Jain meditation

Jain meditation (dhyāna) has been the central practice of

spirituality in Jainism along with the Three Jewels.[1] Jainism
holds that emancipation can only be achieved through
meditation or Shukla Dhyana. According to Sagarmal Jain, it
aims to reach and remain in a state of "pure-self awareness or
knowership."[2] Meditation is also seen as realizing the self,
taking the soul to complete freedom, beyond any craving,
aversion and/or attachment.[3] The practitioner strives to be
just a knower-seer (Gyata-Drashta). Jain meditation can be
broadly categorized to the auspicious (Dharmya Dhyana and
Shukla Dhyana) and inauspicious (Artta and Raudra Statue of Mahavira in meditation, Ahinsa
Dhyana). The 20th century saw the development and spread Sthal, Mehrauli, New Delhi
of new modernist forms of Jain Dhyana, mainly by monks
and laypersons of Śvētāmbara Jainism.

Jain meditation is also referred as Sāmāyika. A form of this which includes a strong component of scripture
study (Svādhyāya) is mainly promoted by the more conservative Digambara tradition of Jainism.[4] The word
Sāmāyika means being in the moment of continuous real-time. This act of being conscious of the continual
renewal of the universe in general and one's own renewal of the individual living being (Jiva) in particular is
the critical first step in the journey towards identification with one's true nature, called the Atman. It is also a
method by which one can develop an attitude of harmony and respect towards other humans, animals and
Nature.

Jains believe meditation has been a core spiritual practice since the teaching of the Tirthankara, Rishabha.[5]
All the twenty-four Tirthankaras practiced deep meditation and attained enlightenment.[6] They are all shown
in meditative postures in images and idols. Mahavira practiced deep meditation for twelve years and attained
enlightenment.[7] The Acaranga Sutra dating to 500 BCE, addresses the meditation system of Jainism in
detail.[8] Acharya Bhadrabahu of the 4th century BCE practiced deep Mahaprana meditation for twelve
years.[9] Kundakunda of 1st century BCE, opened new dimensions of meditation in Jain tradition through his
books such as Samayasāra and Pravachansar.[10] The 8th century Jain philosopher Haribhadra also
contributed to the development of Jain yoga through his Yogadṛṣṭisamuccaya, which compares and analyzes
various systems of yoga, including Hindu, Buddhist and Jain systems.

There are various common postures for Jain meditation, including Padmasana, Ardh-Padmasana, Vajrasana,
Sukhasana, standing, and lying down. The 24 Tirthankaras are always seen in one of these two postures in the
Kayotsarga (standing) or Padmasana/Paryankasana (Lotus).[11]

Contents
Ancient history
Pre-canonical
Canonical
Post-canonical
Tantric
Modern history
Terāpanth prekṣā-dhyāna
Other traditions
Sāmāyika
For householders
For ascetics
Techniques
See also
References
Notes
Citations
Sources

Ancient history
Sagarmal Jain divides the history of Jaina yoga and meditation into five stages, 1. pre-canonical (before sixth
century BCE), 2. canonical age (fifth century BCE to fifth century CE), 3. post-canonical (sixth century CE to
twelfth century CE), age of tantra and rituals (thirteenth to nineteenth century CE), modern age (20th century
on).[2] The main change in the canonical era was that Jain meditation became influenced by Hindu Yogic
traditions.[12] Meditation in early Jain literature is a form of austerity and ascetic practice in Jainism, while in
the late medieval era the practice adopted ideas from other Indian traditions. According to Paul Dundas, this
lack of meditative practices in early Jain texts may be because substantial portions of ancient Jain texts were
lost.[13]

Pre-canonical

Jains believe all twenty-four Tirthankaras (such as Rishabhanatha)

practiced deep meditation, some for years, some for months and
attained enlightenment. All the statues and pictures of Tirthankaras
primarily show them in meditative postures.[14][15] Jain tradition
believes that meditation derives from Rishabhanatha, the first
tirthankara.[2] Some scholars have pointed to evidence from
Mohenjodaro and Harappa (such as the pashupati seal) as proof that a
pre vedic sramanic meditation tradition is very old in ancient India.[2]
However, Sagarmal Jain states that it is very difficult to extract the
pre-canonical method of Jain meditation from the earliest sources.[2]
Mahavira, or Vardhamāna (5th
The earliest mention of yogic practices appear in early Jain canonical century BCE)
texts like the Acaranga, Sutrakritanga and Rsibhasita. The Acaranga
for example, mentions Trāṭaka (fixed gaze) meditation, Preksha
meditation (self-awareness) and Kayotsarga (‘kāyaṃ vosajjamaṇgāre’, giving up the body).[2][16] The
Acaranga also mentions the tapas practice of standing in the heat of the sun (ātāpanā).[17]

The Acaranga sutra, one of the oldest Jain texts, describes the solitary ascetic meditation of Mahavira before
attaining Kevala Jnana as follows:[18]
 Giving up the company of all householders whomsoever,
he meditated. Asked, he gave no answer; he went, and
did not transgress the right path. (AS 312) In these places
was the wise Sramana for thirteen long years; he
meditated day and night, exerting himself, undisturbed,
strenuously. (AS 333) And Mahavira meditated
(persevering) in some posture, without the smallest
motion; he meditated in mental concentration on (the
things) above, below, beside, free from desires. He
meditated free from sin and desire, not attached to sounds
or colours; though still an erring mortal (khadmastha), he
wandered about, and never acted carelessly.(AS 374-
375)

After more than twelve years of austerities and meditation, the AS

Gommateshwara statue depicting the
states that Mahavira entered the state of Kevala Jnana while doing
meditation in standing Kayotsarga
shukla dhayana, the highest form of meditation:[18]
posture by Bahubali. Statue was
carved from a single stone fifty-
The Venerable Ascetic Mahavira passed twelve years in seven feet high in 981 A.D., is
located in Karnataka, India
this way of life; during the thirteenth year in the second
month of summer, in the fourth fortnight, the light
(fortnight) of Vaisakha, on its tenth day called Suvrata, in
the Muhurta called Vigaya, while the moon was in
conjunction with the asterism Uttaraphalguni, when the
shadow had turned towards the east, and the first wake
was over, outside of the town Grimbhikagrama, on the
northern bank of the river Rigupalika, in the field of the
householder Samaga, in a north-eastern direction from an
old temple, not far from a Sal tree, in a squatting position
with joined heels exposing himself to the heat of the sun,
with the knees high and the head low, in deep meditation,
in the midst of abstract meditation, he reached Nirvana,
the complete and full, the unobstructed, unimpeded,
infinite and supreme best knowledge and intuition, called
Kevala.

According to Samani Pratibha Pragya, early Jain texts like the Uttarādhyayana-sūtra and the Āvaśyaka-sūtra
are also important sources for early Jain meditation. The Uttarādhyayana-sūtra "offers a systematic
presentation of four types of meditative practices such as: meditation (dhyāna), abandonment of the body
(kāyotsarga), contemplation (anuprekṣā), and reflection (bhāvanā)."[12] Pragya argues that "we can conclude
that Mahāvīra’s method of meditation consisted of perception and concentration in isolated places,
concentration that sought to be unaffected by physical surroundings as well as emotions."[19] Pragya also
notes that fasting was an important practice done alongside meditation.[20] The intense meditation described in
these texts "is an activity that leads to a state of motionlessness, which is a state of inactivity of body, speech
and mind, essential for eliminating karma."[19] The Uttarādhyayana-sūtra also describes the practice of
contemplation (anuprekṣā).

Another meditation described in the Āvaśyaka-sūtra is meditation on the tīrthaṅkaras.[21]

Canonical

In this era, the Jain canon was recorded and Jain philosophy
systematized. It is clear that Jain meditation and samadhi continued to
evolve and to be practiced after the death of Mahavira by figures such
as Acharya Bhadrabahu and Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of
Maurya Empire who became a Jain monk in old age and a student of
Bhadrabahu.[22][23] It describes Mahavira as practicing intense
austerities, fasts (most commonly three days long, as extreme as six
months of fasting) and meditations. In one instance he practiced
standing meditation for sixteen days and nights. He did this by facing
each of the four directions for a period of time, and then turning to
face the intermediate directions as well as above and below.[24]

This period also sees the elucidation of the practice of contemplation

(anuprekṣā) by Kundakunda's Vārassa-aṇuvekkhā or “Twelve Umaswati in full lotus posture
Contemplations” (c. 1st century BCE to 1st century CE).[25] These
twelve forms of reflection (bhāvanā) aid in the stopping of the influx
of karmas that extend transmigration. These twelve reflections are:[26]

1. anitya bhāvanā – the transitoriness of the world;

2. aśaraņa bhāvanā – the helplessness of the soul.[27]
3. saṃsāra – the pain and suffering implied in transmigration;
4. aikatva bhāvanā – the inability of another to share one’s suffering and sorrow;
5. anyatva bhāvanā – the distinctiveness between the body and the soul;
6. aśuci bhāvanā – the filthiness of the body;
7. āsrava bhāvanā – influx of karmic matter;
8. saṃvara bhāvanā – stoppage of karmic matter;
9. nirjarā bhāvanā – gradual shedding of karmic matter;
10. loka bhāvanā – the form and divisions of the universe and the nature of the conditions
prevailing in the different regions – heavens, hells, and the like;
11. bodhidurlabha bhāvanā – the extreme difficulty in obtaining human birth and, subsequently, in
attaining true faith; and
12. dharma bhāvanā – the truth promulgated by Lord Jina.

In his Niyamasara, Acarya Kundakunda, also describes yoga bhakti—devotion to the path to liberation—as
the highest form of devotion.[28]

The Sthananga Sutra (c. 2nd century BCE) gives a summary of four main types of meditation (dhyana) or
concentrated thought. The first two are mental or psychological states in which a person may become fully
immersed and are causes of bondage. The other two are pure states of meditation and conduct, which are
causes of emancipation. They are:[29]

1. Arta-Dhyana, "a mental condition of suffering, agony and anguish." Usually caused by thinking
about an object of desire or a painful ailment.
2. Raudra-Dhyana, associated with cruelty, aggressive and possessive urges.
3. Dharma-Dhyana, "virtuous" or "customary", refers to knowledge of the soul, the non-soul and
the universe. Over time this became associated with discriminating knowledge (bheda-vijñāna)
of the tattvas (truths or fundamental principles).
 4. Sukla-Dhyana (pure or white), divided into (1) Multiple contemplation, (pṛthaktva-vitarka-
savicāra); (2) Unitary contemplation, (aikatva-vitarka-nirvicāra); (3) Subtle infallible physical
activity (sūkṣma-kriyā-pratipāti); and (4) Irreversible stillness of the soul (vyuparata-kriyā-
anivarti). The first two are said to require knowledge of the lost Jain scriptures known as purvas
and thus it is considered by some Jains that pure meditation was no longer possible. The other
two forms are said in the Tattvartha sutra to be only accessible to Kevalins (enlightened
ones).[30]

This broad definition of the term dhyana means that it signifies any state of deep concentration, with good or
bad results.[31] Later texts like Umaswati's Tattvārthasūtra and Jinabhadra's Dhyana-Sataka (sixth century)
also discusses these four dhyanas. This system seems to be uniquely Jain.[2]

During this era, a key text was the Tattvarthasutra by Acharya Umāsvāti which codified Jain doctrine.[1]
According to the Tattvarthasutra, yoga is the sum of all the activities of mind, speech and body. Umāsvāti (fl.
sometime between the 2nd and 5th-century CE) calls yoga the cause of "asrava" or karmic influx[32] as well as
one of the essentials—samyak caritra—in the path to liberation.[32] Umāsvāti prescribed a threefold path of
yoga: right conduct/austerity, right knowledge, right faith.[2] Umāsvāti also defined a series of fourteen stages
of spiritual development (guṇasthāna), into which he embedded the four fold description of dhyana.[33] These
stages culminate in the pure activities of body, speech, and mind (sayogi-kevala), and the "cessation of all
activity" (ayogi-kevala).[34] Umāsvāti also defined meditation in a new way (as ‘ekāgra-cintā’):

“Concentration of thought on a single object by a person with good bone-joints is meditation

which lasts an intra-hour (ā-muhūrta)”[35]

Other important figures are Jinabhadra, and Pujyapada Devanandi (wrote the commentary Sarvārthasiddhi).
Sagarmal Jain notes that during the canonical age of Jaina meditation, one finds strong analogues with the 8
limbs of Patanjali Yoga, including the yamas and niyamas, through often under different names. Sagarmal also
notes that during this period the Yoga systems of Jainism, Buddhism and Patanjali Yoga had many
similarities.[2]

In spite of this literature, Dundas claims that Jainism never “fully developed a culture of true meditative
contemplation,” he further states that later Jaina writers discussed meditation more out of “theoretical
interest.”[36]

Post-canonical

This period saw new texts specifically on Jain meditation and further Hindu influences on Jain yoga. Ācārya
Haribhadra in the 8th century wrote the meditation compendium called Yogadṛṣṭisamuccya which discusses
systems of Jain yoga, Patanjali Yoga and Buddhist yoga and develops his own unique system that are
somewhat similar to these. Ācārya Haribhadra assimilated many elements from Patañjali’s Yoga-sūtra into his
new Jain yoga (which also has eight parts) and composed four texts on this topic, Yoga-bindu,
Yogadṛṣṭisamuccaya, Yoga-śataka and Yoga-viṅśikā.[37] Johannes Bronkhorst considers Haribhadra's
contributions a "far more drastic departure from the scriptures."[38] He worked with a different definition of
yoga than previous Jains, defining yoga as "that which connects to liberation" and his works allowed Jainism
to compete with other religious systems of yoga.[37]

The first five stages of Haribhadra's yoga system is preparatory and includes posture and so on. The sixth stage
is kāntā [pleasing] and is similar to Patañjali's "Dhāraṇā." It is defined as "a higher concentration for the sake
of compassion toward others. Pleasure is never found in externals and a beneficial reflection arises. In this
state, due to the efficacy of dharma, one’s conduct becomes purified. One is beloved among beings and single-
mindedly devoted to dharma. (YSD, 163) With mind always fixed on scriptural dharma." [39] The seventh
stage is radiance (prabhā), a state of calmness, purification and happiness as well as "the discipline of
conquering amorous passion, the emergence of strong discrimination, and the power of constant serenity."[40]
The final stage of meditation in this system is 'the highest' (parā), a "state of Samadhi in which one becomes
free from all attachments and attains liberation." Haribhadra sees this as being in "the category of “ayoga”
(motionlessness), a state which we can compare with the state just prior to liberation."[40]

Acarya Haribhadra (as well as the later thinker Hemacandra) also mentions the five major vows of ascetics and
12 minor vows of laity under yoga. This has led certain Indologists like Prof. Robert J. Zydenbos to call
Jainism, essentially, a system of yogic thinking that grew into a full-fledged religion.[41] The five yamas or the
constraints of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali bear a resemblance to the five major vows of Jainism, indicating a
history of strong cross-fertilization between these traditions.[42][a]

Later works also provide their own definitions of meditation. The Sarvārthasiddhi of Akalanka (9 th c. CE)
states "only the knowledge that shines like an unflickering flame is meditation."[44] According to Samani
Pratibha Pragya, the Tattvānuśāsana of Ramasena (10th c. CE) states that this knowledge is "many-pointed
concentration (vyagra) and meditation is one-pointed concentration (ekāgra)."[45]

Tantric

This period sees tantric influences on Jain meditation, which

can be gleaned in the Jñānārṇava of Śubhacandra (11thc.
CE), and the Yogaśāstra of Hemacandra (12th c. CE).[46]
Śubhacandra offered a new model of four meditations:[47]

1. Meditation on the corporeal body (piṇḍstha), which

also includes five concentrations (dhāraṇā): on the
earth element (pārthivī), the fire element (āgneyī),
the air element (śvasanā/ mārutī), the water element
(vāruṇī) and the fifth related to the non-material self
(tattvrūpavatī).
2. Meditation on mantric syllables (padastha);
3. Meditation on the forms of the arhat (rūpastha);
4. Meditation on the pure formless self (rūpātīta).

Śubhacandra also discusses breath control and withdrawal of

the mind. Modern scholars such as Mahāprajña have noted
that this system of yoga already existed in Śaiva tantra and
that Śubhacandara developed his system based on the
Navacakreśvara-tantra and that this system is also present in
Abhinavagupta’s Tantrāloka.[47]
The 24 Tirthankaras forming the tantric
meditative syllable Hrim, painting on cloth,
Gujarat, c. 1800

The Yogaśāstra of Hemacandra (12th c. CE) closely follows the model of Śubhacandra. This trend of adopting
ideas from the Brāhmaṇical and tantric Śaiva traditions continues with the work of the later Śvetāmbara
upādhyāya Yaśovijaya (1624–1688), who wrote many works on yoga.[48]

During the 17th century, Ācārya Vinayavijaya composed the Śānta-sudhārasabhāvanā in Sanskrit which
teaches sixteen anuprekṣā, or contemplations.[49]

Modern history
The growth and popularity of mainstream Yoga and Hindu
meditation practices influenced a revival in various Jain
communities, especially in the Śvētāmbara Terapanth order.
These systems sought to "promote health and well-being and
pacifism, via meditative practices as “secular” nonreligious
tools."[50] 20th century Jain meditation systems were
promoted as universal systems accessible to all, drawing on
modern elements, using new vocabulary designed to appeal to
the lay community, whether Jains or non-Jains.[51] It is
important to note that these developments happened mainly
among Śvētāmbara sects, while Digambara groups generally Jain Spiritual Retreat, Los Angeles
did not develop new modernist meditation systems.[52]
Digambara sects instead promote the practice of self-study
(Svādhyāya) as a form of meditation, influenced by the work of Kundakunda. This practice of self study
(reciting scriptures and thinking about the meaning) is included in the practice of equanimity (sāmāyika) which
is the spiritual practice emphasized by 20th century Digambara sects.[4]

The Digambara Jain scholar Kundakunda, in his Pravacanasara states that a Jain mendicant should meditate
on "I, the pure self". Anyone who considers his body or possessions as "I am this, this is mine" is on the
wrong road, while one who meditates, thinking the antithesis and "I am not others, they are not mine, I am one
knowledge" is on the right road to meditating on the "soul, the pure self".[53][note 1]

Terāpanth prek ṣā-dhyāna

The modern era saw the rise of a new Śvētāmbara sect, the Śvētāmbara Terapanth, founded by Ācārya
Bhikṣu, who was said to be able to practice breath retention (hold his breath) for two hours.[56] He also
practiced ātāpanā by sitting under the scorching sun for hours while chanting and visualizing yantras.[57]
Further Terapanth scholars like Jayācārya wrote on various meditation practices, including a devotional
visualization of the tīrthaṅkaras in various colors and “awareness of breathing” (sāsā-surat), this influenced the
later “perception of breathing” (śvāsa–prekṣā) and the meditation on auras (leśyā-dhyāna) of Ācārya
Mahāprajña.[58]

Tulasī (1913–1997) and Ācārya Mahāprajña (1920– 2010) developed a system termed prekṣā-dhyāna which
is a combination of ancient wisdom and modern science. it is based on Jain Canons. It included "meditative
techniques of perception,Kayotsarg, Anupreksha,mantra, posture (āsana), breath control (prāṇāyāma), hand
and body gestures (mudrā), various bodily locks (bandha), meditation (dhyāna) and reflection (bhāvanā)."[59]
The scholar of religion Andrea Jain states that she was convinced that Mahāprajña and others across the world
were attempting "to attract people to preksha dhyana by making it intersect with the global yoga market".[60]

The key texts of this meditation system are Prekṣā-Dhyāna: Ādhāra aura Svarūpa (Prekṣā Meditation: Basis
and Form, 1980), Prekṣā-Dhyāna: Prayoga aura Paddhatti (Prekṣā Meditation: Theory and Practice, 2010)
and Prekṣā-Dhyāna: Darśana aura Prayoga (Prekṣā Meditation: Philosophy and Practice, 2011).

Despite the innovations, the meditation system it is said is firmly grounded in the classic Jain metaphysical
mind body dualism in which the self (jiva, characterized by consciousness, cetana which consists of
knowledge, jñāna and intuition, darśana) is covered over by subtle and gross bodies.[61]

Prekṣā means "to perceive carefully and profoundly". In prekṣā, perception always means an impartial
experience bereft of the duality of like and dislike, pleasure and pain, attachment or aversion.[62] Meditative
progress proceeds through the different gross and subtle bodies, differentiating between them and the pure
consciousness of jiva. Mahāprajña interprets the goal of this to mean to “perceive and realise the most subtle
aspects of consciousness by your conscious mind (mana).”[63] Important disciplines in the system are -
Synchrony of mental and physical actions or simply present
mindedness or complete awareness of one's actions, disciplining the
reacting attitude, friendliness, diet, silence, spiritual vigilance.[64]

The mature prekṣā system is taught using an eight limb hierarchical

schema, where each one is necessary for practicing the next:[65]

1. Relaxation (kāyotsarga), abandonment of the body, also

“relaxation (śithilīkaraṇa) with self-awareness,” allows vital
force (prāṇa) to flow.
2. Internal Journey (antaryātrā), this is based on the
practice of directing the flow of vital energy (prāṇa-śakti) in
an upward direction, interpreted as being connected with
the nervous system.
3. Perception of Breathing (śvāsaprekon), of two types: (1)
perception of long or deep breathing (dīrgha-śvāsa-prekṣā)
and (2) perception of breathing through alternate nostrils
(samavṛtti-śvāsa-prekṣā). Ācārya Mahāprajña, formulator of
4. Perception of Body (śarīraprekṣā), one becomes aware Preksha meditation
of the gross physical body (audārika-śarīra), the fiery body
(taijasa-śarīra) and karmic body (karmaṇa-śarīra), this
practice allows one to perceive the self through the body.
5. Perception of Psychic Centres (caitanyakendra-prekṣā), defined as locations in the subtle
body that contain ‘dense consciousness’ (saghana-cetanā), which Mahāprajña maps into the
endocrine system.
6. Perception of Psychic Colors (leśyā-dhyāna), these are subtle consciousness radiations of
the soul, which can be malevolent or benevolent and can be transformed.
7. Auto-Suggestion (bhāvanā), Mahāprajña defines bhāvanā as “repeated verbal reflection”,
infusing the psyche (citta) with ideas through strong resolve and generating "counter-
vibrations" which eliminate evil impulses.
8. Contemplation (anuprekṣā), contemplations are combined with the previous steps of dhyana
in different ways. The contemplations can often be secular in nature.

A few important contemplation themes are - Impermanence, Solitariness, and Vulnerability. Regular practice is
believed to strengthen the immune system and build up stamina to resist against aging, pollution, viruses,
diseases. Meditation practice is an important part of the daily lives of the religion's monks.[66]

Mahāprajña also taught subsidiary limbs to prekṣā-dhyāna which would help support the meditations in a
holistic manner, these are Prekṣā-yoga (posture and breathing control) and Prekṣā-cikitsā (therapy).[67]
Mantras such as Arham are also used in this system.[68]

Other traditions

Citrabhānu (b. 1922) was a Jain monk who moved to the West in 1971, and founded the first Jain meditation
center in the world, the Jaina Meditation International Centre in New York City. He eventually married and
became a lay teacher of a new system called "Jain meditation" (JM), on which he wrote various books.[69]
The core of his system consists of three steps (tripadī): 1. who am I? (kohum), 2. I am not that (nahum) (not
non-self), 3. I am that (sohum) (I am the self). He also makes use of classic Jain meditations such as the twelve
reflections (thought taught in a more optimistic, modern way), Jaina mantras, meditation on the seven chakras,
as well as Hatha Yoga techniques.[70]
Ācārya Suśīlakumāra (1926–1994) of the Sthānakavāsī tradition founded “Arhum Yoga” (Yoga on
Omniscient) and established a Jain community called the “Arhat Saṅgha” in New Jersey in 1974.[71] His
meditation system is strongly tantric and employs mantras (mainly the namaskār), nyasa, visualization and
chakras.[72]

The Sthānakavāsī Ācārya Nānālāla (1920–1999), developed a Jaina meditation called Samīkṣaṇa-dhyāna
(looking at thoroughly, close investigation) in 1981.[73] The main goal of samīkṣaṇa-dhyāna is the experience
of higher consciousness within the self and liberation in this life.[74] Samīkṣaṇa-dhyāna is classified into two
categories: introspection of the passions (kaṣāya samīkṣaṇa) and samatā-samīkṣaṇa, which includes
introspection of the senses (indriya samīkṣaṇa), introspection of the vow (vrata samīkṣaṇa) introspection of
the karma (karma samīkṣaṇa), introspection of the Self (ātma samīkṣaṇa) and others.[75]

Bhadraṅkaravijaya (1903–1975) of the Tapāgaccha sect founded “Sālambana Dhyāna” (Support Meditation).
According to Samani Pratibha Pragya, most of these practices "seem to be a deritualisation of pūjā in a
meditative form, i.e. he recommended the mental performance of pūjā." These practices (totally 34 different
meditations) focus on meditating on arihantas and can make use of mantras, hymns (stotra), statues (mūrti) and
diagrams (yantra). [76]

Ācārya Śivamuni (b. 1942) of the Śramaṇa Saṅgha is known for his contribution of “Ātma Dhyāna” (Self-
Meditation). The focus in this system is directly meditating on the nature of the self, making use of the mantra
so’ham and using the Acaranga sutra as the main doctrinal source.[77]

Muni Candraprabhasāgara (b. 1962) introduced “Sambodhi Dhyāna” (Enlightenment-Meditation) in 1997. It

mainly makes use of the mantra Om, breathing meditation, the chakras and other yogic practices.[78]

Sāmāyika
The name Sāmāyika, the term for Jain meditation, is derived from the
term samaya "time" in Prakrit. Jains also use samayika to denote the
practice of meditation. The aim of Sāmāyika is to transcend our daily
experiences as the "constantly changing" human beings, called Jiva,
and allow identification with the "changeless" reality in practitioner,
called the atman. One of the main goals of Sāmāyika is to inculcate
equanimity, to see all the events equanimously. It encourages to be
consistently spiritually vigilant. Sāmāyika is practiced in all the Jain
sects and communities. Samayika is an important practice during Jain nuns meditating
Paryushana, a special eight- or ten-day period.

For householders

In Jainism, six essential duties are prescribed for a śrāvaka (householder), out of which one duty is Samayika.
These help the laity in achieving the principle of ahimsa which is necessary for his/her spiritual upliftment.[79]
The sāmayika vrata (vow to meditate) is intended to be observed three times a day if possible; other-wise at
least once daily. Its objective is to enable the śrāvaka to abstain from all kinds of sins during the period of time
fixed for its observance. The usual duration of the sāmayika vow is an antara mūharta (a period of time not
exceeding 48 minutes). [80] During this period, which the layman spends in study and meditation, he vows to
refrain from the commission of the five kinds of sin — injury, falsehood, theft, unchastity and love of material
possessions in any of the three ways. These three ways are:[81]-

by an act of mind, speech or body (krita),

inciting others to commit such an act (kārita),
 approving the commission of such an act by others (anumodanā).

In performing sāmayika the śrāvaka has to stand facing north or east and bow to the Pañca-Parameṣṭhi.[82]
He then sit down and recites the Namokara mantra a certain number of times, and finally devotes himself to
holy meditation. This consists in:[83]

pratikramana, recounting the sins committed and repenting for them,

pratyākhyanā, resolving to avoid particular sins in future,
sāmayika karma, renunciation of personal attachments, and the cultivation of a feeling of
regarding every body and thing alike,
stuti, praising the four and twenty Tīrthankaras,
vandanā, devotion to a particular Tirthankara, and
kāyotsarga, withdrawal of attention from the body (physical personality) and becoming
absorbed in the contemplation of the spiritual Self.

Sāmayika can be performed anywhere- a temple, private residence, forest and the like. But the place shouldn't
be open to disturbance.[83] According to the Jain text, Ratnakaranda śrāvakācāra, while performing sāmayika,
one should meditate on:

"I am involved in the saṃsāra (cycle of transmigration) in which there is no protection for souls,
which is inauspicious, transitory and full of pain, and of the nature of not-Self; moksha is the
opposite of this"-thus should one meditate while performing sāmayika.

— Ratnakaranda śrāvakācāra (104)

For ascetics

The ascetic has to perform the sāmāyika three times a day. Champat Rai Jain in his book, The Key of
Knowledge wrote:

The ascetic who has successfully passed through the preliminary stages of renunciation, as a
householder, is expected to be an embodiment of desirelessness itself, so that his whole life is, as it
were, a continuous sāmāyika from one end to the other.[84]

Techniques
According to the some commonly practiced yoga systems, high concentration is reached by meditating in an
easy (preferably lotus) posture in seclusion and staring without blinking at the rising sun, a point on the wall,
or the tip of the nose, and as long as one can keep the mind away from the outer world, this strengthens
concentration. Garuda is the name Jainism gives to the yoga of self-discipline and discipline of mind, body
and speech, so that even earth, water, fire and air can come under one’s control. Śiva is in Jainism control over
the passions and the acquisition of such self-discipline that under all circumstances equanimity is maintained.

Prānayāma – breathing exercises – are performed to strengthen the flows of life energy. Through this, the
elements of the constitution – earth, water, fire and air – are also strengthened. At the same time the five
chakras are controlled. Prānayāma also helps to stabilize one’s thinking and leads to unhampered direct
experience of the events around us.[85]
Next one practices pratyāhāra. Pratyāhāra means that one directs the senses away from the enjoyment of
sensual and mental objects. The senses are part of the nervous system, and their task is to send data to the brain
through which the mind as well as the soul is provided with information. The mind tends to enjoy this at the
cost of the soul as well as the body. Pratyāhāra is obtained by focusing the mind on one point for the purpose
of receiving impulses: on the eyes, ears, tip of the nose, the brow, the navel, the head, the heart or the
palate.[86]

Contemplation is an important wing in Jain meditation. The practitioner meditates or reflects deeply on subtle
facts or philosophical aspects. The first type is Agnya vichāya, in which one meditates deeply on the seven
elementary facts - life and non-life, the inflow, bondage, stoppage and removal of karmas, and the final
accomplishment of liberation. The second is Apaya vichāya, in which incorrect insights and behavior in which
“sleeping souls” indulge, are reflected upon. The third is Vipaka vichāya dharma dhyāna, in which one
reflects on the eight causes or basic types of karma. The fourth is Sansathan vichāya dharma dhyāna, when
one thinks about the vastness of the universe and the loneliness of the soul, which has had to face the results of
its own causes all alone.[86] A few important contemplation themes in Preksha meditation are - Impermanence,
Solitariness, Vulnerability.

In pindāstha-dhyāna one imagines oneself sitting all alone in the

middle of a vast ocean of milk on a lotus flower, meditating on the
soul. There are no living beings around whatsoever. The lotus is
identical to Jambūdvīpa, with Mount Meru as its stalk. Next the
meditator imagines a 16-petalled lotus at the level of his navel, and on
each petal are printed the (Sanskrit) letters “arham“ and also an
inverted lotus of 8 petals at the location of his heart. Suddenly the
lotus on which one is seated flares up at the navel and flames
gradually rise up to the inverted lotus, burning its petals with a rising
golden flame which not only burns his or her body, but also the
inverted lotus at the heart. The flames rise further up to the throat
whirling in the shape of a swastika and then reach the head, burning it
entirely, while taking the form of a three-sided pyramid of golden
flames above the head, piercing the skull sharp end straight up. The
whole physical body is charred, and everything turns into glowing
ashes. Thus the pinda or body is burnt off and the pure soul survives.
Then suddenly a strong wind blows off all the ashes; and one
imagines that a heavy rain shower washes all the ashes away, and the
pure soul remains seated on the lotus. That pure Soul has infinite Picture depicting Pindastha Dhyana
virtues, it is Myself. Why should I get polluted at all? One tries to
remain in his purest nature. This is called pindāstha dhyāna, in which
one ponders the reality of feeling and experiencing.[86]

In padāstha dhyāna one focuses on some mantras, words or themes. Couple of important mantra examples
are, OM - it signifies remembrance of the five classes of spiritual beings (the embodied and non-embodied
Jinas, the ascetics, the monks and the nuns), pronouncing the word “Arham” makes one feel “I myself am the
omniscient soul” and one tries to improve one’s character accordingly. One may also pronounce the holy name
of an arhat and concentrate on the universal richness of the soul.[86]

In rūpāstha dhyāna one reflects on the embodiments of arihants, the svayambhuva (the self-realized), the
omniscients and other enlightened people and their attributes, such as three umbrellas and whiskers – as seen
in many icons – unconcerned about one’s own body, but almighty and benevolent to all living beings,
destroyer of attachment, enmity, etc. Thus the meditator as a human being concentrates his or her attention on
the virtues of the omniscients to acquire the same virtues for himself.[86]
Rūpātita dhyāna is a meditation in which one focuses on bodiless objects such as the liberated souls or
siddhas, which stand individually and collectively for the infinite qualities that such souls have earned. That
omniscient, potent, omnipresent, liberated and untainted soul is called a nirañjāna, and this stage can be
achieved by right vision, right knowledge and right conduct only. Right vision, right knowledge and right
conduct begin the fourth stage of the 14-fold path.[86]

The ultimate aim of such yoga and meditation is to pave the way for the spiritual elevation and salvation of the
soul. Some yogis develop their own methods for meditation.

See also
Buddhist meditation
Hindu meditation
Jewish meditation
Christian meditation
Muraqaba
Daoist meditation

References

Notes
a. Worthington writes, "Yoga fully acknowledges its debt to Jainism, and Jainism reciprocates by
making the practice of yoga part and parcel of life."[43]

1. This meditative focus contrasts with the anatta focus of Buddhism, and the atman focus in
various vedanta schools of Hinduism such as advaita and vishistadvaita schools.[54][55]

Citations
1. Acharya Mahapragya (2004). "Foreword". Jain Yog. Aadarsh Saahitya Sangh.
2. Jain, Sagarmal, The Historical development of the Jaina yoga system and the impacts of other
Yoga systems on Jaina Yoga, in "Christopher Key Chapple (editor), Yoga in Jainism" chapter 1.
3. Acharya Tulsi (2004). "blessings". Sambodhi. Aadarsh Saahitya Sangh.
4. Pragya 2017, p. 256.
5. Acharya Tulsi Key (1995). "01.01 Traditions of shramanas" (http://www.herenow4u.net/index.ph
p?id=66251). Bhagwan Mahavira. JVB, Ladnun, India. Retrieved 27 September 2009.
6. Sadhvi Vishrut Vibha Key (2007). "1 History and Tradition". Introduction to Jainism. JVB,
Ladnun, India.
7. Acharya Tulsi Key (1995). "04.04 accomplishment of sadhana" (http://www.herenow4u.net/inde
x.php?id=66251). Bhagwan Mahavira. JVB, Ladnun, India. Retrieved 27 September 2009.
8. Ahimsa – The Science Of Peace by Surendra Bothra 1987
9. "Achraya Bhadrabahu Swami" (http://www.ejainism.com/bhadrabahuswami.html). Retrieved
20 July 2010.
10. Jain Yoga by Acharya Mahapragya 2004
11. "South Asian and Himalayan Art | Jain shrine of Parshvanatha | F1993.11" (http://www.asia.si.e
du/collections/zoomObject.cfm?ObjectId=12831). Asia.si.edu. Retrieved 25 February 2012.
12. Pragya 2017, p. 42.
13. Dundas 2002, pp. 166–169.
14. Roy Choudhury, Pranab Chandra (1956). Jainism in Bihar (https://archive.org/details/jainisminb
ihar0000royc). Patna: I.R. Choudhury. p. 7 (https://archive.org/details/jainisminbihar0000royc/p
age/7).
15. The Story Of Gommateshwar Bahubali (https://web.archive.org/web/20101031005003/http://jai
nstudy.org/jsc1-4.06-Gommateshwar.htm), archived from the original (http://www.jainstudy.org/j
sc1-4.06-Gommateshwar.htm) on 31 October 2010, retrieved 21 July 2010
16. Pragya 2017, pp. 50, 58.
17. Pragya 2017, pp. 93.
18. Jacobi 1884.
19. Pragya 2017, p. 52.
20. Pragya 2017, p. 51.
21. Pragya 2017, p. 105.
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23. Acharya Bhadrabahu-1 (http://www.digambarjainonline.com/dharma/greatja1.htm),
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24. Pragya 2017, pp. 53-55.
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27. According to the Jain text, Sarvārthasiddhi: There is no escape for the young one of a deer
pounced upon by a hungry tiger fond of the flesh of animals. Similarly, there is no way of
escape for the self caught in the meshes of birth, old age, death, disease and sorrow. Even the
stout body is helpful in the presence of food, but not in the presence of distress. And wealth
acquired by great effort does not accompany the self to the next birth. The friends who have
shared the joys and sorrows of an individual cannot save him at his death. His relations all
united together cannot give him relief when he is afflicted by ailment. But if he accumulates
merit or virtue, it will help him to cross the ocean of misery. Even the lord of devas cannot help
anyone at the point of death. Therefore virtue is the only means of succour to one in the midst of
misery. Friends, wealth, etc. are also transient. And so there is nothing else except virtue which
offers succour to the self. To contemplate thus is the reflection on helplessness. He, who is
distressed at the thought that he is utterly helpless, does not identify himself with thoughts of
worldly existence. And endeavours to march on the path indicated by the Omniscient Lord.
28. Niyamasara [134-40]
29. Pragya 2017, p. 66-75.
30. Pragya 2017, pp. 73, 225.
31. Pragya 2017, p. 67.
32. Tattvarthasutra [6.2]
33. Pragya 2017, p. 68, 76.
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Kenji Watanabe (Ed.), Jain Studies in Honour of Jozef Deleu (pp.151-162). Tokyo: Hon-no-
Tomosha.
39. Pragya 2017, p. 81.
40. Pragya 2017, p. 82.
41. Zydenbos, Robert. "Jainism Today and Its Future." München: Manya Verlag, 2006. p.66
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43. Worthington, p. 35.
44. Pragya 2017, p. 46.
45. Pragya 2017, pp. 46-47.
46. Pragya 2017, pp. 43, 82.
47. Pragya 2017, p. 83.
48. Pragya 2017, p. 86.
49. Pragya 2017, pp. 86-87.
50. Pragya 2017, p. 249.
51. Pragya 2017, p. 251.
52. Pragya 2017, p. 254.
53. Johnson 1995, pp. 137–143.
54. Bronkhorst 1993, pp. 74, 102, Part I: 1–3, 10–11, 24, Part II: 20–28.
55. Mahony 1997, pp. 171–177, 222.
56. Pragya 2017, p. 92.
57. Pragya 2017, p. 95.
58. Pragya 2017, pp. 102, 105.
59. Pragya 2017, p. 89-90.
60. Jain 2015, p. xi.
61. Pragya 2017, pp. 180-181.
62. Acharya MahapragyaAcharya Mahapragya Key (1995). "01.01 what is preksha". The Mirror Of
The Self. JVB, Ladnun, India.
63. Pragya 2017, p. 182.
64. Acharya MahapragyaAcharya Mahapragya Key (1995). "2 path and goal". The Mirror Of The
Self. JVB, Ladnun, India.
65. Pragya 2017, p. 186-196.
66. J. Zaveri What is Preksha? (http://www.jzaveri.com/what_is_preksha.htm) Archived (https://we
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68. Pragya 2017, p. 205.
69. Pragya 2017, pp. 260-261.
70. Pragya 2017, p. 262.
71. Pragya 2017, pp. 267-268.
72. Pragya 2017, p. 270-271.
73. Pragya 2017, p. 274.
74. Pragya 2017, p. 277.
75. Pragya 2017, pp. 278-279.
76. Pragya 2017, p. 284.
77. Pragya 2017, p. 295.
78. Pragya 2017, pp. 297-300.
79. Jain 2012, p. v.
80. Champat Rai Jain 1917, p. 44.
81. Champat Rai Jain 1917, p. 27, 44.
82. Champat Rai Jain 1917, p. 44, 61.
83. Champat Rai Jain 1917, p. 45.
84. Jain, Champat Rai (1975). The Key Of Knowledge (https://archive.org/details/keyofknowledge)
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85. Dr. Rudi Jansma; Dr. Sneh Rani Jain Key (2006). "07 Yoga and Meditation (2)". Introduction To
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