Activity 02: Historical antecedents in which social considerations changed the
course of science and technology (world)
Point in history Belief/idea that did not
persist to present-time
Ancient Ancient Mesopotamians have
Times to 600 “doctors” which use folk
B.C. remedies and magical
incantations to heal illness
and wounds.
Greek Science Aristotle claimed that all
(600 B.C. to 500 A.D.) matter has a continuous
substance and that it is
indivisible.
“Dark Ages” Alchemy is considered a valid
(500 A.D. to 1000 A.D.) science and profession during
the Dark Ages. Its primary
objective is creating
substances until gold can be
made.
“Golden Age” of Science Tide Theory – Galileo Galilei
(1500 A.D. to 1660 A.D.) believed that tides were
caused by the rotation of the
Earth and its revolution
around the sun.
Era of Newton Vis viva [Living force] –
(1660 A.D. to 1735 A.D.) proposed by Gottfried Leibniz
around 1676 – 1689 which
tried to describe Kinetic
Energy. It became a to come up the General Theory of
foundation of the modern
conversion of energy.
Industrial Revolution The Caloric Theory – claimed
(1735 A.D. to 1820 A.D.) that heat consists of a self-
repellent fluid called caloric
that flows from hotter bodies
to colder bodies.
Modern Science It’s was a widespread belief
(1900 A.D. to the Present) that cockroaches can survive
Belief/idea that persisted to present-time
Pythagorean Theorem – one of the
foundations of Trigonometry was already
used by the ancient Babylonians and
Egyptians in 1900 B.C. Pythagoras merely
proved it and introduced it to the Greeks.
By Around 500 B.C. Pythagoras proposed
that the Earth is round / spherical.
Aristotle found evidence [Disappearing
Ship hulls, Constellations in different
latitudes, etc.]. Eratosthenes calculated
the Earth’s circumference around 240 B.C.
Agriculture techniques, tools, and
inventions [Heavy ploughs, horseshoes
etc.] revolutionized farming. Such
discoveries that are still used in the
present.
Humanism became the philosophical life
stance of many renaissance astronomers,
scientists, inventors, and artists. The idea
that humans should embrace human
progression, scientific discovery,
achievements, and human value. A belief
and philosophical practice that persists in
the modern world.
Newton’s study on gravity, now
commonly known as “Newtonian Gravity”
are formulas and theories that inspired
numerous future physicists, like Einstein,
Relativity. Accelerating mankind’s
understanding of Gravity and Space time.
An earlier version of the modern scientific
method was used by many scientists
during the Industrial Revolution. One
notable example would be Joseph Priestly,
who used the method to discover
numerous gases [Ammonia, Oxygen etc.].
The scientific method had been revised
over time and is now the basic method
used in Modern Science.
General Theory of Relativity – One of
Einstein’s famous theories that deals with
 nuclear winter. A study in special interaction of gravity and space
2004 however, debunked this time. A theory that is still currently used
belief. Although cockroaches and a primary foundation to many fields in
can handle radiation better modern Physics.
than humans, it is still not
enough to survive a
hypothetical nuclear winter.

Activity 03 - Intellectual revolutions that defined society: Copernicus

A. Complete a table like the one below by writing five ancient beliefs/practices in Astronomy,
and their modern-day theory or explanation.

Ancient beliefs and practices in Modern-day theory or explanation

Astronomy

E.g. Planets revolve around the Earth.
1. In ancient China, people believe that
heavenly bodies [A comet passing by, the
constellations, Moon, and the Sun]
represent the events happening on Earth
[prophecies etc.]
2. Aristotle believed that the heavenly
bodies such as the moon, planets, and the
sun rotate and revolve on fixed circles
called Epicycles.
3. Constellations are religiously significant
for the ancient Egyptians. The Orion
constellation represented Osiris, their god
for death.
4. Ancient civilizations used the phases of
the moon, movements of the planets, and
other celestial objects in the sky to
determine their calendars.
5. Ancient Egyptian pyramids were built as
dedicated tombs for their Pharaohs.
Specifically aligning them towards specific
celestial objects like the midwinter season
sun and the pole star. They put emphasis
on the cultural and religious significance of
their astronomy.
All planets, including Earth, revolves
around the sun.
Heavenly bodies like comets orbit around
the sun that can sometimes pass through
and be visible on Earth. They can
sometimes have a direct effect on Earth.
Like the moon influencing the tides, lunar,
and solar eclipses.
The planets and other heavenly bodies
within the solar system revolve around the
sun because of their orbits that is
maintained by the Sun’s gravity. These
orbits are not exactly circular but elliptical
with variable size differences.
Constellations are a group of stars visible at
the night sky that form perceived outlines
and shapes that can represent an animal,
object, or figure.
The passage of time can be determined by
the movement of the moon and its phase
cycles, the planets’ positions can determine
the nearing of seasons and etc.
Celestial objects like stars change positions
over the course of months because of the
perpetual rotation of the Earth and its
revolutions around the sun. The Egyptians
however, ingeniously aligned their glorified
tombs toward the stars despite of this.

B. Although we now know that Earth is the center of the universe / solar system
(Geocentricm), what were the factors that made people believe this for 1500 years?

The reason why many people still believed that the Earth was the center of the universe was
the societal context at the time. Scientific discoveries and knowledge were limited to only a
few people, mostly from well-to-do families or religious scholars. Most of the public were
illiterate and relied on “educated people” for information. Religion and its presence in the
daily lives of the commoners also proved to be a factor seeing that they believed what their
priests and pastors said. It was only when education became widespread that people started
to become more curious to find the truth. People also placed psychological value in believing
the Geo-centric model. Believing in the idea that they are living in the universe made them
feel special and appreciate their lives more.

Activity 04 - Intellectual revolutions that defined society: Darwin

A. Complete a table like the one below by writing five arguments that anti-evolutionists say
about evolution, and what does evidence/science say about evolution.

What Anti-evolutionists Say What does science/evidence say

E.g. Evolution is just a theory.
Theory and hypothesis are not the same.
Theory is a corroborated explanation of an
aspect of the natural world. It has been
repeatedly confirmed and accepted as
‘true’.

1. The age of the earth is only around 6,000 Fossil and rock samples / evidences, along
years old according to the Bible. with the use of carbon and radioactive
dating, scientist found out that the age of
the Earth is around 4.3 – 4.5 billion years
old.
2. Evolution undermines human morality Strength and competition play only a small
and relies on “Might makes right” mentality. part in the evolution process. Altruism to the
fellow species, adaptation to surroundings,
appearance, and ingenuity are also factors
in the process.
3. Evolution is entirely random. Evolution by natural selection is only
random when mutations come about.
However, the survival of these mutations
relies in their interaction with the world.
Natural selection favors mutations that can
help the organism live, reproduce, and not
succumb to the environment. The result is
that the organism will evolve in a particular
direction that is not entirely random.
4. Mutations can only remove traits; not There are numerous instances where
make new ones. Mutations created new traits. One
prominent example would be a bacteria’s
increasing resistance to antibiotics.
5. If we all evolved from monkeys, why are Evolution does not mean the outright
there still monkeys around in this world? extinction of a predecessor species when a
new species evolves. Monkeys and apes
however, are only our species cousins and
not direct ancestors.

B. How does the notion that evolution is a continuous process, happening all around us all
the time, rather than some remote process that happened long ago, influence the way you
think about life on Earth?
The concept of evolution makes me feel excited and fearful. I am excited to know that
mankind has the potential to become more than what it is today, to become better. A future
with the capacity to progress even further. Evolution is a wonderful representation of change.
However, I find it a little disheartening to see that the world I see, live, and interact with is not
permanent. That I’m just a small link in an unbearably long chain that is called the
evolutionary process. It slightly makes me feel insignificant and afraid that I will fade away in
time. But I am grateful for it all the same that I can study this “change” and experience all the
same.

Activity 05 - Intellectual revolutions that defined society: Freud

A. Complete a table like the one below by choosing 5 out of several defense mechanisms
and their respective examples.

Defense Mechanisms Modern-day theory or explanation

E.g. Projection Momo dislikes Dodo. Momo accuses Dodo

of snubbing her even when Dodo is not
really doing anything.
1. Sublimation Joey misses his girlfriend that is having a
vacation abroad. Joey attended Church
service twice in a row to relax.
2. Undoing Rachel slapped Ross in the face during one
of their fights. Rachel then offers to pay
dinner for later.
3. Reaction Formation Phoebe doesn’t want to have kids of her
own but excessively dotes on her baby
niece to force herself to want kids.
4. Repression Chandler is actively sarcastic to get
attention because he spent most of his
childhood neglected by his parents.
5. Regression Monica fanatically cleans her entire
apartment whenever something bad
happens.

B. Freud has a lot of controversial ideas, a lot of those have been debunked; why do you
think Freud's works should still be looked into?

Sigmund Freud’s works are still significant for anyone that wants to study psychology
because his research and theories laid the groundwork. For every disproven idea, he
showed another way to approach the human mind and its experiences. Influencing future
psychologists in understanding the mind, its underlying factors, and the things that cannot be
observed. Freud showed us that there is more to be seen in regards to Psychology and
human experience in general. Freud also paved the foundations of mental health awareness
where it is improved as time progresses. The studies of Freud may lack scientific substance,
but it does not lack in academic value. To use the ideas of Sigmund Freud as a basis, and
improve upon it led to the rise in the relevancy of modern Psychology.