Spectrum’s Rapid Revision Studypack Public Administration Theories and Principles R. Vidya Consultant Editors Deepak Verma Ph.D. Political Science K. Jayaram JAS (Retd.) Editor Kalpana Rajaram SPECTRUM BOOKS (P) LTD. A1 291, First Floor, Janakpuri, New Delhi 110 058A Note to the Reader. Public administration may be broadly defined as the management of affairs of the government at all levels—national, state and local. It is any kind of administration in the public interest and has come to signify what is termed ‘governmental admin ration’. As well pointed out by John J. Corson and Joseph P. Harris, simply put, “It is the action part of government, the means by which the purposes and goals of government are realised.” The government is involved in many sectors of life today— economic, cultural, social, regulatory and others. Public administration is a system of organisation and action involved with performance of governmental activities at these levels. With the growing significance of the government in the wake of expanding public functions, public administration has become a specialised field today. As a practice it has been witnessing a radical transformation especially with sweeping social, cultural and technical changes in recent years; as a discipline, it has been slowly evolving. Under the influence of new forces and conceptualisations of administrative reality, the discipline of public administration has como to be concerned to a grater extent with explaining the complexity and diversity of governmental adininistration. Trends towards globalisation and privatisation, increasing concern for environment, advancements in communication and information technology have all given a fresh direction and impetus to the role and function of governmental administration. As a discipline, therefore, public administration has assuined greater relevance today than aver before, as it has been responding to and reflecting the needs and problems of practical governance. This book covers all the important aspects of administrative theory: its basic concepis, forms of organisation and its principles, administrative law, comparative pubic administration, public policy, the developmental paradigm and personnel and financial administration. it comes in an attempt to satisfy the need for a work that would present alf aspects of administrative theory in one place, As the series title suggests, it is @ Rapid Revision Studypack that analyses the diverse aspects of administrative theory in a comprehensive manner supported by numerous examples, especially with regard to their application in different administrative systems. It is a GiaA Note to the Reader compendium of theories, principles and techniques of public administration characterised by a detailed yet balanced presentation emphasising on clarity of subject matter and lucidity of language, Public administration is a subject of study in various universities of India. Tt is an optional subject in the Civil Services (Main) Examination conducted by the Union Public Service Commission and is a subject in the UGC (NET) examination. This book would be helpful to all those who have taken up Public Administration as a subject of their choice for graduation and post-graduation courses. N would be useful for all candidates appearing for the Givil Services (Main) Examination and the UGC NET examinations who have Public Administration as a subject, as it covers the latest syllabus for both these examinations. Readers are welcome to present their constructive comments for improvement of the book. iContents Chapter 1 Public Administration: Nature and Scope Moaning of Administration Meaning and Scope of Public Administration How Ig Public Administration similar to or different from Private Administration? 4/ Scope of Public Administration 7/ Public Administration and Other Social Sciences Public Administration and Political Science 11/ Public Administration and Feonomics 11/ Public Administration and Sociology 12/ Public Administration fand History 13/ Public Administration and Law 14/ Public Administration fand Psychology 14/ Public Adminisieation and Geography 14/ Approaches to the Study of Public Administration Boxes Scope of Public Administration at a Glance Is Public Administration an Art of @ Science, or Both? Chapter 2 Public Administration; Evolution, Challenges and Significance Evolution of Public Administration as a Discipline and its Present Status Stages in the Evolution of Public Administation 19/ Study of Public Admunistration in India 25/ Recent Trends 27/ Wilson's Vision of Public Administration On Administration as @ Science 28/ Politics and Administration 26/ Public Opinion and Administration 29/ Civil Service: Need and Reform 29/ Learning from other Contexts 30/ Now Public Administration The Honey Report on Higher Education for Public Service (1967) 32/ The Philadelphia Conference on the Theory and Practice of Public: Administration (1967) 34/ ‘The Minrowbrook Confarences 34/ Features of New Public Administration 38/ The Three Anti-goals of NPA $8/ The Goals of NPA 36/ Comments on New Public Administration 37/ 10 a 18 18 27 at twContents New Public Management Definitions and Views of Scholars on NPM 40/ Features of New Public ‘Management 41/New Public Manogement Perspective in Select Countries 42/ Summing Up 43/ Entrepreneurial Government Features of Entrepreneurial Government 45/ Public Choice Approach nportance of Decentrulisation 48/ Emphases of Public Choice Approach 49/ Critique of Public Choice Approach 49/ Neo-Taylorism Public Administration as on Activity in Developed and Developing Counties 50/ Good Govemance Conceptual Parameters 51/ Good Governance: A Collective Effort 54/ Challenges of Liberalisation, Privatisation and Globalisation to Publi Administration Ethical Dimension of State Policy 37/ Decentralisation of Administration 57/ Nature of Administrative Reforms 56/ Need for a Research Agenda 58/ Multinational Corporations 59/ Complexities of Globalisation-Public Administration Relationship 60/ Privatisation for Better Administration 62/ Significance of Public Administistion Reasons for the Growing Importance of Public Administration in the Last Two Centuries 64/ Importance of Public Administration in Developing countries eas Boxes New Public Administration and New Public Management ‘The World Bank Approach New Public Management and Good Governance ‘Threats Posed by Globalisation for Governance and Public Administration Chapter 3 Administrative Thought Introduction Kautilya Principles Goveming the State and Administration 68/ Vavious Aspects of Administration 68/ Critique 69/ Scientific Management: F.W, Taylor Intzaduction 70/ Aim of Scientific Management 71/ Pocus of Scientific Management 72/ Assumptions of Scientific Management 72/ Principles. of Scientific Managemem 72/ Components of Scientific Managenent 74/ Mechanisms for Application of Principles of Scientific Management 73/ Gitique of Taylor's Scientific Management Approach 76/ Relevance of Taylor's Approach 77/ Impact of Scientific Management 78 38 a4 a7 67 67 07 70 (vidContents ‘The Classical Theory (Henri Fayol, Luther Gulick and Lyndall Urwick, James Moonoy, Alan Reiley) enti Fayal and his Approach 79/ Comparing the Ideas of Taylor and Fayal 84/ Critical Evaluation of Fayol's Contribution 84/ Luther Gulick and his Conbibution 85/ Lyndall Unwick and his Principles 89 Critical Evaluation of Gulick and Unvick 90/ Mooney and Reiley 90/ Criticism of the Classical Theory 91/ Significance of the Classical Theory 93/ Weber's Bureaucratic Model, its Critique and Post-Weberian Developments Some Views on Bureaucracy 94/ Weber: Hs Life and Works 95/ Weber's Ideas ‘an Power, Domination and Authority 96/ Weber's Bureaucratic Model 98/ A Critique of Weber's Bureaucratic Model 102/ Other ‘Thinkers on Bureaucracy Karl Mary 105/ Morstein Marx 106/ Lord Hewart 107/ Edgar Norman Gladden 107/ Waren G. Bennis 107/ Dynamic Administration (Mary Parker Follett) Gonflicis 109/ Giving of Orders 110/ Power, Authority ond Gontrot 1117 Planning and Goordination 111/ Leadership 111/ Criticism of Follett’s Ideas 112/ Human Relations Schook Elon Mayo The Philadelphia Textile Mill Experiment 113/ Hawthorne Studies 113/ Implications of the Hawthorne Experiment 113/ Study al the Southern California Aircraft Industry 116/ Criticism and Significance of Mayo 116/ Functions of the Executive (Chester I. Barnard) Formal Organisation as Cooperative System 117/ Informal Onganisation os @ Natural System 118/ tndividual’s Motivational Mechanism 119/ The Theory of Authority 119/ Decision-Making 120/ Elements of the Decision Environment 120/ Principles of Communication 121/ Functions of the Executive 121/ Barnard's Contribution to Administrative Theary 129/ Criticism of Bamard 1237 Herbert Alexander Simon Simon's Criticisin of Classical Theory 124/ Science of Administration 125/ ‘Economic Man’ and “Administrative Men’ 125/ Decision-Making :Core of ‘Administration 126/ Rationolity in Decision-Making 127/ Bounded Rationality 128/ Satisficing 129/ Improving Hationality in Decision-Making 129/ Programmed and Nen-programmed Decisions 120/ Efficiency in Administrative Decisions 131/ Employee Participont and Decision-making 131/ Influences and Authority In Decision-making 131/ Planning and Review 132/ Hierarchy 182/ Communication 132/ Griticism of Simon 133/ Participative Management/Neo-Tuman Relations Approach’ Behavioural Approach/Socio-psychological approach: Likert, Augyris, MeGrogor Scope of Participative Management 139/ Emphasis on Human Relations 13:4/ Features of the Behavioural Approach 134/ Rensis Likert 135/ Chris Argyris 140/ Douglos MeGregor 143/ Criticism, of the Behavioural Approach in General 146/ Systems Approach 79 93 105 108 a2 17 123 133 16 (wil)Contents Boxes ‘Two Broad Catogorios of Organisation Theories Contributions of Other Thinkers to Scientific Management ‘Taylor and Fayol Compared Characteristics of Weber's Rational Legal Type of Bureaucracy Basic Principles of Human Relations Approach Differentiation between Rationality (Economic: Man) and Bounded Rationality. (Administrative Man) Likert: System 1 to 4 Comparison of Theory X and ‘Theory ¥ Chapter 4 Administrative Behaviour Process and Techniques of Decision-making Definition of Decision-making 148/ Characteristics of Decision-making 149/ Bases of Decision-making 149/ Steps Involved in Decision-making 150/ Types of Decisions 152/ Group Decision-Making: Methods, Advantages and Disadvantages: 152/ Some Management Tools of Decision-Making 154/ Problems in Decision-Making 156/ Measuring the Effectiveness of Decision- making 157/ Role of Intuition in Decision-making 157/ Approaches to Decision-making 158/ Theories of Decision-making 159/ Herbert Simon on Decision-making 160/ Communication ‘Meaning and Definition of Communication 182/ Importance and Purpose of Communication 163/ Modes of Communication 164/ The Communication Process 105/ Types or Channels of Communication 166/ Formal Communication 166/ Informal Communication 109/ Comparing Formal Communication and Informal Communication 170/ Barriers to Effective Communication £70/ Overcoming Barriers to Communication 172/ Morale Nature and Importance 174/ Building up Morale 175/ Measuring Morale 177/ Motivation Definitions 177/ Characteristics of Motivation 178/ Motivation Types 179/ Management Techniques for Increasing Motivation 179/ Motivation Theories 179/ 1. Traditional Theory of Motivation 179/ 2. Content Theories of Motivation 140/ 3. Process ‘Theories of Motivation 186/ 4. Reinforcement ‘Theories of Motivation 189/ 5. Contemporary Theories of Motivation 189/ Leadership What is Leadership? 193/ Need for Leadership 194/ Functions of a Leader 184/ Theories of Leadership: Traditional and Moder 194/ Great Man Theory of Leadership 193/ Trait Theory of Leadership 195/ Behavioural Approach 1967 Box Comparing Motivation ‘Theories of Maslow and Herzberg 70 76 a4 98 5 128, 137 145. 148, 148 161 aa 7 105 (iti)Contents Chapter 5 Organisations Meaning of Organisation Organisational Behaviour Functions and Importance of Organisation Characteristics of Organisation Formal and Informal Organisations Characteristics of Formal and Informal Organisations 213/ Relationship between Formal and Informal Organisations 214/ Rosie Principles of Onganisation Principles in General 214/ The Principle of Hierarchy 216/ Unity of Command 247/ Span of Gontiol 217/ Authority and Responsibility 217/ Coordination 218/ Centralisation and Decentralisation 219/ Delegation 218/ Supervision 2197 Organisation Thoories Systems Theary 220/ Contingency Theory 226/ Structuze and Forms of Organisations ‘Typology of Organisation 231/ The Chief Executive 22/ Ministry 294/ Line, Staff and Auxiliary Agencies 235/ ‘Typns of Line Agencios Departments 230/ Corporations 244/ Boards and Commissions 252/ Ad hoe and Advisory Bodies 255/ Regulatory Authorities 257/ The Independent ‘Regulatory Commission 250/ Headquarters and Field Relationships Grading and Classification of Field Stations 263/ Factors that Govern Formation of Field Stations 263/ Public-Private Partnerships Origin of PPPs 267/ Necessity of Public-Private Partnerships 267/ Phases of Public-Private Partnership 268/ PPP in India 268/ PPP in the USA 260/ PPP in Ganadia 270/ PPP in the UK 270/ PPP in China 271/ Boxes Characteristics of Closod and Open Models Systems Theory, Systems Analysis and Systems Thinking Public Corporation and the Departmental System Public Limited Companies and Private Limited Compani ‘A Gomparison Statutory Corporations and Government Companies: A Comparison in India Chapter 6 Accountability and Control Concept of Accountability Types of Acoamtability 274/ Concept of Control Types of Control 275/ 209 209 a zag 213 as 220 zai 236 263, 2a 2a 2aa 251 252 273 273 (x)Contents Legislative Control over Administration “ontrol of Administrative Policy 277/ Control of Appropriations 2777 Parliamentary Questions 278/ Parliomentary Debates and Discussions 278/ Audit and Report 279/ Appointment of Committees 280/ Legislative Contral in Presidential System 280/ Limitations of Legislative Control 26i/ Executive Control over Administration Political Control 282/ Budgetary System 282/ Personnel Management Control 262/ Executive Law Making 262/ Direct Gontrol: Tours and Inspections 262/ Organisation and Mothods 283/ Administrative Ethice 283/ Laadership 263/ Judicial Control over Administration Causes of judicial Intervention 283/ fudioial Review 284/ Statutory Appeals in Gouris against Administrative Acts/Decisions 285/ Suits against the Government 265/ Suits against Public Officials 265/ Suits against Non-Judicial Officers 285/ Extraordinary Remedies 245/ Limitations of Judicial Gonteal 2a9/ Public Control System of Elections 289/ System of Recall 289/ Advisory and Consultative Committees 269/ Prossiire Groups 200) Public Opinion 200/ Citizen and Administration ‘Need for Citizen Participation 291/ Measures for Harmonising Citizen- Administration Relationship 202/ Role of Media, Interest Groups and Voluntary Organisations Role of Media 295/ Interest Groups 296/ Voluntary Organisations 303/ Civil Socioty Definitions of Civil Society 300/ Evolution of the Concept of Givil Society 307/ Basic Characteristics of Civil Society 309/ Functioning and importance of the Givil Society 309/ Civil Society in Developing Countries 310/ Givit Society in India 311/ Challenges to Givil Society 3137 Citizen's Charter Development of Citizen's Charter 314/ Preparing and Operotionalising the Gitizen’s Charter 315/ Citizen's Charter Initiatives in India 315/ Shortcomings of Citizen's Charters 316/ Right to Information Right to Information Essence of Democracy 317/ The Stand of International Organisations on the Need for Right to Information 318/ Experiences of Countries 819/ Right to Information in india 320/ Social Audit Concepts 325/ Purpose of Social Audit 328/ Characteristics of Social Audit 325/ Process of Social Auditing 324/ Problems Faced in Social Auditing 324/ Box Voluntary Organisation and Non-official Ongonisation 277 282 203 209 290 295, 06 ma 316 322 04 (a)Contents Chapter 7 Administrative Law Definition of Administrative Law Sources of Administrative Law Origin and Evolution of Administrative Law 328/ Features of Administrative Law Importance and Scope of Administrative Law Dicey and Administrative Law Criticism of Dieey’s Viewpoint 334/ Delegated Legislation Delegated Legislation, Executive Legislation and Administrative Action 935/ ‘Need for Delegated Logislation und Reasons for it Growth 3%6/ Types of Delegated Legislation 337/ Advamages of Delegated Legislation 338/ Disadvantages of Delegated Legislation 239/ Saleguards in Delegated Lagislation 399/ Delegated Legislation in the US 340/ Pacliamentary Committees on Delegated Legislation in UK 341/ Doleyated Legislation in India 341/ Administrative Adjudication Importance of Administrative Adjudication 344/ Advantages of Administrative Adjudication 345/ Disadvantages of Administrative Adjudication 345/ Administrative ‘Tribunals Reasons for Growth of Administrative Tribunals 546/ Characteristics of Administrative Tribunals 247/ Merits of Administeative Tribunals 947/ Demorits of Administrative Tribunals 347/ Sajeguards to Improve the Working of Administrative Tribunals 348/ Administrative Tribunals in Different Counteies aay Boxes Why is detogated legislation subordinate legislation? Difference between Administrative Adjudication and the Judicial Process Chapier 8 Comparative Public Administration Definition Development of Comparative Public Administration Ferrel. Heady and his Contetbution 356/ Importance of Comparative Public Administration Approaches to Study of Comparative Public Administration Gurront Status of Comparative Public Administration From Normative to Empirical 300/ From Ideographic to Nomothetic 260/ From Non-ecological to Ecological i60/ Historical and Sociological Factors Affecting Administrative Systems A Perspective on Growth of Publi Administration through History 361/ Administration and Politics in Different Countries The United Kingdom 365/ The USA 368/ France 971/ Hussia 324/ China 327/ Germany 380/ Evaluation of Comparative Public Administration 362/ 326 226 327 331 331 333 235 343 345, 354 355, 358 358 359 isi)Contents Ecology and Administration Riggs’ Models and their Critique 385/ (i) Ecological Approach 985/ (i) The Structural-Fanctional Approach 386/ (ili) Ideal Models 386/ Box The Chinese and Western Administrative Models: A Comparison 379 Chapter 9 Development Dynamics 304 Goncept of Development soa Concept and Meaning of Development Administration 04 ‘Davelopmont of Administration’ and ‘Administration of Development 305 ‘Traditional Administration and Development Administration 396 The Political, Social and Economic Context of Development Administration 397 Political Context 397/ Economie Contest 398/ Soeial Context 398/ Features of Development Administration 399 Criticism of Development Administration 400/ Scope and Significance of Development Administration 400/ Models of Development Administration 402 Edward W. Weidner's Models. 402/ Prod W. Riggs’ Model 403/ John D Montgomery 404/ Changing Profile of Development Administration 405 In the 18503 405/ In the 1960s 406/ In the 1970s 4071 In the 1960s and Later 407/ Anti-Development “Thesis 409 Bureaucracy and Development ant Role of the Bureaueracy 411/ Strong State versus the Market Debate 413 Impact of Liberalisation on Administration in Developing Countries a4 Intemational Aid and Technical Assistance Programmes in the Context of Development 416 ‘The International Monetary Fund 416/ World Bank Group 418/ World Trade Organisation (WTO) 419/ Asian Development Bank 420/ Women and Development: The Self-Help Group Movement 421 Grameen Bank 422/ Self-Help Groups 422/ Reasons for the Spread of the SHG Movement 427/ Criticism of the SHG model in India 426) Interactions among Different Groups in the Context of Development 428 Chapter 10 Social Administration 431 Social Welfare 431 Definitions: of Social Welfare 481/ Residual and Institutional Concepts: of Social Welfare 433/ Nature of Social Welfare 433/ Social Welfare: a)Contents Developments in the West 434/ Social Welfare System in the UK 435/ Welfare System in the USA 436/ Social Welfare in Russia 437/ Social Welfare in Indio 439 Social Justice Social Change Social Change Patterns 441/ Public Administration and Sociat Change 442/ Health Health Care in USA 444/ Health Gare in Britain 444/ Health Care in Russia 445/ The Health Gare System in Germany 446/ Health Gare in Sweden 447/ Health Gave in China #48/ Health Care in India 450/ Education Education Sector in USA 450/ Education in UK 452/ Education in Russia 454/ Education in Germany 455/ Education in China 456/ Education in India 457/ Box Defining Terms Ghapter 11 Personnel Administration Functions of Personnel Administration Bureaucracy ‘Max Weber on Rurwaucracy 461/ Typos of Bumauevacy 462/ Criticism of Bureaucracy 462/ Measures to Impeave Burvaucratic Functioning 462/ vices Definition 464/ Basic Features of the Civil Services 469/ Functions of the Civil Service 405/ Importance of Human Resource Development Recruitment “Ment System vs. the Spoils System 46a/ Process of Recruitment 400/ Systems of Recruitment 469/ Methods of Recruitment 409/ Aspects of Recruitment 470/ The Recruiting Agency 475/ Training Objective of Training 475/ Importance of mining 474% Training Methods and Techniques 476/ Types of Teaining 478/ Organisation of Training 480/ Career Advancement ‘Types of Career Systeme 482/ Steps for Career Advancement 482/ Planning for Carwor Advanconwnt 483/ Bonefite of Carver Advancement for the Individual 485/ Benefit of Career Advancement for the Organisation 485/ Hindrances to Cawver Development 486/ Classification ‘Steps in Classification 487/ Position Classifiontion 487/ Specific Objective: of Position Classification 488/ Limitations of Position Classification 489/ Rank Classification System 409 wil 430) 443 432 459 450 460 464 466 467 481 486 (siti)Contents Discipline Conduct Rules 491/ Disciplinary Action and Procedure 4917 Performance Appraisal Performance Standards 492/ Specific Objectives 492/ Methods of Pesformance Appraisal 499/ Criticism of the Appraisal System 495/ Promotion Promotion in Civil Services 496/ Essentials of @ Prosetion System 497/ Principles of Promotion 498/ Promotion Systems in Different Countries 501/ Pay and Service Conditions Pay Determination 503/ Principles of Compensation Plan 504/ Allowances 505/Inceements 505/ Service Conditions 506/ Issues in Compensation 500/ Retirement 510/ Employer-Employoe Relations Employees’ Associations 517/ Machinery for Government-mployee Dialogue (Grievance Redressal Proceduro) In UK 519/ In USA 520/ In India 520/ Intogrity and Code of Conduct Devotion to Duty and lategeit Bureaucracy 521 Secrecy Administrative Ethics Components of Administrative Ethics 526/ Pactors that Determine Observance of Administrative Ethics 626/ Significance of Administrative Kihics 5267 Boxes Bureaucracy and Civil Services: Differences ‘The Generalist vs. the Specialist 522/ Neutrality and Anonymity 529/ Politicised 5/ Chapter 12 Public Policy What is Policy-making? Policies and Goals Policies and Decisions Public Policy and Administration Foatures and Relevance of Public Policy Policy Analysis, Models of Public Policy Making and their Critique Group Theoretic Model 592/ Elite Theoretic Model 592/ Incremental Model 533/ Rational Model 594/ Mixed Scanning Model 537/ Institutional Model 537/ Game Theoretic Model 597/ Systems Theoretic Model 538/ Dror's ‘Normotive-Optimum Model 539/ The Public Choice Approach 540/ ‘Typos of Policy Political Policy 540/ Executive Policy 541/ Administrative Policy 541/ Technical Policy 41/ 490 492 495 525 464 474 527 527 527 528 528 530 531 522 540 (xiv)Contents Policy Formulation 5a Forcos in the Policy: Making Process 542/ Constraints in Public Poliey-Making 545/ Policy Implementation 546 Perspoctives on Implementation 546/ Role of the Legislature in Policy Implementation 547/ Role of the Judiciaey in Policy Implementation 547/ Role of Political Executive in Policy Implememation 548/ Role of Permanesnt Executive in Policy Implementation 548/ Role of Non-governmental Agencies and Pressure Groups in Policy Implementation 549/ Problems in Policy Implementation 549/ Public Policy Monitoring and Evalnation 350 Functions of Evaluation 550/ Criteria for Evaluation of Policy 550/ Forms Df Policy Evaluation 351/ Approaches io Evaluation 552/ Problems in Policy Evaluation 552/ Stato Theories and Public Policy Formulation 55a Public Policies and Different Political Systems 558/ Boxes Policy Sciences 520 Lindblom’s Incremental Approach and Simon's Rational Approach Compared 536 Chapter 13 ‘Techniques of Administrative Improvement 37 Organisation and Methods (O&M) 558 Definitions of O&M 558/ Functions of O&M 558/ Application of OSM in Organisations 559/ Is a Separate O&M Organisation Needed? 560/ Location of O&M Units 560/ Staffing in O&M Units 561/ O&M Techniques 562/ (i) Survey 562/ (ii) Inspeetion 564/ (il) Forms Control 565/ fi) File Operations 565/ (v} Automation 566/ (vi) Work Simplification 567/ Work Study 568 Objectives of Work Study 569/ Steps Involved in Work Study 569/ Method ‘Study 560/ Work Measurement 571/ Organisation Analysis 878/ Tools of Wark Study 576/ Operations Research 576 Features of OR 577/ Application of OR 577/ Models used in OR 577/ Network Analysis 579 Programme Bvaluation and Review Technique (PERT) 579/ Critical Poth Method (CPM) 581/ PERT, CPM Compared 63/ Management Information Systems 563/ Need for MIS 583/ Benefits of MIS 563/ Designing and Developing MIS 5a4/ Advantoges of Computers in the Context of MIS. 5a4/ Gnuses af Failure of MIS 585/ Improvements in MIS 545/ E-governance and Information Technology 586 Definitions of governance 586/ Goals of E-governance 587/ Models of E-governance 587/ Benefits of E-govemance 580/ Risks and Criticism of E-governance 589/ Conditions Necessary for Success of E-governance 590/ tv)Contents Boxes Reasons for Undertaking Mothod Study Comparison of Work Measurement Techniques E-governance and Other ‘Terms UN e-Government Readiness Index Chapter 14 Financial Administration Financial Administration: Meaning and Definitions Financial Administration and Public Administration Princi Agencies Involved in Financial Adminisration ‘The Executive 594/ The Legislature 594/ Heads of the Central Department 594/ Audit Organisation 594/ Committees of the Legislature 584/ Some Independent Organisations 595/ Importance of Financial Administration Scope of Financial Administration Monetary Policy Objectives of the Monetary Policy 594/ Monetary Policy Instruments 596/ Monotary Poliey and Price Stability 597/ Monetary Policy and Economic Growth 597/ Fiscal Policy Meaning 596/ Instruments of Fiscal Policy 598/ Fiscol Policy and Inflation 598/ Fiscal Poticy: Delays in Application 599 Public Debt Causes of Publie Debt 600/ Public Debt Classification 600/ Objectives of Public Debt 601/ Sources of Public Debt G01/ Public Debt Management 60/ Budget los of Financial Administration nificance of the Budget 606/ Characteristics of the Budget 606/ Functions of the Budget 607/ Types of Budget 608/ Principlos of Budget Making 600/ ‘The Budgetary Procevs 610/ Preparation of the Budget 811/ Preparation of Estimates 611/ Legislation of the Budget 611/ Execution of the Budget 612/ Performance Budgeting Objectives of Pesformance Budgeting 614/ Stages of Performance Budgeting 614/ Pre-requisites of Performance Budgeting 614/ Criticism of Performance Budgeting 615/ Zero-base Budgeting Meaning of Zero-Dase Budget 616/ Procedure involved in Zero-base Budgeting 616/ Aspects of ZBB 616/ Advantoges of Zero-Base Budget Approach 617/ Financial Control of Logislature over Executive Accounts and Audit ‘Accounting 618/ Separation of Accounts and Audit 619/ Audit 620/ References 570 574 506 590 595, 595 596 598 599 605 sig B15. B18 B18 B23 (avi)Chapter 1 Public Administration: Nature and Scope Public administration consists of the activities ‘undertaken by the government to look after its people or to manage its affairs. It is part of the wider term ‘administration’. Public administration is an activity practised since the time organised socioty came into. being However, with changes in economic, social, physical, cultural and technological factors, the nature, structure, activities and scope of public administration has changed. Before we discuss the meaning of public administration. it is necessary to understand the meaning of ‘administration’ itself Meaning of Administration The English word ‘administer’ is derived from the Latin words ad, meaning ‘to’, and ministrare, meaning ‘minister’ or ‘serve’. So, in the simplest sense, ‘administration’ means ‘management of affairs’ or ‘looking after the people’. It is a process of management which is practised by all kinds of organisations from the household to the most complex system of the government, Whenever two or more people cooperate to accomplish common goals, an administrative activity is assumed to have been involved. In other words, every group activity involves administwation. While administation in primitive societias was simple as the activities carried out were also simple at the time, administration of private and public affairs in modern societies isa complex affair owing to the growing complexity of i Administration is determined action taken in pursuit of a conscious purpose. EN. Gladden has observed “Administration is a long and slightly pompous word, bat it has an humble moaning, for it means to care for or to look ‘after people, to manage affairs.” Felix A. Nigro says “Administration is the organisation and use of men and materials to accomplish a purpose.” Administration, in fact, is only a typo of collective activity that “involves rational organisation and management of men and. material” In the words of Herbert A. Simon, ‘administration can be defined as the activities of groups cooperating to accomplish common goals.” According to John M. Pfiffner, ‘Administration is the organisation and direction of human and material resources to achieve desired ends.” George E. Berkley says, “Administration is a process involving human beings jointly engaged in working towards common goals.” According to Brooks Adams, ‘Administration is th capacity of coordinating ‘many and often conflicting social onergies in a singlo organism, so advoitly that they shall operate as a unity. Keith Henderson defines ‘administration’ as follows: “Administration is the arrangement of men and materials in the rational carrying out of purposes.” ‘Ordway ‘Tead states, “Administration is @ variety of componont elements which together in action, produce the result of a2 Public Administration : Theories and Principles defined task done, Administration, primarily is tho dimetion of people in association to achieve some goal temporarily shared. It is the inclusive process of integrating human efforts so that a desired result is obtained”. He further adds, “Administration is the central power house of the motivational impulsion and spirit which makes. the institution drive to fulfill its purpose.” Dwight Waldo observes, "Administration is a type of co-operative human effort that has a high degree of cationality.’ James McCanny states, Administration is the organization and use of men and materials to accomplish a purpose. It is the specialized ‘vocation of managers who have skills of organizing and directing men and materials just as definitely as an engineor has the skill of building structures or a doctor has the skill of understanding the human ailments” F, Morstein Marx opined, “Administration is a determined action taken in pursuit of a conscious purpose. It is the systematic ordering of affairs and the calculated use of resources aimed at making those things happen which one wants to happen and forelelling everything to the contrary”. JS. Hodgson describes administration as “a kind of activity found in both public and business affairs”. LD. White observes, “The art of administration is the direction, coordination and contzol of many persons to achieve some purpose or objective. John A. Vieg observes, is determined. action taken in pursuit of conscious purpose. It is the systematic ordering of affairs and calculated use of sesonrces, aimed at making. those things happen which we want to happen and simultaneously preventing developments. that fail to square up with our intentions. It is the marshalling of available labour and materials in order to gain that which is desired at the lowest cost in energy, time and. money. Luther Gulick notes, “Administration ‘has to do with getting things done with the accomplishment of defined objectives.” “Administration Marshall E. Dimock, in his simple definition, states, “Administration is concerned with the ‘what’ and ‘how of government. This ‘what’ is the subject matter, the technical knowledge of a field which’ enables an administrator to perform his tasks, ‘The ‘how" is the techniques of management, tho principles according to which cooperative programmes are carried through to success. Each is indispensable: together they form the synthesis called the administration. In a different interpretion, Paul Pigors observes, “The main purpose — of administration is to preserve the status quo in society. It (Administration) ensures the continuance of the existing order with a ‘minimum of effort and risk. Its fundamental fim is to ‘carry on’ rather than to venture new and untried paths. Administrators are essentially the guardians of traditions.” The definitions of thinkers make it clear that administration is a collective activity involving rational organisation and management of men and material Organisation and management are the important leatures of administrative activity Meaning and Scope of Public Administration ‘The word ‘public’ rofors to the poople of a dofinite territory or stato. As the will of the poople of a state is represented by the government, the word ‘public’ also has a specialised moaning, that of ‘governmental’ Therefore, acts of administration porformed by tho government are. known as “public administration’, Those acts performed by a lub, association, company or factory are termed ‘private administration’. As the term 68, ‘public administration” simply means the activities, undertaken by the government, to fulfil its desired end ‘The concept of public administration has been defined by scholars in different ways. Woodrow Wilson defines public administration as a detailed and systematic application of law, Every particular applicati of law is an act of administration.Public Administration : Nature and Scope 3 N.F, Willoughby states, “In its broadest sonse, public administration denotes the work’ involved in the actual conduct of governmental affairs regardless of the particular branch of government concerned. It is, thus, quite proper to speak of the administration of the legislative branch of the ment, the administration of justica or judicial affairs, or the administration of the executive branch as well as the administration of the affairs of the administrative branch of the government, or the conduct of the affairs of the government generally. In its namowest sense, it denotes the operations of the administration branch only Luther Gulick says, “Public administration is that part of the science of administration which has to do with government, and thus concerns itself primarily with the executive branch, where the work of govemment is done, though there are, obviously, problems also in connection with the legislative and judicial branches.” Dwight Waldo states, “Public administration is the art and science of ‘management as applied to the affairs of state.” Morstein Marx says, “Public administration has come to signify primarily the organisation, personnel, practices and procedures essential to effective performance of the civilian functions entrusted to the executive branch of govemment.” Herbert Simon observes, “By public administration is meant, in common usage, the activities of the executive branch of the national, state and local governments.” John A Veigi says, “Administration signifies the organisation, personnel, practices and procedures essential to ‘effective performance of civilian functions entrust to the executive branch of the government,” P. McQueen observes, “Public Administration. is_administration related to ‘the operations of Government whether central or local.” James W. Fesler stats. “Public Administration is policy execution and poli formulation, public administration bureaucracy and public administration is public.” According to James W. Davis, Administration can be best identified the executive branch of a government Frank Goodnow observes, “Administration ineludes the function of executing the law as well as the semi-scientific, quasi-judicial and quasi-business or commercial functions.” J. Greenwood and D. Wilson observes, Public Administration is an activity, a sot of institutions and a subject of study.” Eugene McGregor says. “The term public administration is reserved to denote the generation of purposive public: action whose success depends on reconciling the competing demands of administrative operations, democratic: governance and. public. solvin Marshall E. Dimock “Public administrati is the fulfilment or enforcement of publi policy as declared by the competent authorities... Public administration is the law in action. It is the executive side of governmo} ‘The definitions given by prominent writers can be broadly classified into three different categories onthe basis of the importance attached to differont aspocts of administrative functioning, There are some who emphasise the function of implementation of public policy’ L.D. White observes. “Public administration consists of all those operations having for their purpose the fulfilment or enforcement. of public policy.” Again, according to J.8. Hodgson, “Public administration comprises all activities. of persons oF groups in governments or their agencies, whether these organisations are intemational, regional or local in their scope, to fulfil tho purposo. of these governments or agencies.” Thinkers like John M. Pfiffner lay ‘more emphasis on the coordinating role of the administration. Pfifiner says, “Public Administration consists of doing the work of government, whether it be running an X-ray machine in a health laboratory or coining money in the mint, ‘Public’ administration consists of geiting the work of government “Public ith4 Public Administration : Theories and Principles done by coordinating the efforts of people so that they can work together or accomplish. their set tasks, Administration embraces activities which may be highly technical and specialised, as public health and the building of bridges... It also. involves managing, directing and supervising the activities of thousands, even millions, of workers so. that some order and efficiency may result from their efforts.” H. Walker siates, “The work which the government does to give elfect to a low is called public administration, ‘The definition given by Felix A. Nigro is more comprehensive and it includes the relationship between public administration sand political process and its association with the community as a whole. He says, “Public Administration: (a) is a copperative: group effort in a public setting: (b) covers all three branches-executive, legislative and judicial and their inter-relationships; (c) has an important role in the formulation of public policy and is, thus, part of the political process: (4) is different in significant ways from private administration; and (c) is closely associated with numerous private groups and individuals in. providing servieos to the ‘How is Public Administration similar to or different from Private Administration? Administration is a process of management that is practised by all kinds of organisations— from small households to complex systems of government. Therefore, administration may be public or private. Private administration refers to the activities of a household, club, cooperative society, political party, church or a company. Public administration means. activities of the state—of the central, provincial or local goverment. ‘There are two views on the question of the relationship between public and_ private administration. The view supported by ‘Lyndall Urwick. Henri Fayol and Mary Parker Follett is that all administration is one and there is no difference betwoon public and private administration. Fayol states, “We are no longer confronted with several administrative. scionees but with one which can be applied equally well to public: and to private affairs.” Urwick too observes, “It is difficult to contemplate sexiously a biochemistry of bankers, a physiology of professors, or a psychopathology of politicians... the attempts to sub-divide the study of management or administration in accordance with tho purpose of particular forms of undertaking seems to many authorities equally misdirected. ‘Tho other view, upheld by Paul H. Appleby, Herbert Simon, John. Gaus, Ludwig Yon Mises, Josiah Stamp and Peter Drucker, is that there are some crucial differences between public administration and private administration. John Gaus regards activities of the government as different from those of private organisations both in kind and in scope. Accortling to Herbest Simon, “In the popular imagination, — governmental administration is bureaucratic. private administration is business-like; governmental administration is political, — private administration is non-political; governmental administration is characterised by red tape. privato administration is not.” Josiah Stamp notes the differonces betwaen public and private administration with reference to uniformity, impartiality. responsibility. accountability and serviceability. Peter Drucker states, “Public administration is different in purpose; it has different valuos; it noeds different objectives. And it makes a different contribution to socicty...Performance and rosults are quite different in a service institution from what they are in a business, Managing for performance is the one area in which a service institution differs significantly ftom business.” Points of Similarity We can identify the important points of similarity between public ‘and private administration as_ follows Skills Many of the managerial techniques and procedures are common to both public and private administration. Accounting, statistics, office management and proceduresPublic Administration : Nature and Scope 5 purchases, disposals and stocking, and other activities ae common to both public and private administration. An engineer, for instance, will do the same kind of work whether he is employed in a govemment department or a private company. It is. therefore that reticed civil servants, ax in India, are re-employed by big business enterprises. There is a great deal of exchange of personnel between public and private sectors in the United States of America and Jopan, In reality, since the state has moved ‘nto the field of business and industry. public administration has been heavily drawing upon the knowledge and experience of private administration, Public corporations have come to display a close affinity with private administration. Ina number of countries, several institutions have come up which attempt to train administrators. from public and private administration together. Administrative Set-up ‘Tho kind of organisational structure, hierarchy and administrative sotup is same in both public and private sectors. ‘The responsibility of the public official and the official in a private entorprise is similar, in as -much as each aims at attaining results in his assigned field bby getting things done through the efforts of other people and with the available material Research Rosearch work is an ongoing process in both public and private administration in order to improve upon procedures and techniques. Public Relations Both the public and private sectors know that contact with the masses is a must to know their needs. ‘Therefore, for both, contact with the people is necessary for effective administration. Points of Difference It needs to be noted that the distinction between the public and private sectors is largely influenced by the political philosophy of a nation. Increasingly, however, the gap between public and private administration is narrowing due to use of private contractors and companies by the government, a large share of private funds coming from public institutions, and other reasons. We can, howaver, identify certain points of difference between public and private administration, Profit Motive Private administration is largely governed by the profit motive, while public administration leans towards the motive of service. In India, for instance, public utility services of the government often function at a loss; however, the government is duty bound to spend on them, Public administration has to make sure that its actions are justified by the results in terms of public welfare, But the services of private administration area by-product of proiit- making According to Ludwig von Misos, Business management or private ‘management is management directed by the profit motive. The objective of business management is. to make a profit. The objectives of public administration cannot be moasured in mionay terms and cannot be checked by accountancy method.” Uniformity of Treatment Public administration has to be consistent in procedure and uniform in dealing with the public, The administrative acts and decisions must conform to rules and precadents. These rules and precedents must be applied uniformly to all citizens. If any discrimination is shown without citing a reasonable cause, the government may bo criticised. But private administration need not womy much about uniformity in treatment. Financial Control Public administration is subjected to financial control. ‘The control is exercised by an extemal agency. In Indi for instance, the legislature passes the appropriation bill that authorises the execitive branch to spend the money. There is a complete dichotomy between administration and finance in public administration, which does not exist in private administration. The hoard of management which controls the business operations in private administration is fimo to manage its finances as it_likes Public Accountability Public accountability and responsibility are the6 Public Administration : Theories and Principles hallmark of public administration in a democracy. Any doparture from the accopted norms of practice can cause embarrassment to the government. Paul H. Appleby states, “Govemment administration differs from all othor administrative work...by virtue of its public nature, the way in which it is subject to public scrutiny and public outcry.” But private administration is by and large not so accountable to the people or their reprosontatives, "The private managers are free to take whatever action they deem fit ‘in the interests of the organisation where they work, Political Direction Public administration is, unlike private administration, subject to political direction in policy matters. The public administration has to carry on the policy laid down by the political executive. It cannot change the policy and has to implement it. Private administration is not subject to political direction except in times of emergency. ‘Nature of Functions Public administration is much more comprehensive than private administration. Public administration addresses various types of needs of the ‘people while private administration is mostly concerned with the economic needs of life. Public administration deals with activities which are urgent and vital for the existence of society. It is involved in provision of police and fire services, education, public works, sanitation and other sorvice. Some of its services are monopolistic: the government does not allow private parties to compete in certain areas, Private administration does not cover so many aspects of life of the people. Efficiency Public admi from private administration in the measurement of efficiency terms of ‘effectiveness’, has critical importance in govemment performance. Specific policy goals have to be achioved for measurement of success. But officieney in private administration ix usually measured in terms of resource use. It is a matter of input-output relationship. Moreover, the hire and. fire system of private management ensures that the employees are bettor disciplined as thay fear they may lose their jobs. Legal Framework Public administration functions within the framework of the law of the land. It oporates strictly according to rules and regulations laid down. Glenn Stahl observes, “The conduct of public services is governed by legal provisions, so that it is frequently difficult for the civil servant to change procedures or expand. activities.” Adherence to law yields a dogroe of rigidity in operation in the public sector, Thore are general laws regulating private administration but it is asier for individual business firms to adapt their operations to changing situations Prestige In. developing countries, public administration enjoys a higher prestige and social status than private administration, This is parlly because of the colonial past of those countries and also due to the sovereign power vested in the goverament machinery. Moreover, public administration in these countries finds greator opportunities for rendering service to the people. Public Criticism ‘The public sector omanisations are much more exposed to the public eye and so are freely criticised. Any failure on the part of the govemment is widely criticised by the people. According to Huxley, “The siaio lives in a glasshouse; ‘we see what it tries to do, and all its failures, partial or total, are made the most of But private enterprise is sholtored under good ‘opaque bricks and mortar.” Monopolistic Character of Services The services performed by the state are generally of a monopolistic or semi-monopolistic nature. Because of this, it is much more difficult to gauge the efficiency of the conduct of public business than of private business, which is subject to competition. Gode of Ethics ‘The code of ethics for public and private administration ts different Public administration has overarching responsibilities in terms of nation-building ‘and shaping the future of the people. It isPublic Administration : Nature and Scope 7 much more value-oriented. In public administration, any show of discrimination or partiality will evoke public condemnation. But business administration overtly practises discrimination which is soon by some as almost a part of the business culture, Public administration cannot advertise its services in the way in which private business can advertise. its. products, Complexity Public administration as an omganisation is more complex than private organisation. Any unit of government administration is connected with a network. of allied public organisations and it has to work in close interaction with them. A. private organisation, on the other hand, has ‘more compactness and autonomy of action. Scope of Public Administration ‘The many definitions of public administration centre around the crucial question of which of the activities of the government are ‘included in the study of public administration. Some scholars believe that all activities of tho govemment, pertaining to the legislative, executive and judicial branches come under the purview of public administration. 1.D. White's definition favours this view, This is the broader view on the scope of public administration. It states that the executive is important but the policy-forming impetus comes from the legislature, and the legislative committees often take on vigilance and control funetions. ‘The judgements passed by the judiciary too have an impact on executive operations; so judicial administration itself forms a major component of public administration. Woodrow Wilson, John M. Pfiffner and Marshall E, Dimock also support this view. But the narrow view on the scope of public administration says that only activities of the government that pertain to the executive branch come under ‘public administration’, This viow is supported by Luther Gulick, Herbert Simon, Vietor ‘Thompson and Donald Smithburg: However, Dimock and Dimock point out that “as a study, public administration examines every aspect of govermment’s offorts to discharge ‘Scope of Public Administration at a Glance “The scope of the discipline of publc administration ‘should be wide enough to respord to the present- ‘ay sociel realties. It has to davelep in close ‘association with the dynamic changes in society. So it-has to have the following features: ‘¢Publle administration should be based on democratic values, power-shasing and openness. ‘The principles of Gemceracy are to be relacied in the approach and working ofthe bureaucracy. feinaovaiiva and timely poley formulation is a mast in the govemmont egpocialy as it has to actively respond to crisis situations. The ‘administration has to be prepared to meet Uurgont challangos as and whon they arise, €¢The adiministation should be capable of affective poly implemantation © respond adequately to the demands of the citizens and daliver the ‘goods prompt. THe requires sating of clear ‘goals and proper plarning, programming and projectons ina. systematic. mannar. Project managemect in is entirety has to be hen Utmost importance in administration. Pubic administration today has to be proactive, innovate and risktaking as some of the administrative principles of yosteryears and the felablched Bureaucratic routine lose thelt Sully for use as toos for analysis. A now ‘entopcenourial zeal is roqured to make the bureaueracy avoWe ino a leaming organisation uich is mow open to innovations, can. adapt to changos and is) more accessible 10 the people. Tho administration needs to understand ‘iverse Iniavesis and ifluanees 80 that it doos not remain insular to the soci-adminisiatve realy. the law and give effect to public: policy: as a process, it is all the steps taken between the time an enforcement agency assumes jurisdiction and the last brick is placed (but ncludes also that agency's participation, if any, in the formulation of programmes in the first place}: and as a vocation, it is organising and directing the activities of others in a public agency.” Public administration is, indeed, nothing less than the whole government in action, Any attempt to limit its scope cither with roference to its activities or the branches of governmont will bp erroneous and misleading,8 Public Administration : Theories and Principles Varying views have meant that public administration nover achieved a definition that commands general acceptance. As noted by Dwight Waldo, a major difficulty in artiving at a precise and universally accoptable definition of ‘public administration arises in part from the rapid growth in the twentieth century of public administration. As a result, it seems to have become all- encompassing. Scholars like Frederick. C. Mosher suggest that the clusivenoss of a disciplinary core for Public Administration gives the subject its strength and fascination. ‘As Mosher observes, perhaps it is the best ‘that public administration be not defined. It is more an area of intrest than a discipline, more a focus than a separate scienca. It is, necessarily a_cross-discipline, Nicholas Henry, however, differentiates public administration from other disciplines. Ho notes, “Public administration diffors from political science in its emphasis on bureaucratic structure and behaviour and in ‘ts methodologies. Public administration differs from administrative science in the evaluative techniques. used by non-profit organisations and because profit-seeking organisations are less constrained in considering the public interest in their decision-making structure and the behaviour of theic administrator.” rhe study of the scope of public administration is largely dominated by certain views, These are the Integral view, the Managerial view, POSDCORB view and the Subject Matior view. Tho difforene® of opinion rolating to the Integral view and the Managerial view is regarding whether public. administration is concerned with all activities ‘undertaken by the government or only with the managerial part of the government work ‘The Integral View According to the Integral view, public administration isthe sum total of all the activities undertaken in pursuit of and in fulfilment of public poliey ‘Those activitios include not only managerial and technical activities but also manual and clerical activities. Thus, the activities of all persons working in an organisation from top to bottom constitute administration. In other words, public administration is conceived in a comprehensive sense to include all activities of the government whether they are performed in the executive, legislative or judicial branchos of the goverment. Henry Fayol, LD. White and Dimock support this view. According to Henry Fayol, “Every employee in an undertaking—workman, shopmanager, head of division, head of department, manager and if it is a state enlorprise, the series extends to the minister or head of the state—takes a larger or smaller share in the work of administration.” Public Administration, according to this view, would become a heterogenous mass of activities which will be united only by the common purpose towards which they are directed. This is a very vague view of the subject. It is hound to make the subject very broad in scope and is likely to hinder i dovelopment into a strict academic discipline; the study of the subject would become an unwieldy task. Public administration would involve health administration, educational administration, agricultural administration, industrial administration and so _many other kinds of administration—all of which would be difficult to study under the one subject of Public Administration ‘The Managerial View According to the Managerial view, tho work of only. those persons who are engaged in the performance of managerial functions in an organisation constitutes administration. It is those persons who shoulder the responsibility of keeping the enterprise running smoothly and efficiently, Their job is to plan, programme and organise all the activities in an ion 90 as to achieve the desired Horbert_Simon, Smithburg, ‘Thompson and Luther Gulick subscribe to the Managerial ‘view of public administration. ‘The Managerial view holds that administration is the organisation and use of mon and materials in the pursuit of common objectives. Only those activities of an organisation constitutePublic Administration : Nature and Scope 9 public administration which are concerned with the techniques of management and are common to the different kinds of organisation. It involves the skill of managers to organise and direct men and materials, ‘As Ordway Tead puts it, “Administration is conceived as the necessary activities of individuals (executives) in an organisation ‘who are charged with ordering, forwarding ‘and facilitating the associated efforts of a group of individuals brought together to realise cortain defined purposes.” How does the Integral view differ from the Managerial view? In the words of M.P. Sharma, “If we accept the Integral view, we will have to regard the work of ovory one of them (all who work in an onganisation) as part of administration and pethaps also to call every one of them an administrator. If, on the other hand, we look at things from’ the point of view of the managerial theory of administration, then the work of only the manager, heads of departments, and foremen and supervisors would be called administration and what the labourers, clerks, messengers, ete., do would be exchided.” According to the Integral view, administration would. differ from one sphere to another depending upon the subject-matter but the Managerial view identifios it with managerial techniques common to all. tho: fields of administration. Luther Gulick is of the view that administration is to be identified with ‘managerial techniques, He sums up those techniques in the word “POSDCORS', each letter of which describes @ management technique. The POSDCORB View ‘The ‘POSDCORE" indicates the following “ P stands for planning—working out in broad outline the things to be done and the methods to be adopted for the accomplish- ment of the purpose in hand: © stands for organisation, ie, building up the structure of authority through whi the entie work to be done is arranged into ‘well-defined subdivisions and coordination; those S stands for staffing, ie., appointing suitable parsons to the various posts, training the personnel, maintaining a favourable work atmosphere, Le., the whole of personnel management D stands for directing, ie., making decisions and issuing orders and instructions embodying the decisions for the guidance of the staff: CO stands for coordination—interrelating the various parts of the work and eliminating overlapping and conflict: R stands for reporting, i.e.. keeping both the superiors and subordinates informed of what is going on, and arranging for the collection of such information through inspection, research and records; B stands for budgeting which, in ‘American phraseology, stands for the whole of financial administration. ‘The POSDCORB activities involve the common problems of management which are found in all organisations, be it in military or civil administration, or administration of central government, state government or the local bodies. Thoy efor to activities common positions. However, critics of the tout that the nature of governmental agencies and services differ from organisation to organisation. No two govommontal departments, say the railway department and the income tax department, do the same kind of work: therefore, the administration of one would involve activities and aspects different from those in administration of the other. So there is an essential element—'the knowledge of the subject matter’—which is specific to every administrative agency and is vital to be understood for the effective administration of that agency. Tho POSDGORB view has also been criticised for ignoring the ‘human’ aspect of organisation even while stressing on the economic and technical aspects. Elton Mayo advocated that the management should deal with workers’ problems with a certain amount of humane understanding, The management10 Public Administration : Theories and Principles should not only be involved with technical skills but also handle human situations and lead and motivate the workers, especially as public administration is inenmasingly involving group dynamics, communication, leadorship skill and power relationships. Interestingly, Luther Gulick himself mentioned that the technique-based public administration of the 19308 and the 1940s will not suit the 1960s. ‘The Subject Matter View For a long time. it was felt that the POSDCORB activities constituted the core of public administration. But it was then raalised that they wore neither the whole of administration nor even the most important part of it. The POSDCORB activities were only the common housekeeping activities. or tools of administration, the real core of which consisted of the various line functions or services produced for the people like law and order, education, public health, agriculture, public works. social security, justice and defence. These programmes or services have important and specialised techniques of their own which are not covered by the POSDCORB activities, For instance, in police administration, there ane techniques of crimes detection, prevention of breaches of poace, control of criminal activities, ete,, which are much more. vital to alficient polico work than the formal principlos of organisation, porsonnel management, coordination or finance. Moreover, oven. the so-called common techniques of management are deeply coloured and modified by the subject media of the services in which they have to operate. Organisation in the armed forces is very difierent from that in education; the technique of coordination in the two also differs Emphasis on the managerial tasks to the noglect of spocialisod techniques of the various fields of concrete administrative activity fs, therefore, tantamount to missing the very heart of administration. This is in essence the Subject Matter view of public. administration, Complementarity of ‘POSDCORB’ and “Subject Matter’ Views ‘Tho POSDCORB view and the Subject Matier view of public administration are not mutually exclusive; rather, they are complementary to cach other. As in the case of social sciences, the scope of public administration consists of the theory part and the applied part. The theory, which is general and abstract, largely consists of POSDGORB activities common to all ‘organisations, while the applied part consists of studies of concrete application of administrative theory in various fields like police administration, agricultural axiministration, financial administration and so on. The "POSDCORB’ view and the ‘subject matter” view together constitute the proper scope of the study of Public ‘Administration. As Lewis Meriam observes: “Public administration is an instrument with two blades like a pair of scissors, One blade may be a knowledge of the fields covered by POSDCORB, the other blade is knowledge of the subject-matter in which these techniques are applied, Both blades must be good to make an offective tool.” ‘A study of scope of public. administration hhas to comparative public administration and dovelopmont administration, among others Comparative public administration was the first. major development in the post-Second World War evolution of public administration. Development Administration came up as such field of public administration in the 1950s and the 1960s, (‘The themes have been discussed later in the book under specific chapter headings.). Public Administration and Other Social Sciences Public administration is coneemed with human ‘relations in administrative situation, ‘As a discipline, public administration is a young social science, But the younger a icipline is, the greater is its interdisciplinary nature, There are two schools of thought on the relationship of public administration with the other social sciences,Public Administration :Nature and Scope 11 One school of thought identifies public administration as a distinct academic discipline which may be looked upon as autonomous, though closely related to the other social sciences. Public administration ‘has a methodology of its own which alone can analyse the administrative processes. But as the administrative processes occur in 4 certain. social setting, the administrative analysis has also to consider contain data already collected and systematised by other social sciences, like political science, sociology and social psychology. Hence, public administration is always in close inter-dependence and cooperation with other social sciences. It enjoys independence but within a scenario of interdependence. It has the relationship of mutual give-and-take with tho other social sciences. As Mac Iver and Poge argue, “It is always the focus of interest that distinguishes one social science from another. We should not think of the social scionces as dividing between them physically soparate areas of reality. What distinguishes each from each is the’ selective interest.” ‘The other school of thought believes that there is not a single science of public administration, but there are several ‘administrative sciences’ which may be defined as a group of social sciences, ‘This point of view contends that public administration is not a separate and independent discipline but is only a part of the social sciences. Public administration is, ‘the sum total of the facts of the various social sciences that is more particularly directed towards the study of public administration. ‘This school holds that for the examination of public administration, techniques have to be borrowed from other existing social sciences. Though it agreas that the administrative process exists as a distinct sand separate social phenomenon, it docs not accept the existence of a separate method to sindy this process. Public Administration and Political Science Political science is coneamned with the study of ‘authoritative allocations of values’. Tt focusses on the relationship between the state and the individual, provides answers to questions conceming the origin and nature of state and considers the institutions through which the members of society exercise power. Public administration is deeply associated with the political sub-system of a society. While politics deals with government, administration is government in action. Scholars of public administration at first believed in a dichotomy between politics and administration. But, in recent times, scholars are emphasising the close relationship hetween political science and public administration, The dichotomy theory of politics and administration has been replaced by tho theory that public administration is @ part of the overall political process. John M, Gaus writes, “A. theory of public administration means in our time a theory of politics also.” Loslie Lipson says, “Government is a continuous process. It is true that the process contains phases. Logislation is one phase, administration another. But these are merged together and at certain points become indistinguishable.” ‘The study of administration now includes the processes of policy formulation, pol and public opinion. Apart from public policy, politics and administration mest in other sphores as well, as in the fiold of constitutional law, local government and international relations. Political science is concémed with the theory’ of a state and government and public administration mainly deals with the ‘activity’ of the governmont Public Administration and Economics Economics is the study of economic activities of human beings in a society. ‘There has always been a close inter-relationship between economies and public administration, Public administration has to deal with immense economie problems. The government regulates the economic life of its citizens and also conducts it in the form of manufacturer, producer, distributor and server in. different businoss and social wollare fields. The12 Public Administration : Theories and Principles Is Public Administration an Art or a Science, or Both? ‘There is a difference of opinion among thinkers on whether public administation is an art or a science ‘or bots. There is a schoo! of thought which believes ‘hat puble adminstaton is defintely an art, a8 the art of administration can be acquired and under proper training the taleniod in tho fold become tho ost administrators. Af Is the appliaion of knowledge to feal le: i suiful and invalves eystemate practee ‘so public acminstation, that refers to the actual ‘conduct of administaion and has inherent to it the ‘qualties of eroativty, judgement, leadership and acision-making, is an art. Pubic administmtion fs 2 ‘kil, an art to administer other people; it is a practical fan and practice is necessary to perfect i. The ‘Chinoso, tho Egyptians, tho Romans and the Indians ako used it as an an and as a skil in the anciont ast. Ordway Taad in his book The Art of Adminstration ‘writes that “an art requires a medium forts expression, and in the case of administration the medum seems. to be throeioid Its ful expression takes place in and ‘through organisation, human beings, and in a certain kind of wide social and cultural seting..” He turher s2ys, "Adminstration, indeed, is an at of the highest ‘ore tobe able to bring about tne most rut possible Ccolaboraton in a world whore associated elfort i the ‘ypleal expression of ndlviduals who sook to. be produstivay alive, And this art becomes in all good ‘Sense a social undertaking of fundamental pubic Importance” J. Winer states, "No che knows better than the occupants of the social science chairs that theie discipline is so falible and erate that 1 persist inthe tem, ‘sientic, is an open invitation to ridicule: Cohen also denies public administration the status ot f@ science: On the other hand, some scholars Increasingly lay claim to public administration being a ‘According to Charis A. Board, “it by sconce is meant a conceptial scheme of things in which every particularly coverod may bo assigned a mathematical due and all pericularties covered and in process may be exactly expressed in a diferetial equation, then administaton ie not a science” I we use the tem in connection with a body of systematised koowledgo, derived from experience and cbservaton, thon public administation is a scionce. F Merson asserts, "Science is investigation and observation, folowed by tabulation, classification and corelaton, “The subject-matter of exact science is measurable anc conslets of facts which can be igolated and have a rolatve uniormiy. may vo objecive and have a relative uniformity. Ih may be objected that those condiens do not exit In the science of public ‘acminisvation. Its ata cannot be Isolated and ‘periment of the verfication of deductions by fresh observation is impossible. Biology difers trom mathematics in that ite subject-matter makes chsonvation more difieuk and conelation of data loss ‘exact. The science of public administration atfers even prosoat-day administrator must have a comprehensive knowledge of economics as every administrative policy is based on économie planning. The meoting point between public administration and economics, with regard to economic institutions, has developed into a separate study called ‘business administration’. Business ‘administration took a definite academic form under tho impact of the Sciontific Management’ Movement Public Administration and Sociology Public administration and sociology are closely related to each other. Sociology is the scionce of society. It doals with groups. and associations. It attempts to discover the general principles underlying all social phenomena and social relationships and study the Jaws of chango and growth. in society. Public administration borrows from aocialogy useful hypotheses with regard to the way in which social groups work and interact, The sociological study of status, power, organisation, association and authority are of interest to scholars of public administration. Impact of behaviouralism on social sciences has brought public. administration closer to sociology. Max Wobor's essay on Buroaucracy was tho first systematic contribution of a sociologist to the field of public administration. ‘The classical theories of administration investigate why a particular decision is taken by an administrator in a particular situation, ‘Tho social background of administrators is taken into account in the course of such an investigation, The tools developed byPublic Administration :Nature and Scope 13 ‘greater difcuties, but observation and experiance have provided a mass of ascerained facts upon which the sdlenist may exercise his deductive faculias, and ‘the statistician is constanty proving him with materials for fresh deductions or for the veification of general propositions previously advanced? Robert Dahl raised a controversy when pondering ‘over the question whether puble adminiseation was ‘2 solenea? He observes, “AS long as the study of puble administration is not comperativa, claims for '3 Science of public administration’ sound rather hollow. Ganeralsatens cervad from the operation of public adminisvation in the envionment of one nation-state cannot be universalised and applied to public ‘administation ina diferent envionment. principle may be applicable in a different framowork. But its appleabity ean be setarminod only alter a study of ‘that partcular framework. There can be no. truly universal ganeralisations. about public administration without a profound study of varying national and social ‘chatacters impinging on pubic administration, 10 determine what aspects of administration, I any, are ‘muly independent of the national and social seting." He identiies three major preblems in the evolution of the scionce of pubic administration. Ho concludes that no Science of puble aciminisvation is possible uniass the position of normative values in public administration is ‘mage clear, the nature of man in tho fold of pubic ‘administration is better understood and his conduct is ‘predictable, and there is a body of comparative studies trom which i may be possible to discover principles ‘and generalities that ranscend national boundavies and peculiar historical experience ‘The essentia|charactadlics of sclenca ae ssen ‘ag absaree of normative of ethical values, oredtabity ‘of behaviour and universality of application, These fattinutes are only partially applicable to public Acmministration. We cannot completely eliminate normative values trom the domain of public ‘administration, oF any social scionoe for that maton. But thelr scope must be reduced, Unik the natural scloncos, pubic administration does not stricly observe the relaion of cause and ‘att the mathods cf observation and axperimantation| play a decisive rae in natural and physical sconces "endl applicable to public administration; anc sbeolte law of science but such laws, that ‘always remain tne same, cannet be framed in pubic ‘administation. But many scholars feel that scintiic study of facts of pubic administration Is possible anc so can be aotorded the status of a science. Public administration can more righty be call ‘a social solenom hacause It canceens ise with Auman helngs who have a wil and mind of their own and are ‘capable of thing and aeting In fren ways, Puble ‘administation (5 not a slence in the sanse in wich ‘tho natural sconces and tho physical sconces aro but it may be seen as a social sone dealing with a ‘dynamic subject mattor.Puble administration is an art ‘a8 wall as it volves skill and creativiy and systematic practice, inves application of knowledge inlo acta ‘uations In le; and enhances insight into new areas of really. sociology have boon considered. useful for scholars of public administration in order to ‘understand the sociology of administrators. Many institutions offer course in social administration as part of their postgraduate curriculum and other programmes Public Administration and According to E.H. Carr, history is a continuous, process of interaction betwoon the historian and his facts and an unending dialogue between the present and the past. As history is the record of the past exporiencos of mankind, it has lessons to offer to all branches of human activity. ‘The study of the historical background of a country enables us to understand its administrative systems. Historians have recorded not only political events but also particulars of administration story ‘and administrators in the past. For example, LD. White wrote books on the early history of American administration. It is from the study of history that we get information on. the system of public administration in the past. The study of administrative problems which arose in. the past and the way in which they were solved then can provide valuable information to present-day administrators. Public administration and history however, did not come close to each other for some time. Firstly, the early administrative thinkers in their zeal for empiricism did not care for the historical perspective of their subject-matter. Secondly, most history, as hhas boon written till nov, has not devoted much attention to administration and its problems. However, writers of administration14 Public Administration : Theories and Principles fire increasingly focusing on the history of administration. In India, |.N. Sarkat’s Mughal Administration in India, B.N. Puri's ‘Administrative History of India, B.B. Mishra’s Central Administration of India under the East India Company and Mookheyji’s Local Government in Ancient India are good examples of literature on administrative history, Public Administration and Law Law is any rule recognised as being obligatory by tho bulk of the community. A legal norm is marked by the probability that it will be enforced by a specialised staff, The authority to enforce law is in the hands of administration. ‘This is what explains the relationship between law and public administration. Political science provides the ‘ideological’ framework to public administration; law provides th working framework within which public administration has necessarily to function. Public. ‘administration functions within the framework of law. Law sets the Limits of administrative action, even as it allows considerable discrotion. 10 tho administration, Woodrow Wilson defined public administration as the “systematic and detailed execution of law." Tho relationship botwoen the two disciplines is so close that some countries focus on public administration as part of some courses in law. In Europe, public administration is to this day considered part of administrative law. ‘The legislature enacts laws which the administration has to implement, Administration not only implements the law but it also plays a role in law-making. Civil sorvants have a say in the formulation, presentation and enactment of laws. Public Administration and Psychology Psychology inquires into the human mind of man and Inman behaviour and explains the motives of human action. Tt deals with individuals per se as well as interactions between individuals. The psychological approach has opened up new vistas of knowledge in public administration. Public administration is concomed with both the ‘work and the worker. The worker is a human being who is to be mobilised in pursuit of a given goal. Psychology provides an insight into loadorship, motivation, morale, communication and interpersonal relationship among people—aspacts that are important in public. administration. Psychology has enormously influenced personnel administration, Psychology has deeply contributed to the ‘understanding of the administrative processes and to the development of techniques and methods of public administration, Public Administration and Geography Montesquieu stated as early as in the eighteenth century that the form of government in a country is largely determined by its geographical features. This is true for the system of administration in a country as well. Though geographical and ecological factors are important to public administration, these wore not given significance in. tho study of public administration till the middle of tho twontieth century. John Gaus was the first to stress the importance of geographical ‘and ecological considerations in the study of public administration in Reflections on Public Administration (1947), Robert Dahl emphasised the need of studying administration in its environmental seiting It was in the 1950s, while operating the technical assistance programmos, that American administrators felt that the formula for effective public administration worked out in the USA had to bo drastically: modifice to fit the environment of a different country whore it was being put into operation. Approaches to the Study of Public Administration ‘An approach in a simple term may be defined as @ way of looking at and then oxplaining a particular phenomenon. Approaches to the study of the discipline of public administration may be broadly Classified into two categories—traditional andPublic Administration :Nature and Scope 15 modern or normative and emperical. “Traditional is said to be ‘value-laden’ whereas, modem as being ‘value-free’. The major varieties of traditional approaches are: historical approach, legal approach and institutional approach; while important modern approaches are: systems approach, structural-functional approach, behavioural approach and public policy approach. ‘Those approaches are explained further below: Historical Approach History is the store- ‘house of incidents pertaining to human life. Tt Keeps the records of the progress and downfall of human civilisation and culture. It provides material for comparison rogarding the development of administrative institutions and the extent to which they fulfil the purposes of their existence. To neglect the study of history is to neglect the real source of knowledge relevant to the study of administrative thought and. institutions, For example, to understand the Indian administration one should have to read British administration, even as Kautilya’s Arthashasira and books on Mughal Administration givo us glimpses of the anciont administration. L.D. White's two volumes: The Federalists (1948) and The Jeffersonians (1951), are important studies of the federal administration of the USA. Historical approach has its limitations. Lord Bryce has pointed out that ‘historical parallels’ are generally interesting and sometimes illuminating but are always ‘misleading’ Legal Approach This approach traces its ancestry to the European tradition of rooting public administration in law. The main focus of this approach is on the power, sovereignty and subsidiary organs of governmental organisation, We cannot understand the Indian administration without understanding the constitutional law and administrative law. ‘The relationship betw law and administration was clearly highlightod by Woodrow Wilson in his essay, ‘The Study of Administration’ ‘Tho main inadoquacies in this approach are that it is a formal approach and noglects the socio-psychological variables in the organisation. ‘This approach is more descriptive and less analytical. Institutional Approach It lays stress on the study of formal olfices and structures of some important administrative organisations like offices of the president, prime minister, collector, treasury, etc. It deals with the organs of state, viz., the executive, the legislative sub-system, the departments, the budgetary system and the personnel, Frank J. Goodnew and Woodrow Wilson were the strong protagonists of this approach. It has been criticised for being too narrow and for ignoring the role of individuals who operate these stmetures. Systems Approach ‘Tho goneral systems theory owes its origin to the famous biologist Ludwig von Bertalantiy. According to G.A. Almond, a ‘system’ is characterised by (i) comprehonsivoness, (ii) interdependence, and existence of boundaries. Chester Barnard organisation “as a system of consciously coordinated activities” where he emphasises the system of interactions Herbert Simon used the systems approach to elaborate his decision-making model. Philip Selavick. Koontz O' Dounel. C. West Churchvan, and M.P. Follett used the systems approach in their writings, Systems are often charactorised as ‘closed’ or ‘open’. An opon system interacts with its environment whereas a closed system does not. Physical and ‘mechanical systems are closed systems: they are insulated from their extemal environments as they do not interact with their outside world, On the contrary, biological, human and social systems are open and are in constant interaction with the environment, Administrative organisations are relatively open systems characterised by interdependence, interaction, mutual influence and adaptation in relation to their external environments ‘Tho central concept of ‘system’ is. the hehavioural dimension; it is the behaviour16 Public Administration : Theories and Principles which attracts attention rather than the structure or the. institution, ‘The systems. approach facilitates information exchange between parts of the system. This approach is particularly relevant to the study of complex public organisations that have huge diversified structures. Structural-Functional Approach This approach began purely as an offshoot of the ‘systems analysis’ and is the means of explaining what structures perform what basic functions in the political system. As ‘ts mame suggests, the stroctural-functional ‘approach revolves round two key concepis— structures and functions. Here, functions deal with the consequences involving objectives as well as the processes or patterns of the actions; ‘functions’ also rafors to those arrangements within the system which perform the functions. ‘This approach is a tool of investigation and. based on cortain basic assumptions, (i) It takes the society as a single inter- connected system, each eloment of which performs a specific: function. Gi) If society is a system as a whole, it hhas its parts that are inter-related. ii) Underlying the whole social structure ‘there are broad aims and principles that are observed by the members of tho society. “Three basic: questions are involved in the concept of the functions—(i) what basic functions are discharged in any given system, Gi) by what instruments those functions are performed, and (iii) under what conditions the performance of these fimctions is done. FLW, Riggs, used the structural-functional approach in his well-known model of ‘prismatic society’, which studies societies on the basis of the differentiation in social structures. Riggs in his model differentiated societies into ‘fused’, ‘prismatic’, and ‘diffracte In public administration, structural functional analysis is most commonly applied with reference to bureaucratic or administrative structures, ie, the civil sorvices, federal sorvicos or national/state administrative machinery. ‘This approach too has its serious shortcomings: (i) structiralsfunctional analysis, primarily focuses on static relationships rather than on dynamic ones, so it is accused of being anti-change; (i) it is nothing else but fan exorcise to dofond and justify the status quo of colonial political and administrative structure from changing towards socialism. Behavioural Approach The term “behaviouralism’ was coined by John, B. Watson (1878-1958), a psychologist. The credit for popularising the behavioural approach is ascribed to the Ford Foundation of the US. The behavioural approach emphasised the need for a scientific approach to the. study cof human behaviour. It secks to place theory and research in a frame of reference common to that of social psychology, sociology, and cultural anthropology. It insists upon survey research and other field work oxercises Hence, it rests on ‘facts’. Bohavionralism, however, came to public administration through the Human Rolation Approach, which had its origin at the Hawthome Plant of the Weston Electric Company at Chicago between 1927 and 1940. H. Simon explains behaviouralism in public administration as ‘interdisciplinary’ in character and makes considerable use of propositions drawn from other social sciences, ‘Abraham Maslow, Douglas McGregor, Chester Barnard, Mary Parker Follet, Rensis Likert and Chris Argyris are some of the foremost behavioural scientists. Barnard's approach to organisation can be called behavioural, as he laid emphasis on the psycho-social aspects of management. Argyris focused upon the individual's welationship to the organisation. Behaviouralism has greatly benefited comparative studies of the administrative systems of various cultures Though behaviouralism widened the horizons of studies of public administration, it has done a disservice to the subject of administration by just sticking to the “facts! and thereby ignoring the place of ‘norms ‘goals’ and ‘values”Public Administration Nature and Scope 47 Public Policy Approach ‘he concept of Public Policy Approach was first formulated by Harold Lasswell in @ paper called ‘The Policy Orientation’ in 1951. ‘This approach aims at improving public policy process. It is a systematic and scientific study of public policy. The main concern of policy approach is with the understanding and improvement of public policy making system. Without policy, government and administration ruddes ‘Tho focus of public administration has ‘been changing since scholars of the discipline started paying greater attention to the study of public policy. Today the study of public policy is imparting a greater scientific temper, Credibility and acceptability to the discipline. Success or failure of policy has become synonym of success or failure of public administration, and it has become imperative to understand and study public policy through administration and vice-versa, This approach assumes. policy making to be one of the foremost functions of the political. and top level permanent executives in government and policy implementation was left to the lowor level. Hence, it is a symbiosis betwoon power and knowledge, if knowledge is not provided to the top level improvement in public policy cannot be expected.Chapter 2 Public Administration: ——£volution, Challenges and Significanc Evolution of Public Administration as @ Discipline and its Present Status Administration as an activity or as a process is believed to be as old as the human civilisation. We find traces of the activity in all types of human organisations that have been in existence since ancient times. But public administration as an academic discipline is hardly a century old. Even within that span of time, the disci has undergone many changes, Its study, as Peter Self points out, developed as an offshoot of political science or public law, and until recently administration as an academic subject ‘was the very plain step-sister of these older disciplines T is believed that tho Public Administration’ cropt into Europoan languages during the seventeenth ventury to distinguish the monarch's administration from his smanagement of his private household. Public administration is regarded as one among the newest disciplines of the social sciences. Like other disciplines it has passed through several phases of evolution. In the casly nineteenth contury, France emerged as a loading country in recognising the importance of public administration, Charles Jean-Bonnin published his Principle De Administration Publique (Principles of Public Administration) in 1812 and drafted an administrative code for public officials following the administrative revolution, which overtook France in the early 1800s under term 1a Napoleon. In 1859, the aystomatic study of public administration reached a crucial point with the publishing of the two-volume Biudes Administrative (Administrative Studies) by Viven. ‘AS public administration bears the vopest mark of American scholarship, the imelight’ has remained focused on that 's achievements. The discipline of public administration would, indeed, become altogether indistinguishable if the American contribution to it is taken away. The USA continues to be the singlemost important source of literature in the field of public administration, The country has sean the emergence of what is aptly called the ‘organisation Man's it has been directly oxperioncing the organisational thrusts and thus has been face to face with the ‘administrative phenomenon. ‘The traditions of scholarship in this field thus recvive continual stimmlation and support from the national environment. The discipline has leamt to reflect the American eoncems, and in the process they tend to become niversalised. The systematic beginning of the academic discipline of public. administration is, however, attributed to Woodrow Wilson. His essay entitled “The Study of Administration’ published in the 1887 in the Political Science Quarterly pioneered the study of public administration, ‘and he was acclaimed as the founder of the discipline Prevalent maladministration was thePublic Administration : Evolution, Challenges and Significance 19 principal cause underlying the growth of the discipline. in the USA. Ther was rampant corruption in public administration. It was felt that a proper study of the discipline was aan integral part of the much-needed reform process. Needless to say, public administration and its reform had to do mainly with the cities where most government ‘was, where most problems were, and where ‘the ‘services of public administrators could most demonstrably be made more effective more honest and less costly. Public administration thus began to be taught in American colleges and universities Soon, the lorger society realised the ‘importance of the discipline as subserving the important cause of promoting public education. The graduates coming out of college anid university departments of public administration sought their professional careors in private professional practice, in business corporations, as teachers in colleges, universities and training institutions, in voluntary agencies, and in government. The Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs at Syracuse University, lished in 1924, developed the. first graduate programme in public administration in the USA. Many developments have taken place since then. Public administration has experienced many new perspectives, approaches and even slogans over the years which, in turn, have enriched the discipline, Economy and efficiency, administrative management, POSDCORB, performance budgeting, work measurement, human relations, cost-benefit analysis, productivity management by objectives, the new federalism, affirmative action, organisation development, policy analysis” and systems approach are all now part of tho repertoire of public administration, Stages in the Evolution of Public Administration Public administration has developed as an acadomic discipline through a succession of {ideas and perceptions: Politics-Administration Dichotomy (1867-1926); Principles of ‘Administration (1927-37); Era of Challonge (1038-47); Crisis of Identity (1948-70); Public Policy Perspective (since 1971); and Paradigmatic: Shifts (fom the 1980s). Robert Golembiewski has observed that each of these phases: may be characterised according to whether it has a locus ot focus. Locus is the institutional ‘where’ of the field whereas ‘focus’ is the specialised ‘what’ of the field, A recurring locus. of public administration isthe — government bureaucracy, but it has not always been so. ‘One focus of public administration has been the study of certain principles of administration, but again the focus of the discipline has altered with its changing paradigms. According to scholars like Golembiewski, locus has been defined relatively sharply in academic circles but focus has been conceptually ignored even as fat other times just the opposite has taken place. In the discussion that follows, we study the stages in the evolution of public administration as a discipline. Stage I: Polities-Administration Dichotomy (1887-1926) Public administration as a discipline is said to have originated in the United States. The first stage of its evolution is considered to have begun with the appearance in 1887 of Woadrow Wilson's essay titled “The Study of Administration’ ‘Through the essay. which is hailed as the ‘most distinguished essay in the history of American public administration, Wilson sought to help establish public administration as a recognised field of study. Doctrine after doctrine which public administration accepted as valid was first clearly enunciated by Wilson in 1847, In his essay, Wilson stressed! the need for # separate study of administration as ho rogarded administration to bo distinct from politics. He argued that law-making or framing a constitution is the concern of politics, while administration is concerned ‘with the rumning of the constitution. He said, ‘tis getting harder to run a constitution than to frame one.” Wilson's name is associated20 Public Administration : Theories and Principles with two notable features. One, he is regarded as the fathor of the discipline of public administration, Two, he presented the politics- administration dichotomy which dominated the scone for a quarlor of a century. As it happened, nearly forty years passed before public ackninistration (as we think of it today) asa fiold of study had developed and the first textbooks for college use were published. ‘Another notable event of the period was the publication in 1900 of Frank J, Goodnow’s Politics and Administration, The notion of a distinct politics-administration dichotomy was strengthened by relating it to a corresponding value-fact dichotomy. Goodnow. doveloped the Wilsonian thome further with conviction. He sought to conceptually distinguish the two functions of the goverment. He said, “Politics has to do with policies or expressions of the State Will”, while “Administration has to do with the execution of these policies” Apart from this distinction, he also. stressed the difference between the institutional location of the two functions. While the location of politics was identified as the legislature and the higher echelons of government where mejor policy-decisions are made, the location of administration was identified as the executive arm of the government—the bureaucracy. In the carly twentioth century, Amprican universities began to take active interest in the reform movement in government. Scholars were, therefore, attracted to the field of public administration, In 1914, the American Political Science Association published a report which discussed the objectives of the teaching of political science. One of the objectives was to “prepare specialists for government positions”. Thus, public administration was Fecognised asan important sub-area of political science, Public administration as a subject began to gain increasing recognition in the American universities and its study began to gain in importance. In 1926, there appeared the first textbook on the subject. This was Loonard D, White's Introduction to the Study of Public ‘Administration. ts promises. wore that polities and administration were to be kept separate and efficiency and economy war the watchwords of public administration. The remarkable feature of the first period of the process of evolution of the discipline was ‘a passionate belief in ‘politics-administration dichotomy’. The practical invalidity of the ichotomy did in no way trouble the thinkers at this. stag Stage I: Principles of Administration (1927-87) ‘The beginning of this stage is {raced to the publication of W.F. Willoughby's Principles of Public Administration (1927), ‘This period saw the publication of a number of works. the more important among them being Mary Parker Follett's Creative Experience (1924), Henry Fayol's General ‘and Industrial Management (1950) and Mooney and Reiley's Principles of Organisation. This period reached its climax in 1937 when Luther H. Gulick and. Lyndall Urwiek's Papers on the of Administration appeared. ‘Thi word ‘science’ in association with administration is significant. Urwick observed: “It is the general thesis of this paper that there are principles which can be arrived at inductively from the study of human organisation which should govern arrangements for human association of any Kind. ‘These principles can be studied as a {ochnical question, inmspective of the purpose of the enterprise, the personnel comprising it, or any constitutional, political or social theory underlying its creation The second period in the history of public administration has as its central theme the principles of administration. ‘The central belief of this period was that there are certain ‘principles’ of administration and the scholars must discover them and promote their application. What are these principles? Gulick and Urwick coined the acronym ‘POSDCORB' to promote seven principles of administration. ‘They emphasised on efficiency and economy. (See under "Scope of Public Administration’) F.W. Taylor, the father of scientific managemont, held that “the best managementPublic Administration : Evolution, Challenges and Significance a is a true science” and it is applicable to Wwitios. Ho focusod different kinds of human a fon the scientific deal of efficiency. To this end, he developed many tools and techniques, including the exception principle, work study and work moasurement, which are used in prosent-day public and industrial organisations. He authored the works The Principles of Scientific Management (1911) and Shop Management (191) WEF. Willoughby gave a new direction to the discipline of public administration, He attempted to apply the techniques of science to addrossing problems of organising and administering in an officient and cost-effective way. His science of administration revolved around the politics-administration dichotomy Henry Fayol identified five concepts of administration, namely planning, orgenising, command, coordination and control. Through these concepts, administrators could try to clarify their perception of their work. The period 1927-37 was the period of ‘principles and techniques’ in the. study of public administration, This means that administration was seen as having its own principles and techniques independent of ‘the kind of government that operated. It was felt that administration was synonymous ‘with management and certain best principles could be evolved to manage or administer Stage Ik Era of Challenge (1938-47) The period from 1938 to 1947 may be best identified as one in which a serious challenge to tho principles paradigm, evolved in the earlier stage, was developed. This challenge developed mainly in two directions. One, apprehensions were expressed whether politics and administration could be really separated, Two, it was pointed out that there was nothing like immutable principles of administration. The principles approach was criticised for the ambiguity of its. principles, absence of scientific validity and a mochanistic approach to organisation analysis. The so-called principles of administration wore dubbed as ‘naturalistic fallacies’ and ‘proverbs’. Meanwhile scientific management in industry was also undergoing a broadening and humanising process in response to insistent social needs’ and forces. ‘The most notable contribution, in this connaction, came from the famous ‘Hawthorne Experiments’ of the late 1920s which were carried out by a group of scholars under the leadership. of Elton Mayo at the Hawthorne Plant of the Western Electric Company. The experiments which focused upon work groups shook the foundations of the scientific -management school by clearly demonstrating the powerful influence of social and psychological factors on workers’ output, The Hawthorne experiments pioneered a movement which came to be known as the Human Relations Approach to administration, This. approach to organisation analysis drew attention to the formation and effect of work groups in the ‘organisation, the force of informal organisation in the formal set-up, the phenomena of leadership, and conflicts and cooperation ‘among groups in the organisational setting, In short, the human relations approach brought out the limitations of the machine concept of organisation in ‘sciontific management” thought. By. drawing attention to the limitations, it underscored the vital importance of the ‘human side of the ‘organisation’. Scholars made notable contributions. to underline the objections to the machine concept of organisation while emphasising the relevance of the human side of the organisation, GL Barnard, in ‘The Functions of the Executive (1938), emphasised that polities and administration can never be separated. He stated that principles of administration wore logically inconsistent, and the psychological and behavioural factors in organisational analysis ought to be stressed. He viewod formal and informal organisations as inter-dependent aspects of the same phenomena. He viewed the organisations as22 Public Administration : Theories and Principles basically a social system, Authority, in Bamard’s view, is a matter of acceptance. of the superior role of the superior by the subordinate. He believed in the importance of persuasion as a means of motivation and underplayed the role of coercion in organisation, He pinned his faith in organisational leadership which, he thought, was the most important factor in organisational “management. F, Morstein Marx, in tho post-War textbook Blements of Public Administration (1946), admitted the political nature of public. administration, the political role of administrators and the existence of bureaucratic power. Marx's work was one of the first volumes to question the assumption of separation of politics and. administration. Peter Drucker, in The Practice of Management, stressed on long range planning ‘and human relations in industry as. well as government. Elton Mayo's (1880-1949) Contribution to administrative organisation is recognised as exemplary as he, for the first time ever, tried to understand the problems. of industrial management and the administrative system of a state with a new approach. Herbert. A. Simon wrote an article entitled “The Proverbs of Administration’ in 1946, ‘and the argument made in this article was further developed by him in his monumental work Administrative Behaviour (1947), Simon's hook is a critique of the older principles. of public administration. It sets forth the rigorous, yequirements of scientific analysis in public administration. Simon concluded that some of the classical ‘principles’ were unscientifically derived and were “no more than proverbs’. He rejected the politics- administration dichotomy but, at the same time, brought in the perspective of logical positivism in the study of policy-making and the relation of moans and ods. Roflecting the perspectives and methodology of “behaviouralism’ in psychology and social psychology, he pleaded for the raising of scientific rigour in public adm ‘The substantive focus was on ‘d making’ and, ag Simon insisted, “if any ‘theory’ is involved, it is that decision making is the heart of administration, and that the vocabulary of administrative theory must be derived from the logic and psychology of human choice”. jan's approach provided an alternative Gofinition of public administration, and widened the scope of the subject by relating it to psychology, sociology, economics and political seiones. In the development of the line, he identified a stream of thought engaged in the development of a pure science of administration which called for a good grounding in social psvehology, and another stream that dealt with a broad range of values and prescriptions for public policy. imon favoured the coexistence of both the approaches, empirical and normative, for the growth of the discipline of" public axiministration, Robert Dahl, in his essay (1947) entitled “The Scionce of Public Administration: Three Probloms’ identified three important problems in the evolution of the science of public administration. The first problem arises from the frequent impossibility of excluding normative considerations from the problems of public administration. Scientific means in order to achieve efficiency must be founded on some clarification of ends. The second problem arises from the inescapable fact that fa science of public administration must be fa study of certain aspects of human behaviour. Dabl criticised the ‘machine’ concept of organisation and argued that the study of administration must embrace the whole psychological man, The third prablom relates to the conception of the principles of administration. Referring to the study of public. administration in the United States, hhe commented on the narrow and parochial nature of the intellectual pursuit. Ho said there was a tendency to enunciate universal principles based on a few examples drawn from limited national and historical settings ‘To quote Dahl, "The comparative aspects of Public Administration have largely been ignored; and as long as the study of PublicPublic Administration : Evolution, Challenges and Significance 23 Administration is not comparative, claims for ‘a Science of Public Administration’ sound sather hollow, Conceivably there might be a science of American Public Administration and a scianee of British Public Administration and a science of French Public Administration: but can there be a science of Public Administration in the sense of a body of generalised principles independent of their peculiar national setting?....ho study of Public Administration inevitably must become a much more broadly based discipline, resting not on a narrowly defined knowledge of techniques and processes, but rather extending to the varying historical sociological, economic and other conditional factors...” ‘Thus Robert Dahl stressed the noed. for cross-cultural studies and emphasised the environmental effects on administrative structure and behaviour, He observed that public administration cannot escape the effects of ‘national psychology’ and the political, social and cultural environment in which it develops. He decried the almost total ignorance of the relationship between the so-called “principles of Public Administration” and their general setting. Dwight Waldo attacked the notion of immutable principles, inconsistencies of mothodology used in determining them, and the narrowness of values of efficiency and economy in The Administrative State published in 1948. The doubis expressed in this period against the politics-administration dichotomy and the principles approach shook the moorings of the discipline of public administration, Stage IV: Identity Crisis (1948-70) As a asequence of the rejection of the two defining pillars of the early administrative theory, i.c., the politics-administration dichotomy and the principles approach, the discipline of public administration faced an identity crisis, Scholars responded to it by returning to the fold of political science Political scientists began to argue that the ‘tme objective of teaching in the field was ‘intellectualised understanding’ of the exvcutive, thus mversing the objective laid down in 1914, namely, that of preparing specialists. for govemmental positions. John Gaus in “Trends in the Theory of Public ‘Administration’ (1950) published in the Public Administration Review developed the thesis that “a theory of Public Administration means in our time a theory of politics also”. Further, Rosco Martin wrote in 1952 in favour of continued ‘domination of political science over public administration”, Public administration, therefore, was in search of an alternative and the alternative ‘was available in the form of administrative scionce, Here, too, public administration had to lose its ‘distinctiveness and whatever separate identity it had developed, and ‘merged with a larger field. The protagonists of this view held that administration was administration regardless of its setting, and it was on this promise that the journal Administrative Science Quarterly was founded in 1956. James Herbert Simon's Organisations (1956), Cyert and March's A Behavioural Theory of the Firm (1963) and March's Handbook of Organisation (1965) are among the important works inspired by this perspective. Alter World War IL, the whole concept of public. administration changed. The behavioural scientists began giving a new orientation to administrative theory by focusing attention on the vole of the individual, leadership in omganisation, group dynamics, motivation and satisfaction, In administrative studies, behaviouralism is considered to have started with the famous Human Relations Movement of the 1930s and later developed, among others, by Chester Barnard ‘and Herbert Simon. The works of Simon and Barnard, called behavioural studies, are studies of human behaviour through interdisciplinary approach drawing from the knowledge available in other fields, Apart from Administrative Behaviour and Organisations, Simon authowd Fundamental Research in Adminisiration (1953), The New24 Public Administration : Theories and Principles Science of Management Decision (1960), Shape of Automation (1960), Science of the Artificial (1969) and. Human Problem Solving (1972). Simon called for an empirical approach to the study of administration, He pointed to two mutually supportive. trends, a combination of which was necessary for the evolotion of the discipline, The two trends were that of a ‘pure’ science of administration which was based on sound social psychology and the task of evolving prescriptions for public policy. Simon insisted on raising the standards of scientific rigour ‘in public administration and viewed ‘decision ‘making’ as the heart of administration. rhe 1960s saw the development of two major trends: Comparative Public Administration and Development ‘Administration. Robert Dahl stated that as long as the comparative approach of study was neglected, public administration could not be considered a science in the real sonse. This concept was given a form with the setting up of the Comparative Administration Group in 1962. Fred W. Riggs (1917-2008) was the first chairman of the group. The group viewed modern administration as a mechanism to fulfil developmental objectives. Riggs’ writings on comparative administration and development administration developed the two trends of thought. The aim of development administration, a concept almost exclusively employed when referring to the developing countries of the world, is nation-building and development of the society and economy. In this context, the bureaucracy is seen as the rational, efficient form of human organisation. It would help in planning and. providing a suitable infrastructure for converting inputs of goals, capital and knowledge into developmental outputs. Development administration implies that the Western experience in reconstruction, management and organisation could be used by tho third world countries in a manner suitable to these countries’ developmental needs, It would involve inculcating awareness of and dedication to developmental goals and structuros in the civil servants. Tho. ond result would be a situation of efficient administration as is to be found in the developed countries. But, by the end of the 1960s, it became clear that _modomisation induced from the outside could not address the fundamental problems of underdevelopment. So development administration came under severe criticism, In the USA, the importance of public administration declined in the 1960s, In 1962, public administration was not mentioned as a sub-field of political science in the report of the Committse on Political Science as a Discipline of the American Political Science Association. Two years later, a survey ‘Then, in ‘among political scientists 1967, public administration was no longer an organising category in tho programme of the ‘annual meeting of the American Political Science Association. The 1960s was a period of crisis owing to the socond class status accorded to public administration in political science departments in colleges and_ institutes. ‘The frustration among scholars of the discipline was evident, In this situation emerged the management option, which came to exert a strong influence on public administration. Stage V: New Public Administration (1971-80) ‘The emengence of the New Public ‘Administration can be traced to a gathering of scholars at Minnowbronk in the late 1960s, under the patronage of Dwight Waldo. to tically analyse the relevance of the study. and practice of public administration. The scholars highlighted the philosophy of New Public Administration as based on the premises of normative theories, social concern, activism, humanism and other aspects. The emphasis was on the social relevance of knowledge. It was against the notions. of value-froe social science and politics- administration dichotomy. New Public Administration thought holds thatPublic Administration : Evolution, Challenges and Significance 25 administrators should make policies, and it intogeates public administration with the fundamental concens of political theory. ‘The ‘public policy approach’ that evolved had @ positive thinking about govemmont Joseph La Palombara, in Buregucracy and Political Development, emphasised on the political aspects of administration, By the ond of the 1970s, a revival movement of comparative administration had begun, guided by Ferrel Heady, Charles Goodsell and others. Stage VI: Paradigmatic Shifts (the 1960s onwards) ‘The period of the 19808 saw a marked shift in the history of public administration. A new environment emerged which rejected some of tho earlier promises of public administration. The notion of big government was rejected as a potential threat to individual freedom and as. the enemy efficiency while the movemont for small government began to appeal in several countries of the West and elsewhere. In the West, there was a reduction ities of the government and a growth in activities of the private sector. ‘According to Miltan J. Esman, the rejection of the idea of big government has resulted in the emergence of a number of common themes pertaining to the critical interface between concepts and social action. Esman identified somo of these common themes, He held that governments were limited in their capacity and their Limitations should be taken into consideration when designing public programmes. As. governments cannot do everything, alternative ind complementary channels need to be identified and encouraged. Programme designs should recognise and capitalise on the pluralistic features of — public administration. He also pointed out that the societal context provides both specific opportunities and special constraints of development administration. Study of Public Administration in India Public Administration as a subject of teaching ‘made its entry on the campus in the modest form of a diploma course under the Department of Political Science in India. In the nineteen thirties, the M.A. Political Science syllabus at Lucknow University included a full paper on public administration. A remarkable feature of the Lucknow University syllabus was that this paper was made compulsory. ‘The Madras University was the first’ in India to start a diploma in public administration as early as in. 1987. Public administration was invested with full academic legitimacy in 1950, when the Nagpur University set up a separate department, called the Department of Public Administration and Local. Self-Government. M.P. Sharma became the first professor of public administration in India, In an important development, the Indian Institute of Public Administration (IPA) was sot up in March 1954 at New Delhi, on the recommendation of the Paul H. Appleby Report of 1959, It was founded originally to serve as a nucleus of administrative rescarch and @ source of information regarding public administration. It started a School of Public Administration which remained in existence until 1967 when a decision was taken to close it and put an end to its teaching programme. ‘The IPA has a variety of short Courses. and reference courses designed. for university teachers in public administration, public servants of central and state governments, persons working in public Undertakings, and others. i publishes. the Indian Journal of Public Administration which, besides. containing high quality articles on various aspects of administration, gives summaries of government reports and of administrative developments in the various sintes. The institute hay also undertaken the preparation and publication of teaching materials. In 1957, the Government of India established an Administrative Staff College in Hyderabad, on the lines of the staif college at Henley-on-Thamos in England. ‘The objective of the college is to cultivate administrative skills and talents in the trainees26 Public Administration : Theories and Principles drawn both from the government and the industry, The training is given mostly through. syndicates and semin: ‘The Lucknow University began a postgraduate degree course in public administration in 1959; the Punjeb University and the Osmania University each established in 1961 a separate Department of Public Administration that offered post-graduate courses in the discipline. The Rajasthan ¥y instituted an M.A. dogroo in the ching of public istration, beginning in 1957, was under the Department of Economics and Public Administration till 1965. when a. separate Department of Public Administration was started. In 1971, the South Gujarat University started the | Department of Public Administration to impart instruction on the subject at undergraduate and postgraduate levels, By the year 1978, there wor 24 ‘university departments and. several affiliated colleges that conducted undergraduate and postgraduate programmes in public administration; and there were 35 such departments by 1987. Today. there are several universities and colleges that. offer public administration as a subject at differont levels and as diploma courses. The National Academy of Administration was sot up at Mussoorie in 1959. ‘The academy imparts instruction in aekministration to the new entrants in the Indian administrative and central services. It also provides refresher and orientation courses for the officers in service. The academy has groatly contributed to tho study of public administration. It has developed teaching materials and has produced literature of a high standard on Indian administration. Bosidos, thera are. Central Secretariat ‘Training Schools, the National Institute of Health Administration and Education, the National Institute of Mass Communication, the Indian Institute of Foreign Trade, the ‘raining Institute for Revenue Service, all located in Delhi; the Railway Staff College at Vaclodara: the Income Tax Service Training School at Nagpur; the National Pi its own Academy at Hydembad; and the National Instituto. of Rural Development at Hyderabad. All these institutions have not only provided training to new entrants in different services but also contributed greatly towards the development and systematisation of the subject’ matter of public administration, ‘The discipline received a poworful impetus consequent to its inclusion in 1987 as a full, independent subject in tho list of subjects open to candidates for the civil services competitive examination conducted by the Union Public Service Commission (PSC), In spite of six docades of public administration study, the discipline has still to show “a sense of buoyancy or achiovements, either in the academic or practical worlds and of being of continuing relevance to the needs of the county..." The Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR), in its A Survey of Research in Public Administration, 1979, has farther stated that & doubt exists “whether Public Administration could develop as a useful and relevant discipline as well as practical and applied science”. It has been pointed out that the discipline uses theoretical frameworks that are of Western origin, like the Weberian model, without ascertaining the validity of these frameworks in the Indian context. Kuldeep Mathur, in A Survey of Research in Public Administration 1970-79, has stated that the weakness of publi administration as an academic and social science. discipline “primarily emerges fom its inability to develop theoretical and conceptual approaches that can offer « better understanding of the contemporary scene in India. It continues to be heavily influenced by the Western social science paradigms which have in a way provided it ‘professional’ but not academic strength... In order to comonstrate its independant identity, it bogan to lean towards management science, One of the important requirements for revitalising the discipline Is to restore its: intellectual linkages with other social science disciplines...”Public Administration : Evolution, Challenges and Significance ar Public administration, as a discipline, is today truly interdisciplinary: it is seen as closer to policy science and related areas It involves adoption of the political economy approach to analyse administrative problems. Tt has increasingly involved comparative study of administrative systems in different social contexts and environments. Howover, 2 cause of worry is that, despite the many developments, an adequate science of administration’ ig yet 10 emerge. In the twenty-first century, Public Administration needs to unite the features of social relevance ‘and. conceptual purity to emerge with a paradigm that can establish it a> a dynamic discipline for study Recent Trends It is important to note the recent trends in the study and practice of public administration, both in developed and developing countries, xemembering that the extent and amount of actual impact of the trends vary among the countries depending on their historical growth, national resources, political system and so on, Those tronds aro: greater stress on social equity in public policies and administrative actions; creation of institutional arrangements for greater public. participation in administrative processes at I levels; greater administrative accountability to deal with many and complex governmental tasks: and increase in unionism among public personnel and opportunities for governmont-employees negotiations for arbitration of disputes and other purposes. “The recent trends have further broadened tho scope of public administration: it has ventured beyond the description and analysis of administrative phenomena, policies, organisations and processes and become increasingly normative. It now takes up questions of social equity orientation, democratic approach, ethics and participation. of the common people in the expanding administrative organisations. Public administration is increasingly becoming comparative as it conceptuatisas policies and operations in administration portaining to various national environments and involving political, social, economic, demographic, physical ‘and technological ‘aspects Wilson‘s Vision of Public Administration ‘The pioneering contribution of Thomas Woodrow Wilson (1856-1924) stimulated inforest in and emphasised the need for study of public administration, His noted essay, ‘The Study of Administration’ (Political Science Quarterly, June 1867) explained the conduct of government as an arga that should be analysed and public administration itself as a subject of inquiry. ‘A student of politics, government and law who graduated from Princeton University in 1879 and was awarded his doctorate in 1886, Wilson was professor of political science from 1886 to 1902, He was elected Governor of New Jersey in 1910 and he became the Prosident of the USA in 1918, He held the post till 1921. An outstanding professor, administrative scholar, educationist, reformer and statesman, Wilson held that the study of administration would help enmect the rampant political abuses. He was groatly influenced by Edmund Burke (1728-97), Irish statesman, orator and writer whose thinking shaped his political philosophy: Walter Bagohot (1826-77), English economist, political journalist and critic. who influenced him to focus on administration and comparative government; and Prof. Richard ‘T. Ely of John Hopkins University who stimulated bis thoughts on administrative studies. Interestingly, Wilson embarked on his famous essay ‘The Study of Administration’ when he did not have personal experience of American ‘administration. In the essay, he outlined the importance of public administration which was a comparatively new development in political science at the time. He explained the methods by which study of public administration needed to be done. In his ossay, Wilson states that the increasing complexities of society, the greater role of the state and growth af democracy28 Public Administration : Theories and Principles thas led to the study of administration as a ‘major ama. Study of administration involves questions regarding how administrative functions are to be performed and how government can efficiently, successfully and at the least possible cast perform its functions. ‘He stressed the need to reform the government in the administrative field. On Administration as a Science Wilson believed that administration was pre= eminently a science. He was of the view that tho science of administration was tho latest fruit of the study of science of politics. Wilson was critical that not much scientific method was discernable in American administrative practice; he felt there was no clear concept In America of what constituted good administration, This was because administrative science was first developed in Europe by French and Geman academies. Consequently, administration developed to moot the requirements of compact states and centralised forms of European governments. According to Wilson, the reasons for the growth of administration on European soil fino two-fold: first, as governments in European countries were independent of popular assent, there was more ‘governance’; and. second, the desire to keep government a monopoly made the monopolists interested in discovering the least irritating means of governing, He also noted that if the concepts of European administrative science were to be used in other countries, one had to radically alter them. Wilson identified popular sovereignty as a cause of slow progress in the science of administration in America, Wilson felt that it was more difficult to organise administration in a democracy than in-a monarchy as the administration in a democracy had to be continuously responsive to the “‘multitudinous ‘monarch called public opinion”. Wilson held that unless a nation stopped tinkering with the Constitution, it would be vesy difficult for it to concentrate on the administration a5 no Constitution could last mare than ten years without changes and, therefore, the governments would always’ be. busy with these changes and alterations, even as delails of administration would be ignored. ‘Therefore, Wilson wanted the debate on the constitutional principles, being of little practical consequence, to be put aside and the focus turned on understanding the ‘science of administration’. Politics and Administration Wilson examines the relationship between administration and polities. He explains the interdependence and intimate relationship between administration and politics. He says, “No lines of demarcation, setting apart administrative from non-administrative functions, can be run botwoan this and that opartment of goverment without being un uphill and down dale over dizzy heights of istinction and through dense jungles of statutory enactment, hither and thither around ‘ifs’ and. ‘buts’, ‘whens’ and howevors’, until they become altogether lost to the common eye.” In 1891, he wrote that “no topic in the study of government can stand by itself— least of all porhaps administration whose arti is to mirror the principles of government operation... Administration cannot be divorced from its connections with the other branches of Public Law without being distorted and robbed of its true significance. Its foundations are thes deep and permanent principles of polities.” Therofore, it is evident that Wilson was aware of the interdependence between politics and administration in the field of public administration. However, Wilson also angues that administration and politics are separate. Administration lies outside the sphere of politics and administrative questions are not polit questions, He identifies polities as the special province of the statesman and administration fas the special province of the technical official. He also says that “bureaucracy can exist only where the whole service of the stale is romoved from the common political life of the people, its chiefs as well as itsPublic Administration : Evolution, Challenges and Significance 29 rank and file. Its motives, its objects, its policy, its standards, must be. bureaucratic. Wilson seems to have vacillated between separability and inseparability. of administration from politics. This made the later scholars on the subject speculate in differing ways about his ideas and intentions on the subject. Mosher holds that Wilson ‘made the most powerful statement on the politics-administration dichotomy. But Riggs says that, for Wilson, not only are polities ‘and administration closely interwined, but administrative actions are also scarcely conceivable except as the implementation of general policies formulated by political moans. Thus Wilson was under no illusion that administrative development could take place in a political vacuum, There are also writers who argue that to Wilson, the field of administration is a field of business and. is removed from the hury and strife of politics, Buechner argues that the “basic premise of Wilson’s arguments was that the affairs of public administration were synonymous with those of private administration". ‘To him, the importance of Wilson’s essay lies in his argument that the study of public administration should be akin to the central concerns of business administration, namely the values of economy, efficioncy and. offectivenes. According to Wilson, study of administration involved the issue of proper distribution of constitutional authority. It should come up with ways to delegate authority among. public officials in such a way that officials perform efficiently, there is smooth running of public affairs and there is trust between the people and the public sorvants. This aspect is important and challenging in a democracy where public. sorvants have to work under many others and any distrust betwoen the public servants and their heads may affect the functioning of the system. The question is not of just devolution and dolegation of responsibility to the public servants but also that of their aceitability. So, according to Wilson, for a responsible and officient administimtion, public officials had to be assigned large powers and wide discretion, He felt that where power is delegated in small measures, it tends towards obscurity, which would quickly bring about imesponsibility on the part of officials, On the other hand, greater power would moan great trust is reposed in one and the person would be less likely to misuse his power. Wilson felt that, in this context, the quostion of to whom the public officials should be accountable—to the authorities that have appointed them or to the people—was a major problem in the study of administration. It led to the idea of relating public opinion to the conduct of administration, Public Opinion and Administration Wilson examinod tho relation between public opinion and administration, Wilson stated that public opinion should take the place of an authoritative ctitic in the conduct of administration. But “the problem is to make public opinion efficient without suffering it to be meddlesome”. Public opinion may also he 100 diffuse to have any positive effect on the individual working of public servants However, public criticism on langer political and. administrative issues is imperative in a democratic state, It is administrative study. hhe felt, that must seck the best means for allowing a public criticism to express itself without unduly interfering in the administrative process, Givil Service: Need and Reform Wilson strongly advocated the indispensability of having a technically schooled civil service. A civil sorvice based on merit was necessary in a democracy. Although Wilson bolieved that administrators were in principle not involved in the political process, he was strongly opposed to the creation of a bureaucratic elite not subject to democratic control. He felt that the civil service reform which was then in progress in America was only @ prelude to a fuller administrative eform; it was only “a moral preparation for30 Public Administration : Theories and Principles what is to follow". These reforms were intended ta make the service. impartial and administration itself professional and efficient. ‘The civil servants should serve their superiors as well as the community with their abilities and commitment; in return, the system would take care of their expectations subject to the public good. The reforms in the ‘methods of appointment, he said. should be extended to executive functions and to methods of executive organisation and actions, Nicholas Henry observes that Wilson facilitated the expansion of an ethical sense of public duty beyond the conceptual confines of the civil service and into the entire intellectual terrain, of public administration. Learning from Other Contexts Wilson examined the methods best suited for the study of administration. He rejected the philosophical method and emphasised the historical and comparative methods, He says that nowhere else in the whole field of politics can one use those methods more safely than in the province of administration, Without comparative studies in govemment, Wilson asserted, we cannot rid ourselves of the misconception that administration stands ‘upon different bases in democratic and other states. One can never leam. the weaknesses or virtues or peculiarities of any system without comparing the system with other systems. Allaying the fears that the comparative method may lead to the import of foreign systems, he says “If | see a murderous fellow sharpening the knife cleverly, I can borrow his way of sharpening tho knife without borrowing. his probable intention to. commit murder with it” ‘Therefore, Wilson felt that one can leam from European autocracies and their more efficiont administrative methods without importing their autocratic spirit and onds; indeed it is a must for a democracy to be able to mest the challenge of chaos from within and of force from without, On the important aspect of export of administrative technology from one county to another, there are divergent interpretations of Wilson's thinking. Riggs, for example, believes that “Wilson gave his highest loyalty to democratic goverment and he would nover have approved export of administrative twchnology to non-demoeratic countzies". Ho ‘would have recommended first to concentrate on political development in the sense of promoting democratic reform as a prelude to administrative reorganisation. Thus. Riggs felt that “Wilson was quite aware of the political context of administrative reform and of development administration.” But Ferrel Heady is of the view that Wilson assumes that “there is no restriction fon the availability of administrative twchnology for export, and his attention is given exclusively to the question of the Circumstances under which it should be imported.” Public administration blossomed into a self-conscious inquiry with the publication of Wilson's famous essay, ‘The Study of Administration’. It enunciates the many doctrines public administration has accepted as valid businoss methods in administration, the need for civil service, the problem of istributing constitutional authority, and. so fon, But as Wilson himself noted, the essay is too vague and broad. Critics point out that ho ultimately could not specify exactly what public administration entailed; he could not identify the proper relationship between administration and politics; and he has not convincingly answered the question whether administrative study could become a science akin to the natural sciences, Though. increasingly, scholars are underlining. the limitations of Wilson's contribution, some even questioning the place accorded to Wilson as the founder of the academic study of public administration, the significance of Wilson's writings in laying the foundations of the study of public administration remains. For he introduced the idea of administration, and also highlighted public administration as a distinct subject worthy of analysis and study.Public Administration : Evolution, Challenges and Significance an New Public Administration ‘The discipline of public administration has soen many challenges ever since its emergence as an independent field of study. ‘Tho 19608 and tho eaily 1970s were periods of turbulence, instability and confusion in the West, especially in the USA. Public administration, like other social scienos such as psychology, sociology and political science, stood shaken in this revolutionary period. Dwight Waldo’s article. titled Public Administration in a Time of Turbulence (1971) reflected the status of the discipline during that turbulent period. Waldo observed that “neither the study nor the practice of Public Administration was ‘responding. in appropriate measure to mounting turbulence and critical problems”. According to Robert ‘T. Golembiewski, the 1960s were likr a period of war for public administrationists. ‘As a result, a new trond and movement emerged in the field of public administration. It was reflected first in the Minnowbrook Conference held by young teachers and practitioners of public administration in 1968 (the Minnowbrook Conference Center is located in the north shore of the Blue Mountain Lake, New York). ‘This conference is considered an important chapter in the genesis of New Public Administration. Later the two volumes, Towards a New Public Administration: The Minnowbrook Perspective edited by Frank Marini and Public Administration ina Time of Turbulence edited by Dwight Waldo, both published in 1971, gave currency to the concept of ‘New Public Administration’, Old Public Administration gave significance to ‘administration’ rather than ‘public’; it emphasised ‘principles’ and. ‘procedures sather than ‘values’ and ‘philosophy’, and ‘efficiency’ and ‘economy’ rather’ than ‘effectiveness’ and ‘service efficiency’. The concept of the New Public Administration (NPA) shook the traditional concepts and perspectives in the discipline. it imparted a wider perspective to the subject and linked it closely to society. What were the reasons for the emergence of New Public Administration? ‘The world hhad been ravaged by two world wars and post-war reconstruction efforts inchuded setting Up of the UN agencies and other arganisations to alleviate human suffering, For proper functioning, these agencies had to have efficient administrative systems in various ccountrios of the world. ‘The traditional thinking, was that policy formulation belonged to the arena of political leaders and the ‘administrators’ job was simply to implement the policy. But such a thinking led to the emergence of a machinery of public administration that was not responding to the needs of the people. So, a rethinking of the aims and scope of public administration was seen as necessary. Further, the role of public administration as not just_an instrument of low and order but also as an instrument of social change was beginning to be emphasised. Tho ‘value content’ of the discipline of public administration had. been ignored: the emphasis was on applying rules ‘equally whoroas the need was for concessions to certain social sections that were deprived and_ weaker. In the USA, the frustration resulting from the Americans’ involvement in Vietnam (the Viotnam Wr) had its impact on the conduct of public administration as well. In fact, the second half of the twentieth century witnossed social tensions and unrest among. various sections of the society—the youth, minority groups, the unemployed and others. This was @ big problom for the administrators who faced a challenge in the societal and technological probloms. Changes began to be carried out in policies and institutions. It was suggested that political and administrative capabilities be strengthened to cope with the ‘transforming social, economic, political and technological environments. Thus, some factors necessitated the emergence of the NPA based on the idea that an administration should be responsive to social neads and that it must address the problems afflicting the society As sated, by the end of the 1960s, the American society appeared to be in a state32 Public Administration: Theories ‘and Principles of disruption, dissolution and breakdown. ‘Tho traditional public administration had shown its weaknesses in understanding the agony of the existing soctal erisis. Its apparent remoteness could not meet the demands that ‘had arisen in the face of social and economic crises, It failed to address the fear of the nucloar bomb, the war in Vietnam that violated the moral conscience of the world, ‘the devastating population explosion in the world, environmental pollution, dissensions 8 social conflict. In this scenario, the younger generation of intellectuals in the USA. of the Toto-19605 and early 1970s bocame restless since neither the established centres of government nor the traditional citadels of Knowledge wore responding adequately to the grave challenges confronting the society. ‘They wanted to initiate new ideas since the dissatisfaction umerging from the turbulent environment could not be resolved through traditional measures. This led to the development of a new tsend that culminated in a movement known as ‘New Public ‘Administration’. The NPA made the values ‘and ethics of public officials a critical issue unlike the earlier approach that did not emphasise this aspect. The NPA was a movement that started in the late 1960s. The term now public administration was used to describe anew philosophical outlook for public administration. The traditional dogmas of public administration—efficiency’ and ‘economy'—were found inadequate and incamplote goals of administrative activity Humans, it was argued, wore the focal point of all administrative activities and they cannot be subjected toa mechanical test of efficioncy. So the administration must be human-oriented and its approach should be value-based. NPA pleads for more relevant research, the need to prescribe and to act s0 as to improve life, The NPA scholars argued against the value neutrality approach in. rosearch and practice and appealed to scholars to take a more proactive role guided not only by the search for efficiency but by fa sensitivity to the force of change, the needs of the client and the problems. of social equity in service delivery, As Felix A. Nigro and Lloyd G. Nigro observe, “While there is no doctrine to which all persons associated with the new public administration subscribe, most emphasise the principle of social equity— the realisation of which they feel should be the purpose of public administration. They believe that in the past public administration hhas neglected the question of values in relation to the social purposes of goverament ‘and that public officials have emphasised efficiency and economy of execution, often at the expense of social equity. ‘These officials, they say, profess neutrality bat in fact have boon far from neutral, even catering to spocial interests.” ‘The emongonce of the NPA is linked to scholars’ perspectives that emerged from the Minnowbrook Conference to critically vie the relevance of study and practice of public administration in the changing social context ‘and the problems that were emerging before the goverment and the society. The new ‘rend represented an approach that was post- behavioural, post-positivist, inter-disciplinary, social equity-oriented and based on public policy. The man whose name is most associated with the movement is Dwight Waldo. His Public Administeation in a Time of Turbulence along with Frank Marini ed.) Towards a New Public Administration: The Minnowbrook Perspective vepresonted the ideas generated at the Minnowbrook conference in 1968, ‘They represent the philosophy of the New Public Administration which is contred around the themes of participation, consensus, decentralisation, and trust and love of mankind. It must, however, be remembered that the seeds of the now movement had been sown much earlier. The following developments may be considered as the landmarks in the growth and emergence of New Public Administration. ‘The Honey Report on Higher Education for Public Service (1967) In 1966, an affiliate of the American Society for Public Administyation asked JohnPublic Administration : Evolution, Challenges and Significance 33 Honey of the Syracuse University to evaluate public administration as a field of study in US universities, The Honey Report, submitted. in 1967, is significant in the senso that it disclosed tho true state of health of the discipline of public administration, It sought to broaden the subject’s scope by making it conterminous with the entire governmental process (executive, logislative, and judicial) It identified four problems and suggested immediate action to address them. (Resources at the disposal of the discipline (students, faculty and research funds inched) were insufficient. (ii) Intellectual arguments continued to proliferate over the status of the discipline: whether it was a discipline, a science, or a profession. (ii) Public administration was plagued by institutional weakness (this showed the inadequacy of public administration dopartments.) (iv) Thoro was a serious gap between the knowledge held by scholars of the discipline and its application by practising administrators. ‘The Honey Report made the following cloven recommendations to improve the scope of tho discipline and make it more selevant. 1.Tho establishment of a National Commission Public Service Education would aid in mooting the noods of governments for educated manpower. 2.There should be a substantial fellowship programme for postgraduate students preparing for public service and for professional degrees. 3.Internship programmes should operate at federal, state and local levels for postgraduate students and advanced undergraduates preparing for public service 4.A special fellowship programme should be instituted for those planning to become teachers in schools and programmes. of public administration and public affairs. 5.A programme should provide opportunities to university faculty engaged in public affairs teaching and research for practical governmental experience, 6.There should be a programme of assistance to universities for curricular experimentation and development 7. There is a need to extend support to ‘university personnel engaged in research on governmental and public affairs issues. 8. Support. should be forthcoming from federal, state and local governments, as well ax from private industry, for provision of facilities to schools and programmes of public administration and public affairs 9.An advisory service for new public affairs programmes should bo set up and personnel rosters should he developed to provide information to experionced graduates of schools of public administration and public affairs 1. A study of the universities and education for public service needs to be undertaken, the purpose being to show how various types of institutions now approach their public service, educational and other tasks and to identify stimulative and innovative development as well as deficiencies and problems. 11. Another major and closely associated research proposal was for a study of the professing, professional's education and the public. service. ‘Tho Honay Raport aroused interest in the US but it was seen as controversial at the same time. What it said was important but what it did not say camied even greater meaning. For instance, it said nothing about the role of public administration in a strife tom tumultuous society, such as that which existed at the time, Did the discipline have nothing to do with addressing social problems? The report induced many scholars to think deeply about the place and role of public administration in the society and thus in a way, it acted as a catalyst in encouraging discussion on the adequacy of public administration in solving societal problems.34 Public Administration: Theories ‘and Principles ‘The Philadelphia Conference on. the ‘Theory and. Practice of Public Administration (1967) In 1967, the Ametican Academy of Political and Social Seienco organised a eonforence in Philadelphia under the chairmanship of James C. Charlesworth, It aimed at discussing the scope, objectives and methods of public administration, The confomnce widely known as the ‘Conference on the Theory and Practice of Public Administration’, came out with some relevant observations and suggestions. It stated that the scope of public administration as a subject should remain flexible to facilitate its growth. The growth in the dimensions and functions of the administration is a continuous process and it would be erroneous to firmly sot out the boundaries of the study of public administration. Administrators are involved in the policy-making process as advisers and facilitators besides being, primarily concerned with —_ policy implementation. So, the dichotomy between policy and administration and. therefore between the study of government and study of public administration is meaningless. A lot of stress on perfection of hierarchy and internal processes in administrative organisations leads to rigidities in administrative performance which detract from its relevance and efficacy in rapidly changing environments. — Therefore, organisational innovations and__management flexibility are to be preferced. The discipline and practice of public administration should focus on social problems like those of urban squalor, poverty, unemployment, and environmental polltition and dogeadation, As socio-economic disparities exist. social equity should be given importance. For promotion of equity as ain administrative value and to encourage administrative responsiveness, the participation of the people in administrative decision-making and activities should be institutionally provided. Administrators need to bo trained in professional schools. Moreover there is the need to ensure that public administration and business administration training are not combined. ‘Training programmes in public administration. should hot only provide management abilities. and echnical skills but also deepen the social sensitivity of scholars and trainees as well as of civil servants at work in various governmental agencies. though thore was no agreed definition cof public administration ot the Philadelphia Conference, it highlighted the significance of public: administration in a broad philosophical context. The conference pointed out, “Public administration curricula should emphasise not only administrative organisation and procedures but also the psychological, sociological and anthropological insights of the subject.” ‘The Minnowbrook Conferen ‘The 1968 Conference Tho genesis of the Minnowbrook Conference lay in two factors First, the 1960s was a turbulent period besieged by numerous societal problems, but public administration showed no signs. of being aware of them. This was well highlighted by Waldo's article on ‘Public Administration in a Time of ‘Turbulence’ published in the Public Adminietration Review in 1968. Second, there was a need to hear the views of young scholars and practitioners of the discipline as public administration was facing a kind of gonerition gap, The Philadelphia Conference. it may be noted. was attonded by participants who were above the age of 38 yoars: indood the majority of tham were in their fifties and sixties. On the other hand, the Minnowbrook Conference was a youth conference on public administmtion: it was this academic get-together that rosulted in what wo now know as ‘New Public Administration’ ‘The Mimnowbrook Conference saw passionate discussions of ideas which were Gifferent from those expressed in the Philadelphia Conference. The viewpoints expressed by the young scholars advocated a normative approach to replace the value= five efficiency approach of the classical theory. ‘The normative approach highlightedPublic Administration : Evolution, Challenges and Significance 35 that the purpose of governmental administration was to reduce economic, social and psychic suffering of the people and to improve the opportunities. available to them as well as the administrative employees of the government. The cause of the underprivileged sections of the society was siressod. ‘The emphasis was on doing away with wants and deprivations in society. ‘The need then was to constantly adapt administrative organisations and systems to the environmental changes and_ promote citizen involvement in the administrative process for effective administration Minnowbrook II (September 1988) Exactly ‘twenty years later, in September 1988, the second Minnowbrook Conference was held. It was funded by three universities: the Syracuse University, the University of Kansas and the University of Akron. The conference met at Syracuse University on September 4. 1988. It saw the participation of sixty scholars and practitioners, all belonging to the disciplines of policy sciences, history, economics, sociology, political science and public administration. According to H. George Frederickson, Minnowbrook 1 was. contentions, confrontational and revolutionary “while Minnowbrook Il, 20. years later, was more. civil and practical. Both conferences were ‘theoretical but while the 1968 conference dialogue was decidedly anti-behavioural, the 1988 conference acknowledged the contributions of the social and behaivoural sciences to public administration. ‘The concerns and urges of the 1980s wore both similar to and different from those of the 1960s. The scholars who attended the 1988 conference came from a background and context far differont from that of their older colleagues. ‘The themes developed at the 1968 Minnowbrook Conference focused fon both the current and future visions in the field of Public Administration. Features of New Public Administration It is in the writings of George Frederickson that we get a clear idea of the features of the mew approach to public administration emphasised at the Minnowbrook Conference and later by the adherents to this approach, He points out that social equity is of major importanco in the new approach. He discusses the features of NPA as follows. () With the changing environment, there is a need for administrative organisations to develop suitable devices and procedures that can bring about appropriate change within the organisations so that they can respond effectively to the onvironment. Operational floxibility is a critorion that has to be in-built in the departments and agencies within an administrative organisation. (ii) The NPA concept stresses upon rationality of the administration whore administrative decisions and actions are concemed. ‘he administrator needs to interact with the poople wlating to things that are proposed to be carried out, what needs to be done and by whom. (iii) ‘The need for a dynamic: approach to organisational structure. is emphasised. Decentralisation of authority and modification of hhiorarchies of control and subordination need to be continually reviewed to ensure that the organisational structure is responsive to environmental needs. For administrative organisations dealing with programmes of immense concern to the people, small decentralised and flexible hierarchies are most suitable, (iv) The NPA stresses the human relations ch in an administrative organisation is imporiant to increase the morale and productivity of employees. Ultimately, the objective should be to improve’ the performance and attitudes of the employees in an administrative organisation which will lead to better administration and satisfaction of citizens’ nevds (x) Public administration should continue to be enriched by several knowledge streams, as it has been in the past. It is to be understood that different approaches like the ‘management approach, the human relations approach, political approach and public choice approach have contributed to its36 Public Administration : Theories and Principles growth and mo one particular approach would be able. to guide action or understanding of the complex arena of public affairs, ‘The Three Anti-goals of NPA ‘The NPA literature is called anti-positivist because of its throe ‘anti-goals’—which reject certain features of public administration as dofined by the traditional thought on public administration. (i) The NPA rojects the value-frve. definition of public administration; it stresses that public administration should be valuo- oriented. ‘That is, it should keap the needs and interests of the people, particularly certain sections of the population, in mind and address them, ii) The NPA rejects a rationalistic and deterministic view of human beings, as their interests and actions are not always pmdictable. The idea is to deal with what administration should ‘become’ rather than what it should “bo (iii) ‘The NPA rejvots the politics- administration dichotomy that was upheld by earlier thinkers on public administration. ‘This is especially because administrators are involved in both policy formulation and implementation of policy in all its stages at ‘the present timo. ‘The Goals of NPA Now Public Administration has sot out four important goals for itself: relevance, values, equity and change. Relevance ‘The theme of relevance of public administration, as discussed by the NPA movement, involves more of reinterpretation than being an original quest in itself Public administration has been traditionally interested in efficiency and economy. What the NPA movement discoverd was that the discipline had little to say about contemporary problems. The management-oriented Public Administration curriculum was found ‘imelevant’, and the demand was to deal explicitly with the political and normative implications of administrative actions. Another aspect of the ‘relevance’ issue related to the question of public administration fas knowledge for what? Is it the purpose of public administration to. facilitate use. of administrative knowledge for the perpetuation of political power? The questions that were raised at the Minnowbrook Conference were: (What standards of decision do we tise to select, which questions ought to be studied and how do we go about studying them? i) Who defines our questions and prioritios? (iil) Aw we aware of the social and moral implications of knowledge in public administration and, if yes, to what extent? (Gv) What is the significance of public ‘administration as a social and political (©) Doos public administration, in its existing form, yield knowledge useful to only certain institutions in society and doos it exclude others? ‘Those wore certainly disturbing questions challenging the status quo in public administration, The new movement demanded a radical curriculum shift to facilitate meaningful studies that kept in view the realities of public: life. Values Tho new public administration movement was clear in its basic: normative concern in administrative studies. It rejected the value-concealing-behaviouralism as well as procedural neutrality of the traditional public administration thought. It disagrood with tho perspectives of behaviouralists and ivists and condemned the notion of a value-irme social science. The adherents of the movement wanted that issues of justice freedom, equality and human discipline should espouse the concerns of the disadvantageous sections in society. Public officials need to necessarily advocate the cause of the weaker sections, Ramash_ K, Arora writes, “new public administration not only jects’ the notion of a value-neutralPublic Administration : Evolution, Challenges and Significance 37 scholar, but also that of a neutral bureaucrat Conversely, it advocates personal commitment of administrators to. the goals that the administrative system is designed to achieve.” Nicholas Henry observes, “The focus was disinclined to examine such traditional phenomena as efficiency, effectiveness, budgeting and administrative techniques: conversely, the NPA was very much aware of normative theory, philosophy and activism. The question it raisad dealt with values, ethics... if there was an overriding tone in the NPA, it was a moral tone. Social Equity ‘The proponents of New Public Administration iound ‘social equity’ the most common vehicle for guiding human development. So it was emphasised. that the realisation of ‘social equity’ should be the purpose of public administration. Social equity means that public administrators should become champions of the underprivileged sections of the society. Frank Marini has said, “The purpose of public organisation is the reduction of economic, social and psychic suffering and the enhancement of life opportunities for those inside and outside the organisation.” 11. George Fredrickson stated, “The rationale for public administration is almost always better (more efficient or economical) management. New Public. Administration adds social equity to. the classical objectives and rationale.” Further ‘ho adopted a bold social-cquity attitude and stated, “A public administration which fails to work for changes which try to radross the deprivation of minorities will likely be eventually used to repress those minoriti ‘Among the major objectives of NPA are client-focus, de-bureaucratisation, democratic decision-making and decentralisation of the administrative process for affective and humane provision of public services. Change ‘The New Public Administration movement believed that to serve the cause, of social equity is to actively work for social change. It was against preserving the: status quo and the powerful interests entrenched in permanent institutions. ‘The New Public Administration was unwilling “to allow enslavement to pormanent institutions” that steadily grow into self-perpetuating power centres of dominant interest: groups, ‘The Minnowbrook participants explored ways of institutionalising change and remedying the bureaucratic tendencies of the large ‘organisations, It is innovation that brings about change in administrative machinery to make it more officiont and adaptable. Tho administrator is then a ‘change agent’. It is only when change in the administrative machinery is seen as necessary that the required development and social transformation can take place, Comments on New Public Administration Robert T. Golembiewski considered Now Public Administration as a temporary and transitional phenomenon and thought that wisdom lay in simply allowing its memory to fade away. According to Alan Campbell, many of the issues brought to the surface vigorously by advocates of New Public Administration were not really now, and they had been raised by other scholars. at different times. But the proponents of NPA have raised the issues more forcefully. than others, with the emphasis on citizens’ participation in the decision-making process, normative value of social equity and the human relations approach directed towards service of the people. Carder and Duffey have expressed doubt regacding the concept of social equity as emphasised by the proponents of New Public Administration. Critics even argue that the New public administration is different from the old Public Administration only in definition. It is responsive to a different sot of social problems from those of other periods, It cannot be, however, denied that New Public Administration has contributed a great doal fo the discipline and profession of public administration, Nigro and Nigro are of the view that the movement has seriously28 Public Administration : Theories and Principles jolted the traditional concepts and outlook of the discipline and enriched the. subject by imparting a wider perspective especially by linking it closely to. the society. Dwight Waldo, in his volume titled Enterprise of Publie Administration (1980), has pointed out that New Public Administration clearly projects. three. perspectives—client-oriented. bureaucracy, representative bureaucracy and people's participation. These public perspectives, if into public administration, would tend to democratise it further. It may be stated that the protagonists of New Public Administration were not sevalutionary in approach, but only reformists in orientation. Without rejecting tho traditional superstructure of administration, they wanted change in its functioning and ontlook. Advocates of the New Public Administration have stimulated constructive debate, and thoir emphasis upon the purposive, ‘moral goal of administration should have a lasting ‘impact. Since the new public administration emerged, questions of values and ethics have remained major items in public administration, New Public Administration certainly broke fresh ground and imparted new substance to the discipline. In the process, it prepared ain agenda for action, a part of which at least is of a popular nature. It has boen felt that its advocates arrogate to themselves what really falls within the legitimate domain of ‘political institutions, processes and leadership. Now Public Administration hag somo radical content that can be successfully implemented only by legislative and political will. Even as it is, there is lack of skills and technologies to. implement what New — Public Administration visualises. Notwithstanding its limitations and weaknesses, New Public ‘Administration has questioned the bases of traditional concepts of public achministeation and, by doing so, widened its perspective. It has associated the study of the subject to actual social needs and interests. This is of ‘major significance, New Public Management Public administration has evolved over the ‘yous through several attempts at reforms as ‘a result of various researches in social and behavioural sciences and the practical experience of public administrators. ‘The classical view of public administration, baseel con the scientific management principles of FAW, Taylor and the Weberian bureaucratic model, emphasised a_ strict hierarchy, rule orientation and neutrality in public services. But recognising the need for reforms, governmonts and indivichual organisations began taking initiatives to improve their efficiency. It was, however, increasingly felt that the changes in public administration were not keeping pace with the social changos. ‘The major criticism against. the approach of public administration was that it was too inward-looking and it was not sensitive to social noods. Tt was ineroasingly pointed out that the state burdened by responsibilities in the highly complex soci of today was unable to solve the so economic problems of the people. The state hould, therefore, continue to show the direction of development but intervene only in areas where it could show’ satisfactory results. This moans that public organisations should focus on cutting costs even while increasing output that is satisfactory from the point of view of the people, ‘The public ‘managers should possess the mequisite tools and incentives to improve their performance. The government has to be small but very effective, This is what the New Public ‘Management (NPM) paradigm says, The New Public Management perspective is the latest paradigm public: administration. It into existence in the 1990s. ‘Thinkers of public administration have been fascinated by ‘management’ since the Wilsonions’ search for a science of administration at the fag end of the twontieth century. Willoughby's Principles of Public Administration (1927) emphasised the managerial role of public administrators. Business administration asPublic Administration : Evolution, Challenges and Significance 39 ‘and New Public Management Comparison of Traditional Public Administration government or government’ by reinventing Osborne. and Gaebler, 1992; and ‘post- Traditional Pubic New Publie bureaucratic paradigm’ by ‘Administration Management Rarzaley, 1993. (i Txtional public administration is. stuctur-oriented It is characterised by potey- administration dcnotorw, The governmant is the ‘exclusive provider of public (iv) The approach adopted Is authoritative ané operations may be seen as marked by secrecy and anonymity. The emphasis is on rules and stuctures, (u) There is a clear distinction Between the public. andthe private. (i) It has a lerarchieal model society) services, Tao (New Public Management ‘emphasises people-orientod ‘adririetation (itis characterised by policy: fdminitration confers, (WA network of stakeholders (goverment, the market, civ provide iv) The aporcach is particgatory: services are peoplesnendy, responsive and tanspavent. omphasis is on performance and outcomes. Is characterised by pubice private partnership. (ui) temphasisos a texble model, “Public Management’ has become an atiractive concept since the mid 1970s. S.R Maheshwari opines that the term “public management’ is a new human colture for the discipline of public administration. The dominant thinking in the public management school seems to be that ‘administration’ is a word which must give way to the more appealing —_ term management’. The tem ‘public management’ suggests a firmness and efficiency. It includes all administrative public the appropriate guiding model for govermmont administration was advocated by Waldo in The Administrative State (1984). According to Osbome and Gaebler, “We do not nood ‘more government, we need better govemment, to be precise, wo need better govemance. Governance is tho act of collectively solving our problems. Government is the instrument ‘we use, The instrament is outdated and it is time to remake it.” ‘The term ‘Now Public Management’ was coined by Christopher Hood, who used it in his article “A Public Management for all seasons’ in 1991, The book entitled Reinventing Government, How the Entrepreneurial Spirit is Transforming the Public Sector by David Osbome and Ted Gaebler, published in 1992, heralded the birth of Now Public Management. New Public Management is soon as representing the second reinvention in public. administration, the first being the New Public. Administration of the late 1960s. New Public Management is referred to by other terms as ‘well—'managerialism’ by Pollitt. 1990: ‘market-based public administration’ by Lan and Rosenbloom, 1992; entreprenourial activities in the various. units and levels of goverment and has come to stay. It implies that governmental management ;portant and that government can and should be well rum, The advocates of this school stress the need to improve the New Public Administration and New Public Management Now Public Administration shoulé not be conlused with Now Pubic ‘Management. S.A. Maboshyrai explains that New Public Administration was ariculated by young public adminisratonists who Wanted to impart the subject “a higher cause, \wortior miesion, a noblor purpose” in order to make it valuo-basod. Thy recognisad the individual's wort in pubic administration and emahasised on the Individuals empowsement in all-dimansions. New Public Management is-a result of “a new breed of scholars avincing interest In pubio. administration” who ‘seek to re-designats public administration as ‘pubic sector” He states, "Many of the concepts, paradigms and assumption of the tredcnal pubic ‘administration are repudated and rejected by NPM. ‘Tha tater plainly lays emphasis on action points of public administration and thus recognises the primacy ff the delivery system: men at the counter datermine how the customars are served and hence uimost tienen i 19 be ghon to tha outing edge of mint40 Public Administration : Theories and Principles officioney, effectiveness and responsiveness of public administrators discharging managerial functions in a political environment, The New Public Management theory rejects. the various. concepis and principles of traditional public administration like the polities-administration dichotomy, the need for a_hierarchy-ridden organisation. over- centralisation of powors, supromacy of rules in administration, rationality in decision- making, impersonal nature of administration, rigidity in the administrative process and an inward-looking orientation. Tho Now Public Management perspective seeks to effect broad-based changes in public administration at micro and macro levels. ‘The micro-level changes are focused on improving the performance of public organisations by heightening the managerial content in their functioning, This roquires (i) a clear definition of the roles of the organisation so. that more effective ‘programmes can be framed; (i) definition of standards of quality in order to offer better quality services to consumers; (iii) impr the structuring of the organisations: and (iv) reducing tho organisational costs. Tho. macro changes are aimed at transforming the functioning and structure of public organisation. This is being achieved in countries around the world through part- privatisation of state-run organisations, introducing user charges for services made available by the organisations to consumers; and setting up of autonomous service delivery agencies which would have the authority as well as be flexible enough to provide improved services. Definitions and Views of Scholars on ‘NPM David Osborne and ‘Ted Gaebler (1992) emphasised on the principles of NPM for governance. They were for promoting Competition between service-providers. pushing control out of the bureaucracy into the government; measuring performance by focusing on outcomes; redefining clients as customers; decentralising authority and promoting participative. management; and preferring market mechanisms to bureaucratic mechanisms, ‘Andrew Massey (1993) outlined the basic goals of New Public Management as. the following: e reducing the role and extent of the state e facilitating the acquisition of entrepreneurial skills; preventing future expansion of the public sector; © depoliticising policy decisions (of an economic nature} and entrusting them to professional experts; @ inchiding best techniques of private sector practices in public sector omganisations: and © protecting individual civil liberties by inalienable property rights, by enirenching divisions between the private and public, so that the power of the state and. its employess. to behave in an arbitrary fashion is curtailod Standford Borins (1989) described NPM fas “normative reconceptualisation of public administration consisting of several inter- related components", He considered the key ideas of NPM to be— @ provision of high quality services by the government; making available resources—human and. tochnological—that managers need, and increasing the autonomy of evaluating and rewarding omganisations and individuals. based on how thoy meet performance targets; and public sector managers appreciating the value of competition and boing open-minded about which services belong to the private sector. Christopher Pollitt (1990) viewed NPM as involving the use of market-like mechanism by the public sector for those parts that could not be: transfered into. private ownership; intensified decentralisation of the management; and improving service quality and customer satisiaction,Public Administration : Evolution, Challenges and Significance a Peter Aucoin (1990) saw NPM as marking a sbift from policy to management; from aggregation to disaggregation in public sector omganisations: and from planning and public service wellarism to cost-cutting and labour discipline. Christopher Hood (1991) pointed out seven main charactoristics of NPM: implementation of hands-on ‘professional management in the public sector; defining standards and measures of performance and setting performance famgets to improve efficiency: emphasising on output controls— results rather than procedures: disaggrogation of units in public sector organisations—largo entities divided into corporatised units around products; @ groater competition in the public sector: greater discipline and parsimony in esourees use; and emphasis on private sector type of ‘management practices, like flexibility in hiring and rewards, te. Features of New Public Management NPM is a new paradigm of public administration. What NPM dos is to borrow ‘how’ from business management and blend. it with the ‘what’ of administration. Its advocates suggest certain shifls of emphasis in the way public sector is organised and managed. It aims at economy (eradication of ‘waste), efficiency (stwamlining of service) and effectiveness (specifying objectives to ensure resources are used to target problems). ‘The shifts it advocates ara as follows. i) Instoad of ‘collective. provision’, there should be flexible provision of individualised products. The customer then replaces the citizen, and the ‘production line’ of public administration is broken down into individual pieces for contracting out or privatisation. (ii) The traditional ‘output oriented Administration’ is to be mplaced by ‘process oriented administration’ with the focus on posformance indicators, evaluations and performance-related pay, and quality improvement. (iii) A dichotomy between core policy activities and adaptive operational services should replace traditional planning and hierarchical execution of decisions (iv) The major strass. should. bo on cnst cutting rather than spending; the administrative motto should be that of ‘value for many’ (v) Structurally. clusters rather than pyramids should be the preferred model for the design of the administrative system, autonomous agencies being linked to the parent department on the basis of contracts (vi) Budgeting in terms of simple input! output quantities should. be replaced by ‘accrual’ accounting, and all public services should be considered for privatisation if their commercial viability may be sustained at a lesser cost in the private sector. (vil) The purpose of ownership should be seon as efficient management rather than possession. (wili] The shift of emphasis, in general, must be from policy to management with Full cost consciousness before making any decision, The features of NPM can be further elaborated. NPM favours the government giving up some of its functions, with part of the functions of public organisations being contracted out. The focus on cliont satisfaction means that the clients, service providers and other stakeholders noed to be consulted before evolving the standards of service 10 be provided to the people. ‘The need is to transfer responsibilities to lowor lovely of government, as it has sought to be done in India through the 7rd and 74th Constitutional amendments. Devolution also involves transferring responsibilities from the government to operating departments or autonomous agencies which can take citizen- friendly decisions on their own. Some European. nations like Denmark, the UK and Sweden have such bodies. Devolution also42 Public Administration : Theories and Principles Includes greater powers to public managers who function at a lower level in the hierarchy in the same organisation. However, even while transferring responsibility it must be ensured that rules of good conduct and ethics are laid down and broad policy guidelines are made clear to the authorities concerned To ensure accountability, performance contracting is a useful tool. Already tried out in India in the form of Memorandum of Understandings (Mots) between the ministries and the public sector organisations, the contmacts mention the required inputs and outputs including the amount of autonomy to be enjoyed by the organisation. The organisation is then held responsible for dolivering the results on time. But it is difficult for the performance contract to work successfully as it is not easy to create performance measurement systems inthe public sector: there are several invisible social costs involved, besides political factors, In contrast, in private organisations, the market provides the testing factor. ‘The two defining features of New Public Management are Public-Choice ‘Theory and New-Taylorism (Soe lator in this chapter for a detailed discussion of these concepts). ‘New Public Management Perspective in Select Countries ‘To improve public service management, countries have stressed the need for change leading to a synergy between the public and private sectors, development of an administrative structure which is transparent and open, harnessing of information technology. reorientation of the staff for better performance, and combating political and administrative corruption, The USA and UK In the United States, efforts have been made to transform the spirit of governance. David Osborne and Ted Gaebler their work. Reinventing Government, have indicated some of the requiremonts of public. management. ‘Thay emphasise on catalytic government, mission~ driven government and market-oriented government, The emphasis is on empowering Citizens and treating them as customers They have highlighted the need for a result- oriented and highly decentralised government. During the last few decades, the administrative system has been reoriented in major way in the United Kingdom. It was 1979 thal Primo Minister Margaret ‘Thatcher introduced a system of ‘financial scrutiny’ and ‘financial management’ initiatives to reduce the operation costs and ensure better control over administration through the financial reporting system. Executive agencies were established under the ‘Next Steps reforms so as to docontralise some of the operational aspects of administration in order to usher in autonomous authority and accountability in administration. To empowor citizens, the concept of the ‘citizen's charter’ ‘was introduced in 1991 in many public organisations. ‘These citizen's charters were subjected to some changes under the ‘Service First’ approach. The new charter programme was then Introduced in june 1998. New Zealand New Zealand has ushered in the reforms process to give a boost to corporatisation and privatisation, Many government enterprises have been sold off to the private sector. ‘The public sector has adopted the established principles of private sector organisations like economy, efficiency and market competition, This has made possible greater autonomy in management of resources to the private sector, As in India, contracts with chief exccutives and ministries have been mado, specifying the desired output and the price that would be paid. The chief executives are given full powers to hire the kind of staff they want and to fix thoir salaries which are related mainly to performance, canada ‘The reforms in the federal public service were initiated in 1993 in Canada, who reforms process was intonded to provide hhigh quality service and. incroased client satisfaction. ‘The public service in the country thas become mom open, more visible and ‘more consultative over the years. ‘The relorms focus on development of the people, Standards