Unit 1

How do we distinguish substances?

The central goal of this unit is to help you understand
and apply basic ideas that can be used to distinguish
the different substances present in a system.

Identifying differences that allow

M1. Searching for Differences us to separate components.
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Using the particulate model of

M2. Modeling Matter matter to explain differences.

Analyzing differences in
M3. Analyzing Particles particle’s composition and mass

Unit 1
How do we distinguish
substances?
Module 3: Analyzing Particles
Central goal:
Extend the particulate model of
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matter to describe the

composition and relative mass
of different particles, as well as
quantify their number in a
sample of a substance.

The Challenge
If, according to our model, the identity, properties,
and behavior of a substance are determined by
the nature of its “particles”….

Then, we should
focus our efforts
on characterizing
the properties of
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these particles Butane

and figuring out
what makes them
unique. What is their composition?
What is their mass?
What is its their structure?

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 Atomic Model of Substances
We explain the different properties of substances
by assuming that they are made of particles with
different compositions and structures.

A “particle”
In particular, we assume of water
that they are made up of
smaller units called
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atoms which are held

together by strong
attractive forces called
chemical bonds.

Let′s think!
This is a typical
chemical representation
at the particulate level of
the main components of
“pure” air.

How many different

substances are included
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in this representation?
What similarities and
differences do you
observe between the 5 types of particles 
different types of particles 5 different substances
present in the system?

Modeling Substances Free atom

of argon
The representation
conveys the idea that we
model air as a “mixture”:
a system composed of
two or more types of
independent particles Atom or molecule?
present in proportions
that may vary from
sample to sample.
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Individual particles of Bonded

different substances are Molecule of Molecule of atom of
carbon dioxide oxygen nitrogen
modeled as made of
free or bonded atoms of
Molecules are made of two
different types. or more bonded atoms

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 Classifying Substances
As we have seen, the different components of a mixture
can be separated by physical means (filtration, distillation):

Nitrogen (liquid) Water Argon (gas)

S L G

Chemists classify substances as

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“elementary substances” or “compounds”

based on particle composition.

Which of these are elementary

substances/compounds?
Carbon dioxide
(Solid, Dry ice) Let′s think! What makes the difference?

Elementary Substances
Elementary substances are the most simple substances
in Nature. They are composed of identical particles
made of free or bonded atoms of the same type.

Macroscopic Particulate Symbolic

Argon

Atomic
Ar
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Nitrogen

Molecular
N2

Chemical Elements
The analysis of elementary substances has led to the
identification of all of the different types of atoms
present in them. Up to this day, over a hundred of
different types of atoms have been identified.
Each of these species of atoms is recognized
as a different chemical element.
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 Chemical Compounds
Most substances in nature are chemical compounds.
They are composed of identical particles made of
bonded atoms of two or more different types.
Color
Macroscopic Particulate Symbolic Code
Carbon dioxide
C
CO2 H
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O
Water N

H2O Molecular
Formula

Molecular Compounds
H2O and CO2 belong to a group of compounds
called “molecular compounds”:
They are made of molecules.

Methane
There is a wide variety CH4
of molecular
compounds in Nature. Caffeine
C8H10N4O2
This diversity is due to
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the possibility of
having molecules with
different compositions,
sizes, and structures.
Hemoglobin
C2952H4664N812O832S8Fe4

Models and Formulas

Keep in mind that molecules are represented in
a variety of ways:

Models

Formaldehyde Space-filling Ball-and-stick

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(Air Pollutant)

Formulas CH2O
Molecular Formula Structural formula

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 Ionic Compounds
There are chemical compounds made up of ions
arranged in lattice networks (no molecules):
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In this case, the formula represents the proportion

in which ions are combined (formula unit).

Let’s Think
Decide whether these particulate models correspond
to an elementary substance, a compound or a mixture.
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Let’s Think
T = 280 K What does this system
P = 2 atm represent?
How many phases are
present in this system?
How many substances
are in each phase?
How many elementary
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substances?
How many compounds?
How would you separate
the different components
in the system?

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 Let’s Think
T = 280 K In which of the phases:
P = 2 atm
Are the intermolecular forces
strongest?
Is the average potential
energy per particle the
highest (least negative)?
Is the average particle speed
the highest?
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Is the average kinetic energy

per particle the lowest?

Which of the substances,

has a greater vapor
pressure?

A Mass Challenge
To figure out the actual composition of the particles
that make up different types of substances it has been
useful to first determine the mass of such particles.

How could you

determine the mass
and number of
molecules of ozone,
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O3, that we breath

every day?

Why would that be

important to know?

Indirect Measurements
Atoms and molecules have masses and sizes so
small that can not be measured directly.

The problem has been solved by comparing the

masses of samples of different substances with the
same number (very large) of particles.

M(O2/H2) = 32.0 g/ 2.0 g = 16.

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What does this mean?

H2 O2
The mass of one atom of O
should be 16 times larger than
2.0 g 32.0 g the mass of one atom of H.

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 Let’s Think
However, determining N for every sample is
difficult and time consuming.
What can we do?

We can take advantage of our particulate model.

Go to: http://www.chem.arizona.edu/tpp/chemthink/sim
(Choose Ideal Gas- Mass)

Observe what happens to P as we change the mass

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of the particles at constant T.

How could we use this result to prepare

samples of different gases with the same N?

Let’s Think
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P = kBNT/V  N = (PV)/(kBT)

Avogadro’s Law
Our results indicate that, at high temperatures and
low pressures (where this model is valid):

Equal volumes of
different gases, at the
same temperature
and pressure, should
contain the same
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number of particles. H2 O2

Then, by comparing equal volumes of different

gases at the same T and P, we should be able to
calculate the relative masses of their particles.

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 Let’s Think
Based on the following information:

STP
T = 273.15 K H2 A B2
P = 1 atm (g) (g) (g)

2.0 g 4.00 g 28.0 g

Determine how more massive the unknown atoms

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A and B are than the H atom.

m(A/H2) = 2.0
m(A/H) = 4.0
m(B2/H2) =14.  m(B/H) = 14.

Relative Atomic Mass

Chemists have been able to determine the relative
atomic mass of different types of atoms, by choosing
one arbitrary atom as reference and determining how
heavier or lighter other atoms are with respect to it.
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Relative Atomic Mass

The average relative atomic masses of all
known atoms are listed in the periodic table:

Let′s think!

If you could go to the lab and take

6.94 g of Li, 9.01 g of Be, and 22.99 g
of Na, which of the samples will have
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more or less atoms?

They contain the same number

of particles.
But exactly how many?

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 Avogadro’s Number
One mole
A sample of any substance
with a mass in grams equal to
26.98 g Al

its relative mass has the

following number of particles:

NA = 6.022 x 1023 particles

Avogadro’s Number 24.31 g Mg
32.07 g S
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We call a “mole” the amount of any substance that

contains this number of particles.

We call the “molar mass” of a substance the mass of

one mole of its particles (differentiating characteristic).

n and N

In chemistry, amount
of substance is
commonly expressed
in moles (n). If we
know the value of n,
we can calculate the
number of particles N
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in a sample:

N = n X NA

Molar Mass
The molar mass of an atomic element is always equal
to its relative atomic mass expressed in grams:
Carbon Sodium

M(C) =
12.01 g/mol M(Na) =
22.99 g/mol
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Chlorine Phosphorus
Let′s think!
Cl2 P4
How would you
calculate the molar
mass of molecular
elements?
M(Cl2) = 2 x 35.45 = 70.9 g/mol

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 Molar Mass
The molar mass of a molecular compound is also
equal to its relative mass expressed in grams:

Water
M(H2O) =
2 x 1.008 + 1 x 16.00
= 18.02 g/mol

Carbon dioxide
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M(CO2) =
1 x 12.01 + 2 x 16.00
= 44.01 g/mol

In both cases, this is the mass of 6.022 x 1023 molecules

m, M, and n
The molar mass M of a substance is a useful
quantity as it can be used to calculate the amount
of substance (number of moles) n present in any
sample; once n is calculated we can determine the
number of particles N in the system.

The value of n results

from determining how
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many times larger or

smaller the mass of the n = m/M
sample m is compared
to the molar mass of the
substance M:

Quantitative Analysis
The quantities introduced in this modules are of
central importance in answering the question:
How much of a substance do we have?
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Measurable Submicroscopic
quantity in
composition
the lab

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 Let’s Think
The density of O2(g) in the atmosphere decreases
as shown in the following table. This reduces the
likelihood of oxygen molecules entering in our
blood causing hypoxia, or oxygen deprivation.

h (km) r (g/L) n(mole/L) N(particle/L)

0 (Sea level) 0.283

0.7 (Tucson) 0.260

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8.8 (Everest) 0.111

Calculate n and N per liter of air. How many times

fewer molecules are there at different altitudes
compared with the number at sea level?

Conversion Factors
To convert from mass to moles, we always need
the molar mass of the substances of interest:

M(O2) = 32.0 g/mol

g O 2 1 mol O 2 mol O 2
0.283 x  8.84 x10 3
L 32.0 g O 2 L
Conversion Factor

To convert from moles to number of particles, we

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always need the Avogadro’s number:

mol O 2 6.022x10 23 molecules O 2
8.84x10 -3 x
L 1 mol O 2
 5 .32 x10 21 molecules O 2

Different States of Matter

In the laboratory, we works with substances in
different states of matter.

We can easily measure the mass

of solids (m) and quantify how
many moles (n) and number of
particles (N) we have.
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With liquids, we can measure

volume and use density r = m/V
to figure out the mass (m).

What do we do when dealing with gases?

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 Quantifying Gases
If we assume that the substances of interest behave
as ideal gases:

P = kBNT/V

with N = n x NA  P = (kBNA) nT/V

P = R nT/V
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R = kB x NA = 8.314 J K-1 mol-1 = 0.0821 atm L K-1 mol-1

n = PV/RT V = nRT/(P)
Thus, we can use P, V, T measurements to estimate
n and N = n x NA for gaseous substances.

Let’s Think
The EPA has set National Ambient Air Quality
Standards for various pollutants. These standards
set the maximum concentrations not to be exceeded
in certain average time (25 oC and 1 atm):

Pollutant Level Average mol/L # molec

Time /mL
CO(g) 10.3 8- hour
mg/m3
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 Express the concentration of CO in mol/L and N/mL:

1 m3 = 1000 L, 1 g = 1000 mg
 How would these concentrations change if T = 0 oC?
(PV = nRT)

Let’s Think
? mol CO
10.3 mg/m3 of CO(g) 
L air

When T decreases from 25 oC to 0 oC at 1 atm,

volume of air changes by:
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 Let′s apply!

Assess what you know

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Let′s apply! Monitoring Ozone

Ozone (O3), a
highly reactive
form of oxygen, is
a major component
of photochemical
smog.
Its concentration is
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monitored regularly
in major cities.

Concentration of O3 above 0.17 mg/m3 are considered

harmful. What is this limit in moles of O3 per mole of air at
25 oC (Hint: Use the volume of 1 L of air at 25 oC?

Let′s apply! Ozone Concentrations

Concentrations of O3 above 0.17 mg/m3 are harmful.

1. Express this concentration in g/L

2. Transform into mol/L

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3. Transform into mol/mol

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Chemical Thinking

Describe one important application

of what you have learned in this
module.

Analyzing Particles
Summary:
N2
The nature and strength of (Elementary

interactions between the

substance)

particles of matter depend on

their atomic composition and
structure.
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Based on the composition of

their particles, substances
are classified as elementary
CO2 (Compound)
substances or compounds.

Analyzing Particles
Summary
The mass of an atom or molecule is so small that
cannot be measured directly. However, we can use
the particulate model of matter to determine the
relative masses of different particles.

H2 Cl2 For gases at same

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T and P:
Equal V  Equal N

m(Cl/H) = 7.09/0.200
0.200 g 7.09 g = 35.5

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 Analyzing Particles
Summary
We can use relative atomic masses to determine the
number o particles in certain mass or vice versa.

Relative Molar Mass Avogadro’s

Atomic Mass (M) Number (NA)

C MOLE
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12.01 amu 12.01 g 6.022 x 1023 units

M NA
mass (m)   Mol (n)   Number of Particles (N)

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