FILOMENO, GLECEREE C.

BSN 2-E

Describe the developmental milestone for each stages of development (infant to

adolescent) according to: Freud, Erikson, Piaget, and Kholberg.

According to Freud’s Stages of Childhood there are Psychosexual Stage and

Nursing Implications. In Oral stage the infant explores the world by using the mouth
and its nursing implication is to provide oral stimulation by giving pacifiers; infants should
not be discouraged of thumb sucking. Anal stage is where the toddler learns to control
urination and defecation. It helps children achieve bowel and bladder control without
undue emphasis on its importance. In Phallic stage, preschooler learns sexual identity
through awareness of genital area and its corresponding nursing implication is accepting
children’s sexual interest, such as fondling his or her own genitals, as a normal area of
exploration. Latent stage is where school-age child’s personality development appears
to be nonactive or dormant. It helps children have a positive experience with learning so
their self-esteem continues to grow. Meanwhile in Genital stage, adolescent develops
sexual maturity and learns to establish satisfactory relationships with others and its
nursing implication is to provide appropriate opportunities for the child to relate with
opposite and own sex relationships.
Meanwhile, Erickson’s Stages of Childhood have Developmental Task and
its Nursing Implications. The infant’s, developmental task is to form a sense of trust
versus mistrust; child learns to love and be loved. The nursing complication for this is to
provide a primary caregiver. Provide experiences that add to security. Toddler has the
developmental task to to form a sense of autonomy versus shame. Child learns to be
independent and make decisions for self and its nursing complication is provide
opportunities for independent decision making, such as choosing his/her own clothes. In
a preschooler’s developmental task is to form a sense of initiative versus guilt. Child
learns how to do things like basic problem solving and that doing things is desirable. The
nursing implication for this is provide opportunities for exploring new places or activities.
In a School-age child’s developmental task is to form a sense of industry versus
inferiority. Child learns how to do things well and provide opportunities such as allowing
child to assemble and complete a short project. Finally, adolescent has the
developmental task to form a sense of identity versus role confusion. Adolescents learn
who they are and what kind of person they will be and its nursing implication is to provide
opportunities for an adolescent to discuss feelings about events important to him or her.
Offer support and praise for decision making.
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development has Sensorimotor, Age Span
and its corresponding Nursing Implications. Neonatal reflex, in 1 month, stimuli
are assimilated into beginning mental images and ehavior is entirely reflexive. Primary
circular reaction, 1-4 months, the hand-mouth and ear-eye coordination develop.
Enjoyable activity for this period: a rattle or tape of parent’s voice. Secondary circular
reaction, in 4-8 months, the infant learns to initiate, recognize, and repeat pleasurable
experiences from environment. Good toy for this period includes: mirror; good game;
peek-a-boo. Coordination of secondary reactions, in 8-12 months, infant can plan
activities to attain specific goals. Good toy for this period are nesting toys. Tertiary
circular reaction, 12-18 months, child is able to experiment to discover new properties
of objects and events. Good game for this period are throws and retrieve. Invention of
new means through mental combinations, in 18-24 months, the transitional phase
to the preoperational thought period. Good toys for this period are those with several
uses, such as blocks or colored plastic rings. Preoperational thought, 2-7 years, the
thought becomes more symbolic; can arrive at answers mentally instead of through
physical attempt. Comprehends simple abstractions but thinking is basically concrete and
literal. Child is egocentric which means he/she is unable to see the view point of another.
Displays static thinking (inability to remember what they started to talk another topic).
Centering or focusing on a single aspect of an object causes distorted reasoning. Unable
to state cause-effect relationships, categories, or abstractions. Good toy for this periodare
items that require imagination, such as modeling clay. Concrete operational thought,
7-12 years, concrete operations include systematic reasoning. Uses memory to learn
broad concepts (fruit) and subgroups of concepts (apples, oranges). Classifications
involve sorting objects according to attributes such as color; seriation, in which objects
are ordered according to increasing or decreasing measures such as weight; and
multiplication, in which objects are simultaneously classified and seriated using weight.
Child is aware of reversibility, an opposite operation or continuation of reasoning back to
a starting point (follows a route through a maze and then reverses steps). Understands
conservation, sees constancy despite transformation (mass or quantity remains the same
even if it changes shape or position). Good activity for this period: collecting and
classifying natural objects such as native plants or sea shells. Expose child to other
viewpoints by asking questions such as, “How do you think you’d feel if you were a nurse
and had to tell a boy to stay in bed?” Lastly, the Formal operational thought, 12
years, can solve hypothetical problems with scientific reasoning. Good activity for this
period: “talk time” to sort through attitudes and opinions.
In Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development comprises Age expressed in
years, Stages, Descriptions, and the following Nursing Implications. In
Preconventional (level I), age 2-3 belongs to stage 1, punishment/obedience
orientation (“heteronymous morality”). Child does right because a parent tells him or her
to and to avoid punishment. The nursing implication for this is that, child needs help to
determine what are right actions. Give clear instructions to avoid confusion. In stage 2
with ages 4-7, demonstrates Individualism. Carries out actions to satisfy own needs rather
than society’s. Will do something for another if that person does something for him or
her and its nursing implication is that the child is unable to recognize that like situations
require like actions. Unable to take responsibility for self-care because meeting own needs
interferes with this. Age 7-10 belongs to Conventional (level II) stage 3, orientation
to interpersonal relations of mutuality. Child follows rules because of a need to be a good
person in own eyes and eyes of others. The nursing implication for this is that the child
enjoys helping others because this is nice behavior. Allow child to help with bed making
and other such activities. Praise for desired behavior such as sharing. 10-12 years of age
also belongs to Conventional (level II) in stage 4, maintenance of social order, fixed
rules, and authority. Child finds following rules satisfying. Follow rules of authority figures
as well as parents in an effort to keep the system working and its nursing implication is
that child often asks what the rules are and if something is right. May have difficulty
modifying a procedure because one method may not be right. Follows self-care measures
only if someone is there to enforce them. Postconventional (level III) stage 5, age
older than 12, social contract, utilitarian law-making perspectives. Follows standards of
society for the good of all people. The nursing implication for this is that adolescents can
be responsible for self-care because they view this as a standard of adult behavior.
Postconventional (level III) stage 6, age older than 12, universal ethical principle
orientation. Follows internalized standards of conduct and its nursing implication is that
many adults do not reach this level of moral development.