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FUNCTION
• Within individual cells there is an organized system for the transport of substances.
• Some of the substances which may be transported in blood.
The respiratory gases O2 and CO2.
Nutrients, e.g.from the gastrointestinal to storage organs, from storage organs to
sites of utilization.
Waste products,e.g. urea ist ransported from liver to kidneys, and CO2 is
transported from the tissues to the lung organs.
Specialized blood cells, e.g. leukocytes which participate in immune and defence
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM reactions and platelets in hemostasis.
Hormones. In many cases the hormone is carried attached to some kind of
transport molecule, usually a protein. This is the mechanism by which the steroid
Dian Fita Lestari, M.Sc.
hormones are transported.
Biologi Department
Heat may be transferred between organism and environment as it flows through the
University of Bengkulu vascular beds of the skin.
2020

• In many cases, the substance that is being transported is simply dissolved in the vascular fluid, Composition of plasma
although there are some important exceptions such as oxygen transport with the aid of
• Proteins are large molecules which are impermeable to cell membranes, they are 'trapped'
specialized transport molecules.
within the plasma.
• All cardiovascular systems require 3 basic components - a circulatory fluid, a heart to generate
• The greater the amount of protein, the greater the osmotic pressure.The osmotic pressure
pressure-pump the circulatory fluid, and a system of tubes through which the fluid can
generated by proteins colloid osmotic pressure.The significanceof this, influences the
circulate(not present in all circulatory systems)
movement of water across cell membranes.
• The blood may be contained within specific vessels or it may flow freely between cells of the
• When the concentration of proteins in plasma is viewed across the animal kingdom, it can be
body (hemolymph).
seen that there is a huge variation in concentration between species. E.g.in jellyfish is about 0.5
• In general, blood consists of cellular elements and plasma is the fluid matrix in which the cells g F, in some vertebrates it may be as high as 80 g F.This related to the osmotic 'lifestyle' of each
of the blood are suspended. It is basically an aqueous solvent in which varying amounts of ions of these animals. Jellyfish are osmoconformers. Vertebrates, are osmoregulators, maintaining the
and organic molecules, including proteins, are dissolved. osmolarity of their body fluids within relatively narrow limits.
• The composition of plasma is generally very different from intracellular fluid  high • The colloid osmotic pressure is one way of influencing water movement and body fluid
concentration of sodium and low of potassium in blood (opposite intracellular fluids). There is osmolarity within animals.
also a wide variation in the protein content of the plasma.This has important consequences for
the osmotic pressure of the plasma.

BLOOD CELLS

• Within the fluid matrix of blood are the cellular elements. The percentage of the total blood
volume which is occupied by cells  hematocrit.
• The cells within the circulatory system are given the general name of hemocytes and they have
several functions. These include the transport of oxygen and, to a very limited extent, carbon
dioxide, defense (motile and are able to absorb and digest foreign particles) and hemostasis, by
aggregating around holes or tears in blood vessels to form a seal, thus preventing blood loss
The appearance of erythrocytes in various animals.There is
temporarily. tremendous variation in the size of erythrocytes. Mammalian

• Erythrocytes: transport oxygen, leukocytes involved in defence and thrombocytes involved in A sample of blood after centrifugation. erythrocytes are without nuclei, whilst other Vertebrates
generally have nucleated erythrocytes.
hemostasis.

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•Echinoderms (i.e. starfish, sea cucumbers) have

erythrocytes and a variety of other cells 
coelomocytes.
•The coelom is a body cavity which is
completely lined by tissue of mesodermal
origin.
•There are several different types of
coelomocytes (e.g. amoebocytes), all of which
perform functions similar to leukocytes in
higher animals, participating in immune
responses, blood clotting and so on.
•Many animals (e.g. annelid worms, arthropods)
have only cells which are involved in the
defensive reactions.

HEART
•The role in circulatory systems is two-fold, pumping fluid around the circulatory which is
achieved by alternate contraction and relaxation of cardiac muscle, thus providing a pressure
gradient (pressure pump) and the second role is to exert some control over the circulatory
system, by alteration to the rate of beating and the force of contraction.
•Some animals achieve movement of blood without the need for a specialized organ such as the
heart. It is possible when the vessel is surrounded by blocks of skeletal muscle, when the muscle
contracts, blood is squeezed along the vessel (nematode worms, echinoderms and vertebrates.)
•Movement of the body wall muscle results in the movement of fluid in the fluid-filled cavities
which form the pseudocoelom and coelom, respectively.
•Arrangement is important for returning blood to the heart (skeletal muscle contracts) back to
the heart.
•On relaxation of the muscle, blood return is prevented by the presence of valves in the veins.
•The simplest heart proper tubular heart, which contracts similar to peristaltic movements.
This type of heart is seen in many insects.

Blood vessels : tubes that the blood flows through, which is devided into three
types: Arteries, Capillaries, and Veins

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oHearts classified into two types on the basis of how the heartbeat is initiated: neurogenic and
myogenic.
oNeurogenic depend upon extrinsic neural innervation to initiate contraction. Neurogenic
hearts are found in crustaceans, spiders and some insects. In crustaceans the heartbeat is
regulated by the neural activity (i.e. action potentials) arising in the cardiac ganglion.The ganglion
acts as a pacemaker, originating periodic trains of action potentials which then pass to the heart
where they cause the cardiac muscle to contract.
oGenerally the neurotransmitters are dopamine, serotonin (5-HT) and noradrenaline have
stimulatory effects on the heart, whilst acetylcholine and y-aminobutyric acid (GABA) are known
to exert inhibitory effects.
oMyogenic hearts display spontaneous contractile activity (molluscs&vertebrates). The
contraction is a consequence of the spontaneous neural discharge of a particular region
pacemaker and small region of modified cardiac muscle, which has an unstable resting
membrane potential.
HEART BEAT
• Heart muscles are composed of individual
fibers
• Each atrium and ventricle contracts as a unit.
• Each contraction begins with a group of
cardiac muscle cells in the right atrium known
as the sinoatrial node (SA node).
•Because the SA node paces the heart it is known as the pacemaker.
•The impulse spreads from the pacemaker to the rest of the atria.
•From the atria, a signal is sent to the atrioventricular node and then to a bundle of
fibers in the ventricle.
•When the ventricle contracts, blood flows out.
Types of Circulatory System
• Open circulatory, is one in which the blood vessels do not form a complete circuit
around the body. Instead,the blood leaves the vessels and flows over and between the tissues of
the animal before returning to the heart. Its called hemolymph and it flows out of blood vessels
into a body cavity or hemocoel, bathing the tissues. This type of system is found in arthropods
and many molluscs.
•Closed circulatory, the blood of an animal is contained exclusively within a series of blood
vessels and found in vertebrates, cephalopod molluscs and echinoderms. The blood moved by the
pumping activity of the heart, is maintained constantly at high pressure, with the result that blood
exits and returns to the heart rapidly. This ensures a rapid delivery of nutrients to metabolizing
cells and, since blood is contained within vessels, it can be delivered directly to cells.
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oEach time threshold is reached, an action potential is generated and heartbeat is initiated. The
depolarization travels to the rest cardiac muscle, and causes contraction and pumping of blood.
oIn gastropods, sometimes difficult to distinguish the pacemaker region (the sino-atrial node)
oIn myogenic hearts, all regions have the ability to spontaneously depolarize,where the primary
pacemaker region fails, another region of the heart will assume pacemaker activity.
oAlthough myogenic hearts have an inherent contractility, their action is modified by both neural
and endocrine influences. e.g, activity of the heart is decreased by acetylcholine and increased by
noradrenaline .
oAcetylcholine decreases the heart rate by altering the ionic events which are responsible for
depolarization at the pacemaker. In this case, potassium efflux from the pacemaker cells increases
which results in hyperpolarization and calcium influx is inhibited, preventing the development of
action potentials in this region of the heart.
oNoradrenaline,increases heart rate, this is due to effects at the pacemaker region, caused
increase calcium influx into cells of the pacemaker region, thus reducing the time for
depolarization to occur and increasing the heart rate.
BLOOD PRESSURE
AS BLOOD IS MOVED THROUGH YOUR BODY, IT EXERTS PRESSURE AGAINST THE WALLS OF BLOOD
VESSELS.
• Systolic Pressure: as your heart
contracts to push blood into
your arteries, your blood
pressure is at its highest point.
• Diastolic Pressure: As your heart
relaxes to refill, blood pressure is
at its lowest point.
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Arrangement of closed circulatory patterns

•Closed circulation can be arranged in different ways, relates to the way in which the heart is
arranged and the way in which blood completes a full circuit around the animal.
•The simplest arrangement is seen in fish (single circulation). The major disadvantage of such an
arrangement is that pressure is lost as blood passes through the gills. As a result, blood flow from
the gills to the rest of the tissues is sluggish, because the pressure gradients that are the driving
force for the movement of blood are reduced.
•In mammals, the heart has four chambers, two upper atria and two lower ventricles. Blood make
a complete passage around the body it passes through the heart twice.
•Thus, the heart in mammals can be thought of as two pumps: one dealing with the flow of blood
to the lungs, the other dealing with the flow of blood to the rest of the body double
circulation.
•Cephalopod molluscs, such as octopods has more than one heart,the additional hearts being
called branchial hearts. As blood passes through the gills it loses pressure. The pressure of the
oxygenated blood returning to the heart would therefore be very low.

Transport of Oxygen Respiratory pigments

•Respiratory pigments are conjugated proteins, consist of a protein coupled with a nonprotein
The transport of O2, in the blood can occur in one of two ways: component. The nonprotein component is a metal, usually iron or copper, together with, in some
•it can be carried in simple solution (i.e. dissolved in blood plasma) cases, other components.
• it carried in conjunction with a respiratory pigment, a specialized compound which displays •There are four substances which are known to function as respiratory pigments. These are
reversible binding of O2 molecules. hemocyanin, chlorocruorin, hemerythrin and hemoglobin. In those animals in which the
•Many invertebrates transport O2, dissolved in blood. They generally have low metabolic rates, respiratory pigment is free in solution, the pigment usually exists as an aggregate of many
and, therefore, their O2 requirements are lower. individual pigment molecules.
•However, in higher invertebrates and vertebrates, metabolic rates are higher and, therefore, the
O2 requirements of tissues are greater.
•The role of the respiratory pigment is to increase the amount of O2 which can be transported
in blood.
•In mammals, the presence of the respiratory pigment hemoglobin increases the O2 carrying
capacity of blood 20-fold, compared with the amount that can be carried in simple solution (i.e.
dissolved in plasma). Hemoglobin allows 20 ml of O2to be carried per 100 ml of blood.

TRANSPORT OF O2 IN THE BLOOD (HEMOGLOBIN)

BOHR EFFECTC
• Conditions creating the Bohr effect
• Increased PCO2
• Increased temperature
• Increased 2,3-DPG
Two mechanisms exist for O2 • Decreased pH
transport:
Dissolved in plasma • Cause a shift to the right of the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve
Combined with hemoglobin

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TRANSPORT OF CO2 IN THE BLOOD (HEMOGLOBIN) CO2 TRANSPORT

•The transport of CO2 in blood is in some ways much simpler than the
transport of O2;
•It does not require any specialized respiratory pigments to carry it.
•The reason for this is that CO2 is far more soluble in solution than is
O2, 20-30 times more soluble.
•However, like the transport of O2the transport of CO2 occurs down
concentration gradients and is a purely passive process.
• Three mechanisms:
• Bound to Hb
• Dissolved in plasma, 5% CO2 is transported as dissolved CO2. The dissolved
CO2 establishes the PCO2 of the blood.
• Plasma bicarbonate, CO2 in solution combines with water to form carbonic acid.
Carbonic anhydrase (Zinc-containing enzyme within red blood cell). Carbonic
acid ionizes into hydrogen ions and bicarbonate ions.

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HALDANE EFFECT
Oxygenation of blood in the
lungs displaces carbon dioxide
from hemoglobin which
increases the removal of carbon
dioxide.This property is
the Haldane effect.
Consequently, oxygenated
blood has a reduced affinity for
carbon dioxide.
PROBLEMS OF THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
• Hypertension: is a condition in which blood pressure is consistently higher than normal,
which can lead to heart attack, stroke, or kidney failure.
• Stroke usually results from blood clots that block vessels in the brain, or from the rupture
of a blood vessel.
• Heart Attack is a blockage of the flow of blood to the heart.
• Anemia is an abnormally low level of hemoglobin, a protein that binds to oxygen in red
blood cells.
• Leukemia is a disease in which extra white blood cells are produced.
• Hemophilia is a disease in which the blood plasma does not contain substances that help
the blood to clot.

CARE OF THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

• Limit fat in your foods.

• Get regular physical activity.
• Avoid tobacco, alcohol,etc
• Manage stress.