Soil Formation and Evolution

Mainul Ahsan
Director (Rtd)
SRDI

Soil Forming Factors

A soil factors is an agent ,force, condition, or a combination of these, able to influence

transformations occurring in the parent material of a soil or in the soil itself. Parent material.
relief, climate, living material (Biota) and time are the main soil forming factors.

Soil as a function of soil forming factors. Soil is a three dimensional natural body on the
landscape, developed or developing from an initial parent material by the activity of living
organisms as influence by climate over a period of time.

State factor equation ( H. Jenny)

S/s= f ( cl, o, r, p, t …..) = as independent variable

Where S = Whole soil body

s = any soil property
cl = environmental climate
o = biota (organisms)
r = relief or topography
p = parent materials
t = time
……. = unspecified factors.

1. Climate:
S/s= f ( cl) o, r, p, t ….. = climofunction -------- climosequence

a) Influence of rainfall
Only part of the precipitation (R) falling on a level surface percolates through the soil profile;
much is lost by evaporation (E) or transpiration by plant (T).

Effective rainfall = R= ( E+T - Runoff)

Marbut’s classification:

 Arid regions : Pedocals ------ accumulation of CaCO 3

 Humid regions : Pedalfers ------ accumulation of clay, iron and aluminum.

Many of the soil forming processes and soil properties vary with increasing/decreasing rainfall:

 Leaching of soluble salts

 Weathering of primary minerals and clay formation
 Illuviation of colloids
 Chemical fertility
 Nitrogen and organic matter content
 Erosion rate
 Cation exchange capacity and base saturation

b) Influence of temperature

 High temperature increases evaporation and thereby makes rainfall less effective in promoting
plant growth, organic matter accumulation, N-accumulation, leaching, and clay migration.

 High temperature, in presence of water, stimulates rock weathering and clay formation

c) Combined rainfall-temperature effect ( orographic effect)

 Increased clay content with increasing moisture and temperature

 Optimum combination of moisture and temperature at middle altitudes generate
maximum clay accumulation.
 Minimum clay formation at low and high altitude.

2. Biota (organisms):
S/s= f (o) cl, r, p, t ….. = biofunction -------- biosequence

The biotic factor in pedogenesis is difficult to assess because of the depencence of both
vegetation and soil on climate and the interaction of soil and vegetation. Includes flora,fauna
and human activities.
- Influence of vegetation and fauna on soil distribution

 Under forest cover: Litter.

 In poorly drained condition or cold environments ( high altitude and high latitude):
moor, histic materials (folist, fibrist)
 - Incorporation decomposed organic matter (=humus) into the soil by the activity and decay
of roots and microorganisms. Goes deeper and is more intensive under grassland covers
( prairie, steppe, savanna) the under forest.
- Speed of organic matter decay: faster for deciduous leaves than coniferous needles
- Formation of organo-mineral complexes and its influence on structure formation: stronger
and more intensive with “basic” organic material (mull, mollic) than with “acidic” organic
material ( moder, umbric, moor, histic).
- Humus illuviation: related to “acidic” organic matter ---- chelation in Spodosols
- Bioturbation of roots and soil fauna ( worms, insects, larvae, termites, rodents, birds):
burrows, tunnels, pores, fillings (krotovinas), excrements , material mixing
- Introduction of toxins in the surficial horizons to decrease plant competition ( eg. Eucalyptus
bark)
- Increase of cation exchange capacity (CEC) for water and nutrient retention and exchange.
- Expansion of the rhizosphere by mycorrhizae exploring more soil volume for water and
nutrients.
- Atmospheric nitrogen fixation by bacteria ( legume nodules)
- Physical protection of the soil by the vegetation cover, little mantle and root system against
direct rainfall drop impact and erosion processes.

Influence of man on soils and soil properties

Man contributes in buildingup, destroying and changing soil profiles and properties:

 Building up: man-made soils by terracing, leveling, filling

 Destroying: by erosion (physical and chemical)
 Changing: by irrigation, drainage, fertilization, tillage

3. Relief (Topography):
S/s= f (r) cl, o, p, t ….. = topofunction -------- toposequence

Catena formation (sloping areas)

Catena- Sequence of soils along a slope whose differentiation is mainly due to topography and
drainage.
-Lateral translocation of soluble substances , colloidal particles and coarser debris .

 Relatively slow evolution: under vegetative cover, constant rejuvenation by erosion and
reposition.
 Relatively faster evolution: under scarce (rare) natural cover or in cultivated areas
vegetative cover, constant rejuvenation by erosion and reposition.
 Conceptual catena model :

Nine unit landsurface model developed by Dalrymple in . A simplified slope-facet model

was also developed by Ruhe