Course Teacher:

Md. Shamsul Arifin

Assistant Professor
Dept. of EEE, CUET
Chapter 25
• Transducers: Converts one form of energy to
others. Example: Microphone(Mechanical to
Electrical), Thermocouple(Heat to Electrical),
Burdon tube (Pressure to displacement)
• Sensor: It senses the characteristics of its
surroundings. Sensor detects the change in
quantities and provides corresponding output.
Example: Thermocouples, Thermometers
• Actuator: An transducer that accepts energy and
produces kinetic energy or movement.
• Electrical Transducers: Converts physical quantity
or signals into an electrical signals.
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Md. Shamsul Arifin, EEE, CUET
Electrical amplification and attenuation can be
done easily and that too with static devices.
The mass-inertia effects are minimized.
The effect of inertia are minimized.
The electrical or electronic systems can be
controlled with a very small power level.
The electrical output can be easily used,
transmitted and processed for the purpose of
measurement.
Telemetry is used in almost all sophisticated
measurement systems.
Transducers are available in IC form. 4
Md. Shamsul Arifin, EEE, CUET
The following terms are used to define the performance of transducers,
and often measurement systems as a whole.
Range and span:
The range of a transducer defines the limits between which the input
can vary. The span is the maximum value of the input minus the
minimum value.
Error
Error is the difference between the result of the measurement and the
true value of the quantity being measured:
Accuracy
It is the summation of all the possible errors that are likely to occur, as
well as the accuracy to which the transducer has been calibrated. A
temperature-measuring instrument might, for example, be specified as
having an accuracy of 2 . This would mean that the reading given by the
instrument can be expected to lie within plus or minus 2 of the true
value.
Sensitivity
The sensitivity is the relationship indicating how much output there is
per unit input, i.e. output/input.
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Md. Shamsul Arifin, EEE, CUET
Hysteresis error
Transducers can give different outputs from the
same value of quantity being measured according
to whether that value has been reached by a
continuously increasing change or a continuously
decreasing change. This effect is called hysteresis.
Non linearity Error:
Few transducers, however, have a truly linear
relationship and thus errors occur as a result of
the assumption of linearity.

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Md. Shamsul Arifin, EEE, CUET
Repeatability/reproducibility
The error resulting from the same output not being given with
repeated applications is usually expressed as a percentage of the
full range output.
Stability
The stability of a transducer is its ability to give the same output
when used to measure a constant input over a period of time.
Dead band/time
The dead band or dead space of a transducer is the range of
input values for which there is no output.
Resolution
The resolution is the smallest change in the input value that will
produce an observable change in the output.
Output impedance
The output impedance of the sensor can thus significantly
modify the behaviour of the system to which it is connected.
Md. Shamsul Arifin, EEE, CUET 7
• Bourdon tube acts as a
primary transducer and
converts pressure to
displacement.
• LVDT acts as a secondary
transducer and converts
displacement to voltage.

• Response time
• Time constant
• Rise time
• Settling time
Md. Shamsul Arifin, EEE, CUET 8
Piezoresistive Effect:
• There is a change in the value of resistivity
of the conductor when it is strained and this
property is called piezoresistive effect.
Piezoresistive Gauges:
• Resistance strain gauges are also known as
piezoresistive gauges.

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• Let us consider. a strain gauge made of circular wire.
The wire has the dimensions :
• length= L, area =A, diameter = D before being strained.

Md. Shamsul Arifin, EEE, CUET

• The material of the wire has a resistivity ρ.
• Resistance of unstrained gauge R =ρl/A
• Let a tensile stress s be applied to the wire.
• This produces a positive strain causing the length to
increase and area to decrease.
• Let Δl= change in length, ΔA - change in area, ΔD =
change in diameter and ΔR = change in resistance, s =
Applied stress

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• We get,

Md. Shamsul Arifin, EEE, CUET

• Dividing by, R=ρl/A the equation becomes,

• Again,

• The equation can be written as

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 lateral strain 𝜕𝐷/𝐷
• Now, Poisson's ratio γ= = −
𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜕𝐿/𝐿

Md. Shamsul Arifin, EEE, CUET

• For small variations, the above relationship can be written as

ΔR/R Δρ/ρ
• Gauge factor Gf = = 1+2γ+ ; here ε-strain
ΔL/L ε
• If the change in the value of resistivity of a material when
strained is neglected then Gf= 1+2γ

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Md. Shamsul Arifin, EEE, CUET

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 The resistance of a conductor changes  The requirements of a
when its temperature is changed. conductor material to be used
 This property is utilized for in RTDs are :
measurement of temperature.  (i) The change in resistance of
 The variation of resistance R with material per unit change in
temperature T(K)can be represented temperature should be as
by the following relationship for most large as possible.
of the metals as :  (ii) The material should have
a high value of resistivity so
that minimum volume of
material is used for the
construction of RTD.
 (iii) The resistance of
materials should have a
continuous and stable
relationship with
temperature.
Md. Shamsul Arifin, EEE, CUET 14
Linear Approximation:

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Md. Shamsul Arifin, EEE, CUET 16
Md. Shamsul Arifin, EEE, CUET 17
• Thermistor is a
contraction of a term
“thermal resistors".
• Thermistors are generally
composed of semi-
conductor materials.
• Most of the thermistors
have negative coefficient
of temperature resistance.
• A Thermistor curve can be
approximated by
Steinhart-Hart equation:
• 1/T =A+B ln R + 𝑪 (𝐥𝐧 𝑹)𝟑

Md. Shamsul Arifin, EEE, CUET

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Ref: https://www.omega.com/prodinfo/Integrated-Circuit-Sensors.html
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Md. Shamsul Arifin, EEE, CUET
• This transformer consist of a primary
and two secondary and a moveable soft
iron core.
• Differential output voltage
Eo=Es1-Es2
• When the core is in Null position Eo = 0
• When core is moved left or right, Eo is
no more zero. 20
Md. Shamsul Arifin, EEE, CUET
Advantages
• High range

Md. Shamsul Arifin, EEE, CUET

• Friction and Electric Isolation
• Immunity from external effects
• High output and high sensitivity
• Tolerate high degree of shock and
vibration
• Low power consumption
 Disadvantages
• Relatively large displacement is
required
• They are sensitive to stray magnetic
fields
• Performance is affected by
vibration
• Operates only in AC
• Dynamic response is limited
• Sensitive to temperature.
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 Md. Shamsul Arifin, EEE, CUET
• Rotary Variable Differential
Transformer (RVDT) is used
to measure angular position.
• Its operating principle is
similar to the LVDT except
the core can rotate about a
shaft.
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Operating Principle is based on The familiar equation
of
C= εoεrA/d
• εo =Permittivity at free space
• εr =Relative Permittivity
Capacitive transducers works at the principle of
 Changing in overlapping area between two plates
 Changing in distance between two plates
 Changing in dielectric constant
Capacitive transducers are commonly used in
measurement of linear displacement based on
• Using Chang in overlapping area between two plates
• Changing in distance between two plates
Md. Shamsul Arifin, EEE, CUET 23
Transducer using change in area of
Plates:
• C= εA/d = εxw/d
• Sensitivity= ∂C/ ∂x = εw/d
• Sensitivity for a fractional change in
capacitance=
• S’ = ∂C/C∂x = 1/x
For a cylindrical capacitor the
capacitance is :
C=2πεx / ln (D2/D1)
• where x = length of overlapping part
of cylinders
• D2 = inner diameter of outer
cylindrical
• D1 = outer diameter of inner
cylindrical
• Sensitivity S = ∂C/ ∂x = 2πε / ln
(D2/D1) Md. Shamsul Arifin, EEE, CUET 24
Transducers using changing in
distance between two plates:
• Sensitivity S= ∂C/ ∂x = -εA/𝒙𝟐

Md. Shamsul Arifin, EEE, CUET 25

 Let the movable plate be moved up
 Differential arrangement
due to displacement x.
Now and

So

Let the capacitance of the capacitors

be C1, and C2 respectively, when the
plate M is midway between the two
fired plates, under the condition the
capacitances C1 and C2 are equal. So
C1=C2=ϵA/d Differential output voltage
An ac voltage E is applied across
plates P1 and P2. As the movable
plate is midway between the two fixed
plates C1 = C2 andE1 = E2 = E/2.
Sensitivity, S = ΔE/x = E/d
Therefore, ΔE = E1 - E2 = 0 Md. Shamsul Arifin, EEE, CUET 26
Variation of Dielectric constant for measurement of displacement:
Initial Capacitance of the transducer

Let the dielectric be moved through a

distance x in the direction indicated.
The capacitance changes from C to
C+ΔC.
Change in Capacitance

Md. Shamsul Arifin, EEE, CUET 27

• A piezoelectric material is one in which an electric potential
appears across certain surfaces of a crystal if the dimensions of the
crystal are changed by the application of a mechanical force. This

Md. Shamsul Arifin, EEE, CUET

potential is produced by the displacement of charges.
• The effect is reversible, i.e., conversely, if a varying potential is
applied to the proper axis of the crystal, it will change, the
dimensions of the crystal thereby deforming it.
• This effect is known as piezoelectric effect. Elements exhibiting
piezoelectric qualities are called as electro-resistive elements.

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• The magnitude and polarity of the induced surface charges are
proportional to the magnitude and direction of the applied force F. The
polarity of the induced charges depends upon the direction of force F.
• Charge Q = d * F
• Here d- Charge density of the crystal (C/N)
• The force F causes the change in thickness of the crystal.
𝑨𝑬∆𝒕
• So F= 𝒕 ; where, A-area of the crystal; T- thickness (m); E-young’s
modulus N/m2
𝒅𝑨𝑬∆𝒕
• So Q= 𝒕
• The charge gives rise of voltage Eo and Cp be the capacitance between two
electrodes then Cp= εoεrA/t
𝑸 𝒅𝑭 𝒅𝒕
• So Eo= 𝑪𝒑 =εoεrA/t = εoεr (F/A)
𝒅
• Since F/A=Pressure P so Eo = εoεr tP = gtP
• Here g= Voltage sensitivity of the crystal (Vm/N)
𝑬𝒐 𝑬𝒐/𝒕 𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝑭𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅
• Now g= = = =ε/P; where, ε=Electric field=Eo/t
𝒕𝒑 𝒑 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
• So we can conclude charge sensitivity d = εo*εr*g (C/N) 29
Md. Shamsul Arifin, EEE, CUET
 • The output voltage is
EH=KH*I*B/t
• Here,
• KH-Hall coefficient
t- Thickness of the strip

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Photovoltaic cell:
• The Photovoltaic cell produces voltage when light is
incident upon it.
 Applications:
• 1. Control Switching • 2. Determine the width of
material passing :

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Photoconductive Cell:
• 2. For counting packages on a
• In this type of device, the
moving conveyor
electrical resistance of the
material varies with the • 3. In burglar alarm circuit
amount of light energy • 4. Measurement of light
striking it. attenuation
 Applications:
• 1. Relay control circuit:

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Md. Shamsul Arifin, EEE, CUET
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Semi-conductor Photo-diode:
• Under illumination the reverse bias current of photo diode
increases almost in direct proportion to the light intensity.
• It can operate in photovoltaic mode.
• Response is faster than
photoconductive cell.
 Applications:
• 1. A switching circuit using a photo-
diode:

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Md. Shamsul Arifin, EEE, CUET
Phototransistors:
• The sensitivity of a photo-diode can be increased by as
large a factor 100 by addition of a junction which makes it
a N-P-N device i.e, a phototransistor.

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Md. Shamsul Arifin, EEE, CUET
 Applications: • 3.Modulated Light:
• 1. Linear Light Meter:

• 4. Use in logic circuit:

• 2.Operatipon of a relay

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Md. Shamsul Arifin, EEE, CUET
 Cantilever  Helical Spring

 Pressure Sensitive
Primary Devices
 Bourdon Tube (C type):

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THE

END
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