1

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
by EngineerProf PH/Engr. Raymart Bonete

A differential equation (DE) is an equation involving derivatives or differentials.

EXAMPLE 1.
𝑑𝑦 st 𝑑2 𝑦
(𝑦")2 + 5𝑥 = (𝑦′)3 where 𝑦 ′ = (1 Derivative) and 𝑦" = 𝑑𝑥2 (2nd Derivative)
𝑑𝑥
EXAMPLE 2.
𝑑𝑦 𝑦
+ 𝑥 = 𝑥2
𝑑𝑥
EXAMPLE 3.
𝑑2 𝑄 𝑑𝑄
− 3 𝑑𝑡 + 2𝑄 = 4 sin 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 2
EXAMPLE 4.
𝑑𝑦 𝑥−𝑦
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑥+𝑦
EXAMPLE 5.
𝜕2 𝑧 𝜕2𝑧
𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑦 2
=0

TYPES OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

1. Ordinary Differential Equation – a D. E. that contains only one independent variable

(Examples 1, 2, 3, & 4 are ordinary D. E. since there is only one independent variable which is “x”)
2. Partial Differential Equation - a D. E. that contains one or more independent variable thus containing partial
derivatives. (Example 5 is a Partial D. E. since it has 2 independent variables which are “x” and “y”)

ORDER AND DEGREE OF A DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION

1. The order of a D. E. depends on the highest derivative in the equation.

𝑑𝑦
EXAMPLES: = 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 3 ; (1st Order since the highest derivative is first derivative)
𝑑𝑥
(𝑦")2 + 5𝑥 = (𝑦′)3 ;(2nd Order since the highest derivative is second derivative)
𝑑3 𝑄 𝑑𝑄
− 3 𝑑𝑡 + 2𝑄 = 0 ;(3rd Order since the highest derivative is third derivative)
𝑑𝑡 3

2. The degree of a D. E. depends on the highest power/exponent of the highest order derivative in the equation.
EXAMPLES:
1. 𝑥𝑦" + (𝑦 ′)3 = 15 → in this D.E., the highest order is 2 (because y’’ is a second derivative);
the power/exponent of y’’ is 1; therefore, this is a 1st Degree D.E.
*Overall, this is a 2nd Order 1st Degree DE
2. (𝑦")2 + 5𝑥 = (𝑦′)3 →in this DE, the power of the highest order derivative is 2.
Therefore; this is a second-degree DE.
*Overall, this is a 2 Order 2nd Degree DE
nd

TYPES OF SOLUTION OF A DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION

1. General Solution – the solution has at least one arbitrary constant

𝑑𝑦
EXAMPLE: Find the general solution for the DE: 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥
Solution: 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑥𝑑𝑥
Integrating both sides; ∫ 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 𝑥𝑑𝑥
𝑥2
𝑦= + 𝐶 → this is a general solution since there is an arbitrary constant C
2
 2

2. Particular Solution – the solution without an arbitrary constant

The particular solution is obtained using boundary condition therefore arriving to an exact value for C.
2
EXAMPLE: Using the above example, the general solution is 𝑦 = 𝑥2 + 𝐶. For example, the boundary condition is “if
2
𝑥 = 2 then 𝑦 = 1”. Substituting these to the general solution, 1 = 22 + 𝐶; then 𝐶 = −1.
2
Therefore, the particular solution is 𝑦 = 𝑥2 − 1 (no arbitrary constant C)

SOLUTIONS TO FIRST ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

1. SEPARATION OF VARIABLES
(a) Find the general solution of (4𝑥 + 𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + (𝑦 + 𝑥 2 𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 0
2)

(b) Find the particular solution for which 𝑦(1) = 2

For (a) ;
STEP # 1:: Separate the variables (join all terms with variables x and all terms with variable y
(4𝑥 + 𝑥𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑥 + (𝑦 + 𝑥 2 𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 0
(𝑥)(4 + 𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑥 + (𝑦)(1 + 𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑦 = 0
Perform Algebra. Then the Separation yields;
𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑦𝑑𝑦
+ 4+𝑦2 = 0
1+𝑥 2
STEP # 2: Perform Integration
𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑦𝑑𝑦
Integrate both sides; ∫ 1+𝑥2 + ∫ 4+𝑦2 = 𝐶
𝑑𝑢
Using ∫ 𝑢 = ln 𝑢 + 𝐶
𝑥 𝑑𝑥
For ∫ 1+𝑥2 ; Let 𝑢 = 1 + 𝑥 2 ; 𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑥𝑑𝑥
2𝑥𝑑𝑥
Substitute to formula; ∫
1+𝑥 2
Compare this to the original integral. We have a multiplier 2. Therefore, we need to introduce a balancing constant to
1 2𝑥𝑑𝑥 1
make it equal to the original integral. 2 ∫ 1+𝑥 2 = 2 ln(1 + 𝑥 2 ) + 𝐶

𝑦𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
For ∫ 4+𝑦2 ; Using ∫ 𝑢
= ln 𝑢 + 𝐶 ; Let 𝑢 = 4 + 𝑦 2 ; 𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑦𝑑𝑦
2𝑦𝑑𝑦
Substitute to formula; ∫ ;
4+𝑦2
1 2𝑦𝑑𝑦 1
Balance to make this equal to the original integral. 2 ∫ 4+𝑦2 = 2 ln(4 + 𝑦 2 ) + 𝐶

Therefore, the general solution is:

1 1
ln(1 + 𝑥 2 ) + ln(4 + 𝑦 2 ) = 𝐶
2 2
Note: You can combine all arbitrary constant and represent it as a single constant.

STEP #3: Simplify.

1 1
ln(1 + 𝑥 2 ) + ln(4 + 𝑦 2 ) = 𝐶
2 2
Multiply both sides by 2:
ln(1 + 𝑥 2 ) + ln(4 + 𝑦 2 ) = 2𝐶
From the Laws of Logarithm:
ln[(1 + 𝑥 2 )(4 + 𝑦 2 )] = 2𝐶
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Convert to exponential form:

𝑒 2𝐶 = (1 + 𝑥 2 )(4 + 𝑦 2 )
Note: 𝑒 2𝐶 is still a constant. Therefore, it can be represented by just 𝐶.
Equation yields; (a)
(1 + 𝑥 2 )(4 + 𝑦 2 ) = 𝐶

For (b); The boundary condition is 𝑦(1) = 2 (means if x=1 then y =2)
Substitute to the gen, solution;
𝐶 = (1 + 𝑥 2 )(4 + 𝑦 2 )
𝐶 = (1 + 12 )(4 + 22 ) ; 𝐶 = 16
Therefore; the particular solution is; (b)
(1 + 𝑥 2 )(4 + 𝑦 2 ) = 16

II. HOMOGENOUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

An expression is said to be homogeneous if all terms have the same degree.

For example; 2𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = (𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑥 is a homogenous DE since the degree of each term is equal (2).
For 2𝑥𝑦 its degree is two since if you add the exponents of the variables, it is 2. 𝑥 2 is also second degree as well
as 𝑦 2 is of power 2.

Find the general solution of the DE: 2𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = (𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑥

2𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦 − (𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑥 = 0

Let 𝑀 = (𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 ) ; 𝑁 = 2𝑥𝑦
STEP #1 For Homogenous DE, we introduce another variable 𝑣 then use the substitution 𝑦 = 𝑣𝑥 or 𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦.
By performing this substitution, we can reduce this DE to a separable DE.
NOTE: If 𝑀 is simpler; use 𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 ; If 𝑁 is simpler; use 𝑦 = 𝑣𝑥

STEP #2 Perform the substitution

By comparing N and M; we can say that N is simpler. Therefore, use the substitution 𝑦 = 𝑣𝑥
2𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦 − (𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑥 = 0
If 𝑦 = 𝑣𝑥 then 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑣𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥𝑑𝑣
Substituting these to the given;
2𝑥(𝑣𝑥) (𝑣𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥𝑑𝑣) − [𝑥 2 − (𝑣𝑥)2 ]𝑑𝑥 = 0
2𝑥 2 𝑣 2 𝑑𝑥 + 2𝑣𝑥 3 𝑑𝑣 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣 2 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 0
Divide both sides by 𝑥 2 to simplify;
2𝑣 2 𝑑𝑥 + 2𝑣𝑥𝑑𝑣 − 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣 2 𝑑𝑥 = 0
2𝑣 2 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣 2 𝑑𝑥 + 2𝑣𝑥𝑑𝑣 = 0
(2𝑣 2 − 1+𝑣 2 )𝑑𝑥 + 2𝑣𝑥𝑑𝑣 = 0
(3𝑣 2 − 1)𝑑𝑥 + 2𝑣𝑥𝑑𝑣 = 0
𝑑𝑥 2𝑣 𝑑𝑣
Separate the variables; + 3𝑣2 −1 = 0
𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2𝑣 𝑑𝑣
Integrate both sides; ∫ + ∫ 3𝑣2 −1 = 𝐶
𝑥
𝑑𝑥 1 (3)2𝑣 𝑑𝑣
Apply formula and introduce balancing constant if needed. ∫ +3∫ =𝐶
𝑥 3𝑣 2 −1
1
Integration yields; ln 𝑥 + 3 ln(3𝑣 2 − 1) = 𝐶
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1 1
Simplify; ln 𝑥 + ln(3𝑣 2 − 1)3 = 𝐶 ; ln 𝑥(3𝑣 2 − 1)3 = 𝐶
1
𝑒 𝐶 = 𝑥 (3𝑣 2 − 1)3
Note: 𝑒 𝐶 is still constant so we can represent is as C
Use the substitution to bring back the original variables,
1
𝑦
𝐶 = 𝑥(3𝑣 2 − 1)3 ; 𝑦 = 𝑣𝑥 then 𝑣 = 𝑥
𝑦 2 1
𝐶 = 𝑥[3 (𝑥 ) − 1]3
3𝑦 2
Raise both sides by 3 to simplify; 𝐶 3 = 𝑥 3 ( 𝑥 2 − 1)
Therefore; the general solution is (3𝑥𝑦 2 − 𝑥 3 ) = 𝐶

II1. EXACT DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
The first order differential equation in the form 𝑀 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦 = 0 is exact if = .
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
The example problems below will discuss the process for finding the general solution of an exact differential equation.

Show that (3𝑥 2 + 𝑦 cos 𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + (sin 𝑥 − 4𝑦 3 )𝑑𝑦 = 0 is an exact differential equation and find its general
solution.
(3𝑥 2 + 𝑦 cos 𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 + (sin 𝑥 − 4𝑦 3 )𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝑀 = (3𝑥 2 + 𝑦 cos 𝑥)
𝑁 = (sin 𝑥 − 4𝑦 3 )
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
Step #1 Find (partial derivative of M with respect to y, let all x as CONSTANT) and (partial derivative of N with
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
respect to x, let all y as CONSTANT).
𝑀 = (3𝑥 2 + 𝑦 cos 𝑥)
𝜕𝑀
= 0 + cos 𝑥 = cos 𝑥
𝜕𝑦
𝑁 = (sin 𝑥 − 4𝑦 3 )
𝜕𝑁
= cos 𝑥 − 0 = cos 𝑥
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
= Therefore, this is an exact differential equation.
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

Step #2: Integrate the differential equation partially with respect to x (making all y as CONSTANT).
∫(3𝑥 2 + 𝑦 cos 𝑥) 𝜕𝑥 + ∫(sin 𝑥 − 4𝑦 3 )𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝑥 3 + 𝑦 sin 𝑥 + 0 = 𝑘𝑦 ; 𝑘𝑦 =constan of integration dependent on y

Step #3: Integrate the differential equation partially with respect to y (making all x as CONSTANT).
∫(3𝑥 2 + 𝑦 cos 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫(sin 𝑥 − 4𝑦 3 )𝜕𝑦 = 0
0 + 𝑦 sin 𝑥 − 𝑦 4 = 𝑘𝑥 ; 𝑘𝑥 =constant of integration dependent to x
 5

Step #4: Compare equations from Step #2 and Step #3. Find the value for 𝑘𝑥 and 𝑘𝑦 to make the two equations
equal. Note: Do not remove or cancel out any expression, just add.
𝑥 3 + 𝑦 sin 𝑥 = 𝑘𝑦 ; 𝑥 3 + 𝑦 sin 𝑥 − 𝑘𝑦 = 0
𝑦 sin 𝑥 − 𝑦 4 = 𝑘𝑥 ; ysin 𝑥 − 𝑦 4 − 𝑘𝑥 = 0

To be equal; 𝑘𝑦 = 𝑦 4 and 𝑘𝑥 = 𝑥 3
Use either of the two equations. Therefore, the general solution is: 𝑥 3 + 𝑦 sin 𝑥 − 𝑦 4 = 0

IV. LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

The linear type differential equation is in the form;

𝑑𝑦
+ 𝑦 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑄 (𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
The process of solving Linear DE involves the use of an Integrating Factor or Euler’s Multiplier.
integrating factor = 𝑒 ∫ 𝑃(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
Solve:
𝑑𝑦 2
+ 𝑦 = 6𝑥 3
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
Using the form and by inspection, this is a linear type DE.
2
𝑃(𝑥) = ; 𝑄 (𝑥) = 6𝑥 3
𝑥
The integrating factor is;

2 2
𝑒 ∫ 𝑃(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 ∫𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 2 ln 𝑥 = 𝑒 ln 𝑥 = 𝑥 2
Multiply the integrating factor to both sides of the DE;

𝑑𝑦 2
(𝑥 2 )( + 𝑦) = 6𝑥 3 (𝑥 2 )
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
Multiply dx both sides and simplify;
𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 + 2𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 6𝑥 5 𝑑𝑥
This is the goal of the integrating factor. To make the left side integrable combination.
∫(𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 + 2𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑥) = ∫ 6𝑥 5 𝑑𝑥
The expression ∫(𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 + 2𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑥) can be integrate using the concept of derivative of the product. Focus on
just one expression. Say ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦, make x as constant since you are integrating using dy. Therefore, the integral is
𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝐶.
∫(𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 + 2𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑥) = ∫ 6𝑥 5 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2𝑦 = 𝑥6 + 𝐶

You can check the left side of the equation by finding its derivative;
𝑑 (𝑥 2 𝑦) = 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 + 2𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑥 → this is the goal of the integrating factor, to make the left side integrable using
the concept of derivative of a product.
 6

V. BERNOULLI’S EQUATION TYPE

The standard form is:
𝑑𝑦
+ 𝑦 𝑃 (𝑥 ) = 𝑦 𝑛 𝑄(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
The general solution is:
1
𝑦1−𝑛 = ∫(1 − 𝑛)𝑄(𝑥)𝑒 ∫(1−𝑛)𝑃(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑒 ∫(1−𝑛)𝑃(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

The method for solving:

𝑑𝑦
Find the General Solution of : 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑦 3
Divide both sides by x.

𝑑𝑦 𝑦
+ = 𝑦3
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
By inspection:
1
𝑃 (𝑥 ) = ; 𝑄(𝑥) = 1; 𝑛 = 3
𝑥
Apply the formula for general solution:

1
𝑦1−𝑛 = ∫(1 − 𝑛)𝑄(𝑥)𝑒 ∫(1−𝑛)𝑃(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑒 ∫(1−𝑛)𝑃(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

1 1
𝑦1−3 = 1 ∫(1 − 3)(1)𝑒 ∫(1−3)(2)𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
( )( )𝑑𝑥
𝑒 ∫ 1−3 𝑥
1 −2
𝑦 −2
= −2 ∫(−2)𝑒 ∫( 𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑒 ∫( 𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
1
𝑦 −2 = −2𝑙𝑛𝑥 ∫(−2)𝑒 −2𝑙𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑒
−2 −2
𝑦 −2 = 𝑙𝑛𝑥 −2 ∫ 𝑒 𝑙𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑒
−2
𝑦 −2 = −2 ∫ 𝑥 −2 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
−2
−2 𝑥 −1
𝑦 = −2 ( + 𝐶)
𝑥 −1
−2 2(
𝑥 −1
𝑦 = −2𝑥 + 𝐶)
−1
𝑦 −2 = (2𝑥 − 2𝐶𝑥 2 ) ; 𝑏𝑢𝑡 2𝐶 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝑦 −2 = (2𝑥 − 𝐶𝑥 2 )

Simplify.
1
𝑦 2 = 2𝑥−𝐶𝑥 2
 7

V1. LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION OF ORDER “n”

General Equation:
𝑑𝑛 𝑦 𝑑 𝑛−1 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑎0 (𝑥) 𝑛 + 𝑎1 (𝑥) 𝑛−1 +. . . +𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑥) + 𝑎𝑛 (𝑥)𝑦 = 𝑅(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
As we can see in the general equation, 𝑎0 (𝑥), 𝑎1 (𝑥), … , 𝑎𝑛 (𝑥) are constant coefficients, otherwise it is said to
have variable coefficients.
𝑅(𝑥) is an expression that is a function of x.

Operator Notations:
It is convenient to use differential operator “D”. Wherein:
𝑑 𝑑2 𝑑3
𝐷 = 𝑑𝑥 ; 𝐷2 = 𝑑𝑥 2 ; 𝐷3 = 𝑑𝑥 3 and so on.

The General Solution is in the form:

𝑦 = 𝑐1 𝑒 𝑚1 𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 𝑚2 𝑥 +. . . +𝑐𝑛 𝑒 𝑚𝑛𝑥
For example:
Solve for the general equation of:
𝑦 ′′ − 8𝑦 ′ + 16𝑦 = 0
𝑑2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
− 8 + 16𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
Use a Linear Operator:
𝐷2 𝑦 − 8𝐷𝑦 + 16𝑦 = 0
Divide by 𝑦 both sides.
𝐷2 − 8𝐷 + 16 = 0

Find the roots 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 by direct factoring or using quadratic formula.

(𝐷 − 4)(𝐷 − 4) = 0
𝑚1 = 4; 𝑚2 = 4
Therefore, the general solution is:
𝑦 = 𝑐1 𝑒 𝑚1 𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 𝑚2 𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑐1 𝑒 4𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 4𝑥
If the roots are imaginary, use Euler’s Identity:
𝑒 𝑖𝑚 = cos 𝑚 + 𝑖 sin 𝑚
𝑒 −𝑖𝑚 = cos 𝑚 − 𝑖 sin 𝑚
The simplified form will be, if 𝑚1 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 and 𝑚2 = 𝑎 − 𝑏𝑖 (from quadratic formula)
The general equation will be:
𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 (𝑐1 cos 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐2 sin 𝑏𝑥)
 8

For example;
Solve for the general solution of:
(𝐷2 + 6𝐷 + 25)𝑦 = 0 ; 𝐷 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟
By quadratic formula:

−6 ± √62 − 4(1)(25) −6 ± 8𝑖
𝑚= = = −3 ± 4𝑖
2(1) 2
Therefore, the general solution is:
𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 (𝑐1 cos 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐2 sin 𝑏𝑥) ; 𝑎 = −3; 𝑏 = 4
𝑦 = 𝑒 −3𝑥 (𝑐1 cos 4𝑥 + 𝑐2 sin 4𝑥)

Another example;
(𝐷4 − 16)𝑦 = 0
(𝐷2 + 4)(𝐷2 − 4) = 0
The roots m are:
𝑚 = ±2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ± 2𝑖
For the complex number, a=0 and b=2 (pure imaginary). Therefore, the general solution is;
𝑦 = 𝑐1 𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 −2𝑥 + 𝑒 0(𝑥) (𝑐3 cos 2𝑥 + 𝑐4 sin 2𝑥)

𝑦 = 𝑐1 𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 −2𝑥 + 𝑐3 cos 2𝑥 + 𝑐4 sin 2𝑥

 9

V1I. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

 MECHANICS
 GEOMETRY
 CHEMISTRY: RADIOACTIVE DECAY
 POPULATION GROWTH
 TEMPERATURE PROBLEMS: NEWTON’S LAW OF COOLING
 FLOW PROBLEMS
 ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

MECHANICS
Motion with Constant Acceleration

𝑡0 , 𝑥𝑜 , 𝑣𝑜 constant acceleration “a” 𝑡 , 𝑥, 𝑣

Average velocity “v’’ in terms of displacement ‘’x’’ and time “t”:

𝑑𝑥
𝑣=
𝑑𝑡
𝑣 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑡 𝑥
∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 − 𝑥𝑜
0 𝑥0

𝑡
𝑥 = 𝑥𝑜 + ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑡
𝑜

Average velocity “a’’ in terms of velocity ‘’v’’ and time “t”:

𝑑𝑣 𝑑2𝑥
𝑎= 𝑜𝑟 𝑎 = 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑎 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑣
𝑡 𝑣 𝑡
∫ 𝑎 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑑𝑣 ; ∫ 𝑎 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑣 − 𝑣𝑜
0 𝑣𝑜 0

If a = constant then, 𝑎 ( 𝑡 − 0) = 𝑣 − 𝑣𝑜
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑜 + 𝑎𝑡
𝑡
Substituting 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑜 + 𝑎𝑡 to 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑜 + ∫𝑜 𝑣 𝑑𝑡

𝑡
𝑥 = 𝑥𝑜 + ∫ (𝑣𝑜 + 𝑎𝑡 )𝑑𝑡
𝑜

𝑡 𝑡
𝑥 = 𝑥𝑜 + ∫ 𝑣𝑜 𝑑𝑡 + ∫ 𝑎 𝑡𝑑𝑡 , 𝑣𝑜 & 𝑎 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠
𝑜 0
 10

𝑡 2 02
( )
𝑥 = 𝑥𝑜 + 𝑣𝑜 𝑡 − 0 + 𝑎 ( − )
2 2
1
𝑥 = 𝑥𝑜 + 𝑣𝑜 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑣
From the fundamental concepts that: 𝑣 = and 𝑎 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑣
𝑣 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑥 ; 𝑑𝑡 =
𝑎
𝑑𝑣
𝑣 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑎
𝑣 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑎 𝑑𝑥
𝑣 𝑥
∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑎 ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑣𝑜 𝑥𝑜

𝑣 2 − 𝑣𝑜 2
= 𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥𝑜 )
2
𝑣 2 − 𝑣𝑜 2 = 2𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥𝑜 )

Using 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑜 + 𝑎𝑡 and 𝑣 2 − 𝑣𝑜 2 = 2𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥𝑜 ) , we can derive another formula if “a” is not given:
𝑣 − 𝑣𝑜
𝑎= ; 𝑣 2 − 𝑣𝑜 2 = 2𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥𝑜 )
𝑡
𝑣−𝑣𝑜
Substitute “a” 𝑣 2 − 𝑣𝑜 2 = 2 ( ) (𝑥 − 𝑥𝑜 )
𝑡
𝑣 − 𝑣𝑜
(𝑣 − 𝑣0 )(𝑣 + 𝑣0 ) = 2 ( ) (𝑥 − 𝑥𝑜 )
𝑡
(𝑣 − 𝑣0 ) will cancel out;
1
(𝑣 + 𝑣0 ) = 2 ( ) (𝑥 − 𝑥𝑜 )
𝑡
(𝑣 + 𝑣0 )𝑡
(𝑥 − 𝑥𝑜 ) =
2
Summarizing the derived formulas.
𝑥𝑜 = 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑥 = 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑡 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑣𝑜 = 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑣 = 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑎 = 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑣 = 𝑣𝑜 + 𝑎𝑡
1
𝑥 = 𝑥𝑜 + 𝑣𝑜 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
𝑣 2 − 𝑣𝑜 2 = 2𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥𝑜 )
(𝑣 + 𝑣0 )𝑡
(𝑥 − 𝑥𝑜 ) =
2
 11

Sample Problems:
1. Sally is driving along a straight highway in her 1965 Mustang. At t = 0, when she is moving at 10 m/s in the positive x-
direction, she passes a signpost at x = 50 m. Her x-acceleration as a function of time is
𝑚 𝑚
𝑎𝑥 = 2.0 − (0.10 )𝑡
𝑠2 𝑠3
Find her x-velocity and position x as functions of time.

Solution:
𝑚
@ 𝑡 = 0 , 𝑥0 = 50 𝑚 ; 𝑣𝑜𝑥 = 10
𝑠
𝑚 𝑚
𝑎𝑥 = 2.0 − (0.10 )𝑡
𝑠2 𝑠3
The acceleration is not constant since it is given as a function of time “t”. Therefore; use the concept, (use x as
subscript denoting that the Mustang is travelling in the x direction)
𝑡
∫ 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑣𝑥 − 𝑣𝑜𝑥
0
𝑡
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
∫ [2.0 − (0.10 ) 𝑡]𝑑𝑡 = 𝑣𝑥 − 10
0 𝑠2 𝑠3 𝑠
*velocity as a function of time
𝑚
𝑚 (0.10 3 ) 𝑡 2 𝑚
𝑣𝑥 = 2.0 2 𝑡 − 𝑠 + 10 (𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟)
𝑠 2 𝑠
*position as a function of time
Using the concept:
𝑡
𝑥 = 𝑥𝑜 + ∫ 𝑣𝑥 𝑑𝑡
𝑜

Substitute:
𝑚
𝑚 𝑡 (0.10 3 ) 𝑡 2 𝑚
𝑥 = 50𝑚 + ∫ [2.0 2 𝑡 − 𝑠 + 10 ] 𝑑𝑡
𝑜 𝑠 2 𝑠
𝑚 3
𝑚 2 (0.10 𝑠 3 ) 𝑡 𝑚
𝑥 = 50𝑚 + 2.0 2 𝑡 − + 10 𝑡
𝑠 (2)(3) 𝑠
𝑚 3
𝑚 𝑚 2 (0.10 𝑠 3 ) 𝑡
𝑥 = 50𝑚 + 10 𝑡 + 2.0 2 𝑡 − (𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟)
𝑠 𝑠 6
 12

2. An object is thrown vertically upward from the ground with initial velocity 1960 cm/sec. Neglecting air resistance, (a)
the maximum height reached and (b) the total time taken to return to the starting point.

Solution:
Let the object of mass “m” be located at a distance “x” cm from the ground after any time “t”.
Upward the direction is chosen as the positive x-axis.
By Newton’s Law;
𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑚𝑎 = −𝑚𝑔 therefore 𝑎 = −𝑔
𝑑2𝑥 𝑐𝑚
𝑎 = −𝑔 ; 𝑎= ; 𝑔 = 981
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑠2
𝑑2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= −981 ; integrating: = −981𝑡 + 𝑐
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑥 𝑐𝑚
@𝑡 = 0 ; = 1960 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑠
𝑑𝑥
Therefore; = −981𝑡 + 𝑐
𝑑𝑡

1960 = −981(0) + 𝑐; 𝑐 = 1960

𝑑𝑥
= −981𝑡 + 1960
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 = −981𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + 1960 𝑑𝑡

∫ 𝑑𝑥 = −981 ∫ 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + 1960 ∫ 𝑑𝑡

981𝑡 2
𝑥=− + 1960𝑡 + 𝑐1 ; @𝑡 = 0, 𝑥 = 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑐1 = 0
2
𝑥 = −490.5𝑡 2 + 1960𝑡
(a) For maximum height reached, the velocity dx/dt = 0. First, find the time where dx/dt = 0. Therefore,
𝑑𝑥
= −981𝑡 + 1960 ; 0 = −981𝑡 + 1960 ; 𝑡 = 1.98 𝑠
𝑑𝑡
𝑥 = −490.5(1.98)2 + 1960(1.98) = 1957.8
Thus, the maximum height reached is at 𝑥 = 1957.8 𝑐𝑚.
(b)For the total time taken to return to the starting point, x=0 at starting point. Therefore;
𝑥 = −490.5𝑡 2 + 1960𝑡
0 = −490.5𝑡 2 + 1960𝑡
1960
0 = 𝑡(−490.5𝑡 + 1960); 𝑡 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡 = = 3.96
490.5
Thus, the total time taken to return to starting position is 𝑡 = 3.96 𝑠.
 13

GEOMETRY APPLICATIONS
Sample Problems:
1. (a) Graph various members of the one parameter family of curves 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑥 3 , (b) Obtain the differential equation
for the family in (a).
Solution:
(a) The graph of the curve is shown in the figure below.
𝑦 = 𝑐𝑥 3

𝑦 = 𝑐𝑥 3
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐(3𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥) ; = 3𝑐𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥
𝑦
From the original equation: 𝑐 = 𝑥 3
𝑑𝑦
By substitution: = 3𝑐𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑦
= 3 (𝑥 3 ) 𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 3𝑦
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
This differential equation shows the slope of the curve 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑥 3 at any given coordinate.

𝑑𝑦
2. (a) Find the general solution of the differential equation 𝑑𝑥 = 3𝑥 2 . (b) Graph the obtained solution. (c) Determine
the particular solution which passes through the point (1, 3).
(a) the general solution
𝑑𝑦
= 3𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

∫ 𝑑𝑦 = 3 ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
 14

𝑥3
𝑦 = 3( ) + 𝑐
3
𝑦 = 𝑥3 + 𝑐
(b) the graph of the solution is shown in the figure below.

(c) the particular solution which passes through the point (1, 3).
𝑦 = 𝑥3 + 𝑐
3 = 13 + 𝑐
𝑐=2
Therefore, the particular solution is:
𝑦 = 𝑥3 + 2

For graphing, you can use your scientific calculator (CASIO 991 ES or 570 ES).

Press Mode Press7: Table

Input the Equation Press = then input coordinate interval Coordinates will automatically appear
 15

CHEMISTRY: RADIOACTIVE DECAY

Experiments show that at each instant a “radioactive substance decomposes—and is thus decaying in time
proportional to the amount of substance present.”
In other words, the time rate of change of the amount 𝑄 of the substance is directly proportional to the amount of
the substance present 𝑄 at any given time 𝑡.
𝑑𝑄
= 𝑘𝑄
𝑑𝑡
where k= proportionality constant
By separation of variables, the general solution is obtained.
𝑑𝑄
= 𝑘 𝑑𝑡
𝑄
𝑑𝑄
∫ = 𝑘 ∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝑄
ln 𝑄 = 𝑘𝑡 + 𝐶

Sample Problems:
1. Radium decomposes at a rate proportional to the amount at any instant. In 100 years, 100 mg of radium decomposes
to 96 mg. How many mg will be left after 200 years?
𝑑𝑄
= 𝑘 𝑑𝑡
𝑄
𝑑𝑄
∫ = 𝑘 ∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝑄
ln 𝑄 = 𝑘𝑡 + 𝐶
@ initial time, that is at 𝑡 = 0 ; 𝑄 = 100 𝑚𝑔
ln 100 = 𝑘(0) + 𝐶
𝐶 = ln 100 = 4.605
@ 𝑡 = 100 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 ; 𝑄 = 96 𝑚𝑔
ln 𝑄 = 𝑘𝑡 + 𝐶
ln 96 = 𝑘 (100) + ln 100
ln 96 − ln 100
𝑘= = −4.082 × 10−4
100
@ 𝑡 = 200 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠; 𝑄 =?
ln 𝑄 = 𝑘𝑡 + 𝐶
Convert to exponential form; 𝑄 = 𝑒 𝑘𝑡+𝐶
−4 )(200)+4.605
𝑄 = 𝑒 (−4.082×10
𝑄 = 92.16 𝑚𝑔
 16

2. Radium decomposes at a rate proportional to the amount present. If half of the original disappears after 1000
years, what is the percentage lost in 100 years?
Using the derived formula above;
ln 𝑄 = 𝑘𝑡 + 𝐶
@ 𝑡 = 0, the amount of the substance present is 𝑄0
ln 𝑄0 = 𝑘(0) + 𝐶
𝐶 = ln 𝑄0
𝑄0
@ 𝑡 = 1000 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠, the amount of the substance present is (half of the original substance present)
2

𝑄0
ln = 𝑘(1000) + 𝐶
2
𝑄0
ln = 𝑘(1000) + ln 𝑄0
2
By laws of logarithm and ln 𝑄 will just cancels out; ln 𝑄0 − ln 2 = 𝑘(1000) + ln 𝑄0
−ln 2 = 𝑘(1000)
ln 2
𝑘=− = −6.9315 × 10−4
1000
@ 𝑡 = 100 , 𝑄 =?
ln 𝑄 = 𝑘𝑡 + 𝐶
ln 𝑄 = 𝑘𝑡 + ln 𝑄0
ln 𝑄 = (−6.9315 × 10−4 )(100) + ln 𝑄0
ln 𝑄 − ln 𝑄0 = −0.069315
𝑄
ln = −0.069315
𝑄0
Convert to exponential form:
𝑄
= 𝑒 −0.069315 = 0.933
𝑄0
𝑄 = 0.933𝑄0
After 𝑡 = 100, 0.933 or 93.3% of the original substance 𝑄0 was left. Therefore, the percentage decrease is
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 100𝑦𝑟𝑠 = 100% − 93.3%
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 100𝑦𝑟𝑠 ≈ 6.7%
 17

Population Growth
Population growth differential equations problems are based on the concept that “the time rate of change of the
population 𝑃 is directly proportional to the number of populations at any given time t.”
𝑑𝑃
= 𝑘𝑃
𝑑𝑡
where k= proportionality constant
By separation of variables, the general solution is obtained.
𝑑𝑃
= 𝑘 𝑑𝑡
𝑃
𝑑𝑃
∫ = 𝑘 ∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝑃
ln 𝑃 = 𝑘𝑡 + 𝐶

Sample Problems:
1. The population of a country doubles in 30 years. Assuming that the rate of increase is proportional to the number of
inhabitants, how many years will it be six times as much?
Solution:
𝑑𝑃
= 𝑘 𝑑𝑡
𝑃
𝑑𝑃
∫ = 𝑘 ∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝑃
ln 𝑃 = 𝑘𝑡 + 𝐶
@𝑡 = 0, the population 𝑃 is 𝑃0 . ln 𝑃0 = 𝑘(0) + 𝐶
𝐶 = ln 𝑃0
@ 𝑡 = 30 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠, the population doubles. 𝑃 is 2𝑃0
ln 2𝑃0 = 𝑘(30) + ln 𝑃0
ln 2𝑃0 − ln 𝑃0 = 𝑘(30)
ln 2 + ln 𝑃0 − ln 𝑃0 = 30 𝑘
ln 2
𝑘= = 0.023105
30
@ 𝑃 = 6𝑃0 𝑡 =?
ln 6𝑃0 = (0.023105)𝑡 + ln 𝑃0
ln 6 + ln 𝑃0 = 0.023105𝑡 + ln 𝑃0
ln 6
𝑡=
0.023105
𝑡 = 77.55 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
 18

2. In the year 2021, the population of a certain country is 24 M. In 2025, the population increased to 82 M. Assuming that
the rate of increase is proportional to the number of inhabitants, what was the population in the year 2023?
Solution:
𝑑𝑃
= 𝑘 𝑑𝑡
𝑃
𝑑𝑃
∫ = 𝑘 ∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝑃
ln 𝑃 = 𝑘𝑡 + 𝐶
@ 2021, that is at 𝑡 = 0, 𝑃 = 24
ln 24 = 𝑘(0) + 𝐶
𝐶 = ln 24
@ 2025, that is at 𝑡 = 4, 𝑃 = 82
ln 82 = 𝑘(4) + ln 24
ln 82 − ln 24
𝑘= = 0.307166
4
@ 2023, that is at 𝑡 = 2, 𝑃 =?
ln 𝑃 = 𝑘𝑡 + 𝐶
Convert to exponential form;
𝑃 = 𝑒 𝑘𝑡+𝐶
𝑃 = 𝑒 (0.307166)(2)+ln 24
𝑃 = 44.36 𝑀
 19

TEMPERATURE PROBLEMS
Newton’s Law of Cooling states that the “time rate of change of the temperature 𝑇 of a body is directly proportional
to the difference between the temperature 𝑇 of the body and the surrounding temperature 𝑇𝑠 .”
𝑑𝑇
= 𝑘 (𝑇 − 𝑇𝑠 ) → 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑑𝑡
By separation of variables, the general solution can be obtained; k = proportionality constant and 𝑇𝑠 = constant
𝑑𝑇
= 𝑘 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 − 𝑇𝑠
𝑑𝑇
∫ = 𝑘 ∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 − 𝑇𝑠
ln(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑠 ) = 𝑘𝑡 + 𝐶 → 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔

𝑑𝑇
= 𝑘(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇 ) → ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑇
= 𝑘 𝑑𝑡
𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇
−𝑑𝑇
−∫ = 𝑘 ∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇
−ln(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇 ) = 𝑘𝑡 + 𝐶 → ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔
Sample Problems:
1. Newton’s Law of Cooling states that the time rate of change in temperature of an object varies as the difference in
temperature between object and surroundings. If an object cools from 80 ℃ to 60 ℃ in 20 minutes, find the
temperature in 40 minutes if the surrounding temperature is 20 ℃.
Solution:
For cooling process,
𝑑𝑇
= 𝑘 (𝑇 − 𝑇𝑠 ) → 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑇
= 𝑘 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 − 𝑇𝑠
𝑑𝑇
∫ = 𝑘 ∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 − 𝑇𝑠
ln(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑠 ) = 𝑘𝑡 + 𝐶 → 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔
@ 𝑡 = 0, 𝑇 = 80℃ ; 𝑇𝑠 = 20℃
ln(80 − 20) = 𝑘(0) + 𝐶
𝐶 = ln 60 = 4.09434
@ 𝑡 = 20 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑠., 𝑇 = 60℃ ; 𝑇𝑠 = 20℃
ln(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑠 ) = 𝑘𝑡 + 𝐶
 20

ln(60 − 20 ) = 𝑘(20) + ln 60
ln(60 − 20) − ln 60
𝑘= = −0.02027
20
@ 𝑡 = 40 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑠., 𝑇 =? ; 𝑇𝑠 = 20℃
ln(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑠 ) = 𝑘𝑡 + 𝐶
𝑇 − 𝑇𝑠 = 𝑒 𝑘𝑡+𝐶
𝑇 = 𝑒 𝑘𝑡+𝐶 + 𝑇𝑠
𝑇 = 𝑒 (−0.02027)(40)+4.09434 + 20
𝑇 ≈ 46.7℃

2. It takes 15 minutes for an object to warm up from 10 ℃ to 20 ℃ in a room whose temperature is 30 ℃.

Assuming Newton’s Law of Cooling, how long would it take to warm up from 20℃ to 25℃?

Solution:
𝑑𝑇
For heating process, = 𝑘 (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇 ) → ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑇
= 𝑘 𝑑𝑡
𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇
−𝑑𝑇
−∫ = 𝑘 ∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇
−ln(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇 ) = 𝑘𝑡 + 𝐶 → ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔
@ 𝑡 = 0; 𝑇 = 10 ℃; 𝑇𝑠 = 30 ℃
−ln(30 − 10) = 𝑘(0) + 𝐶
𝐶 = − ln 20
@ 𝑡 = 15 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑠. ; 𝑇 = 20 ℃; 𝑇𝑠 = 30 ℃
−ln(30 − 20) = 𝑘(15) + (− ln 20)
− ln(30 − 20) + ln 20
𝑘= = 0.0462098
15
@ 𝑡 =? ; 𝑇 = 25 ℃; 𝑇𝑠 = 30 ℃
−ln(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇 ) = 𝑘𝑡 + 𝐶
− ln(30 − 25) = (0.0462098)(𝑡) + (− ln 20)
− ln(30 − 25) + ln 20
𝑡=
0.0462098
𝑡 = 30 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑠
It takes 30 minutes to warm up from 10 ℃ to 25 ℃. Therefore, if it takes 15 minutes to warm up from 10 ℃ to
20 ℃, it will take the remaining 15 minutes to warm up from 20 ℃ to 25 ℃.
 21

FLOW PROBLEMS
Flow problems or mixing problems occur quite frequently in chemical industry. I will explain here on how to solve the basic
model involving a single tank. First, we need to familiarize some fundamental concepts.
Density (𝜌) is defined as the mass (𝑚) per unit of volume (𝑉) of a substance.
𝑚
𝜌=
𝑉
𝑚
The mass flowrate (𝑚̇) is the flow of the mass of a substance per unit of time. 𝑚̇ = 𝑡
𝑉
The volume flowrate (𝑉̇ ) is the flow of the volume of a substance per unit of time. 𝑉̇ = 𝑡
Therefore, we can also express the density of a substance as:
𝑚̇
𝜌=
𝑉̇
Then, mass flowrate is: 𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑉̇
The figure shows a single tank with inlet pipe that supplies a fluid with density (𝜌𝑖𝑛 ) and mass flowrate 𝑚̇𝑖𝑛 . At the
same time, there is an outlet pipe that release the mixed fluid at a certain density (𝜌𝑜𝑢𝑡 )and mass flowrate 𝑚̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 .

𝑚̇𝑖𝑛

𝑚̇𝑜𝑢𝑡

“The time rate of change of the mass of the substance is equal to the difference between the mass flowrate of the
fluid entering the tank and the mass flowrate of the resulting mixture that is leaving the tank.”
𝑑𝑚
= 𝑚̇𝑖𝑛 − 𝑚̇𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑑𝑡
But 𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑉̇
𝑑𝑚
= 𝜌𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑖𝑛̇ − 𝜌𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
̇
𝑑𝑡
Note: The total volume in the system
𝑉 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 + 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘
− 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘
 22

Sample Problems:
1. A cylindrical tank has 40 gallons of salt solution containing 2 lb dissolved salt per gallon. A salt solution of concentration
3 lb salt/gallon flows into the tank at 4 gal/min. How much salt is in the tank at any time if the well-stirred mixture flows
out at 4 gal/min?
Solution:
Analysis: We will focus on the concentration of salt since its required in the problem. The salt solution is continuously
flowing inside the tank. Therefore, the density of the mixture inside the tank will always change at any given time t as
a result of the change of mass of the salt in the mixture. 𝑉 corresponds to the volume of the tank which is equal to
“the volume of the fluid entering the tank + the volume of the fluid that is initially in the tank – the volume of the fluid
leaving the tank.” From the fundamental concepts;
4 𝑔𝑎𝑙 4 𝑔𝑎𝑙
𝑉= (𝑡 ) + 40 𝑔𝑎𝑙 − (𝑡 ) = 40 𝑔𝑎𝑙
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛

3 𝑙𝑏 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡 4 𝑔𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡

𝜌𝑖𝑛 = ; 𝑉̇𝑖𝑛 =
𝑔𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑖𝑛
3 𝑙𝑏 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡 4 𝑔𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡 𝑙𝑏 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡
𝑚̇𝑖𝑛 = × = 12
𝑔𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛

2 𝑙𝑏 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡
@ 𝑡 = 0; 𝑉 = 40 𝑔𝑎𝑙; 𝜌 =
𝑔𝑎𝑙

𝑚
𝜌𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 40 𝑔𝑎𝑙 ;

4 𝑔𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡
𝑉̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑚 4 𝑔𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡 1 𝑚
𝑚̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 40 𝑔𝑎𝑙 × 𝑚𝑖𝑛
= 10 𝑚𝑖𝑛

3 𝑙𝑏 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡
The figure above shows the salt concentration that is entering the tank at a density of 𝜌𝑖𝑛 = 𝑔𝑎𝑙
and a
4 𝑔𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡
volume flowrate of 𝑉̇𝑖𝑛 = . The fluid inside the tank is now a mixture. Therefore, as the fluid enters, the
𝑚𝑖𝑛
mass of salt in the mixture changes. We represent this unknown mass as “𝑚”. And of course, its density changes
𝑚
𝜌𝑜𝑢𝑡 = . Note that the 40 gal is the volume of the tank and the density of the concentration leaving the tank is
40 𝑔𝑎𝑙

at 𝑉̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 4 𝑔𝑎𝑙𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡
.

𝑑𝑚
= 𝑚̇𝑖𝑛 − 𝑚̇𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑚
= 𝜌𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑖𝑛̇ − 𝜌𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
̇
𝑑𝑡
Substitute: *You can disregard first the units for simplicity.
𝑑𝑚 𝑚
= (3)(4) − (4)
𝑑𝑡 40
𝑑𝑚 𝑚
= 12 −
𝑑𝑡 10
 23

The resulting DE is linear in the form:

𝑑𝑚 𝑚
+ = 12
𝑑𝑡 10

1 𝑡
Use the method for solving linear DE. The integrating factor is: 𝑒 ∫10𝑑𝑡 = 𝑒 10
𝑚
𝑑𝑚 + 𝑑𝑡 = 12𝑑𝑡
10
𝑡 𝑡
𝑚
Multiply both sides by the integrating factor: 𝑒 10 (𝑑𝑚 + 10 𝑑𝑡) = 𝑒 10 (12 𝑑𝑡)
Integrate both sides:
𝑡 𝑚 𝑡 𝑡
𝑒 10 𝑑𝑚 + (𝑒 10 )𝑑𝑡 = 𝑒 10 (12 𝑑𝑡)
10
𝑡 𝑚 𝑡 𝑡
∫[𝑒 10 𝑑𝑚 + (𝑒 10 )]𝑑𝑡 = 12 ∫ 𝑒 10 𝑑𝑡
10
Because of the integrating factor, the left side is now integrable using the concept of the derivative of a product. The
right side of the equation can be solved using the fundamental formula for integration of exponential form. Introduce a
balancing constant if necessary.
𝑡 𝑚 𝑡 𝑡 1
∫[𝑒 10 𝑑𝑚 + (𝑒 10 )]𝑑𝑡 = 12(10) ∫ 𝑒 10 ( ) 𝑑𝑡
10 10
𝑡 𝑡
𝑚𝑒 10 = 120𝑒 10 + 𝐶
Determine the arbitrary constant using the boundary condition in the problem:
Initially, the cylindrical tank has 40 gallons of salt solution containing 2 lb dissolved salt per gallon.
2 𝑙𝑏
@ 𝑡 = 0 the mass of the concentration is 𝑚 = 40 𝑔𝑎𝑙 (𝑔𝑎𝑙 ) = 80 𝑙𝑏
𝑡 𝑡
𝑚𝑒 10 = 120𝑒 10 + 𝐶
0 0
(80)𝑒 10 = 120𝑒 10 +𝐶
𝐶 = 80 − 120
𝐶 = −40
Therefore, the amount of salt in the concentration at any given time "𝑡" is:
𝑡 𝑡
𝑚𝑒 10 = 120𝑒 10 +𝐶
𝑡 𝑡
𝑚𝑒 10 = 120𝑒 10 + (−40)
𝑡 𝑡
𝑚𝑒 10 = 120𝑒 10 − 40

𝑡
120𝑒 10 40
Simplify: 𝑚= 𝑡 − 𝑡
𝑒 10 𝑒 10
𝑡
𝑚 = 120 − 40𝑒 −10
 24

2. A tank contains 100 gallons of water. A salt solution containing 2 lb of salt per gallon flows in at a rate of 3 gallons
per minute and a well-stirred mixture flows out at the same rate. How much salt is in the tank at any given time?
When will the tank have 100 lb of salt?
Solution:
Analysis: The salt concentration is the main focus on this problem. Illustrate the figure for further analysis.
𝑉 corresponds to the volume of the tank. It is required to find the mass of salt at any given time and the specific time
where the salt in the mixture is 100 lb.
2 𝑙𝑏 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡 3 𝑔𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡
𝜌𝑖𝑛 = ; 𝑉̇𝑖𝑛 =
𝑔𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑖𝑛

2 𝑙𝑏 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡 3 𝑔𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡 𝑙𝑏 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡

𝑚̇𝑖𝑛 = × =6
𝑔𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛

0 𝑙𝑏 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡
@ 𝑡 = 0; 𝑉 = 100 𝑔𝑎𝑙 ; 𝜌 = 𝑔𝑎𝑙
(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟)

𝑚
𝜌𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 40 𝑔𝑎𝑙 ;

3 𝑔𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡
𝑉̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 = (same rate)
𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑚 3 𝑔𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡 𝑚
𝑚̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 100 𝑔𝑎𝑙 × = 0.03 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑚𝑖𝑛

𝑑𝑚
= 𝑚̇𝑖𝑛 − 𝑚̇𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑚
= 𝜌𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑖𝑛̇ − 𝜌𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
̇
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑚 𝑚
= (2)(3) − (3)
𝑑𝑡 100
𝑑𝑚
= 6 − 0.03𝑚
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑚
+ 0.03𝑚 = 6
𝑑𝑡
For this linear DE, the integrating factor is: 𝑒 ∫ 0.03𝑑𝑡 = 𝑒 0.03𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑚 + 0.03𝑚 𝑑𝑡 = 6 𝑑𝑡
Multiply the integrating factor to both sides:
𝑒 0.03𝑡 (𝑑𝑚 + 0.03𝑚 𝑑𝑡) = 6 𝑒 0.03𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑒 0.03𝑡 𝑑𝑚 + 0.03𝑚 𝑒 0.03𝑚 𝑑𝑡 = 6𝑒 0.03𝑡 𝑑𝑡
1
∫(𝑒 0.03𝑡 𝑑𝑚 + 0.03𝑚 𝑒 0.03𝑡 𝑑𝑡) = 6 ( ) ∫ 𝑒 0.03𝑡 (0.03) 𝑑𝑡
0.03
1
𝑚𝑒 0.03𝑡 = 6 ( ) 𝑒 0.03𝑡 + 𝐶
0.03
𝑚𝑒 0.03𝑡 = 200𝑒 0.03𝑡 + 𝐶
Determine the arbitrary constant C using the boundary conditions in the problem.
@ 𝑡 = 0, the mass “𝑚” of the salt is 𝑚 = 0 since the tank contains pure water initially.
 25

𝑚𝑒 0.03𝑡 = 200𝑒 0.03𝑡 + 𝐶

(0)𝑒 0.03(0) = 200𝑒 0.03(0) + 𝐶 ; 0 = 200 + 𝐶
𝐶 = −200
Therefore, the mass of salt at any given time is:
𝑚𝑒 0.03𝑡 = 200𝑒 0.03𝑡 − 200
200
𝑚 = 200 −
𝑒 0.03𝑡
𝑚 = 200 − 200𝑒 −0.03𝑡
𝑚 = 200(1 − 𝑒 −0.03𝑡 )
When will the tank have 100 lb of salt?
@ 𝑚 = 100 ; 𝑡 =?
𝑚 = 200(1 − 𝑒 −0.03𝑡 )
100 = 200(1 − 𝑒 −0.03𝑡 )
100
= 1 − 𝑒 −0.03𝑡
200
0.5 = 1 − 𝑒 −0.03𝑡
−0.5 = −𝑒 −0.03𝑡
0.5 = 𝑒 −0.03𝑡
Take the natural logarithm of both sides:
ln 0.5 = ln 𝑒 −0.03𝑡
ln 5 = −0.03𝑡 ln 𝑒
But, ln 𝑒 = 1
ln 5
Therefore; 𝑡 = −0.03

𝑡 = 23.1 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠
 26

Another Case: The inlet volume flowrate is not equal to the outlet volume flow rate.
3. In a tank are 100 liters of brine containing 50 kg. total of dissolved salt. Pure water is allowed to run into the tank at
the rate of 3 liters a minute. Brine runs out of the tank at the rate of 2 liters a minute. The instantaneous concentration
in the tank is kept uniform by stirring. How much salt is in the tank at the end of one hour?
0 3𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡 0𝐿
𝜌𝑖𝑛 = (Since, only pure water is running into the tank) 𝑉̇𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑔𝑎𝑙

𝑚̇𝑖𝑛 = 0

@ 𝑡 = 0; 𝑉 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 + 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 − 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡 @𝑡 = 0 𝑖𝑠 50 𝑘𝑔.

𝑚 2𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡
𝜌𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 100+𝑡 ; 𝑉̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛

Therefore; t = time
3𝐿 2𝐿
𝑉 = 100𝐿 + (𝑡 ) − (𝑡)
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛
Disregard first the units for simplicity; 𝑉 = 100 + 𝑡
𝑑𝑚
= 𝑚̇𝑖𝑛 − 𝑚̇𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑚
= 𝜌𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑖𝑛̇ − 𝜌𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
̇
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑚 𝑚
= 0− (2)
𝑑𝑡 100 + 𝑡
𝑑𝑚 2𝑑𝑡
By separation of variables, = − 100+𝑡
𝑚
𝑑𝑚 𝑑𝑡
Integrating both sides: ∫ = −2 ∫ 100+𝑡
𝑚

ln 𝑚 = −2 ln(100 + 𝑡 ) + 𝐶
Based on the initial condition, 𝑚 = 50 𝑘𝑔 @ 𝑡 = 0
ln 50 = −2 ln(100 + 0) + 𝐶
𝐶 = ln 50 + 2ln 100 = 13.12236
How much salt is in the tank at the end of one hour?
Note: 1 hr = 60 minutes
ln 𝑚 = −2 ln(100 + 𝑡 ) + 𝐶
ln 𝑚 = −2 ln(100 + 60) + 13.12236
Convert to exponential form:

𝑚 = 𝑒 −2 ln(160)+13.12263
𝑚 = 19.53 𝑘𝑔
 27

ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

Elements in an RCL- Circuit , Source: Erwin Kreyszig

The figure shows an RLC-circuit, as it occurs as a basic building block of large electric networks in computers and
elsewhere. 𝑄 in Coulombs is the charge on the capacitor relate to current as a function of time by:
𝑑𝑄
𝐼= 𝑜𝑟 𝑄 = ∫ 𝐼 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡

Obtained by KVL (Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law) by equating the voltage drops across the resistor and the inductor to the
EMF (electromotive force).
𝑄
𝐿𝐼 ′ + 𝐼𝑅 + 𝐶 = 𝐸 = 𝐸𝑜 sin 𝜔𝑡 where C(capacitance), 𝐸𝑜 and 𝜔 are all Constants
𝑄
Then; 𝐿𝐼 ′ + 𝐼𝑅 + 𝐶 = 𝐸 = 𝐸𝑜 sin 𝜔𝑡 ; 𝑄 = ∫ 𝐼 𝑑𝑡

1
𝐿𝐼 ′ + 𝐼𝑅 + ∫ 𝐼 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐸𝑜 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝐶
Eliminate the integral by differentiating both sides with respect to time 𝑡.
1
𝑑(𝐿𝐼 ′ + 𝐼𝑅 + ∫ 𝐼 𝑑𝑡) = 𝑑(𝐸𝑜 sin 𝜔𝑡)
𝐶
1
𝐿𝐼 ′′ + 𝑅𝐼′ + 𝐼 = 𝐸𝑜 𝜔 cos 𝜔𝑡
𝐶
This show that the current in an RCL- circuit is obtained as the solution of this non-homogenous 2nd order D. E.
1
The general solution can be obtained by adding the general solution of 𝐼 ′′ + 𝑅𝐼 ′ + 𝐶 𝐼 = 𝐸𝑜 𝜔 cos 𝜔𝑡 and its
particular solution 𝐼𝑝 where 𝐼𝑝 = 𝑎 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑏 sin 𝜔𝑡
 28

Constants 𝑎 and 𝑏 can be determined by following relationship

For simplicity, a and b can be found as: (additional reference Advanced Engineering Mathematics by Erwin Kreyszig)
−𝐸𝑜 𝑆 𝐸𝑜 𝑅
𝑎= 𝑏=
𝑅2 + 𝑆2 𝑅2 + 𝑆2
1
Where S reactance; 𝑆 = 𝜔𝐿 − 𝜔𝐶
Sample Problems:
1. Solve the resulting ODE for the current𝐼(𝑡 ) 𝐴 (amperes), where 𝑡 is time. Assume that the circuit contains as an
EMF 𝐸(𝑡) (electromotive force) a battery of 𝐸 = 48 𝑉 (volts), which is constant, a resistor of 𝑅 = 11 Ω(ohms),
and an inductor of 𝐿 = 0.1 𝐻 (henrys), and that the current is initially zero.

Solution:
𝐼=current ; 𝑉= voltage ; 𝑅= resistance ; 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅, (Ohm’s Law)
𝑑𝐼
A current 𝐼 in the circuit causes a voltage drop 𝐼𝑅 across the resistor (Ohm’s law) and a voltage drop 𝐿𝐼 ′ = 𝐿 𝑑𝑡
across the conductor, and the sum of these two voltage drops equals the EMF (Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law, KVL).
In general, KVL states that “The voltage (the electromotive force EMF) impressed on a closed loop is equal to the
sum of the voltage drops across all the other elements of the loop.”
Therefore;
voltage drop across the conductor + voltage drop across the resistor = EMF of battery
𝐿𝐼 ′ + 𝐼𝑅 = 𝐸
The Standard form;
𝑅 𝐸
𝐼′ + 𝐿 𝐼 = (Linear D. E.)
𝐿

But 𝐸 = 48 𝑉, 𝑅 = 11Ω and 𝐿 = 0.1 𝐻

𝑑𝐼 11 48
+ 𝐼 =
𝑑𝑡 0.1 0.1

𝑑𝐼
+ 110𝐼 = 480
𝑑𝑡
 29

𝑑𝐼 + 110𝐼 𝑑𝑡 = 480 𝑑𝑡
Recalling the process for Solving Linear DE in the form;
𝑑𝑦
+ 𝑦 𝑃 (𝑥 ) = 𝑄 (𝑥) and the integrating factor: 𝑒 ∫ 𝑃(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥

By inspection: 𝑃(𝑥) = 110 and : 𝑄(𝑥) = 480

Then the integrating factor is: (change independent variable to t) 𝑒 ∫ 𝑃(𝑡 )𝑑𝑡 = 𝑒 ∫ 110 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑒 110𝑡
Multiply the integrating factor to the linear DE.
(𝑒 110𝑡 )(𝑑𝐼 + 110𝐼 𝑑𝑡) = (𝑒 110𝑡 )(480 𝑑𝑡)

∫(𝑒 110𝑡 𝑑𝐼 + 110 𝑒 110𝑡 𝐼 𝑑𝑡) = 480 ∫(𝑒 110𝑡 𝑑𝑡)

Because of the integrating factor, the left side is now integrative using the concept of the derivative of a product.
Therefore,
1
𝑒 110𝑡 𝐼 = 480 ( ) ∫(𝑒 110𝑡 )(110)𝑑𝑡
110

110𝑡
𝑒 110𝑡
𝑒 𝐼 = 480 ( )+𝐶
110
480 110𝑡
𝑒 110𝑡 𝐼 = 𝑒 +𝐶
110
Simplify;
480 𝐶
𝐼= + 110𝑡
110 𝑒
48
𝐼= + 𝐶𝑒 −110𝑡
11

2. Find the current 𝐼 (𝑡 ) in an RLC-circuit with 𝑅 = 11Ω (ohms), 𝐿 = 0.1 𝐻 (henry), 𝐶 = 10−2 𝐹 (farad), which
is connected to a source of EMF 𝐸 (𝑡 ) = 110 sin(60 ∙ 2𝜋𝑡 ) = 110 sin 377𝑡 (hence 60 Hz =60 cycles sec, the
usual in the U.S. and Canada; in Europe it would be 220 V and 50 Hz). Assume that current and capacitor charge are 0
when 𝑡 = 0.
Solution:
Step 1: Find the general solution of the homogenous DE
𝑅 = 11Ω ; 𝐿 = 0.1 𝐻; 𝐶 = 10−2 𝐹; 𝐸 (𝑡 ) = 110 sin 377𝑡
1
From the derived concept above; 𝐿𝐼 ′′ + 𝑅𝐼 ′ + 𝐶 𝐼 = 𝐸𝑜 𝜔 cos 𝜔𝑡 (1) then substitute:

1
0.1𝐼 ′′ + 11𝐼 ′ + 𝐼 = 110(377) cos 377𝑡
10−2
Use the differential operator for the homogenous DE and characteristic equation is;
0.1𝐷2 + 11𝐷 + 100 = 0
𝐷2 + 110𝐷 + 1000 = 0
 30

(𝐷 + 10)(𝐷 + 100) = 0
𝐷 = −10 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷 = −100
Therefore, the corresponding general solution is;
𝐼𝑔 = 𝑐1 𝑒 −10𝑡 + 𝑐2 𝑒 −100𝑡
Step 2: Find the Particular Solution of (1).
𝐼𝑝 = 𝑎 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑏 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝐼𝑝 = 𝑎 cos 377𝑡 + 𝑏 sin 377𝑡
From the formula given above;
−𝐸𝑜 𝑆 𝐸𝑜 𝑅 1
𝑎= 𝑏= 𝑆 = 𝜔𝐿 −
𝑅2 + 𝑆2 𝑅2 + 𝑆2 𝜔𝐶
1
𝑆 = 377(0.1) − = 37.4
377(10−2 )
−(110)(37.4)
𝑎= = −2.71
112 + 37.42
(110 )(11)
𝑏= = 0.796
112 + 37.42
Therefore, 𝐼𝑝 = −2.71 cos 377𝑡 + 0.796 sin 377𝑡
Therefore, the general solution of the nonhomogeneous DE
1
0.1𝐼 ′′ + 11𝐼 ′ + 10−2 𝐼 = 110(377) cos 377𝑡 is 𝐼𝑔 + 𝐼𝑝

Then, 𝐼 (𝑡 ) = 𝐼𝑔 + 𝐼𝑝 = (𝑐1 𝑒 −10𝑡 + 𝑐2 𝑒 −100𝑡 ) + (−2.71 cos 377𝑡 + 0.796 sin 377𝑡)

Step 3: Determine the particular solution of the non-homogenous DE using the boundary conditions in the problem.
Assume that current and capacitor charge are 0 when 𝑡 = 0.
𝐼 = 0 at 𝑡 = 0 and 𝑄 = 0 at 𝑡 = 0
𝐼 (𝑡 ) = (𝑐1 𝑒 −10𝑡 + 𝑐2 𝑒 −100𝑡 ) + (−2.71 cos 377𝑡 + 0.796 sin 377𝑡)
0 = 𝑐1 𝑒 −10(0) + 𝑐2 𝑒 −100(0) − 2.71 cos[377(0)] + 0.796 sin[377(0)]
0 = 𝑐1 (1) + 𝑐2 (1) − 2.71 cos 0 + 0.796 sin0
𝑐1 + 𝑐2 − 2.71 = 0
Going back to the derived concept that
𝑄
𝐿𝐼 ′ + 𝐼𝑅 + = 𝐸𝑜 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝐶
Current 𝐼 and capacitor charge 𝑄 are both zero when 𝑡 = 0. Therefore;
0
𝐿𝐼 ′ + (0)𝑅 + = 𝐸𝑜 sin 𝜔(0)
𝐶
Therefore; 𝐼 ′ = 0 when 𝑡 = 0
 31

Find 𝐼′ using the general solution of the non-homogenous DE

𝐼 (𝑡 ) = 𝑐1 𝑒 −10𝑡 + 𝑐2 𝑒 −100𝑡 − 2.71 cos 377𝑡 + 0.796 sin 377𝑡
𝐼′(𝑡 ) = −10𝑐1 𝑒 −10𝑡 −100𝑐2 𝑒 −100𝑡 − (2.71)(377) (−sin 377𝑡) + 0.796(377) cos 377𝑡
Since 𝐼 ′ = 0 when 𝑡 = 0 or 𝐼 (0) = 0 ; therefore;
𝐼′(0) = −10𝑐1 𝑒 −10(0) −100𝑐2 𝑒 −100(0) − (2.71)(377) (−sin 0) + 0.796(377) cos 0
0 = 𝐼′(0) = −10𝑐1 𝑒 −10(0) −100𝑐2 𝑒 −100(0) − (2.71)(377) (−sin 0) + 0.796(377) cos 0
−10𝑐1 − 100𝑐2 + (0.796)(377) = 0
−10𝑐1 − 100𝑐2 + 300.1 = 0
We can now compute for the arbitrary constants 𝑐1 and 𝑐1 .
𝑐1 + 𝑐2 − 2.71 = 0
−10𝑐1 − 100𝑐2 + 300.1 = 0
From the first equation; 𝑐2 = 2.71 − 𝑐1
Substitute: −10𝑐1 − 100(2.71 − 𝑐1 ) + 300.1 = 0 ; 𝑐1 = −0.323
𝑐1 + 𝑐2 − 2.71 = 0
−0.323 + 𝑐2 − 2.71 = 0
𝑐2 = 3.033
Hence, the answer is:
𝐼 (𝑡 ) = 𝑐1 𝑒 −10𝑡 + 𝑐2 𝑒 −100𝑡 − 2.71 cos 377𝑡 + 0.796 sin 377𝑡
𝐼 (𝑡 ) = −0.323𝑒 −10𝑡 + 3.033𝑒 −100𝑡 − 2.71 cos 377𝑡 + 0.796 sin 377𝑡

The circuit modeling below shows a harmonic oscillation of the curve 𝐼(𝑡) and 𝐼𝑝 .

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 32

SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS:

𝑑𝑦
1. Solve the boundary value problem: 𝑑𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 8, 𝑦(0) = 2
𝑑𝑦
2. Solve 𝑑𝑥 = sec 𝑦 tan 𝑥
𝑑𝑦
3. Find the general solution of: 𝑑𝑥 = 8𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 + 1 ; 𝑦(1) = 3
𝑑𝑦
4. Solve = −2𝑥𝑦
𝑑𝑥
5. Solve 𝑥𝑦 ′ + 3𝑦 = 0 ; 𝑦(1) = 2
6. Solve (𝑥 + 2𝑦)𝑑𝑥 + (2𝑥 − 5𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑦 3−4𝑥𝑦 2
7. Solve 𝑑𝑥 = 4𝑥 2 𝑦+6𝑦 2
𝑑𝑦 𝑦
8. Solve 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 = 4𝑥 2 ; 𝑦(1) = 2
9. Solve 𝑥𝑦 ′ − 4𝑦 = 𝑥
10. Solve 𝑦" + 2𝑦′ = 4𝑥. Use an integrating factor.
11. Solve 𝑦" + 9𝑦 = 0
12. Solve (𝐷 + 2)3 (𝐷 − 3)4 (𝐷2 + 2𝐷 + 5)𝑦 = 0
13. A boat of mass 𝑚 is traveling with velocity 𝑣0 . At 𝑡 = 0, the power is shut off. Assuming water resistance
proportional to 𝑣 𝑛 where 𝑛 is a constant and 𝑣 is the instantaneous velocity, find 𝑣 as a function of distance traveled
“𝑥”.

𝑚
14. A roller coaster climbs with a constant gradient. Over a 10 𝑠 period, the acceleration is constant at 0.4 , and
𝑠2
𝑘𝑚
the average velocity of the train is 40 . Find the final velocity.
ℎ𝑟

15. Find the half-life of a radioactive substance if three quarters of it is present after 8 hours.

16. After 2 days, 10 grams of a radioactive chemical is present. Three days later, 5 grams is present. How much of the
chemical was present initially assuming the rate of disintegration is proportional to the instantaneous amount which is
present?

17. The rate at which bacteria multiply is proportional to the instantaneous number present. If the original number doubles
in 2 hours, in how many hours will it triple?

18. At 1:00 P.M. the temperature of a tank of water is 200°F. At 1:30 P.M. its temperature is 160°F. Assuming the
surrounding temperature is maintained at 80 °F, (a) what is the temperature at 2:00 P.M. and (b) at what time will the
temperature be 100°F? Assume Newton's law of cooling.

19. A resistor of R = 5 ohms and a condenser of C = .02 farads are connected

in series with a battery of E = 100 volts. If at t = 0 the charge Q on the condenser
is 5 coulombs, find Q and the current 𝐼 for t > 0.

20. A tank initially holds 100 gallons of salt solution in which 50 lbs of salt has been dissolved. A pipe fills the tank with
brine at the rate of 3 gpm, containing 2 lbs of dissolved salt per gallon. Assuming that the mixture is kept uniform by
stirring, a drain pipe draws out of the tank the mixture at 2 gpm. Find the amount of salt in the tank at the end of 30
minutes.
 33

ANSWER KEY:

2
1. 𝑦 = 3 (4 − 𝑒 −3𝑥 )
2. ln cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑦 = 𝐶
3. 𝑦 = 2𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 2
2
4. 𝑦 = 𝐶𝑒 −𝑥
2
5. 𝑦 = 𝑥 3
6. 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑦 − 5𝑦 2 = 𝐶
7. 2𝑥 2 𝑦 2 − 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 3 = −3
8. 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑥 4 + 1
9. 𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 𝐶𝑥 4
10. 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 𝐴𝑒 −2𝑥 + 𝐵 ; 𝐴 and 𝐵 are both constant
11. 𝑦 = 𝐶1 cos 3𝑥 + 𝐶2 sin 3𝑥
12. 𝑦 = (𝐶1 + 𝐶2 𝑥 + 𝐶3 𝑥 2 )𝑒 −2𝑥 + (𝐶4 + 𝐶5 𝑥 + 𝐶6 𝑥 2 + 𝐶7 𝑥 3 )𝑒 3𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 (𝐶8 cos 2𝑥 + 𝐶9 sin 2𝑥 )
𝑘𝑥
13. 𝑣 = 𝑣0 𝑒 − 𝑚
𝑚
14. 13.1
𝑠
15. 19.26 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
16. 15.784 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠
17. 3.17 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
18. 133.3℉ ; about 3: 12 𝑃. 𝑀.
19. 𝐼 = −30𝑒 −10𝑡
20. 171.24 𝑙𝑏𝑠

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-END-