Skin Effect

Peter Blockley
November 8, 2003

The skin effect is the phenomenon where alternating currents tend to flow
near the surface of a conductor. The skin depth is the distance an EM wave
incident on a conductor will penetrate before attenuating by 1e where e is the
natural number. The following sections derive the skin effect equations from
Maxwell’s equations.

1 Derive wave equation

Maxwell Equations are[1]:

ρ
∇·E= (1)
0
∇·B=0 (2)
∂B
∇×E=− (3)
∂t
1 ∂E
∇×B− 2 = µ 0 Jm (4)
c ∂t

Multiplying both sides of equation 3 by ∇ gives:

∂B
∇ × ∇ × E = −∇ × (5)
∂t

Given1 ∇ × ∇ × E = ∇(∇ · E) − E(∇ · ∇):

∂(∇ × B)
∇2 E − ∇(∇ · E) = (6)
∂t

Substitution of equation 4 into equation 6

1 see appendix for proof

1
  
∂ 1 ∂E
∇2 E − ∇(∇ · E) = + µ 0 J m (7)
∂t c2 ∂t

Noting that c = √1 :
µ 0 0
 
2 ∂ ∂E
∇ E − ∇(∇ · E) = µ0 0 + µ 0 Jm (8)
∂t ∂t
∂2E ∂Jm
∇2 E − ∇(∇ · E) = µ0 0 2 + µ0 (9)
∂t ∂t

substituting equation 1:

∂2E
 
2 ρt ∂Jm
∇ E−∇ = µ 0 0 2 + µ 0 (10)
0 ∂t ∂t
2
 
∂ E ∂Jm ρt
∇ 2 E − µ 0 0 2 − µ 0 =∇ (11)
∂t ∂t 0

Assuming the transmission line does not contain excess charge, the total
charge density(ρt ) in the conductor is zero.
 
ρt
∇ =0 (12)
0

The current density Jm is given by:

Jm = σE (13)

where σ is the metal conductivity.

Substituting equation 12 and equation 13 into equation 11:

∂2E ∂E
∇2 E − µ − σµ =0 (14)
∂t2 ∂t

2 Define propagating wave

Assume a TEM mode sinusoidal wave is propagating down a transmission line.

The conductor has 3 dimensions x, y and z where z is the direction of propaga-
tion.

The Electric field may be described by a wave equation of the form:

E = E0 cos(ωt) (15)

2
 Where E0 is the magnitude of the electric field, ω the angular frequency and
t the time

for any position z along the transmission line:

 z 
E = E0 cos ω(t − ) (16)
µ
 ω 
E = E0 cos ωt − z (17)
µ
where µ is the phase velocity.

We then define k as the circular wave number:

ω
k= (18)
µ
which gives:
E = E0 cos(ωt − kz) (19)
The wave may propagate in one of three directions, i(parallel to x axis), j(parallel
to y axis) or k(parallel to z axis). In TEM mode, the electric field E is per-
pendicular to the magnetic field H and the vector product E × H points in the
direction of propagation. The electric field E from equation 19 is assigned the
direction i + j, where the electric field Ej is perpendicular to Ei , such that:

E = E0 cos(ωt − kz)i + E0 sin(ωt − kz)j (20)

In rectangular coordinates this gives:

E = E0 cos(ωt − kz) + jE0 sin(ωt − kz) i (21)

Using Euler’s formula ejφ = cos φ + j sin φ:

E = E0 ej(ωt−kz) i (22)

3 Solve Wave Equation

Solve equation 14 using a complex wave train[2]. Substituting equation 22 into

equation 14:
∂2 ∂
∇2 E0 ej(ωt−kz) i − µ 2 E0 ej(ωt−kz) i − σµ E0 ej(ωt−kz) i = 0




∂t ∂t
−k 2 E0 ej(ωt−kz) i + µω 2 E0 ej(ωt−kz) i − jωσµE0 ej(ωt−kz) i = 0

−k 2 + ω 2 µ − jωσµ = 0 (23)
2 2
k = ω µ − jωσµ (24)

3
For good conductors, jωσµ >> ω 2 µ therefore the wave number k reduces to:
p
k = −jωσµ (25)
r r
ωσµ ωσµ
= −j (26)
2 2
1 1
= −j (27)
δ δ
Where δ is the skin depth given by:
r
2
δ= (28)
ωσµ

such that:

E = E0 ej(ωt−kz) (29)
j(ωt−z/δ+jz/δ)
= E0 e (30)
j(ωt−z/δ)−z/δ
= E0 e (31)
−z/δ j(ωt−z/δ)
= E0 e e (32)


= E0 e −z/δ
cos(ωt − z/δ) + j sin(ωt − z/δ) (33)
= E0 e−z/δ cos(ωt − z/δ) + jE0 e−z/δ sin(ωt − z/δ) (34)

The imaginary part of E indicates the wave is circularly polarized[3]. It then

follows:
E = E0 e−z/δ cos(ωt − z/δ)i + E0 e−z/δ sin(ωt − z/δ)j (35)

Assuming the propagation of the magnetic field is due primarily to the move-
ment of charge, the transmission line will operate plane-polarized. If the medium
is linear(additive and homogenous), then we may apply the principle of super-
position. Equation 35 for a plane-polarized transmission line becomes:

E = E0 e−z/δ cos(ωt − z/δ)i (36)

4
A Appendix

Proof for: ∇ × ∇ × E = ∇(∇ · E) − E(∇ · ∇)

∂ ∂ ∂
∇= i+ j+ k (37)
∂x ∂y ∂z

 
 i j k 
∂ ∂ ∂ 
∇ × F =  ∂x ∂y ∂z  (38)
 F1 F2 F3 
     
∂F3 ∂F2 ∂F1 ∂F3 ∂F2 ∂F1
= − i+ − j+ − k (39)
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y

    
∂ ∂F2 ∂F1 ∂ ∂F1 ∂F3
∇×∇×F= − − − i
∂y ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x
    
∂ ∂F3 ∂F2 ∂ ∂F2 ∂F1
− − − j
∂z ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
    
∂ ∂F1 ∂F3 ∂ ∂F3 ∂F2
− − − k (40)
∂x ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z
 2
∂ 2 F3 ∂ 2 F1 ∂ 2 F1

∂ F2
= + − − i
∂x∂y ∂x∂z ∂y 2 ∂z 2
 2
∂ 2 F3 ∂ 2 F2 ∂ 2 F2

∂ F1
+ + − − j
∂x∂y ∂y∂z ∂x2 ∂z 2
 2
∂ 2 F2 ∂ 2 F3 ∂ 2 F3

∂ F1
+ + − − j (41)
∂x∂z ∂y∂z ∂x2 ∂y 2

  
∂ ∂ ∂
∇·F= i+ j+ k F1 i + F 2 j + F 3 k (42)
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂F1 ∂F2 ∂F3
= + + (43)
∂x ∂y ∂z

5
   
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂F1 ∂F2 ∂F3
∇(∇ · F) = i+ j+ k + + (44)
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
 2
∂ 2 F2 ∂ 2 F3

∂ F1
= + + i
∂x2 ∂x∂y ∂x∂z
 2
∂ 2 F2 ∂ 2 F3

∂ F1
+ + + j
∂x∂y ∂y 2 ∂y∂z
 2
∂ 2 F2 ∂ 2 F3

∂ F1
+ + + k (45)
∂x∂z ∂y∂z ∂z 2

∂2 ∂2 ∂2
∇·∇= 2
+ 2+ 2 (46)
∂x ∂y ∂z

∂2 ∂2 ∂2
  
F(∇ · ∇) = F1 i + F2 j + F3 k + + (47)
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
 2 2 2

∂ F1 ∂ F1 ∂ F1
= + + i
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
 2
∂ 2 F2 ∂ 2 F2

∂ F2
+ + + j
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
 2
∂ 2 F3 ∂ 2 F3

∂ F3
+ + + j (48)
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2

∂ 2 F2 ∂ 2 F3 ∂ 2 F1 ∂ 2 F1
 
∇(∇ · F ) − F (∇ · ∇) = + − − i
∂x∂y ∂x∂z ∂y 2 ∂z 2
 2
∂ 2 F3 ∂ 2 F2 ∂ 2 F2

∂ F1
+ + − − j
∂x∂y ∂y∂z ∂x2 ∂z 2
 2
∂ 2 F2 ∂ 2 F3 ∂ 2 F3

∂ F1
+ + − − j (49)
∂x∂z ∂y∂z ∂x2 ∂y 2
=∇×∇×F (50)

References
[1] P. Lorrain and D. R. Corson, Electromagnetic fields and waves. San Fran-
cisco: W.H. Freeman, 1970.
[2] R. Knobel, An Introduction to the Mathematical Theory of Waves. Provi-
dence, R.I.: American Mathematical Society: Institute for Advanced Study,
2000.

6
[3] I. Tolstoy, Wave Propagation. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1973.