Palynology

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Holocene vegetation history and environmental

change in the Lăpuş Mountains, north-west
Romania

Michael Peters , Arne Friedmann , Philipp Stojakowits & Carola Metzner-

Nebelsick

To cite this article: Michael Peters , Arne Friedmann , Philipp Stojakowits & Carola Metzner-
Nebelsick (2020) Holocene vegetation history and environmental change in the Lăpuş Mountains,
north-west Romania, Palynology, 44:3, 441-452, DOI: 10.1080/01916122.2019.1615567

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/01916122.2019.1615567

Published online: 15 Jul 2019.

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PALYNOLOGY
2020, VOL. 44, NO. 3, 441–452
https://doi.org/10.1080/01916122.2019.1615567

puş Mountains,
Holocene vegetation history and environmental change in the La
north-west Romania
Michael Petersa, Arne Friedmannb, Philipp Stojakowitsb and Carola Metzner-Nebelsicka
a
Institute for Pre- and Protohistoric Archaeology and the Archaeology of the Roman Provinces, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich,
M€unchen, Germany; bInstitute for Geography, University of Augsburg, Augsburg, Germany

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
Pollen analysis supported by 25 accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) 14C dates from the T
aul Negru pollen analysis; AMS 14C;
peat bog (1143 m) in the L
apuş Mountains (Eastern Carpathians, Romania) is used to reconstruct the forest dynamics; human
Holocene vegetation history of this mountain region. The vegetation record at T
aul Negru starts at c. impact; Eastern Carpathians
10,500 cal yr BP with dense montane forests dominated by Picea abies (spruce) and Ulmus (elm).
Corylus avellana (hazel) spread after 10,000 cal yr BP and reached maximum frequencies between 9000
and 7000 cal yr BP before decreasing. Thereafter, Picea prevailed in the forests with Carpinus betulus
(hornbeam) expanding after 5700 cal yr BP, attaining maximum representation at 4200 cal yr BP. Fagus
sylvatica (beech) spread from 4800 cal yr BP onwards with a short decline around 3700 cal yr BP. Mass
expansion resumed afterwards, leading to the ultimate recession of Picea, Corylus and Ulmus. Fagus
predominates the forests to the present. Small-scale human influence on the landscape (cereal-type
pollen grains, Poaceae, and Plantago lanceolata) first appeared after 6000 cal yr BP. Further anthropo-
genic impact was detected after 5000 cal yr BP, and was slightly stronger between 2300 cal yr BP and
the twelfth century AD with regular and increasing appearances of primary and secondary cultural
indicators. Large-scale forest clearing in the lowlands and foothills with more agriculture led to the
development of the modern cultural landscape in the last 500 years.

1. Introduction dates were lacking and methodological restrictions (low pol-

In order to reconstruct the environmental history of the
Holocene with special emphasis on the Bronze Age, a bog in
the L
apuş Mountains was investigated by pollen analysis. In
this study we present a high-resolution 10,500-year record
from the T
aul Negru (the black peat bog) east of Baia Mare,
aiming to document the imprint of human activities on local
to regional vegetation composition and dynamics in this pre-
viously unstudied region and elevation (1143 m) of the north
Romanian Carpathians. We will link the pollen record to the
archaeological evidence from the lowland areas in the
L
apuş Valley.
The T
aul Negru bog was already investigated by Pop
et al. (1965) with low sampling resolution. In north-western
Romania further palaeoecological studies (Figure 1) were car-
ried out, including the pioneering investigations by Pop
(1929, 1932, 1942), Pop et al. (1965), and Lupşa (1980) and
the more recent modern radiocarbon dating studies by
Feurdean et al. (2001, 2007, 2016), Wohlfarth et al. (2001),
Bjo€rkman et al. (2002, 2003), Feurdean (2004), Feurdean and
Bennike (2004), Feurdean and Astaloş (2005), F
arcaş et al.
(2013), and Tanţ
au et al. (2011). Pop (1929, 1932, 1942) and
Pop et al. (1965) established the basic forest history of
Romania. Later on, Lupşa (1980) published a simplified pollen
diagram discussing the forest development, but radiocarbon
len counts and sampling resolution) were still present. The
studies of Feurdean et al. (2001, 2007), Wohlfarth et al.
€rkman et al. (2002, 2003), Feurdean (2004), and
(2001), Bjo
Feurdean and Bennike (2004) reconstructed in detail the Late
Glacial vegetation history for the first time. Additionally,
Tanţ
au et al. (2011) and F
arcaş et al. (2013) presented a
high-resolution Holocene vegetation history of the upper for-
est belt in the area. Based on this, Feurdean et al. (2016)
reconstructed vegetation and timberline shifts. Feurdean and
Astaloş (2005) focussed on the human impact on vegetation
since prehistory. For a detailed review of the palynological
studies in Romania see Feurdean and Tanţ
au (2017).
The Maramureş region in north-west Romania is a core
area of the European Bronze Age (c. 2200–800 BC); in par-
ticular the Late Bronze Age (c. 1400–800 BC) find record is
significant. This stands in stark contrast to the Early Bronze
Age and the previous Copper Age. For both, archaeological
evidence is virtually absent, which contrasts with the results
of the analysed pollen diagram. The abundant resources of
salt and metals, especially gold but also copper, may have
been one reason for a visible increase in archaeological finds
from the second half of the second millennium BC, in the
form of numerous bronze hoards, i.e. ritual deposits. They
are the predominant archaeological finds in this region
(Kacso  2001, 2011a, 2015). The Bronze Age burial record is

CONTACT Michael Peters michael.peters@vfpa.fak12.uni-muenchen.de Institute for Pre- and Protohistoric Archaeology and the Archaeology of the
Roman Provinces, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Geschwister-Scholl-Platz 1, M€ unchen D-80539, Germany.
ß 2019 AASP – The Palynological Society

Published online 15 Jul 2019

442 M. PETERS ET AL.

Figure 1. (A, B). Overview of modern palynological study sites in Romania. 1. Bjo€rkman et al. (2002); Feurdean (2004, 2005); Feurdean and Bennike (2004);
Feurdean and Astaloş (2005); Wohlfarth et al. (2001); 2. Bj€ orkman et al. (2002, 2003); Feurdean (2004, 2005); Feurdean and Bennike (2004); Feurdean and Astaloş
(2005); Feurdean et al. (2001); 3. this study; 4 and 5. F
arcaş et al. (2013); 6. Feurdean et al. (2016); Tanţ
au et al. (2011); 7. Feurdean et al. (2016); 8. Feurdean et al.
(2016); Tanţ
au et al. (2014b); 9. Feurdean et al. (2017); 10. Feurdean et al. (2007); 11. Grindean et al. (2014); 12. Feurdean et al. (2015); 13. F
arcaş et al. (1999); 14.
Bodnariuc et al. (2002); Grindean et al. (2015); 15. Bodnariuc et al. (2002); Feurdean et al. (2009); 16. F
arcaş et al. (2003, 2005); 17. Feurdean et al. (2009); 18.
Tanţ
au et al. (2014a); 19. Tanţ
au et al. (2003); 20. R€osch and Fischer (2000); 21. F
arcaş and Tanţ
au (2012); 22. F
arcaş et al. (1999); 23. Longman et al. (2017a); 24.
Tanţ
au et al. (2006); 25. Tanţ
au et al. (2009).

ambivalent and far less frequent. Settlements were recorded
by surface collections (Kacso  1994, 2003a, 2011a) and only
recently by excavations as well (Pop 2010).
The site of L
apuş has long been identified as a barrow
necropolis and was called the largest barrow cemetery in the
north-eastern Carpathian lands (Kacso  2001, 2011b).
However, an excavation project of mound 26 of the site and
an accompanying magnetometer survey (by Mateusz Jaeger
and Łukasz Pospiesny, University of Poznan  , Poland) resulted
in a new interpretation of the site as a combination of sev-
eral feasting halls erected between the fourteenth and
twelfth centuries BC, and groups of surrounding barrows of
lesser dimensions, some of which contained human crema-
tion burials. In our study we seek to provide a novel well-
dated, high-resolution reference section for the Carpathians
through the Holocene, focussing on vegetation and settle-
ment history, especially in the Bronze Age. This is of add-
itional importance from an archaeological perspective, since
traces of prehistoric human activity in the upper L
apuş
Valley have so far only been recorded in the form of still-vis-
ible prehistoric features such as artificial mounds or by obvi-
ous chance finds like metal depositions. Systematic field
surveys for detecting a more complex image of occupation
patterns in the L
apuş Valley have not been conducted. They
are hampered by the fact that most of the land is and has
been used as pasture. The palynological studies mentioned
above did not record significant human impact for the
Bronze Age in northern Romania. Only weak signals of pri-
mary and secondary anthropogenic indicators were detected.
This pattern of weak prehistoric signals is also witnessed in
southern Romania during this time (e.g. Tanţ
au et al.
2003, 2006).
2. The study area
The ombrogenous peat bog T
aul Negru (47
390 38.3900 N,
23
550 58.4300 E) is located east of Baia Mare, about 20 km
north of the town of T^argu L
apuş and around 7 km north-
east of the archaeological site of L
apuş in the western L
apuş
Mountains, at an altitude of 1143 m above sea level (asl;
Figure 1). This massif of the Eastern Carpathians is built up
of late Pliocene volcanic rocks (mainly andesites) and forms
the northern rim of the L
apuş Depression (Borcos et al. 1979;
Maţenco 2017). It stretches in a NW–SE direction and has
peaks rising up to 1358 m asl directly south of where the
L
apuş River has one of its sources. It carries sediments col-
lected from the Neogene volcanic catchments, Neogene sedi-
ments of the Transylvanian Basin, and sediments from the

sedimentary formations of the Pieniny Klippen Belt downval-
ley. The river plains are covered with Quaternary alluvial sedi-
ments (Giuşc
a et al. 1967; Ianovici et al. 1968; Hoeck et al.
2012). Through upvalley winds, direct pollen transport from
the L
apus, Valley into the bog is expected. The soils of the
mountains are dominated by acidic brown earths, and under
coniferous forests by podzols. The acidic and nearly imper-
meable andesitic bedrock lead to the development of
numerous small mires in this part of the Carpathian
Mountains (Feurdean 2004). The low elevation of the L
apuş
Mountains (below 1400 m asl) makes it unlikely that the area
was glaciated during the Weichselian and older glaciations
(Balteanu et al. 1998), and no traces of glacial impact (e.g.
moraines, erratics, cirques) were found around the locality.
However, the surroundings were subjected to periglacial con-
ditions during the Last Glacial Maximum (Urdea et al. 2011).
The raised bog T
aul Negru is situated in a mountain saddle
and has a nearly circular surface area of c. 2 ha with a small
bog pool in the centre. Steep rising slopes surround the site
to the west and east. It is oligotrophic-acid with an average
pH of 4.16 ± 0.16 (Schnitchen et al. 2006), and was formed by
terrestrialisation. Currently it shows surficial drying. Directly
adjacent to the north is a sloping fen mire complex. The open
bog surface shows a slightly alternating microtopography with
a hummock–hollow pattern. The current vegetation is domi-
nated by an Eriophorum-rich Sphagnum lawn, indicating
ombrotrophic conditions in the centre of the bog. Following
Pop et al. (1965) and Danci (2016), the most prominent spe-
cies are different peat mosses (Sphagnum spp.), Polytrichum
strictum, the dominant cotton grasses Eriophorum vaginatum
and E. angustifolium, different sedge species (e.g. Carex pauci-
flora, C. canescens, C. biharica), Nardus stricta, the dwarf-shrubs
Vaccinium oxycoccus, V. uliginosum, and V. vitis-idea and the
carnivorous herb Drosera rotundifolia.
The flora of north-west Romania is composed of a mixture
of Eurasiatic, central European, circumpolar, Atlantic,
Mediterranean and sub-Mediterranean species (Feurdean
2004). Romania is distinguished by a nemoral, a forest-steppe
and a steppe vegetation zone (Cristea 1993). The altitudinal dis-
tribution of the forest belts in the L
apuş Mountains is charac-
terised by a colline forest belt (400–700 m asl), dominated by
oak species (Quercus) and other thermophilous trees; a lower
montane forest belt (700–1350 m asl), dominated by beech;
and an upper montane forest belt (> 1350 m asl), dominated
by beech with a varying participation of fir and spruce (Coldea
1991; Feurdean et al. 2012; authors’ own observations).
The investigated site lies in the nemoral zone of Romania
and in the montane forest belt. The local forest vegetation
consists of almost pure older Fagus sylvatica stands, but
large-scale forest clearings occurred recently up to an alti-
tude of about 1000 m in the surroundings. On the higher
peaks, spruce stands increase and open mountain heaths
become more frequent.
There are no direct climatic records available for the study
area, but records from the weather station in Baia Mare
(221 m asl) may be used as a proxy. Generally, the climate
can be characterised as temperate and moderately continen-
tal with some North Atlantic influences. Mean annual air
PALYNOLOGY 443
temperatures of 9.5
C are recorded at Baia Mare, but will be
lower in the uplands. Mean annual precipitation is approxi-
mately 850 mm around Baia Mare and increases with altitude
€rkman et al. 2002). Coldea (2004) reported mean annual
(Bjo
temperatures between 2 and 7
C and mean annual precipi-
tation values of 800–1100 mm for the montane zone
(700–1700 m) of the Romanian Carpathians.
3. Materials and methods
The T
aul Negru bog was initially surveyed and cored to find the
deepest part of the peat deposit (5.54 m) and to understand
the development of the bog. The final cores were obtained
with a hand-operated Russian corer from near the central part
of the basin. The peat cores were described in the field,
wrapped in plastic film, placed in half polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
tubes and transported to the University of Munich. Following
the lithological description, the profiles were continuously sub-
sampled at 5-cm intervals for pollen analysis. The laboratory
preparation of the samples (1 cm3) followed standard methods
(Faegri and Iversen 1989). Microscopic slides were prepared
and a minimum sum of 600 arboreal pollen grains was counted
for each subsample. Pollen and spore identifications were
made with the key and illustrations of Reille (1998) and Beug
(2004), and the pollen reference collection of the Chair for Pre-
and Protohistoric Archaeology of the University of Munich.
Percentages were calculated using the sum of all trees,
shrubs and herbs, excluding pollen from Cyperaceae (dis-
played as filled blue curve), aquatic plants, pteridophytes and
Sphagnum spores. Pollen nomenclature follows Beug (2004).
Pollen diagrams were prepared using the Microcal Origin soft-
ware package (OriginLab, Northampton, MA). Additionally, we
constructed an age-depth diagram (Figure 2). The local pollen
assemblage zones (LPAZs) were established using CONSLINK
(Gordon and Birks 1972) for numerical zonation. Referring to
the charcoal values in Figure 3, the red line indicates total
charcoal percentages, whereas the black line shows charcoal
particles > 37 mm. Twenty-five bulk peat samples extracted
from the inner undisturbed part of the peat core were used
for AMS 14C dating at the Erlangen Radiocarbon Laboratory
(Germany). The 14C measurements were calibrated using the
IntCal13 (Reimer et al. 2013) calibration curve and CALIB 7.1
software (Stuiver et al. 2017). Calibrated ages are reported
with two standard deviations (2 r). The age model for the
pollen diagram was calculated using the R Project package
Bacon (Blaauw and Christen 2011).
4. Results
4.1. Lithology
The stratigraphy is composed of gyttja overlain by peat with
different degrees of humification and decomposition. Carex
peat accumulated between 5.01 and 3.48 m, Eriophorum-rich
peat formed between 3.48 and 2.00 m and Sphagnum peat
was deposited between 2.00 m and the surface. A simplified
stratigraphy of the sequence is presented in Table 1 and is
also given in the left part of the pollen diagram (Figure 3).
444 M. PETERS ET AL.

Table 1. Lithology and degree of peat decomposition (von Post scale, 1922) of the T
aul Negru peat core from the L
apuş Mountains (Eastern
Carpathians, Romania).
Stratigraphic unit Depth (cm) Substrate Other plant remains Peat decomposition Colour
1 0–25 Sphagnum peat Undecomposed H1 Pale yellow
25–100 Sphagnum peat Eriophorum, Ericaceae H2 Light brown
100–200 Sphagnum peat Scheuchzeria H 2–3 Light brown
2 200–250 Sphagnum–Eriophorum peat Scheuchzeria, Ericaceae, Carex spp. H4 Brown
250–270 Sphagnum–Eriophorum peat – H2 Brown
270–300 Sphagnum–Eriophorum peat – H 5–6 Dark brown
300–348 Sphagnum–Eriophorum peat – H4 Dark brown
3 348–453 Carex peat Ericaceae, Eriophorum H6 Dark brown
453–469 Carex peat Mosses H4 Brown
469–476 Carex peat Wood remains H6 Brown
4 476–501 Carr peat Carex spp. H6 Dark brown
5 501–523 Peaty gyttja Few macro remains – Greenish brown
6 523–554 Loamy gyttja Few macro remains – Grey
The boundaries between the different layers were gradual.

Table 2. AMS 14
C measurements on peat samples from T
aul Negru bog in the L
apuş Mountains (Eastern Carpathians, Romania).
Lab. no. Depth (cm) 14
C age BP d13C Calibrated years BP (2 r) Calibrated years BC/AD (2 r)
Erl-15215 65 115 ± 29 –25.3 12–148 1802–938 AD
Erl-13581 125 711 ± 39 –25.0 636–709 1241–1314 AD
Erl-15216 170 1109 ± 29 –26.1 952–1069 881–998 AD
Erl-13582 210 1756 ± 46 –26.0 1562–1743 207–388 AD
Erl-15217 220 1859 ± 32 –26.5 1717–1871 79–233 AD
Erl-15218 230 2040 ± 32 –26.6 1923–2069 120 BC–27 AD
Erl-15219 240 2126 ± 32 –27.6 1999–2157 208–50 BC
Erl-15220 250 2182 ± 31 –26.2 2118–2310 361–169 BC
Erl-15221 260 2219 ± 35 –26.5 2149–2329 380–200 BC
Erl-15222 270 2397 ± 35 –25.8 2345–2498 549–396 BC
Erl-15830 275 2548 ± 51 –27.1 2466–2759 810–517 BC
Erl-17774 277 2811 ± 47 –26.6 2791–3037 1088–842 BC
Erl-13583 280 [3518 ± 45] –24.9 3687–3908 1959–1738 BC
Erl-15831 285 3510 ± 53 –25.1 3640–3915 1966–1691 BC
Erl-15832 290 [3615 ± 55] –25.1 3823–4089 2140–1874 BC
Erl-15833 295 [3326 ± 55] –25.9 3446–3694 1745–1497 BC
Erl-15834 300 3513 ± 54 –25.4 3677–3924 1975–1728 BC
Erl-15223 305 3570 ± 35 –22.1 3820–3975 2026–1871 BC
Erl-15224 330 3849 ± 35 –25.3 4215–4407 2458–2266 BC
Erl-15225 355 4278 ± 34 –24.6 4817–4891 2942–2868 BC
Erl-13584 385 5169 ± 48 –25.6 5857–6007 4058–3908 BC
Erl-15226 435 6398 ± 36 –24.9 7268–7418 5469–5319 BC
Erl-15227 449 [2649 ± 34] –25.7 2739–2807 858–790 BC
Erl-15228 500 8385 ± 42 –25.4 9298–9489 7540–7349 BC
Erl-13585 554 9294 ± 61 –26.1 10275–10606 8657–8326 BC
Not used in the age–depth model (Figure 2) and pollen diagram.
Calibrated years BP were obtained through calibration with the CALIB 7.1 program (Stuiver et al. 2017).

Based on the sediment composition, the sequence was div-
ided into six stratigraphic units (Table 1).
4.2. Chronology
All radiocarbon dates appear in stratigraphical order except
for four measurements indicated in Table 2. These dates
were rejected because of very slow peat growth or a pos-
sible hiatus as also recorded by Tanţ
au et al. (2014a) in the
Harghita Mountains. This age–depth model was constructed
based on linear interpolation between the midpoints (2
standard deviations) of calibrated ages (Figure 2). The radio-
carbon dates indicate a period of high peat growth between
c. 4000 and 3500 cal yr BP, and one of very slow peat accu-
mulation between c. 3500 and 2600 cal yr BP.
4.3. Vegetation history
The size of the sedimentary basin is c. 2 ha; therefore, the
pollen assemblages are representative of the vegetation
composition within a radius of of a few tens of kilometres
(Sugita 1994; Gaillard et al. 2008). For the T
aul Negru
sequence, 112 pollen spectra were analysed in 5-cm intervals
and 119 taxa were identified.
To enhance the description and interpretation of the pol-
len diagram with respect to vegetational changes, five LPAZs
(1–5) were distinguished (Table 3; Figure 3). The main vege-
tational developments are highlighted in Table 3. The pollen
record from T
aul Negru starts at about 10,500 cal yr BP in
the late Preboreal and spans nearly the entire Holocene
period, with a possible hiatus during the Metal Ages.
5. Discussion and regional comparison
5.1. 10,500–9400 cal yr BP
In the pollen sequence from T
aul Negru the Late Glacial and
early Preboreal sections are not represented. From 10,500 cal
yr BP onwards, dense forests of Picea abies and Ulmus

Figure 2. Age–depth diagram of the core from T
aul Negru, L
apuş Mountains (Eastern Carpathians, Romania). As mentioned in Table 2, four radiocarbon dates
were excluded.
dominated in the L
apuş Mountains (LPAZ 1, Figure 3). This
development matches the forest phase PZ 2 of Pop (1942).
Pinus sylvestris was largely displaced to lower altitudes with
drier climate by the expansion of Picea and Ulmus to higher
altitudes, as shown by Tanţ
au et al. (2011) for the Rodna
Mountains and Bjo €rkman et al. (2002) for the Gutaiului
Mountains. The fast and early spread of Ulmus was probably
supported by local refugia, as proposed by Bjo €rkman et al.
(2002) and Feurdean et al. (2007). Ulmus has its maximum
distribution around 10,350 cal yr BP, and Picea representation
shows a first peak at 9800 cal yr BP.
When we compare the Ulmus values with the frequencies
of the other mixed-oak forest elements, we can postulate
elm-rich forest ecosystems in the lower montane and maybe
even in the upper colline mountain belt at that time, which
are also shown on the pollen diagrams by Bjo €rkman et al.
(2003) and Feurdean (2005). This was facilitated by the mois-
ter climate conditions caused by the higher oceanic influ-
ence through westerly winds in the north-western Romanian
mountains. Elm might have even competed successfully
against spruce in favourable conditions, especially on moister
sites where elm is more competitive (e.g. Ellenberg 2009).
The extension of the other mixed-oak forest species
occurred after that of Ulmus as Tanţ
au et al. (2011) and
F
arcaş et al. (2013) reconstructed in the northernmost
Romanian Carpathians, but they only played a minor part in
the vegetation composition of the L
apuş Mountains.
PALYNOLOGY 445
Xerophilous oak-rich phytocoenoses were less competitive in
the lower montane belt, and their distribution was mainly
restricted to the nearby lowlands and foothills. A slow spread
of oak, lime, ash and other deciduous trees probably
occurred during the Late Glacial and early Preboreal
(Feurdean et al. 2012) in pine forest relicts in the semi-arid
lowlands to the west and south. This model is supported by
the slow and continuous recession of the pine percentages
in LPAZ 1 (Figure 3). However, the expansion of the mixed-
oak forest elements must have just started with the begin-
ning of our record, and is dated to c. 10,800 cal yr BP by
Bjo€rkman et al. (2002, 2003), Feurdean and Bennike (2004),
and Tanţ
au et al. (2011) in adjacent mountain ranges.
Towards the end of LPAZ 1 a rise of hazel pollen representa-
tion and the beginning of a decline of elm and spruce values
were registered.
The comparatively high frequencies of taxa such as
Ranunculus (buttercup/crowfoot), Artemisia (mugwort),
Brassicaceae (mustard family) and Poaceae, encompassing a
lot of heliophilous species, point to relatively open forests,
but this could also represent a pollen influx from still pine-
rich lowland areas or higher mountain locations.
In summary, for the early Holocene we can reconstruct for
the L
apus, Mountains distribution of Quercus, Tilia, Acer
(maple) and Fraxinus excelsior in the lowlands, elm in the
lower montane and probably in the upper colline belt, and
spruce and pine in the area above.
 446
M. PETERS ET AL.

Figure 3. Pollen diagram of the T
aul Negru core, L
apuş Mountains (Eastern Carpathians, Romania). Silhouette curves are exaggerated by 10. The red line indicates total charcoal percentages; the black line shows charcoal
particles > 37 lm. Cyperaceae as exluded pollen types are displayed as filled blue curves.
 PALYNOLOGY 447

Table 3. Summarised description of the pollen stratigraphy, chronology and vegetation history of T
aul Negru bog in the L
apuş Mountains (Eastern
Carpathians, Romania).
Depth Age
(m) (cal yr BP) Description
LPAZ 1 10,500 Dominance of Pinus, Picea and Ulmus, and closed curves with
(5.54–5.01) low values of Quercus, Fraxinus (ash), Tilia (lime) and Corylus,
were noted. In the upper section of the zone, Corylus
increased and Pinus and Picea declined. Herbaceous taxa
showed relatively high values.
LPAZ 2 c. 9400 With the start of this section a sudden rise of Corylus avellana
(5.01–3.75) (> 50%) was registered together with a reduction of Pinus
(< 5%). Ulmus values decreased continuously down to
< 10% at the end of LPAZ 2. On the other hand, the pollen
percentages of Quercus, Tilia and Fraxinus progressed
slightly. Towards the end of LPAZ 2, an increase of Picea
was recorded and Corylus avellana receded. Fagus sylvatica
was represented sparsely. For the first time, cereal-type
pollen grains were detected at c. 6000 cal yr BP and the
occurrences of Poaceae (grasses) and Plantago lanceolata
(ribwort plantain) pollen increased.
LPAZ 3 c. 5500 In LPAZ 3, Picea dominated (up to 60%) and Carpinus showed
(3.75–2.75) a temporary increase to 25%. Quercus, Tilia, Corylus avellana
(< 10%), Ulmus (< 1%), and to a lesser extent Fraxinus
values declined. The now continous Fagus curve rose to
30%, but showed a short decline towards the end of LPAZ
3. Pollen of anthropogenic indicators occurred intermittently.
LPAZ 4 c. 2650 At the beginning of this zone, the Fagus frequencies reached
(2.75–1.20) 60–70%. At the same time Picea values receded from 40%
to < 5%. The gradual decline in Carpinus continued. Mixed-
oak forest species and Corylus avellana diminished greatly.
The regular presence of Abies (fir) pollen was detected, and
Betula (birch) frequencies occasionally climbed to > 5%.
Cultural indicators showed a steady increase with regular
occurrences of Cerealia-type pollen.
LPAZ 5 c. 650 After a maximum of > 75% the Fagus curve declined to
< 50% at the end of LPAZ 5. The values of Pinus, Betula (up
to 10%), Quercus, Corylus avellana and Picea increased
slightly. After a rise to 4%, the Abies percentages decreased
to below 2%. The sum of all anthropogenic pollen indicators
increased significantly, with Poaceae attaining > 10%.
Inferred regional vegetation
The foothills were characterised by Pinus stands with
expanding Quercus, Fraxinus and Tilia. The lower montane
forest belt was dominated by Ulmus, and at higher altitudes
Picea prevailed. There was spreading of Corylus.
Temporarily, Corylus predominated in the dense forests.
Quercus and Tilia were more common in the foothill forests,
which showed a reduced presence of Pinus. In the forests of
the montane zone, Ulmus receeded and Corylus decreased
after 7000 cal yr BP. Instead, Picea gained importance again.
A first small-scale human influence in the wider landscape
can be detected.
The most common tree in the upper montane zone continued
to be Picea. In the colline and lower montane zone, Carpinus
immigrated and prevailed. The expansion of Fagus led to
the reduction of the other mesophilous trees and Picea at
the end of the zone. Extensive agriculture and grazing
pressure was temporarily registered.
Dense forests dominated by Fagus were common in the L
apuş
Mountains. Abies seemed to be part of the higher altitude
forests. Carpinus was still common but slowly disappeared
with increasing human influence. At the same time, Quercus,
Betula and Corylus expanded in forest clearances and
abandoned cultivated lands. The anthropogenic landscape
transformation increased.
Fagus forests showed a reduction, while Quercus, Betula and
Corylus spread in anthropogenically disturbed areas. Abies
stands diminished, whereas Picea showed intermittent
recovery. Large-scale forest clearings in the lowlands and
foothills with widespread agriculture led to the development
of the modern cultural landscape.

5.2. 9400–5500 cal yr BP
LPAZ 2 (Figure 3) covers the late Boreal to the early
Subboreal. This section corresponds to the forest phase PZ 3
(Picea–Quercetum mixtum–Corylus phase) of Pop (1942).
A distinguishing feature of this zone is the rise in Corylus
avellana percentages in the L
apus, Mountain area from
9400 cal yr BP onwards and the subsequent decline towards
the end of this LPAZ (Figure 3). This development is mirrored
by the final reduction of the Ulmus and Pinus values and the
intermediate recession of the Picea abies frequencies. With
the exception of Picea abies, a similar pattern is recorded in
the pollen diagrams of Preluca Tiganului and Şteregoui
€rkman et al. 2002, 2003). With increasing continentality
(Bjo
towards the east, Corylus avellana shows lower competitive-
ness. As a consequence, the Ulmus stands were less influ-
enced by the weaker expansion of Corylus, as can be seen in
the pollen record of Tanţ
au et al. (2011).
After 8200 cal yr BP thermophilous oak-dominated forests
expanded slightly farther in the surrounding lowlands. This
led to the final replacement of the last pine-led ecosystems.
At the same time, the Ulmus recession indicates an expan-
sion of Quercus, Tilia and Fraxinus into the upper colline for-
est belt. During its maximum distribution, hazel was an
important element in the deciduous forests. Corylus might
have even been an element in the spruce-dominated forests
of the montane forest belt, which could be indicated by the
reduced Picea frequencies during Atlantic times. High values
of Corylus point to a more open, lighter forest structure cor-
responding to a field layer richer in Poaceae and herbs.
The expansion of Corylus occurred upon the retraction of
Ulmus and Pinus, indicating that Corylus mainly invaded a
gap left by these two species (Feurdean et al. 2007).
Feurdean (2005) connects this development to a cooler and
drier climate phase, which seems to be very unlikely regard-
ing the thermophilous character of hazel (Tallantire 2002),
while Feurdean et al. (2016) discussed the role of fire in this
process. Forest fires might have created gaps in the wood-
lands, which could be quickly filled by Corylus (Feurdean
et al. 2013; Grindean et al. 2015). In our record, there is no
evidence of a cooler and drier climate, but we can register
peaks of Corylus values following peaks of charcoal.
Corylus pollen were first detected in Romania around
11,000 cal yr BP, but substantial spreading commenced only
after 10,300 cal yr BP (Feurdean and Bennike 2004; Feurdean
et al. 2007). The spread of Corylus in the Romanian
Carpathians can be traced from west to east (Tanţ
au et al.
2011; F
arcaş et al. 2013), whereas glacial refugia of Corylus in
Romania are highly unlikely (Tanţ
au et al. 2006, 2011).
Corylus reached maximum distribution around 9000 and
7000 cal yr BP in our record, with a short-term decline
around 8200 cal yr BP, which was related to a widespread
448 M. PETERS ET AL.
climate deterioration registered in Europe (e.g. Tinner and
Lotter 2001). We recorded at the same time an intermediate
increase in Picea values and a reduction of Tilia and Quercus
percentages. The 8.2-ka event with its cooler climate condi-
tions was also detected by Feurdean (2005) in the Gut^ai
Mountains, by Grindean et al. (2015) in the Apuşeni
Mountains and by Feurdean et al. (2016) in the higher
Rodna Mountains.
For the latter part of LPAZ 2, the younger Atlantic period,
we registered a renewed expansion of Picea after 7000 cal yr
BP, which further reduced the remaining Ulmus stands and
started the decline of Corylus in the L
apuş Mountains. A simi-
lar development was documented by Feurdean (2005) in the
Gut^ai Mountains, where the onset of a cooler and moister cli-
mate is discussed as a possible cause. Grindean et al. (2015)
also detected this trend in the Apuseni Mountains. However,
Cristea et al. (2014) note a drier period around 6760 cal yr BP
in the Maramureş Uplands. Following Feurdean et al. (2017),
the renewed expansion of Picea could also have been related
to a reduction in wildfires after 9000 cal yr BP. Picea has not
developed any adaption to fire and does not benefit from
post-fire regeneration. A similar development can be traced
in our record, with the difference of a delayed reduction
in wildfires.
In the uppermost samples of LPAZ 2 the first signs of
human activity can be detected. The indicators of anthropo-
genic influence (slight increase in grasses and herbaceous
plants, first appearance of Cerealia-type pollen) in the T
aul
Negru profile around and after 6000 cal yr BP are weak and
are not supported by clear changes in forest composition.
Feurdean and Astaloş (2005) found indications of human influ-
ence around 6000 cal yr BP in the northern Romanian
Mountains. F
arcaş et al. (2013) recorded human interference
even earlier in the Maramures, Mountains. Regional and more
distant archaeological evidence of Eneolithic/early Copper Age
cultures in the sixth millennium cal yr BP in north-western
Romania and north-eastern Hungary was cited by Feurdean
and Astaloş (2005). So far, archaeological evidence of human
presence in the L
apuş depression during the late Neolithic
and Copper Age is scarce. To date, unpublished traces of late
Neolithic dwellings are reported for L
apuş without specific
localisation. Single finds of perforated stone axes also attest to
a human impact, but are difficult to date (Kacso  2015).
5.3. 5500–2650 cal yr BP
LPAZ 3 (Figure 3) covers the Subboreal to the onset of the
Subatlantic. This time interval is synchronous with the forest
phase PZ 4 (Picea–Carpinus phase) of Pop (1942).
A prominent feature of this zone is the rise in Carpinus
betulus (c. 5500 cal yr BP), followed by Fagus sylvatica around
1000 years later and a continuing decline of Ulmus and
Corylus as well as a reduction of Tilia frequencies until
c. 4700 cal yr in the L
apuş Mountains. This pattern is also seen
in other parts of the Romanian Carpathians (F
arcaş et al. 1999;
Ro€sch and Fischer 2000; Tanţ
au et al. 2003, 2006, 2014a).
The important ecological changes now happening took
place first in the colline forest belt. So far Ulmus-rich, and on
better soils Tilia-rich, forests dominated this zone. Only in the
lowest and driest areas was Quercus a major forest component.
From c. 5500 cal yr BP onwards a strong increase in Carpinus
pollen levels was registered, which led to a replacement of
these forests. After c. 5000 cal yr BP Carpinus dominated the
forests of the colline mountain belt up to an altitude of 700 m
(Tanţ
au et al. 2011) and perhaps a little higher. This is under-
lined by the reduction of Ulmus pollen values to below 10%, a
slight recession in the Quercus and Fraxinus frequencies and
the continuous high percentages of Picea.
With the spread of Carpinus, a synchronous decline of
Corylus in the forest composition is witnessed. This led to
denser and darker forests seen in the reduction of the helio-
phytic flora, especially the Poaceae, after 5500 cal yr BP. The
montane spruce forests above the colline zone and the xer-
ophilous oak forests below in the lowlands were not affected
substantially by these changes. Feurdean (2005) and Tanţ
au
et al. (2011) connected the Carpinus immigration to a tem-
perature rise and possibly drier conditions. Furthermore, an
increase in forest fires connected with drier conditions might
have been a decisive cause (Tanţ
au et al. 2014a). This coin-
cides with a reduced peat accumulation rate in the T
aul
Negru bog at that time (Figure 2), also pointing towards
drier climatic conditions in a regional context. As a conse-
quence, maximum Carpinus values came together with
increased charcoal findings. In contrast to the rise of Tilia
and Quercus values in the pollen diagram of Steregoiu of
Feurdean and Bennike (2004), the pollen diagram of T
aul
Negru does not show an increase of these species indicating
drier climate. About 8 km east of T
aul Negru, Schnitchen
et al. (2006) reconstructed a drier period at c. 3390–3030 cal
yr BP at the raised bog Fenyves-teto } (V
aratec), preceded by a
wetter phase peaking at 3570 cal yr BP. This is documented
in our record by the lower growth rates (Figure 2). In con-
trast, Diaconu et al. (2017) reconstructed wet-mire surface
conditions between c. 4500 and 2750 cal yr BP at a raised
bog in the western part of the Rodna Mountains.
Pop (1942) concluded that Carpinus expanded in the col-
line forest belt between the montane spruce forests and the
oak forests of the lowlands. The expansion of Carpinus
occurred from the south to the north and east of Romania
and predated the spread of Fagus (Tanţ
au et al. 2011; F
arcaş
et al. 2013). Fagus shows a long pollen tail in our record,
which is characteristic of a slow natural immigration. There is
no evidence of glacial refugia for Fagus in Romania, but early
records indicate an asynchronous immigration from Western
Europe (Tanţ
au et al. 2014a). After 4800 cal yr BP Fagus
began to expand, probably aided by milder winters and
higher humidity levels (Feurdean 2004). This is also seen in
the peat accumulation rate of our record (see the narrower
distances of the bars of the reference sum in Figure 3).
After c. 4400 cal yr BP the mass expansion of Fagus com-
menced in our study area and proceeded to displace the col-
line Carpinus-dominated, and afterwards montane Picea-
dominated, forests during the next 2000 years (Figure 3).
Around 3700 cal yr BP a significant recession of the Fagus
frequencies is shown in our record, with a coinciding rise of
Picea and Abies alba values. A similar phenomenon was

recorded by Bjo €rkman et al. (2003) and F
arcaş et al. (2013).
We consider frequent late frosts a possible cause. At the end
of the Subboreal, around 3000 cal yr BP, Fagus finally began
to replace Picea, and did so in a relatively short time.
The spread of Fagus was facilitated by a cooler and mois-
ter climate (Feurdean 2005; Feurdean et al. 2011; F
arcaş
et al. 2013; Longman et al. 2017a), although milder winters
and soil acidification (Feurdean 2005) might also have played
a role. Another amplifier could have been human impact,
especially intermittent landscape opening as registered in
our record and in the wider surroundings, as suggested by
Ku€ster (1997) for Central Europe and Tanţ
au et al. (2003,
2009) for the Romanian Carpathians. A significant re-estab-
lishment of Quercus is not seen in our record, as opposed to
the profile of Steregoiu (Feurdean 2005). Although we see a
more regular appearance of Abies pollen, the Abies values
remain low and continuous representation is not detected
until 1500 cal yr BP.
In LPAZ 3 indicator pollen of human activity increased,
mainly Plantago lanceolata, Chenopodiaceae and (temporar-
ily) Poaceae, as well as single finds of Cerealia (c. 4500 cal yr
BP) and Vitis. Nevertheless, the arboreal pollen/non-arboreal
pollen ratio (AP/NAP ratio) is still strongly dominated by AP,
suggesting local agricultural activities only at lower altitudes.
The more frequent presence of some herbs can be associ-
ated with grazing and small ruderal places after 5000 cal yr
BP, coinciding with human impact during the Bronze Age.
There are also, to a greater or lesser extent, pronounced
charcoal peaks recorded for the Late Neolithic (i.e. Copper
Age) and the later Metal Ages. Otherwise, only some pottery
sherds without context of the Wietenberg culture
(c. 4200–3600 BP) have been recorded in L
apuş (Kacso  important to mention that the fast-growing and undemanding
2003b); apart from this, archaeological evidence of the third
and early second millennia BCE is so far missing in the catch-
ment area of the T
aul Negru. In the upper part of LPAZ 3,
around 3500 cal yr BP, the L
apuş necropolis and ritual area
was created (Metzner-Nebelsick et al. 2010). This underlines
the importance of the settlement activities in the L
apuş
Valley recorded in the T
aul Negru profile. Other archaeo-
logical studies from north-west Romania by Kacso  (2011a,
2015) and palynological studies by Feurdean and Astaloş
(2005) and F
arcaş et al. (2013) also reported numerous arch-
aeological sites and local to regional anthropogenic activities
during our LPAZ 3. A slightly elevated prevalence of
anthropogenic indicators was also recorded in a pollen ana-
lysis from the Rodna Mountains (Tanţ
au et al. 2011), locally
already from 4500 cal yr BP onwards in lower altitudes
(Tanţ
au et al. 2014b), and since 3500 cal yr BP in higher alti-
tudes of the Eastern Carpathians up to the treeline ecotone
(Feurdean et al. 2016). In the Gutȃ iului Mountains, human
activities during the Bronze Age are limited to small-scale
woodland clearance (Feurdean and Astaloş 2005).
5.4. 2650–650 cal yr BP
LPAZ 4 (Figure 3) covers most of the Subatlantic chronozone.
This time interval, and the following LPAZ 5, are synchronous
PALYNOLOGY 449
with the forest phase PZ 5 (Picea–Fagus–Abies phase) of
Pop (1942).
A distinct feature of this zone is the absolute dominance
of Fagus in the forests. The frequencies of Carpinus slightly
declined and Picea no longer played any significant role in
the forest ecosystems. Pop (1942) distinguished between a
mixed-oak forest in the lowlands and Fagus, Abies and Picea
in higher altitudes. Besides azonally distributed floodplain
forests with Quercus, stands of xerophilous mixed-oak forests
could have survived in the driest parts of the L
apuş Valley. In
the foothills of the L
apuş Mountains and in the montane for-
est belt a more or less pure beech forest with a small share
of Abies or Picea dominated during the last 2000 to
3000 years, according to our record. This represents the cur-
rent situation surrounding T
aul Negru, also described by
Feurdean (2004) and Geant
a et al. (2014) for other mountain
ranges in northern Romania. Spruce and fir forests are not
observed in the L
apuş Mountains because of their low eleva-
tion. About 5 km north-west of T
aul Negru, the nearest
closed spruce stands can be found in the uppermost sites of
the Creasta Cocoşului Mountain range (> 1400 m). The val-
ues of Abies in the T
aul Negru pollen diagram rarely exceed
2%. An initial low maximum is registered after 1400 cal yr BP,
earlier than in the northern and eastern, but later than in the
western, Carpathians (F
arcaş et al. 2013). However, the
spreading centres of Abies have the same locations as those
of Fagus (Hungary and the NW Balkan region) according to
the description of F
arcaş et al. (2013).
From the end of LPAZ 3, Betula is represented steadily with
slightly higher values, and the frequencies of Carpinus are
more or less constant until 600 cal yr BP. In this context, it is
pioneer tree Betula is an indicator of the devastation of the
forests. These processes could be caused by secondary succes-
sion of Betula in abandoned fields or settlement grounds in
the foothills or by woodland grazing. The frequencies of
Betula and Carpinus as seen in the T
aul Negru diagram reflect
the gradual reorganisation and the destruction, respectively,
of the natural forests in the lower forest belts. This documents
the development of a cultural landscape since the Metal Ages
in the L
apuş Mountains and Valley. This corresponds to an
increase in anthropogenic indicators in LPAZ 4 (Figure 3),
especially in the sequences representing the High Medieval
Ages. Primary pollen signals attributed to farming activities
are cereal-type pollen, but also pollen of secondary anthropo-
genic indicators occur. Secondary indicator pollen types like
Plantago lanceolata relate to livestock farming and the exist-
ence of meadows and pastures as well as fallow land. The
slow increase of Poaceae and herbaceous pollen types, espe-
cially Asteraceae (composites) and Brassicaceae, supports this
result. In addition, durable and abrasion-resistant plants like
Rumex (dock) and Chenopodiaceae (goosefoot) prove human
infrastructure, whereas ruderal species like the nitrogen-loving
Urticaceae (nettles) document organic-rich waste grounds
near settlements (Behre 1981). The rising occurrence of cul-
tural indicators coincides with the further reduction in the per-
centages of Carpinus and Corylus.
450 M. PETERS ET AL.
5.5. 650 cal yr BP–present
The main differences between LPAZs 5 and 4 are the rise of
the values for Betula, cultural indicators, Poaceae and herbs.
A rejuvenation of the Corylus curve as well as a significant
reduction in Fagus frequencies, actually starting a bit earlier,
can be detected. These biostratigraphic changes are inter-
preted as a further transition to a cultural landscape with
progressive human impact. In the foothills of the L
apuş
Mountains this process coincides with the intensification of
cereal cultivation. Additionally, Quercus and Corylus, as light-
demanding and eagerly budding species, benefited from
woodland grazing and the resulting more open forest struc-
ture (the ‘hornbeam effect’, after Pott 1981; Pott and Hu €ppe
1991). The latter shows increased growth under these condi-
tions, and was used by humans for coppicing and poletimber
(Pott and H€ uppe 1991). A similar combination of woodland
grazing and coppice forest use seems to have occurred until
recently in the L
apuş Mountains, leading to a slight decline
of the beech stands. The elevated percentages of Alnus
(alder) represent the expansion of alder stands at mire mar-
gins, in moist lowlands, and along rivers and floodplains, or
as a direct consequence of wetter conditions induced by
increased rainfall (Schnitchen et al. 2006; Diaconu et al. 2017;
Longman et al. 2017b). Generally, the expansion of Alnus
already took place during LPAZ 4 with wet conditions as
well (Schnitchen et al. 2006; Longman et al. 2017b).
The percentages of pollen types representing human land
use increased and became more or less continuous during
the last 2000 years (Late Iron Age to Medieval times) and
gained further significance after 1400 AD (High Middle Ages
to the Modern Era). The continuous rise of secondary indica-
tors of human activity such as Plantago lanceolata,
Chenopodiaceae and Artemisia, as well as the increasing fre-
quencies of Poaceae, Brassicaceae, Rumex, Urticaceae, and
other herbaceous pollen types and elevated charcoal levels,
was especially substantial in this zone. This indicates a fur-
ther opening of the forests, supported by the course of the
tree pollen values reflecting the rising exploitation of the for-
ests (e.g. charcoal burning) and grazing pressure as shown in
our record. A comparable development of the cultural land-
scape was documented in the Maramureş Mountains (F
arcaş
et al. 2013) and in the more distant Harghita and Rodna
Mountains (Geant
a et al. 2014; Tanţ
au et al. 2014a, 2014b).
6. Conclusions
1. Spruce forests dominated in the montane zone after
10,500 cal yr BP until the end of the Subboreal (c.
3000 cal yr BP). In the foothills Ulmus-rich forest ecosys-
tems prevailed until Atlantic times, probably because of
higher rainfall at the marginal mountain areas.
2. After 10,000 cal yr BP Corylus spread from the west into
the lower mountain areas, leading to a decline of Ulmus.
Later, xerophilous mixed-oak forests further expanded in
the lowlands. The 8.2-ka event may be indicated by
increasing Picea values. Again, Picea expands after
7000 cal yr BP at the expense of Ulmus. The first
indications of anthropogenic activities are recognised
around 6000 cal yr BP.
3. During the Subboreal period, Carpinus invaded many
sites in the foothills and further displaced Ulmus,
Quercus-rich forests and Corylus. This was probably aided
by drier climatic conditions, which correlate with
reduced peat formation rates.
4. Finally, after 4400 cal yr BP Fagus spread into the foot-
hills, and after 3000 cal yr BP it spread into the montane
zone up to an altitude of 1200 m (the highest elevations
in the close surroundings). At the beginning of the
beech-spread an increase in late frosts may have
delayed mass expansion. Thereafter, beech forests domi-
nated the L
apuş Mountains. Carpinus- and Picea-rich for-
ests could have prevailed in isolated areas because of
local climatic niches until far into LPAZ 4.
5. In the pollen diagram of T
aul Negru, early and signifi-
cant land use can be detected from the Late Neolithic/
Early Copper Age (6000 cal yr BP) and the Early Bronze
Age (4000 cal yr BP); it is even more apparent following
the Middle and Late Bronze Age in the lowlands. These
early influences are less pronounced in other diagrams
of the Romanian Carpathians. At the latest with the
beginning of the Bronze Age, and especially in the
Middle Ages from 1300 cal yr BP onwards, indications of
extensive forest use were registered in adjacent areas.
This highlights a turning point in the settlement history
of the L
apuş Valley during the Late Bronze Age, as docu-
mented by the archeological record (Metzner-Nebelsick
et al. 2010; Kacso et al. 2012). The development of a cul-
tural landscape progresses during the Middle Ages and
became even more pronounced in Modern times.
Acknowledgements
We thank our Romanian partners Dan Pop (Muzeul Judeţean de Istorie
şi Arheologie Maramureş) and Tudor Soroceanu Jr. (Berlin).
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Funding
The L
apuş project was funded by the DFG (German Research Council,
grant ME-3372/3-1-3 to ME-3372/4-1) between 2008 and 2013. Project
leader: Carola Metzner-Nebelsick (LMU Munich), with partners Carol
 (Muzeul Judeţean de Istorie şi Arheologie Maramureş in Baia
Kacso
Mare, Romania) and Louis D. Nebelsick (UKSW Warsaw, Poland).
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