝑑𝐴 Eq.11
As shown in figure3., the differential area 𝑑𝐴 for circular
pipes may be given by:
𝑑𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟 Eq.12
Figure 3. Differential area for
Thus eq. becomes: circular pipe
2𝜋 𝑅
𝑉̅ = ∫ 𝑉𝑟𝑑𝑟0
Eq.13
𝐴
An approximation may be done to get rid of the integration by converting it to a finite sum as
shown below:
2𝜋∗10−6
𝑉̅ = ∑ 𝐴𝑖 ∗ 𝑟 Eq.14
𝐴

Where,
𝐴 is the cross-sectional area of the pipe (m2)
𝐴𝑖 is the area of a rectangular element in the velocity profile as shown in figure4.
r is the distance of the rectangular element from the center line (mm)

Figure 4. Velocity profile of laminar flow

4
Experimental Setup
The experiment is conduducted in an airflow pipe system. As figure5. shows, this system
consists of a blower, which blow the air to the pipe. There is an on-off switch to start and stop
the blower. A glass thermometer is intalled at the inlet of the pipe to measure the temperature of
the flowing air. Three manometers are installed to measure the pressure drop across the orifice,
the fan pressure ( or the blower pressure) and the test length pressure drop i.e the pressure drop
across the pipe length. In addition, a pitot tube and a manometer are placed at a certain section of
the pipe to enable measuring the velocity profile of the flowing air.

Figure 5. Experimental setup

Experimental Procedure
1. Switch on the blower with the inlet valve fully open.
2. Once steady state condition is reached, record the following data:
- Air pressure before the orifice plate (fan pressure).
- Pressure drop across the orifice plate.
- Air temperature at the inlet of the test pipe.
- Pitot pressure at 2mm intervals across the section of the pipe.
- Barometric pressure & ambient temperature.

5
Given Data
- 40 mm
Orifice plate diameter 𝑑𝑜 : …………………..
- 32.6 mm
Pipe internal diameter 𝑑𝑖 : …………………..
- 0.613
Orifice discharge coefficient Cd : ……………

Observed Data
- 27 oC
Room temperature: ……………………………..
- 0.893 bar
Barometric Pressure Patm : ……………………….
o
- 29.5 C
Air inlet temperature To : …………………………
- 502 mmH2O
Fan pressure drop Pf : ……………………………..
- 108 mmH2O
Orifice Pressure drop∆Po: …………………………
- 121 mmH2O
Test length pressure drop ∆PTL : …………………..

Table 1. Observed data

Pitot traverse Actual distance Pstagnation- Pstatic

distance (mm) across tube (mm) (mmH2O)
66 2 118
68 4 142
70 6 158
72 8 164
74 10 180
76 12 190
78 14 198
80 16 198
82 18 198
84 20 195
86 21 188

6
Sample of calculations

Step(1): Find the air pressure at the orifice Po

Po = atmospheric pressure Patm + fan pressure Pf
Pf = 502 mmH2 O → Pf = 502 ∗ 9.81 = 4924.62 Pa = 4.9246 kPa
Patm = 0.893 bar → Patm = 0.893 ∗ 100 = 89.3 kPa
Po = 89.3 + 4.9246 = 94.2246 kPa

Step(2): Calculate the air density at the orifice ρa

Pressure at the orifice Po
ρa = 0.2871∗temperature of air at the orifice To

To = 29.5 ℃ = 282.65 K
94.2246
ρa = = 1.1611 kg/m3
0.2871∗282.65

Step(3): Calculate the mass flow rate of the air ṁa

2 ∆Po
ṁa = ρa ∗ Cd ∗ Ao ∗ √ ρa

π 2 π
Ao = d = ∗ 0.042 = 1.25663 ∗ 10−3 m2
4 o 4
∆Po = 108 mmH2 O → ∆Po = 108 ∗ 9.81 = 1059.48 Pa

2∗1059.48
ṁa = 1.1611 ∗0.613 ∗ 1.25663 ∗ 10−3 ∗ √ 1.1611
= 0.038209 kg/s

Step(4): Calculate the static pressure at the pitot tube plane

276
Pstatic = Patm + 1524 ∗ Test length pressure drop ∆PTL

∆PTL = 121 mmH2 O → ∆PTL = 121 ∗ 9.81 = 1187.01 Pa = 1.187 kPa

276
Pstatic = 89.3 + ∗ 1.187 = 89.5149 kPa
1524

7
Step(5): Calculate the velocity of the air at the specified points along the diameter of the tube
Take the 1st & 2nd readings as a sample of calculation
Pitot traverse Actual distance Pstagnation- Pstatic
distance (mm) across tube (mm) (mmH2O)
66 2 118
68 4 142

2∗(Pstagnation − Pstatic )
The air velocity at a certain point is given by : V = √ ρa
2∗118∗9.81
Air velocity at point (1): V = √ = 44.653 m/s
1.1611

2∗142∗9.81
Air velocity at point (2): V = √ = 48.984 m/s
1.1611

Step(6): Calculate the mean air velocity at the pitot plane using the following methods:
a. Mass flow rate method
𝑚̇𝑎
Air mean velocity 𝑉̅ = π
ρa ∗ d2i
4
0.038209
𝑉̅ = π = 39.4249 𝑚/𝑠
1.1611∗ ∗0.03262
4

b. Velocity profile method

2𝜋 ∗ 10−6
𝑉̅ = ∑ 𝐴𝑖 ∗ 𝑟
𝐴
∑ 𝐴𝑖 ∗ 𝑟 is calculated manually from figure5. And it’s equal to 5946.455
2𝜋∗10 −6
𝑉̅ = 𝜋 ∗ 5946.455 = 44.7623 m/s
∗(0.0326)2
4

The first value deviates from the second value by 44.7623-39.4249 = 5.3374 m/s

8
Obtained results
- The following table involves the values of the air velocity at the specified points along
the diameter of the tube.
Table 2. Obtained Results

Pitot traverse Actual distance Pstagnation- Pstatic Velocity V

distance (mm) across tube (mm) (mmH2O) (m/s)
66 2 118 44.653
68 4 142 48.984
70 6 158 51.670
72 8 164 52.642
74 10 180 55.150
76 12 190 56.661
78 14 198 57.842
80 16 198 57.842
82 18 198 57.842
84 20 195 57.402
86 22 188 56.362

- The following figure shows the velocity profile obtained from the data observed in the
experiment.

Figure 6. Velocity profile of the flowing air

9
Discussion
- As shown in figure5., the fluid velocity in a pipe changes from zero at the surface
because of the no-slip condition to a maximum value at the pipe center. The no-slip
condition for viscous fluids assumes that at a solid boundary, the fluid will have zero
velocity relative to the boundary. When any fluid runs through a pipe, the velocity of
fluid near the pipe wall is less because of the friction the wall exerts. However, moving
towards the center of the pipe i.e. away from the walls, the friction effect decreases and
hence the velocity increases. In addition, since the velocity profile has a parabolic shape,
it can be concluded that the flow type is laminar.
Furthermore, in fluid flow, it is convenient to work with an average velocity𝑉̅ , which is
defined such that when it is multiplied by the cross-sectional area of the pipe, it will
provide the same discharge (volume flow rate) in the tube. In this experiment, the average
velocity was calculated using two different methods and a deviation exists between the
two values.

Uncertainty Analysis
- For a calculated quantity 𝑥 that is dependent on another quantities 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , … . , 𝑥𝑛
𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , … . , 𝑥𝑛 )
The uncertainty of 𝑥 (𝑤𝑥 ) is given by :

2 2 2 2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 [3]
𝑤𝑥 = ±√( × 𝑤𝑥1 ) + ( × 𝑤𝑥2 ) + ( × 𝑤𝑥3 ) + ⋯ + ( × 𝑤𝑥𝑛 )
𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑥3 𝜕𝑥𝑛

- In this experiment, the calculated quantityPo is dependent on Patm , Pf

i.e
Po = 𝑓 ( Patm , Pf )

- The uncertainty of Po is given by :

2 2
𝜕 Po 𝜕 Po
𝑤Po = ±√( × 𝑤Patm ) + ( × 𝑤Pf )
𝜕Patm 𝜕 Pf

- Theuncertainty of an observed quantity measured using a device, is the value of one-half the
smallest division of the device. [3] The uncertainties of Patm , Pf are as follows :
𝑤Patm = ± 0.25 𝑚𝑏𝑎𝑟 = ± 0.025 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑤Pf = ± 1 mmH2O = ± 0.00981 kPa

10
The following quantities are found by differentiating Po = Patm + Pf partially:
𝜕Po 𝜕Po
𝜕Patm
=1 𝜕 Pf
=1

Hence,
𝑤Po = ±√(0.025 )2 + (0.00981 )2 = 0.0268 𝑘𝑃𝑎

Sources of Error
Errors in this experiment are caused by several factors, such as:
- Human error in recording the data.
- Using in accurate devices to measure the pressure values
- Existence of fluctuations in the manometer fluid level while recording the data which
make it difficult to specify the reading of the manometer.

Summary & Conclusions

Overall, the experiment shows that the velocity profile can be measured and plotted with the help
of a pitot tube and differential manometer. The obtained velocity profile is useful since it can be
used to determine the type of the flow as well as the mean velocity of the flowing air. In
addition, an orifice plate may be used to measure the mass flow rate of the stream, which in turn
can be used to calculate the mean velocity of the fluid.

Applications
Pitot tubes are used for a wide range of applications across several industries. Most common
applications are seen in aircrafts and racing cars. These tubes are fitted on the wing of an aircraft
in order to measure the aircraft’s speed. Some major industrial applications of these tubes
include measuring liquid flow and/or air flow in pipes and channels, ducts, and stacks during
construction.

11
References
[1] Engineering Fluid Mechanics, Elger, D. F., Williams, B. C, Crowe, C. T., and Roberson, J.
A., John Wiley and Sons., 10th edition, (SI units)
[2] Chapra, S. C., & Canale, R. P. (2010). Numerical Methods for Engineers (6th ed.). New
York: McGraw-Hill Education.
[3] Holman J. P. (2012). Experimental Methods for Engineers (8th ed.). New York: McGraw-
Hill Education.

12