The Model of Real Physical Space in the Light of Recent Observations.

Valeriy P. Polulyakh

Abstract.
In publications [1-3] a new cosmological paradigm was proposed. The picture of
the birth of stars and galaxies resulting from this paradigm was also presented in
[4, 5]. In [6] a hypothesis was proposed about the origin of the jets and outflows
from stars and galaxies. A new generation of ground and orbital astronomical
instruments rapidly increased the sensitivity and resolution of observations. In this
paper, an attempt is made to analyze the latest observations from the point of view
of a new paradigm.

Introduction.

Since the goal of this paper is not to criticize anyone's ideas, but to compare the
findings of a new model with the latest observations, it is important to choose the optimal
set of observations. There is an opinion that the theory satisfying to ALL of observations
is incorrect, since there are always some wrong observations, or rather conclusions from
observations. This is due to the fact that the majority of the measurements depend on the
model under which they are held that is a model dependence. Here we will choose two
main themes: the formation of stars and the formation of galaxies. In addition, consider
the phenomenon of jets and outflows, which is connected with both topics.

The star formation.

In our model a primary star elaston contain enough energy that cascading down in
the course of decomposition of elaston. The new star elastons have low energy. The
created particles are forming low mass stars and partial matter outflows. In this picture a
very massive star is not individual star but a tight nursery of the newly born young stars
surrounding an elaston. With time a nursery is spreading, which has been confirmed by
the observation that two-thirds of all main sequence stellar systems in the Galactic disk
are composed of single stars. [7] The general model of star formation is presented in the
article [4].
In [8] proposed new evidence that all stars are born in pairs. For example, our
neighbor, Alpha Centauri, is a triplet system. The new assertion is based on a radio
survey of a giant molecular cloud filled with recently formed stars in the constellation
Perseus (Fig.1). A mathematical model that can explain the Perseus observations only if
all sunlike stars are born with a companion. Based on this model, the sun’s sibling most
likely escaped and mixed with all the other stars in our region of the Milky Way galaxy,
never to be seen again.

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Fig.1 Radio image of a very young binary star that formed within a dense core (oval outline) in the
Perseus molecular cloud. All stars likely form as binaries within dense cores. Image credit: Sarah Sadavoy /
Steven Stahler.

The Perseus cloud is generally considered a typical low-mass star-forming region. This
implies that we are dealing with the late stage of development of elaston when very
massive stars have already disintegrated. In this way, even more complex systems are
formed.. (Fig. 2)

Fig. 2 Combined ALMA and VLA image of the L1448 IRS3B system, a member of the Perseus molecular
cloud, with two young stars at the center and a third distant from them; spiral structure in the dusty disk
surrounding them indicates instability in the disk. Image credit: Bill Saxton / ALMA / ESO / NAOJ /
NRAO / AUI / NSF.

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As astronomers look at younger and younger stars, they find a greater proportion of
binaries, but why is still a mystery. However in our model young stars are born by
division of one elaston in two and so new born stars are close to each other. Later they
are separated and simultaneously grow the masses, so some could approach by increased
gravitational force. This is why authors discovered that all of the widely separated binary
systems — those with stars separated by more than 500 AU — were very young systems,
containing two Class 0 stars. The slightly older Class I binary stars were closer together,
many separated by about 200 AU.
It is important that we do not need to invent mechanisms accretion of mass and
confinement, which are the serious problems in the standard theory of star formation.
Dense clouds of molecules and dust are byproducts of star formation and gradually
dissipate.
Can we follow the successive growth of stars with the help of observations?
Authors of [9] by radio observations detected lonely, planet-like object OTS44 and reveal
a dusty protoplanetary disk that is very similar to disks around young stars. The mass of
free-floating "planet" (≈12 MJup). The range of values obtained for a disk are between
0.07 and 0.63 MEarth (dust masses). It turned out that stars and planet-like objects are
more similar than earlier thought, that challenges current models of star and planet
formation. Amelia Bayo , who led this research, says: "The more we know about OTS44,
the greater its similarities with a young star. But its mass is so low that theory tells us it
cannot have formed like a star!"
Authors [10] report the discovery of a new Herbig-Haro jet, HH 1165, in the
vicinity of the σ Orionis cluster. (Fig. 3) HH 1165 shows a spectacular extended and
collimated spatial structure, with a projected length of 0.26 pc.

Fig. 3 Credit: National Optical Observatory

Herbig-Haro jets are most often associated with Class 0/I low mass young stellar objects
(YSOs) but this is the first observation of a large-scale (~0.26 pc) HH jet driven by a

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proto-brown dwarf with a total (dust+gas) mass of ~36 MJup and a bolometric luminosity
of ~0.1 LSun.
In [11] we can find the discovery of an eclipsing binary system with mass-ratio q
~ 0.07. The system consists of a sun-like primary star that is eclipsed by a low-mass
companion with mass of 85 ± 4MJup (0:081MSun) and a radius of ~ 0.84RJup (0.084RSun)
that is comparable to that of Saturn. (Fig. 4) Authors conclude that low-mass companion
is located just above the hydrogen-burning mass limit that separates stellar and substellar
objects.

Fig. 4 Resolving the eclipsed components. https://arxiv.org/pdf/1706.08781.pdf

Authors of [12] have observed the Class I protostar TMC-1A in the Taurus molecular
cloud, with Atacama Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA). (Fig. 4,5)

Fig.4 Credit: Credit: ALMA (ESO/NAOJ/NRAO), Aso et al.

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Fig. 5 Credit: ALMA (ESO/NAOJ/NRAO), Aso et al.

Protoplanetary disks are ubiquitous around classical T-Tauri stars or Class II sources.
Recent high-sensitivity interferometric observations, however, have also revealed
Keplerian disks around Class 0 and Class I protostars. (Fig. 6) The mass of the baby star

Fig. 6 Artist’s impression of the baby star TMC-1A. The star is located in the center and surrounded by a
rotating gas disk. Credit: NAOJ

TMC-1A is 0.58 times the mass of the Sun. Gravity causes gas to fall towards the central
star , however the measured speed is much less than the free-fall speed, as something is
slowing the gas down. "We expect that as the baby star grows, the boundary between the

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disk and the infall region moves outward." says the led author Yusuke Aso. At the same
time, we see the outflow from the star.
The examples of observations cited here give evidence in favor of our model
because the development trend is obvious:
"Planet Disk" → Brown Dwarf → Young Stellar Object → Star
Let us now turn to the important fact which is observed in all cases of star formation - the
presence of jets and outflows.
The outflows and jets from enormous variety of cosmic objects: PNs, Novae,
Supernovae, Luminous Blue Variables, YSOs, Herbig-Haro objects, Symbiotic Stars,
AGNs, microquasars, quasars, blazars are in our model a manifestation of activity of the
elastons at diverse energetic and spatial scales. In a sense the physical space is an
analogous to super fluid medium that is created from elastons as a result of phase
transition. During this transition the free energy of space drops to zero and the entropy is
at its maximum, so the space transmutes into the inert background state which is filled
with particles and physical fields. [6]
Since the outflow of the physical space itself is not observable we have to
distinguish its different tracers. So, there is disparity between broad outflows and highly
collimated jets which have a diverse mass loading. Most of the newly created mass
moves in the central part of outflow with the highest speed. This is a jet. The rest created
mass is distributed around in the broad conical area that is outflow or wind. In some
sense the “elaston engine” is similar to the de Laval nozzle. The squeezed space flows to
the elaston’s surface where a sharp expansion along with the particle creation takes place.
After throat (surface) there is an exhaust of inflated volume outside as an outflow. The
process is analogous to the outflow of overheated vapor from de Laval nozzle. After the
throat, a portion of the steam converts into droplets and generates a dual-phase jet
consisting from drops and the expanded and cooled down vapor. One good example of
overcooling by super expansion of space is a Boomerang Nebula with a temperature −
272 ° C that is 2 degree lower than the background radiation. There is a newborn space
which is not yet filled by CMBR. In case of elastons, particles are created at the expense
of elastic energy and are carried out by the volume of relaxed Euclidean space. However,
as we mentioned already, physical space doesn’t possess a dragging effect and the
particles under the influence of gravity and electromagnetic forces could be leaded out
from the outflow of space. Thereupon they recombine into atoms and molecules, radiate
energy and fall down in the potential well outside of the outflow, thus forming the disk
around the source. Nevertheless some atoms and molecules are carried away by the flow
of physical space. The hot plasma also can not be stopped by gravity and follows with the
outflow.
At the early stage, after decomposition of elastons into parts, there is not enough
central mass yet to stop the newly created matter that can follow its parent volume with
the velocities of expansion that could be even superluminal. In this case, by force of
inertia, the matter is at rest relative to its co-moving space and there is no violation of SR.
Very important is the nonuniformity of the flow around axis. Close to axis the
flow is strongest, the farther from axis the weaker the flow. So the production of the
matter in a central part of the flow is at maximum and the transportation of this matter
could be visible as the pronounced jet; and in the vicinity we may observe weaker
outflow with slower speed. In accordance with this reasoning the picture has to have a

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central highly loaded "jet" with high speed and peripheral slow outflow. This model is
universal, independent of scales. The difference is in geometrical and energetic scales. If
particles and PS have no interaction at uniform motion why does the matter follow the
outflows? First, at the initial stage of creation the newly created volume elements are
accelerating already existing space. In its turn non-uniformly moving space accelerated
embedded particles by mechanism of d'Alembertian acceleration introduced in [1,2].
The majority of Bipolar Outflows belong to the star forming regions and the
driving sources for these are young stellar objects (YSOs) at different evolutionary
stages, particularly T Tauri stars driving also Herbig-Haro objects.
In the paper [13] have been reported observations of carbon monoxide toward the
outflow associated with the TMC1A protostellar system. These data show that gas is
ejected from a region extending up to a radial distance of 25 astronomical units from the
central protostar. (Fig. 7)

Fig.7 The outline of the disk and the outflow and the disk and outflow axes are
indicated with white lines. Dashed lines show the position angle of the outflow and the
disk. https://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1612/1612.05148.pdf

It can be noted that these measurements are in good qualitative agreement with
our calculations presented in [1,6]. In the original models of the formation of stars, no jets
and outflows were discussed. But as the observations of jets from young stars has become
widespread, the theorists adapted them to remove the angular momentum from the
protostellar system, permitting young stars to grow by the accretion of the material from
the protostellar disk. All would be well, but no one has yet seen enough material in the
accretion. The inflow of matter into young stars is always much less than its outflow.
Authors of [14] presented the bipolar outflow driven by Orion Source I, a high-
mass YSO candidate, using the Atacama Large Millimeter/Submillimeter Array
(ALMA). (Fig. 8) The authors categorically insist on the existence of a rotating jet and

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this does not contradict our model but it is interesting - whether the jet and counter jet are
rotating in the same or opposite directions!

Fig.8 The massive protostar is surrounded by a disk of gas and dust. Credit: ALMA (ESO/NAOJ/NRAO)

Above we discussed overcooling by super expansion of space in our model. In

2008, we predicted that a Boomerang Nebula can serve as an example in which this effect
manifests itself. Recently it was reported the first observations of the Boomerang Nebula
with ALMA in the CO J = 2-1 and J = 1-0 lines to resolve the structure of this ultra-cold
nebula. Authors found a central hourglass-shaped nebula surrounded by a patchy, but
roughly round, cold high-velocity outflow. (Fig. 9)

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Fig.9 The inset is a magnified view of the central region, showing the presence of two knots along the
central linear feature in the S lobe. The dark linear feature at the lower right is due to the occulting finger of
the ACS/HRC coronagraph. Credit: R. Sahai et al. , ALMA (ESO/NAOJ/NRAO)

Authors supposed that shell is cooled below the temperature of the cosmic microwave
background through adiabatic expansion due to an unknown cause. However in our
model adiabatic expansion experiences not just gas but physical space along with the new
born gas in it.
Authors of [16] studied The ∼100 MSun Orion Molecular Core 1 (OMC1) located
behind the Nebula at a distance of ∼414 pc is the densest and most molecule-rich part of
the degree-long 2,200 MSun Integral-Shaped Filament in the 50,000 MSun Orion A cloud.

Fig. 10 ALMA image of the OMC-1 cloud in Orion showing the explosive nature of star birth, when
several young stars were ejected from the region about 500 years ago. The colors in the ALMA data
represent the relative Doppler shifting of the millimeter-wavelength light emitted by carbon monoxide gas.
Credit: ALMA (ESO/NAOJ/NRAO), J. Bally; B. Saxton, (NRAO/AUI/NSF)

The ALMA observations reveal a cluster of over 100 high-velocity CO streamers that
trace back to a location between the BN object and Source I. (Fig. 10) The stars BN,
Source I and Source n have been ejected from there. The energy of the event was likely
powered by the dynamical interaction of a group of stars in the OMC1 core. The
streamers dominate the outflow structure at large radial velocities, are straight with
lengths ranging from 5'' to over 40'' (∼0.08 pc), and point back to the place within a few
arc-seconds of the location from which radio Source I and BN were ejected. The
streamers exhibit a roughly isotropic, spherically symmetric distribution exhibiting a
‘Hubble flow’ with the radial velocity proportional to the projected distance from the
explosion center. The ∼500 year dynamical age of the outflow coincides with the time
when radio Source I, the BN object, and Source n were closest to each other. The
coincidence between the age of the outflow and the time of closest approach of the stars
suggests that both the outflow and the stars were ejected from OMC1. It was supposed

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that the energy of the event was likely powered by the dynamical interaction of a group
of stars in the OMC1 core. The authors come to the conclusion that the OMC1 explosive
outflow and stellar ejection poses many puzzles.
In our model this is a typical decomposition of the intermediate elaston creating a new
star cluster. In this case, the observation of 'Hubble flow' is significant because it
confirms the expansion of space itself and not the spreading of matter in the existing
space.
Maybe a good analogy of the star creation is a spectacular display of firework.
There are a lot of websites displaying fireworks, e.g.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vj27MEfjrP8&NR=1

Fig. 11 A representative color image of infrared light from an infant star cluster: Young
stars predominantly show up as orange. Regions where gas is being heated by intense
radiation from luminous young stars show up as white. Newly discovered jets from the
young stars show up as blue in the image. Credit: Adler Planetarium

In [17] have been found huge gas clouds moving outward from areas where "baby" stars
are forming, using a new way of disentangling these outflows from other processes in
densely-populated stellar nurseries which are clusters and groups. These stellar nurseries
can produce dozens or even hundreds of stars with different sizes and masses. (Fig. 11)
There are stars more than eight times as massive as the sun and powerful outflows of gas.
So, this is a typical cluster that was born by decomposition of intermediate elaston.
An international team of astronomers have used the Atacama Large
Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) to observe A2744_YD4, the youngest and most
remote galaxy ever seen by ALMA with a redshift of z=8.38. [18] They were surprised to
find that this youthful galaxy contained an abundance of interstellar dust — dust formed
by the deaths of an earlier generation of stars. (Fig.12)The ALMA observations also
detected the glowing emission of ionized oxygen from A2744_YD4. This is the most
distant, and hence earliest, detection of oxygen in the Universe. This and many other

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recent observations indicate that star formation throughout the course of space history
occurred in a uniform manner. That is, the mechanism of division of elastons has always
worked.

Fig. 12 Credit: Nicolas Laporte, ALMA

The discovery of young stars in old star clusters could send scientists back to the
drawing board for one of the Universe’s most common objects. [19]

Fig. 13 Left: This image from NASA’s Spitzer Space Telescope shows the Large Magellanic
Cloud, a satellite galaxy to our own Milky Way galaxy. Overlaying the image are the locations of

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 15 star clusters where multiple generations of stars have been discovered. Right: A closer view of
four of the star clusters where young stellar objects have been detected. The crosses mark the
locations of young stars and the squares in the main image show the locations of these four
clusters. Credit: Karl Gordon and Margaret Meixner – Space Telescope Science
Institute/AURA/NASA. Compilation by Bi-Qing For and Kenji Bekki (ICRAR/UWA).

Authors said “Our models of stellar evolution are based on the assumption that stars
within star clusters formed from the same material at roughly the same time.”
The discovery involves a study of star clusters located in the Large Magellanic Cloud, a
neighboring galaxy to the Milky Way. By cross-matching the locations of several
thousand young stars with the locations of stellar clusters, the researchers found 15 stellar
candidates that were much younger than other stars within the same cluster. (Fig. 13)
“The formation of these younger stars could have been fuelled by gas entering the
clusters from interstellar space, but we eliminated this possibility using observations
made by radio telescopes to show that there was no correlation between interstellar
hydrogen gas and the location of the clusters we were studying.” said co-author Dr Kenji
Bekki.
In [20] have been studied a massive star formation on individual cloud scales
across the LMC. Authors raise the question: what sets the massive star formation rate of
giant molecular clouds (GMC)? There is growing consensus that GMCs supported by
supersonic turbulence and star formation occurs in the fraction of GMCs containing gas
that overcomes this support and collapses under self-gravity. However, the main
conclusions of [20] are as follows:
I. Both the star formation `efficiency' (є' = SFR/Mcloud) and star formation efficiency per
free fall time (єff = є' x τff) decrease as a function of total cloud mass in the LMC and
Milky Way. This implies higher depletion times for larger clouds, possibly because
GMCs mostly grow by adding diffuse (`CO-dark') gas.
II. Analytical `turbulence-regulated' star formation models do not reproduce recent
datasets tracing massive star formation on individual cloud scales in the LMC and Milky
Way.
In our model, the first conclusion from observations is explained by the decrease
of the energy of the elastons as the stars and the mass of the GMC grow. The second
conclusion is due to the fact that confinement of the substance is not required and GMC
is a dynamical structure - clouds with time are scattered because they are byproduct of
star formation.

The galaxy formation.

There are some very complicated issues of galaxy formation. Unfortunately, here
is the same problem as with the stars. The origin of galaxies remains unclear, in spite of
huge activity in the field. What the "formation" means? It means that we have the
material that is assembling into galaxies. If put aside details, there are two competing
mechanisms.
The first one is a "monolithic collapse" of the gaseous cloud which is believed to happen at
z > 2 - 3. At this time (2017) astronomers are capable to see galaxies up to z ~ 10. These galaxies
have all attributes of developed systems. And we still do not see any collapsing clouds of gas, that is
there are no gas reservoirs for accretion. Ironically galactic winds with outflow of matter from

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galaxies are clear seen at all redshifts. You can say: it is not easy to see accreting clouds at this
distance. So what? Is this your justification of "monolithic collapse"? I do not think so.
The second mechanism is much more sophisticated. It uses the gravitation field of dark
matter that is an additional invisible component is introduced into the process. In this the ΛCDM
dominated universe hierarchical clustering happened. The small chunks of dark matter first
clustering into numerous DM units (subhalos) which then interact and merge to form larger halos.
For some reason a normal baryonic matter follow the DM in all these interactions and merging
processes. Actually here not the "cosmological ΛCDM theory" is using to predict the behavior of
DM, rather "DM-only" computer simulations of formation of halos are performing. So, all this
picture does not follow from the first principles of ΛCDM paradigm but it is motivated by the
observational properties of rotation of galaxies.
At one time, astrophysicists had high hopes for the ΛCDM paradigm. The
absence of detection of dark matter and dark energy somewhat cooled expectations. But
even without this, the internal problems of ΛCDM paradigm emerged. On the length
scales less than ~ 1 Mpc and mass smaller than ~ 1011 MSun the paradigm faces a number
of challenges. [21] The observed cores of many "dark-matter dominated" galaxies are
both less dense and less cuspy than naively predicted in ΛCDM. The number of small
galaxies and dwarf satellites in the Local Group is also far below the predicted count of
low-mass dark matter halos and subhalos within similar volumes. But it is on these scales
that the birth, development and interaction of galaxies are considered. Hence ΛCDM
paradigm can not serve as a working tool in solving the corresponding problems of
astrophysics. There are a lot of problems with the hierarchical clustering model however the
most serious one is not its theoretical consistence but again the absence of the visible reservoirs for
accretion.
The main idea of the formation of celestial bodies was actually given by Sir Isaac
Newton. Once upon a time, the world was filled with a homogeneous cloud of neutral
hydrogen. If we look very far back in time, we will see how condensations appear in this
cloud which, under the influence of gravitation, do not turn into a single huge mass, but
transform into beautiful structured galaxies in which beautiful constellations appear by
condensation. Unfortunately, this remarkable picture does not correspond to observations.
We do not see gas clouds in which galactic structures gradually appear. There is no any
gas reservoirs. The most distant observations demonstrate ready-made galaxies with all
their structures and stellar populations. So, the new cosmogony only added dark matter
and dark energy, which unfortunately are not observed.
Let's start by considering galaxies that are commonly referred to as "mergers".
There are many galaxies of this type. (Fig. 14) However in our model this is not the
colliding galaxies but they are opposite, diverging ones. A subsequent fragmentation of
elastons gave birth to galactic arms filled with star complexes and clouds of gas and dust.
The cloud complexes are moving away from each other. At the beginning the mass of
both components was negligible and hot plasma streamed away in opposite jets of
outpouring space giving origin to long tails – antennae. And other “mergers” may be
treated in the same way. The well known Robert’s Quartet, Stephan’s Quintet and
Seyfert’s Sextet groups of galaxies may be created by fragmentation of one elaston. The
standard model of collision of 4, 5 or 6 galaxies simultaneously is extremely improbable.
The stars are born in associations that then break up, the galaxies are also born in groups
that are scattered.

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Fig.14 Top: The pair of galaxies separated after division. They are rotating in the opposite directions. Conservation of
angular momentum? Credit: NASA/HST. Bottom: The galaxies have been nicknamed "The Mice" because of the long
tails of stars and gas emanating from each galaxy. Credits: NASA, H. Ford (JHU), G. Illingworth (UCSC/ LO), M.
Clampin (STScI), G. Hartig (STScI), the ACS Science Team, and ESA.

Fig.15 The giant cluster of elliptical galaxies in the centre of Abell 383. Credits: NASA, ESA, J. Richard (CRAL) and
J.-P. Kneib (LAM). Acknowledgement: Marc Postman (STScI).

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 There are some qualitative regularities. The ellipticals have no global rotation, in contrast to
the spirals, and the largest of them are primarily found close to the centers of galactic clusters and
groups. They are also the oldest in the group. It provides an opportunity to propose that the elastons
in the ellipticals are "the parent" elastons and their decomposition produced clusters. (Fig. 15) The
current paradigm, based on purely theoretical ground, asserts that large elliptical galaxies formed
through the merging of spiral galaxies. In our model ellipticals which contain the ancient elastons
were formed in situ. This is confirmed by observations in the work [22] which states that the
formation of elliptical galaxies occurs through internal, in situ processes of star formation.

Fig. 16 Top: The core of the Perseus galaxy cluster. The bizarre object at the center is NGC 1275, the cluster's central
galaxy and itself a prominent source of X-ray and radio emission. Credit: R. Jay GaBany. Bottom: This NASA/ESA
Hubble Space Telescope image shows the peculiar galaxy pair called Arp 116.

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In many cases observations reveal different stages of the creation of spirals by elliptical. M60, the
third-brightest giant elliptical galaxy of the Virgo cluster, optically overlaps with spiral NGC 4647.
Elliptical M105 has spiral-like structure around the center and is closely surrounded by other
galaxies. NGC 4696 provides a picture of material along the bright curved filament that encircles
the core of the galaxy.

Fig. 17 M105, as viewed by the HST; Credit: NASA / ESA

Normally astronomers ascribe these cases to colliding galaxies but I think they are galaxies
diverging after creation. For instance, images [23] show that three-quarters of these moderately
massive elliptical galaxies show clear evidence of extended star formation, usually in the form of
wide or concentric UV rings, and in some cases, striking spiral arms. There is not any indication of
collision and the old ~ 10 Gyr galaxies have no material for accretional star formation. Some
galaxies have dual nuclei. Authors of [24] discovered a binary AGN in the galaxy Mrk 739 based
on Chandra imaging showing two unresolved (FWHM_300 pc) luminous hard X-ray sources with
a projected separation of 3.4 kpc.

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 Fig. 18 Left: Composite SDSS gri filter image of Mrk 739. Right: SDSS r-band image overlaid with contours
from Chandra (blue) at same scale. The X-ray sources are coincident with the bulge components seen in the optical for
Mrk 739E and Mrk 739W.

Probably these two AGNs are the product of the recent decomposition of the nuclear
elaston. How these structures of new stars and AGNs are created is absolutely unclear in the
standard scenario. Ultraluminous infrared galaxies (ULIRGs) with multiple (≥ 3) nuclei are
frequently observed. It has been suggested that these nuclei are produced by multiple major mergers
of galaxies. However the probability of this process is too low to explain observations.
There were actually two opposite lines of thought in cosmogony: cosmic
condensation of matter, contemplated from the time of Newton and disintegration of superdense
protostellar matter, which was proposed even before Ambartsumian by Lemaître. It seems to me
that the idea of condensation is a mental scheme and it is an anachronism now, which has no
observational support. The ideas presented here are closer to the second line. The principal
difference of my concept consists not in the existence of the superdense matter but in existence of
pre-matter forms of space. The matter with its gravity is a result (or by-product) of transmutation of
these forms of space. Simultaneously, the same process explains an increase of volume of our world
and ubiquitous jets, winds and outflows. So our model is based on a pretty general idea that
embraces a wide range of questions. [1, 2] AGNs (Fig. 19) are most commonly found at high
redshifts, meaning that the nuclear activity may be characteristic of a galaxy's youth. There is no
clear definition of AGN.

Fig. 19 The activity of AGN in quasar 3C175.

Perhaps the brief one is this: AGNs are the central regions of galaxies which show unusual
energetic activity. A presence of relativistic, even superluminal jets is not a main characteristic of
AGN. This is only an extreme manifestation of its specific activity. More general is an emission of
enormous amount of electromagnetic energy, from radio to gamma radiation. But even this
characteristic is not exact. I suppose that a good analogy is a volcano. An active volcano is the

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analog of AGN. An extinct volcano is a mountain and an exhausted AGN is a galaxy. The energy
of its central engine converts into galactic stars and the cone is a galaxy and the ash plumes look
exactly like plumes of radiogalaxy. (Fig. 20)

Fig. 20 The cone is a galaxy and the ash plumes look exactly like plumes of radiogalaxy Centaurus A. Credit
X-ray: NASA/CXC/CfA/R.Kraft et al.; Submillimeter: MPIfR/ESO/APEX/A.Weiss et al.; Optical:
ESO/WFI

But maybe even better analogy is a spectacular display of firework. I was stricken by a similarity
of modern pyrotechnic in the fireworks to the pictures of cosmic objects presented by NASA.? The
evolution is most impressive in this analogy. It starts from something invisible; then it flares up,
reaches the maximum and then exhausts slowly. This is analogous to what we see in the cosmos.
Starting from nothing the cosmic evolution reaches the maximum AGN activity at z ≈ 2 and then
AGN activity slowly decreases.
The "activity" of the black holes in this process, by itself sounds very strange. Their main
property is inactivity, a closure. As to the creation of Megaparsec relativistic jets by a black hole it
resembles a situation when you drop a ball and it rebounds from the floor and vanishes in the sky. It
looks very amusing when some researchers are explaining dusty winds from AGNs by means of
black holes activity. It is the opposite of what we see in reality. The real picture is an evolution from
a few galaxies to the maximum activity at z ≈ 2 and a gradual abatement at the present time when
AGN activity almost exhausted, like in case of volcano or firework. Here is what the mainstream
says: shortly after the Big Bang for some unknown reason there appeared, uniformly scattered in

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space, supermassive black holes and started to consume matter, becoming larger and larger. Then
after z = 2 their appetite for some reason diminished. Maybe there is no more material for
consumption? It is not the case. If the black holes existed in the past most of them would have to
reside now in the disk-dominated galaxies which have in their galactic centers abundant supply of
gas and dust. However, for unknown reason they do not produce AGNs. Maybe they are satiated
and do not want to “eat” more surrounding gas. However it is the opposite: the most impressive
AGNs, which provide Megaparsec relativistic radio jets with huge plums, are located in the big
elliptical galaxies which are notoriously poor in the gas and dust content. This reality is
contradictory to the modern theoretical constructions: gas and dust are byproducts not the cause of
AGN activity in our concept. Anyway, the standard model of AGN requires the presence of two
components: 1) black hole and 2) material for accretion. Since the local galaxies have plenty of
material in their centers then it means that they lack the first component. No one yet explained what
had become of them. And until one solves this discrepancy, I do not see a possibility of considering
a black hole as a model of AGN.

Fig. 21 HST image of Henize 2-10. The inset shows the new 160 ks Chandra observation with
VLA radio contours from Reines et al. (2011) and has dimensions 600 × 400 (∼ 265 pc × 175 pc).
Credit: Reines et al., 2016.

Authors [25] studied AGN in the nucleus of the low-mass, compact starburst
galaxy Henize 2-10. (Fig. 21) Their goal was to study the low-level accretion, which is
the dominant mode of the BH activity throughout the Universe. It is not clear why BHs
have the low-level accretion. In our opinion, the solution is that there are no black holes
in the cores, and activity is the activity of the central elastons.
Astronomers using the Karl G. Jansky Very Large Array (VLA) and the Chandra
X-Ray Observatory have produced a spectacular image revealing new details of violent
collisions involving at least four clusters of galaxies. [26] Combined with an earlier
image from NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope (HST), the new observations show a
complex region more than 5 billion light-years from Earth where the collisions are
triggering a host of phenomena that scientists still are working to understand. (Fig. 22)
According to our model, several clusters of galaxies are born here, each of which is
generated by a separate elaston.

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Fig. 22 Colliding galaxy clusters MACS J0717+3745, more than 5 billion light-years from Earth.
Background is Hubble Space Telescope image; blue is X-ray image from Chandra, and red is VLA radio
image. Credit: Van Weeren, et al., CfA; Bill Saxton, NRAO/AUI/NSF; Ma et al.,
NASA/CXC/STScI/IfA/C.

New data from Chandra [27] reveals 25 bright X-ray sources sprinkled throughout
the Arp 299 concoction. Fourteen of these sources are such strong emitters of X-rays that
astronomers categorize them as "ultra-luminous X-ray sources," or ULXs. (Fig. 23)

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Fig.23. This new composite image of Arp 299 contains X-ray data from Chandra (pink), higher-energy X-
ray data from NuSTAR (purple), and optical data from the Hubble Space Telescope (white and faint
brown). Credit: X-ray: NASA/CXC/Univ of Crete/K. Anastasopoulou et al, NASA/NuSTAR/GSFC/A.
Ptak et al; Optical: NASA/STScI

Authors investigated Arp 299 a system located about 140 million light years from Earth.
They supposed that it contains two galaxies that are merging, creating a partially blended
mix of stars from each galaxy in the process. In our opinion, there are two newly born
and divergent galaxies and bright X-ray sources are the centers of the new globular star
clusters and star associations.
There is a very beautiful and unusual galaxy UGC 12591. (Fig. 24) It sits
somewhere between a lenticular and a spiral. It lies just under 400 million light-years
away from us in the westernmost region of the Pisces–Perseus Supercluster, a long chain
of galaxy clusters that stretches out for hundreds of millions of light-years — one of the
largest known structures in the cosmos. The galaxy itself is also extraordinary: it is
incredibly massive. The galaxy and its halo together contain several hundred billion times
the mass of the sun; four times the mass of the Milky Way. It also whirls round extremely
quickly, rotating at speeds of up to 1.8 million kilometers (1.1 million miles) per hour.
Nobody knows whether the galaxy simply formed and grew slowly over time, or whether
it might have grown unusually massive by colliding and merging with another large
galaxy at some point in its past.

Fig.24 Galaxy UGC 12591. Credit: ESA/Hubble & NASA

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Apparently there is a structure consisting of two galaxies born together but having a
different structure. The only question is whether galaxies will be able to separate in
space. Usually the separation occurs at the earliest stages as on Fig. 16.

Summary.

1. Our world has never been filled with a uniform gas cloud; therefore we will never see
this hydrogen (neutral or ionized) reservoir in our observation. If we found such a
reservoir this model will be falsified. Some visible intergalactic hydrogen is a product of
galaxies themselves. Consequently, cosmic reionization has never happened.
The increase of the volume of our world is connected with production of the physical
space together with matter and is not a consequence of a uniformly distributed DE which
does not exist.

2. The evolution of elastons includes their fragmentation with a cascading down of the
elastic energy, so we have to see this process in the starburst phenomena. The elastons
are the "central engines" in active cosmic objects.

3. Most of the galactic pairs are not colliding (merging) systems but diverging galaxies
which were born together.

4. If we found any quantitative example of the accretional creation of stars or galaxies it

will be a strong argument against this model. The problem of such measurements is not
confirmation of accretional theory.

5. Because of the non-uniform outflow of the physical space we have to see the effects of
non-uniform outflow of newly created matter, that are jets from all cosmic objects, which
contain elastons from proto-stars to quasars. The driving force of the jets and cosmic rays
is the non-uniform accelerated motion of the newborn particles and newborn physical
space.

6. The mass of "typical" star is estimated in this model as based on the fundamental
constants, not on the preexisting in situ conditions.

7. The structure of cosmic distribution of the matter has to be consistent with this model
without any connection to the "quantum fluctuations" in the early world.

8. For some cosmic jets we can see superluminal motion. It attributes to joint production
of the particles and physical space. The speed of the volume elements has no limit and
accelerated volume element can accelerate particles by means of d'Alembertian
acceleration. Thereby particles adopt the speed of the surrounding volume element and
consequently do not violate requirements of the special relativity. This process entails
emission of electromagnetic radiation by involved charged particles. Accordingly the
deceleration of the volume element causes the deceleration of the particles and the
appropriate emission of radiation. So this superluminal motion relative to the remote

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observer does not contradict to the special relativity because particles move relative to the
ambient physical space with the speed less then speed of light.

References.

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