THE SELF IN WESTERN AND ORIENTAL/EASTERN THOUGHT

Activity 5
“PEOPLE AROUND ME”
Instructions:
1. The class will be divided into two groups. They will decide if their group will be on
collectivism or individualism and think a slogan or jingle for their chosen culture.
2. Statements about collectivism and individualism will be posted on the board.

If someone asked you to finish the sentence,

“I am ,” what sorts of things
would you include in your responses?
Would you focus on your personality traits?
Your job title? Or your relationships with others?
Psychologists have found that a person’s cultural
background can affect how a person sees himself
or herself.
Fiske, Kitayama, Markus, and Nisbett (1998)
reported that people are shaped by their culture, and their culture is also shaped by
them. One of the major proponents of cultural psychology, Richard Shweder, wrote,
“Cultural traditions and social practices regulate, express, and transform the human
psyche, resulting less in psychic unity for humankind than in ethnic divergences in
mind, self, and emotion” (1991). An individual thinks, feels, and behaves similarly as
that of the members of his or her community. However, each community has its own
standards, expectations, and rules that shape its members. These differences are the
reason people are markedly divergent. This divergence is evident in the eastern and
western concepts of “self.”

Western Concept of Self

Ancient Greek philosophers see humans as the bearers of irreplaceable values. In

medieval times, the philosopher and saint, Thomas Aquinas, believed that the body
constitutes individuality. The individual was the focus of Renaissance thought, with
Rene Descartes’ famous “I think, therefore I am” as the epitome of the Western idea of
self.
The western tradition is generally acknowledged to be “imbued with a style of
thinking based on dichotomy and binary opposition” (Carr & Zanetti, 2000; Singhal,
2000). There is an essential distinction between the notion of the thinking subject (an
observer) that stands in natural opposition to observable reality (Singhal, 2000).

46 A Holistic Approach In Understanding The Self

 The osychiatrist and professor, Frank Johnson (1985), outlined four categories on
how the term “self ” is used in contemporary western discussion.
1. Analytical
2. Monotheistic
3. Individualistic
4. Materialistic/rationalistic

By analytic, Johnson meant the “tendency to see reality as an aggregate of parts.”

The “self” is an observer separate and distinct from external objects (Me versus Other).
Monotheism, according to Johnson, involved the tendency toward unitary explanations
of phenomena and a closed-system view of “self ” as modeled after a unitary, omnipotent
power (“Man was created by God, in His image). Individualism on the other hand, is a
quality of western thinking where self-expression and self-actualization are important
ways of establishing who one is, as well as in finding satisfaction in the world. Finally,
materialistic/rationalistic western thinking tends to discredit explanations that do not
use analytic-deductive modes of thinking (Johnson, 1985; Goldin, 2000)

Eastern Concept of Self

The earliest religious writings in the East are the Vedas. It formed the Hindu
philosophy and dharma (the principle of cosmic order). The chants and hymns in the
Vedas illustrate the eastern mindset of a nondual universe but rather a creation that is
completely unified with the creator, with no distinction (Watts, 1965, Wolter, 2013).
According to these sacred Hindu texts, the true nature of humans is described as
“Brahman” which is the divine universal consciousness encompassing the universe. The
Brahman is the Self that is all within us (Watts, 1965; Wolter; 2013). Thus, one of the
main points of Hinduism is “change your perception of the world to perceive the Brahman
in oneself and in others” (Watts, 1965; Wolter, 2013).
Buddhism is composed of the teachings of Buddha. In Buddhist traditions, the
“self” is not an entity, a substance, or essence. Rather, the “self” is a dynamic process.
It is interdependent and ever changing. The Buddha taught a doctrine called anatta,
which is often defined as “no-self or no-soul.” Annata is a concept that the sense of being
a permanent, autonomous “self” is an illusion. It is the teaching that there is no eternal,
unchanging “self/soul” inhabiting our bodies or living our lives, (Collins, 1982; Garfield,
1995; Hopkins, 1983, 1987; Wallace, 1989, 1998).
Buddhist tradition holds that the human being’s inborn erroneous view of “self” as
an enduring entity is the cause of his/her suffering because he/she tries to hold on to
that which is in constant flux (constantly flowing or constantly changing) and has no
existence outside of shifting contexts (Galin, 2003). Thus a new corrective experience
of the “self” is needed. Buddhism takes a great interest in how people experience their

A Holistic Approach In Understanding The Self 47

“self” rather than just their abstract idea of it because Buddhist practices are designed to
lead to a new (correct) experience of self. It takes arduous training to modify or overcome
the natural state of experiencing the “self” as persisting and unchanging (Galin, 2003).
In Confucianism, the quest for the “self” in terms of substance, of spirit, of body, or
of essence does not exist (Klemme, 1999; Ames, 1994; Graham, 1990). The form that
Confucius wrote about the concept of “self” is that of personality. The qualities that
form a person’s character are not something that exists inherently. Rather, in Confucian
thought it is something that is formed through upbringing and the environment
(Klemme, 1999; Ames, 1994; Graham, 1990).
Confucian philosophy presented the idea that every person is born with four
beginnings. However, these do not yet comprise the concept of “self” but when perceived
together, it could be explained in Western terms as a “pre-self” or a “potential self.”
These four beginnings are:
• Heart of compassion that leads to Jen;
• Heart of righteousness that leads to Yi;
• Heart of propriety that leads to Li; and
• Heart of wisdom that leads to Chih.
Jen, Yi, Li, and Chih are the perfection of the virtues that at the start were mere
potentials. Jen means goodwill, sympathy toward others, politeness, and generosity.
Yi means rightness and the respect of duty (you must respect your position as a guardian
toward nature and humanity). Li means having the right to practice propriety in all that
you do. Propriety involves demonstrating your inner attitude in your outer expression.
Chih means wisdom; this wisdom is expressed by putting jen, yi, and li into practice
(Quinlan, 2001; Chinavoc, 2007).
Personality (in the Confucian perception) is an achieved state of moral excellence
rather than a given human condition. However, such achieved personality, or self, is
not to be understood as primarily an individual entity. The Confucian concept of self is
deeply embedded within the family and society, and it is only in that context that the
self comes to be what it is (Quinlan, 2001; Chinavoc, 2007).
Taoism rejects a hierarchical view of the self, society, or cosmos. Unlike Confucianism,
Taoism does not regard the “self” as an extension of (or defined by) social relationships.
Rather, the “self” is but one of the countless manifestations of the Tao. It is an extension
of the cosmos (or the universe seen as a well-ordered whole). Chuang-tzu, regarded as
a mystic of unmatched brilliance in China, gave an explicit negation of the centrality
of the “self.” According to Chuang-tzu,”The perfect man has no self; the spiritual man
has no achievement; the true sage has no name.” The ideal is, thus, selflessness. In sum,
Chuang-tzu’s conception of selfhood entails conscious self-transformation leading to
the attributes of a balanced life in harmony with both nature and society (Ho, 1995).

48 A Holistic Approach In Understanding The Self

 The Arabic word for the word “self” is Nafs written in the Holy Qur’an. It pertains
to the psyche (the totality of the conscious and unconscious human mind) or the soul.
The Quran does not ascribe any property of goodness or evil to the “nafs/self.” Instead,
the “nafs/self” is something, which has to be nurtured and self-regulated, so that it can
progress into becoming “good” (or conversely, “evil”) through its thoughts and actions.
The “self” in Islamic tradition is used both in the individualistic and collective sense
(Nurdeen Deuraseh & Mansor Abu Talib, 2005).
Here is a concise presentation of the difference between eastern and western thought.

http://www.1000ventures.com/business_guide/crosscuttings/cultures_east-west-phylosophy.html

http://www.1000ventures.com/business_guide/crosscuttings/cultures_east-west-phylosophy.html

A Holistic Approach In Understanding The Self 49

 http://www.1000ventures.com/business_guide/crosscuttings/cultures_
east-west-phylosophy.html

http://www.1000ventures.com/business_guide/crosscuttings/cultures_
east-west-phylosophy.html

50 A Holistic Approach In Understanding The Self

 Individualistic vs Collective Self

ARE YOU SELF-ORIENTED OR FAMILY-ORIENTED?

Individualism-Collectivism Scale
The source of this scale is: T. M. Singelis, H. C. Triandis, D. P.S. Bhawuk, and M.
J. Gelfand, “Horizontal and Vertical Dimensions of Individualism and Collectivism: A
Theoretical and Measurement Refinement,” Cross-Cultural Research 29 (August 1995),
pp. 240-75.
Cross-cultural values have become an important part of organizational life caused
by globalization and an increasingly multicultural workforce. Organizational behavior
researchers have studied several cross-cultural values, but none has had as much
attention as the two measured in this self-assessment: individualism and collectivism.
Read each of the statements in this instrument, and select the response that you
believe best indicates how well these statements describe you.

1 – Does not describe me at all 4 – Describes me well

2 – Does not describe me very well 5 – Describes me very well
3 – Describes me somewhat

������ 1. I often do “my own thing.”

������ 2. The well-being of my coworkers is important to me.
������ 3. One should live one’s life independently of others.
������ 4. If a coworker gets a prize, I would feel proud.
������ 5. I like my privacy.
������ 6. If a relative were in financial difficulty, I would help within my means.
������ 7. I prefer to be direct and forthright when discussing with people.
������ 8. It is important to maintain harmony within my group.
������ 9. I am a unique individual.
����� 10. I like sharing little things with my neighbors.
����� 11. What happens to me is my own doing.
����� 12. I feel good when I cooperate with others.
����� 13. When I succeed, it is usually because of my abilities.
����� 14. My happiness depends very much on the happiness of those around me.
����� 15. I enjoy being unique and different from others in many ways.
����� 16. To me, pleasure is spending time with others.
Source: Steven L. McShane and Mary Ann Glinow. Organizational Behavior. Second Edition.
Retrieved at http://highered.mheducation.com/sites/0073381225/student_view0/chapter2/self-
assessment_2_3.html

A Holistic Approach In Understanding The Self 51

 Understanding Your Score on the Individualism-Collectivism Scale

This self-assessment estimates your level of individualism and collectivism. At

one time, experts thought that these two cross-cultural values were opposites. Now,
we understand that they represent separate values that are generally unrelated to each
other. Each scale has a potential score ranging from 8 to 40 points. Higher scores indicate
that the person has a higher level of each cross-cultural value.
Low Moderate High
individualism individualism individualism
8-22 23-30 31-40

8 40

Your score was 21. The range of possible scores is from 8 to 40.

Individualism
Individualism refers to the extent that you value independence and personal
uniqueness. Highly individualist people value personal freedom, self-sufficiency, control
over their own lives, and appreciation of their unique qualities that distinguish them
from others. The following graph shows the range of individualism in general. However,
keep in mind that the average level of individualism is higher in some cultures (such as
Canada) than in others.
Low Moderate High
individualism individualism individualism
8-22 23-30 31-40

8 40

Your score was 25. The range of possible scores is from 8 to 40.

Collectivism
Collectivism refers to the extent that we value our duty to groups to which we belong,
and to group harmony. Highly collectivist people define themselves by their group
membership and value harmonious relationships within those groups. The following
graph shows the range of collectivism in general. However, keep in mind that the average
level of collectivism is lower in some cultures (such as Canada) than in others.
SOURCE: http://highered.mheducation.com/sites/0073381225/
student_view0/chapter2/self-assessment_2_3.html

Culture plays a very significant role in the development of the self-concept. It

embodies specific values, thoughts, or ideas that play a central role in determining a
person’s sense of “self.” The two dominant self-concepts are the individualistic self and
the collective self.

52 A Holistic Approach In Understanding The Self

Individualistic self
Americans are fond of saying “I am my own man.” They believe that they should
assert and stand up for themselves. One of their famous quotes is, “I am the master of
my fate; I am the captain of my soul” believing that it is the person who determines how
he or she lives his/her life.
Individualistic cultures (such as in the USA, Australia, Great Britain, Canada, the
Netherlands, and New Zealand) emphasize the moral worth of the individual (Wood,
1972). Individualists encourage asserting one’s goals and desires; they highly value
independence and self-reliance. They insist that the interests of the individual should
take precedence over the state or a social group. They also strongly oppose external
interference by society or institutions (such as the government) upon one’s own interests.
Individualistic cultures are oriented around the individual: that a person should be
independent instead of having the mentality of identifying with a group. In interpersonal
relationships, Individualists see each other as only loosely linked, and they value
personal goals over group interests (Hofstede, 2001). Moreover, it is characterized with
emphasis on personal achievements and a rational assessment of both the beneficial and
detrimental aspects of relationships with others (Rothwell, 2010).
Societies that focus on the person create an individualistic self-concept wherein the
person sees the constellation of traits and characteristics that distinguish the individual
within his or her social context (Constantine, Brewer, & Constantine, 2001). This form
of self-representation relies on interpersonal comparison processes and is associated
with the motive of protecting or enhancing the person psychologically (Constantine, et
al., 2001; Brewer & Gardner, 1996; see also Markus, 1977; Sedikides, 1993).

Collective self
A study conducted by Patricia Licuanan, a Filipino psychologist and educator,
determined that one of the strengths of the Filipino character is our deep love and
concern for the family, which includes not simply the spouses and children, parents,
and siblings, but also grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins, godparents, and all other
ceremonial relatives. To the Filipino, one’s family is the source of personal identity, the
source of emotional and material support, and the person’s main commitment and all
responsibility.
Eastern culture practiced by countries in Asia (i.e., the Philippines) base their
values and self-concept in a collectivist view. People in collectivistic culture emphasize
the interdependence and harmonious relatedness with one another (e.g., the family,
co-workers, friends, etc.). It is of utmost importance to be part of and maintain social
networks, maintain good relationships, and fulfill obligations.

A Holistic Approach In Understanding The Self 53

Closing the gap
Because of such difference in emphases, western self-concept has been challenged
that it did not capture the significant relationship of interdependence in eastern
collectivist cultures. Some contemporary self-concept theories attempted to close the
gap between cultural concepts. Baumeister (1986) proposed that self-concept could be
organized in three aspects:
1. Private, which refers to the mental processes that perceive one’s own traits or
behaviors (e.g. I am honest);
2. Public, which refers to the generalized view of self, such as the perception of how
others view you (e.g., People think I’m honest); and
3. Collective, which refers to the view of self in a collective concept (e.g., My family
expects me to be honest).
It is assumed that these three aspects exist in every person. However, a dominant
aspect would probably present itself depending on one’s culture (Triandis, 1986;
McInerney, 2003). Thus, in an individualistic culture, the person would predominantly
show the private self and will behave according to personal beliefs, feelings, philosophy,
etc. In a collectivist culture, the person would present the “collective self” more; and is
thus more inclined to behave according to rules, norms, and custom (Triandis, 1986;
McInerney, 2003).

The Self as Embedded in Relationships and Through Spiritual

Development in Confucian Thought

The Confucian tradition as a way of thinking and lifestyle is still an inspiration to

many East Asian societies. Characteristic of Confucian selfhood is the participation of
others in the dynamic process of self and spiritual development.
The Confucian concept of Li often rendered as “proper conduct” or “propriety” was
originally denoted as court rites (rituals) performed to sustain social and cosmic order.
The current context of Li moved beyond mere politeness or convention. It has since been
central to Confucian human-centered religiousness.
In the Confucian sense, self-development is a lifelong commitment to learning.
However, Confucian learning is not only about reading books or taking exams; it is
also about ritual practice. It involves practicing discipline for the mind and body to love
life not as an isolated individual but as an active participant in the living community.
Perhaps the single most important concept of the self in Confucian thought is the view
that the “self” is the center of relationships. The idea is that it is only by continually
opening the self to others that the “self” maintains its wholeness and identity.

54 A Holistic Approach In Understanding The Self