PAPUA NEW GUINEA MARITIME COLLEGE

TOPIC 3: THE MAGNETIC COMPASS:

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Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this topic the learner should be able to:
i). Describe the construction of a magnetic compass
ii). State the different parts of a magnetic compass and their uses
iii). Explain what a lubber line is.
iv). Understand the posioning and location of corrector magnets
v). Use a magnetic compass to take bearings to plot a vessel’s position
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Introduction:

It is not known where or when it was discovered that the lodestone (a magnetized mineral
composed of an iron oxide) aligns itself in a north-south direction, as does a piece of iron that
has been magnetized by contact with a lodestone. Neither is it known where or when marine
navigators first availed themselves of these discoveries. Plausible records indicate that the
Chinese were using the magnetic compass around ad 1100, western Europeans by 1187, Arabs
by 1220, and Scandinavians by 1300.
The device could have originated in each of these groups, or it could have been passed from
one to the others. All of them had been making long voyages, relying on steady winds to guide
them and sightings of the Sun or a familiar star to inform them of any change. When the
magnetic compass was introduced, it probably was used merely to check the direction of the
wind when clouds obscured the sky.

The first mariner’s compass may have consisted of a magnetized needle attached to a wooden
splinter or a reed floating on water in a bowl. In a later version the needle was pivoted near its
centre on a pin fixed to the bottom of the bowl. By the 13th century a card bearing a painted
wind rose was mounted on the needle; the navigator could then simply read his heading from
the card. So familiar has this combination become that it is called the compass, although that
word originally signified the division of the horizon. The suspension of the compass bowl in
gimbals (originally used to keep lamps upright on tossing ships) was first mentioned in 1537.

During the 15th century it became apparent that the compass needle did not point true north
from all locations but made an angle with the local meridian. This phenomenon was originally
called by seamen the northeasting of the needle but is now called the variation or declination.
For a time, compass makers in northern countries mounted the needle askew on the card so
that the fleur-de-lis indicated true north when the needle pointed to magnetic north. This practice
died out about 1700 because it succeeded only for short voyages near the place where the
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compass was made; it caused confusion and difficulty on longer trips, especially in crossing the
Atlantic to the American coast, where the declination was west instead of east as in Europe. The
declination in a given location varies over time. For example, in northern Europe in the 16th
century the magnetic north pole was east of true geographic north; in subsequent centuries it
has drifted to the west.

Variation of Magnetic Compass

Despite its acknowledged value, the magnetic compass long remained a fragile, troublesome,
and unreliable instrument, subject to mysterious disturbances.

The introduction of iron and then steel for hulls and engines in the 19th century caused further
concern because it was well known that nearby ironwork would deflect the compass needle. In
1837 the British Admiralty set up a committee to seek rational methods of ensuring the accuracy
of compasses installed on iron ships. In 1840 the committee introduced a new design that
proved so successful that it was promptly adopted by all the principal navies of the world.
Further refinements, aimed at reducing the effects of engine vibration and the shock of gunfire,
continued throughout the century.

It caused confusion and difficulty on longer trips, especially in crossing the Atlantic to the
American coast, where the declination was west instead of east as in Europe. The declination in
a given location varies over time. For example, northern Europe in the 16th century the
magnetic north pole was east of true geographic north; in subsequent centuries it has drifted to
the west.

N3 004 016: Describes the construction of a liquid card magnetic compass.

The Magnetic Compass

A Magnetic compass is usually fitted on the upper bridge, (also known as the monkey island),
more or less on the centre line of the ship. This is referred to as a Standard Compass because it
is a primary means of indicating direction on a ship.

There are two (2) basic types:

(a) The dry card Compass

(b) The wet card Compass

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The Dry and Liquid (wet) Magnetic Compass

Dry Card Compass Wet Card Compass

The liquid magnetic compass, now almost universally used, is commonly accompanied by an
azimuth instrument for taking bearings of distant objects. The compass consists of a set of steel
needles with a compass card, attached to a float, in a bowl of water and alcohol. In modern
instruments, the magnetic element is often in the form of a ring magnet, fitted within the float.
The card is usually of mica or plastic with photographically printed graduations; metal cards with
perforated graduations also are used. Cards are usually graduated clockwise from 0° at north to
359°, with the eight principal points indicated.

A jewel is fitted at the centre of the float to bear on an iridium-tipped pivot attached to the bowl
of the compass. The liquid in which the directional system is placed serves two purposes: to
reduce the weight on the pivot point, and thereby to minimize friction; and to damp out
oscillations from the ship’s motion. The bowl is closed on the top and bottom by glass, the
bottom glass permitting illumination from below, and is mounted in gimbals. A flexible
diaphragm or bellows attached to the bowl accommodates the change in volume of the liquid
caused by temperature changes.

The ship’s heading is read with the aid of the lubber’s line, which is oriented toward the forward
part of the compass to indicate the direction of the ship’s centre line.

When the ship alters course, liquid at the side of the bowl tends to displace slightly, deflecting
the card and causing what is known as swirl error. To minimize swirl error, the card is often

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made considerably smaller in diameter than the bowl. The directional system is made
sufficiently bottom-heavy (pendulous) to counteract the downward pull of the vertical component
of the Earth’s magnetic field, which would otherwise cause the system to tilt.

The binnacle, formerly called the bittacle, is the receptacle in which the compass is mounted.
Originally constructed in the form of a cupboard, it is now usually a cylindrical pedestal with
provision for illuminating the compass card, usually from below. It contains various correctors to
reduce the deviations of the compass caused by the magnetism of the ship. These usually
consist of properly placed magnets, a pair of soft iron spheres (or small strips close to the
compass), and a vertical soft iron bar called the Flinders bar, which originated in
recommendations made by the English navigator Matthew Flinders.

Binnacles are sometimes constructed so that an image of part of the compass card can be
projected or reflected through a tube onto a viewing screen on the deck below. This
arrangement can make it unnecessary to provide a second compass for the helmsman and may
allow the binnacle to be placed in a position less susceptible to magnetic disturbances.
The basic compass (whether dry or wet) consists of a card with cardinal graduations,
suspended inside a bowl. The suspension should provide a frictionless support.

The directive element in these types of compasses consists of needle magnets attached to the
card. Modern compasses use ring magnet as a directive element.

The compass card is enclosed in a cylindrical brass bowl having a transparent top glass. The
top glass is retained in position by a brass "verge ring", which is secured to the brass bowl by
brass screws along the circumference. A rubber washer between the verge ring and the top
glass ensures water-tightness.

The dry card compass is too sensitive for steering purposes, especially in bad weather and
even small disturbances causes the dry card to oscillate. This type is not very popular and
hence we will not discuss the same in this module.

In the wet card compass, the oscillations are damped, without loss of accuracy, by immersing
the card in liquid. The card therefore does not oscillate but has “a dead beat" movement.

N3 004 017 : Sketches a cross section through a typical magnetic compass.

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The Wet card is made of mica in one piece & the graduations are printed on the edges. The
card is attached to a nickel silver float chamber, which has a sapphire cap at the centre. The
Cap rests on an iridium tipped pivot. Though the weight of the wet card is considerable, the
buoyancy of the float chamber reduces the load on the pivot and allows a frictionless rotation of
the card. (VIDEO)

The compass bowl: The compass bowl is made of brass. The bowl is mounted on Gimbal ring
suspended on Gimbal Sockets which are at the same level of the compass card. This
arrangement (gimbals) permit the compass to remain level despite the motion of the ship. A
hole on the underside with a Filling Plug for filling the liquid to remove the air bubbles.

The arrangements inside the compass consist of, Compass Card. The card is made of
aluminum or mica disc graduated in degrees from 0 -359. Is made light as possible.
 Centre of Gravity is below Pivot
 weight distributed to the edge of card
 design of card gives best mechanical advantage

Liquid – The liquid in the wet card provides a damping oscillation effect. As the vessel steams
at sea it experiences vibrations, pitching and rolling. Except in calm weather when the vessel is
not pitching and rolling, however there is vibration due to operation of the engines and
machinery.
The vibration affect the magnetic card damping effect. The liquid is 2 part alcohol and 1 part
water. The liquid also prevents the water from freezing in cold climates.

A Pivot which acts like a main support point supported by the Stalk with the base fitted to the
bottom glass floating on Glazed Base. The compass card made of aluminum or mica rides on
the Hollow Copper/ silver Float with Ring Magnets or Directive Element. The magnets are
attached to the card base, that ensures the card is not only north seeking but also remain
horizontal even when ship tilts with rolling/ pitching. It consists of 3, 4, 6 or 5 pairs of needle
magnets symmetrically fixed.

The card rests on the Jeweled Sapphire Cap, which rides on a Pivot point. Corrugated Rings
or Expansion Bellows are fitted which expands and contract with change in atmospheric
temperature. Inside the compass is a lubber line that aligns with the direction of the keel of the
ship. The direction of North is indicated by Fluer de lis.

The Binnacle: The binnacle is a cylindrical container (a protection cover) made of teakwood
and brass. Non-magnetic materials are used in its construction. The compass bawl is swing
inside the top portion of binnacle. It also serves as a housing for the compass corrector
magnets, flinders bar and the quadrantal spheres. A lighting system is installed for the night
vision.

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The directive element of the card is achieved by a ring magnet fitted around the base of the
float. In older type of compasses, the directive element consisted of two cylindrical bar magnets
one on each side of the float parallel to the North-South axis of the card.

As stated earlier wet card compass is less sensitive to small disturbance and so more useful as
a steering compass, without any loss of accuracy.

The Wet card is made of mica in one piece & the graduations are printed on the edges. The
card is attached to a nickel silver float chamber, which has a sapphire cap at the centre. The
Cap rests on an iridium tipped pivot. Though the weight of the wet card is considerable, the
buoyancy of the float chamber reduces the load on the pivot and allows a frictionless rotation of
the card.

The directive element of the card is achieved by a ring magnet fitted around the base of the
float. In older type of compasses, the directive element consisted of two cylindrical bar magnets
one on each side of the float parallel to the North-South axis of the card.

Wet card compass

The bowl containing the card is filled with a mixture of distilled water and pure ethyl alcohol,
which has the following properties:
i. A low freezing point
ii. Small co-efficient of expansion
iii. Does not discolour card
iv. Low specific gravity – about 0.93.
The diameter of the bowl is about 23 cms, whereas the card is only about 15 cms diameter. This
gap reduces the disturbances caused by turbulence in the liquid during rotation. The top of the
bowl carries transparent glass and bottom has a frosted glass. The bowl is suspended by
gimbals just like a dry compass card. This bowl being heavier that dry compass bowl, there is

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no liquid filled glass hemisphere at the bottom circumference to act as ballast to bring the centre
of gravity below the gimbals.

N3 004 018 : Explains how the card is kept practically horizontal in all latitudes.

Part of the weight of the card and magnets is supported by buoyancy and part by an iridium
point fitting into the sapphire bearing. As in the dry card compass, the point of support is above
the center of gravity of the card so that the card will remain substantially horizontal in all
latitudes.
The compass card is designed to operate in the horizontal, therefore, any movement from the
horizontal plane introduces dip error. The needle of your magnetic compass will be parallel
with Earth's surface at the Magnetic Equator, but will point increasing downward as it is moved
closer to the Magnetic Pole

N3 004 019 : States the composition of the liquid and explains how allowance is made for
changes in volume of liquid.
The liquid composition in the liquid card compass is a mixture of alcohol and
water, with a ratio of 2:1, ie two parts alcohol and one part water .
Increase and decrease of atmospheric temperature expands and contracts the liquid inside the
bowl. Different methods are adopted to cope with this problem. Two types of arrangements are
as follows:
(1)        Fitting of corrugated chambers
(2)        Fitting of nut-and-screw expansion chambers
This arrangement is similar to the attachment of corrugated bellows in an aneroid barometer.
The chamber increases or decreases in volume whenever the liquid inside the bowl expands or
contracts due to variations in atmospheric temperature.

N3 004 020: Describes how to remove an air bubble from the compass bowl.

Follow the manufacturer’s instructions. In most compasses the bubbles can be removed as
stated below:
i. Tilt the bowl unit “filler hole” on the side of the bowl facing up.
ii. Unscrew the stud plug fitted on the hole.
iii. Top up with ethyl alcohol and / distilled water using a dropper (syringe)
iv. Refit the stud plug in the hole (screw in tight)
v. Gently return the bowl to the upright position
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In some modern compasses a small bubble may be removed by merely inverting the compass
gently. The bubbles will enter a bubble trap fitted for this purpose. Then gently return the bowl
to the upright position, however, if the bubble is large, then follow the five steps states above.

N3 004 021 : Describes how to check that the card is turning freely on its pivot.

In a modern ship's compass, the compass card is attached to a float with a number of magnetic
needles underneath it and spins freely inside a large glass bowl filled with a mixture of alcohol
and water (to minimize friction and absorb vibrations from the moving ship). The whole thing is
mounted on gimbals (pivots) in a stand called a binnacle so it stays horizontal even when the
ship is pitching (moving up and down) and rolling (rocking from side to side) in the waves.

N3 004 022 : Explains how the compass bowl is supported in the binnacle.

The card is aluminum disk graduated in degrees from 0⁰ to 359⁰. It has a jeweled bearing that
rides on a sharp, hard pivot point. The card is supported by the bowl.

 A  lubbers  line  is marked  on  the  bowl  and  is  used  as  visible  index. The bowl is filled with
Varsol to dampen over swings by the card. An expansion bellows in the bowl in the lower bowl
serves to allow expansion of the liquid with temperature changes. Several bar magnets are
used to correct and align the compass. The bowl has two pivots that rest in the a metal ring,
which also has two pivots resting in the binnacle.  This arrangement (gimbals) permits the
compass to remain level despite the motion of the ship. The binnacle serves as a housing for
the compass.   It   is made of a non- magnetic material. It also serves as a housing for the
compass correctors: magnets, flinders bar, and quadrantal spheres.   A   lighting system is
normally fitted in the compass binnacle (VIDEO)

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N3 004 023 : Describes the marking of the lubber line and its purpose.
Forward, inside part of tile bowl, there is usually a small projection with a line marked on it. This
line is called the "lubber line", and it represents the direction of the ship's head. The compass is
fixed on the centre line keel of the ship, with the lubber line aligned towards forward. The
reading of the compass card, which is in line with the lubber line, is the compass heading.

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