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The first part of this assignment begins by discussing how lexical and auxillary verbs can be distinguished
on the basis of their grammatical properties. Here clear distinctions are provided by giving obvious
examples to support the different grammatical properties. Then the second part of the assignment
discusses on the passive and raising sentences and their properties based on ͚principles and
parameters͛ approach.

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1.What are auxillary verbs?

According to Gregory ( ? ), auxiliary verb is defined as a structure that consists of lexical verb
which auxiliary verb helps to bring grammatical and functional content to the structure. In other words,
auxiliary verb is a helping verb that helps lexical verb and other elements to convey meanings such as
time, necessity, possibility, permission and obligation.

For example,
i.? He m
eaten. (time)
ii.? He R

 need to eat. (necessity)
iii.? He `
meat a bit later. (possibility)
iv.? He `  eat if he wanted to. (permission)
v.? He `
 eat before it is dark. (obligation)

Referring to the examples above, the auxiliary verbs are ;

a.? has
b.? doesn͛t
c.? might
d.? may
e.? must

2. Basic properties of auxillary verbs

2.A. A helping verb

One of the basic properties of auxiliary verb is that it is m
 

m m  
   
 . It
produces ungrammatical sentences if the other verbs besides auxiliary verb are omitted. This can be
seen in the examples below. The sentences in the brackets make sense because there is a verb after the
auxillary verbs.

i.? The bird m
to the sky. (The bird m
flown to the sky)
ii.? He `
 a book. (He `
 buy a book)
iii.? It `
m him. (It `
m hit him)

2.B. Finiteness
The next property of auxillary verbs is   



. Finiteness consists of ͚finite and non-finite͛ verbs. A
complete structure sentence must only contain a subject and a finite verb. The function of finite verb is
to agree with the subject and acts as an indicator of present and past. The subject pronouns of a finite
verb must be nominative case such as c





 and . On the other hand, accusative case
has object pronouns such as 


 or 

2.B. (i) Finite Verbs

This is elaborated in the examples below:-
a.? I m 
been eating since last night.
b.? He
stealing a car.
c.? It m R been crazy.
Example (a) shows us that the subject of the verb {have} is a nominative case and {have} refers to
subject agreement, therefore, {have} is a finite verb. In sentence (b) , {is} indicates present tense while
in sentence (c), {had} indicates past tense.

2.B. (ii) Non-finite Verbs

Next is the non-finite verb. A finite verb has to have nominative case but a non-finite verb has to have
accusative case.

This can be seen in the examples below:-

a.? I have heard him singing.
b.? He told them to shut up.
c.? He saw her climbing the trees.

In example (a), {have} and {sing} are verbs. However, they are not in same group of verbs. {Have} here
refers to finite verb as it carries past tense in the phrase ͚
  and it has a nominative case of c
as subject pronoun while {sing} is a non-finite verb as it refers to accusative case of .

In categorizing verbs into finite and non-finite verbs, we have to remember that there are forms of non-
finite which are infinitives and also verbs that proceed after modal/auxiliary.
a.? Îohn will walk to school.
b.? Îohn wants to eat.
c.? Îohn might buy that.

In example (a), although {walk} should carry inflectional ʹs to show singular, it carries nothing since it
proceeds after the modal
 The idea is similar in the example (b), where the verb {eat} becomes root
word after the infinitive- to.

2. C
. Conclusion
As a conclusion, in order to differentiate between finite and non-finite verbs, we can base on the
following criteria. If a verb changes from past tense to present tense, or if it is a third person singular
and the verb changes when the form is plural or vice versa, then it is a finite verb.

3.Three major types of auxillary

There are three major types of auxiliary which are (i) primary auxiliaries, (ii)passive voice and (iii) dummy
auxiliaries.
3.A. Primary Auxillaries
Primary auxiliaries include perfect aspect and progressive aspect. Perfect  followed by past
participle and progressive 
followed by ʹing form.

Examples are included below,

a. He  killed the beast with his own bare hands.
b.? The boy  playing with the snake.

3.B.Passive Voice
Next is passive voice. Passive constructions are made from active sentences by changing the position of
the subjects and objects around and by adding the form of  
. Verbs that immediately follow after

must have past participle ending.

For example,
a. I eat the apple. (active)
b. The apple is eaten by me. (passive)

As shown in the above examples, the position of the subject and object are no longer in the same
position and the verb e
is added with a past participle ending ͚å„

3.C. Dummy Auxilllary

Another element of an auxiliary verb is the dummy auxiliary. Dummy auxiliary refers to auxiliary ͚do͛.
Dummy auxiliary acts as a dummy when it is used with a declarative sentence without an auxiliary verb
to change it into an interrogative or a negated sentence.

For example,
a.? The boys went away. (declarative)
b.? The boys went away? (ungrammatical interrogative)
c.? Did the boys go away? (grammatical interrogative)
d.? The boys not went away.(ungrammatical negated sentence)
e.? The boys didn͛t go away. (grammatical negated sentence)

The sentence in example (a.) is a declarative sentence and grammatical. It is noted that the
examples in (b) and (d) are ungrammatical sentences when they are form into interrogative and negated
sentence. It is impossible to insert one of the auxiliaries that have been used as it would change the
meaning of the sentence. Sentence (b) and (d) are not correct because they are ungrammatical
sentences. However sentence (c) and (e) are correct as they are grammatically correct sentences.
Dummy as in sentence (c) and (e) helps to fulfil the auxiliary verb when there is no other auxiliary verbs
present.

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1.What are lexical verbs?

Before this paper goes in depth about auxiliary and the differences between auxiliary and lexical verbs, I
will introduce lexical verb and its main function, how is it derived and so on.
 Since auxiliary verb is the helping verb, lexical is the main verb and carries the most ͚meaning͛.
Lexical verb may occur in several forms. For example, write(s), wrote, written, writing, and (to) write.
For a simple sentence or a clause to be meaningful, it must have a lexical verb. For example,
i.? They
to school.
ii.? He 
rugby
In these examples, O
and  are lexical verbs as they are the main verbs in the sentence.

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In the early part of the essay, it mentioned that there are auxiliary verbs such as 



and they can function as operators and this goes the same with lexical verbs. Lexical verbs also have the
lexical 
 and  In this next part of the essay, it will discuss on the differences of auxiliary and
lexical verb properties.

1.A. LEXICAL VERB TAKES NOUN PHRASE AS ITS COMPLEMENT WHILE AUXILLARY VERB TAKES VERB
PHRASE AS ITS COMPLEMENT

As mentioned above, lexical verb also has lexical 
 and  as auxiliary verb. However, there are
several ways to differentiate between lexical and auxiliary verb. First is to look at what complement
does the verb takes. Lexical verb takes noun phrase as its complement meanwhile; auxiliary verb takes
verb phrase as its complement.

For example,
i.? He O to school. (lexical)
ii.? The boy 
 class. (auxiliary)
iii.? There  no more biscuits. (lexical)
iv.? He


OO to school. (auxiliary)

In the first example, the verb O takes noun phrase  as its complement while in the second
example, the verb  takes verb phrase
 as its complement. This goes the same with other
complements for the following examples above.

1.B. USING OPERATORS TO FIND OUT THE LEXICAL AND AUXILLARY PROPERTY

The other differences between lexical and auxiliary property can be figured out through
operators. Earlier, this paper mentioned that almost every auxiliary verb can become operators,
however, in some cases; lexical verbs can be operators as well. The lexical  cannot function as an
operator as it produces ungrammatical sentences. For example,

i.? I do eat sushi.

ii.? I don͛t do eat sushi.

In the second example which derives from c


, it produces ungrammatical sentences.
Therefore, lexical  cannot perform as operators unless dummy  is inserted to negate the sentences.

However, this does not apply to all cases, not all dummy  needs to be inserted when changing
lexical verb into negative or interrogative.
For example,
i.? They are the popular girls.
ii.? They aren͛t the popular girls. (negated sentence)
iii.? Are they the popular girls?
iv.? Aren͛t they the popular girls? (Interrogative sentence).

Lexical 
is a bit complicated. In some cases, dummy  needs to be inserted so that it
produces grammatical sentences, however, in certain cases it does not need the dummy  This goes
the same for its function as an operator. It cannot always perform as an operator in sentences.

For example,
i.? I have a lot of things to do.
ii.? I haven͛t a lot of things to do. (negated sentence)
iii.? I don͛t have a lot of things to do. (negated sentence)
iv.? I have a lot of things to do, have I? (interrogative sentence)

Both of the second and third examples are grammatically correct although the second example looks a
bit weird. The difference between these two examples is that dummy  is inserted in the third
example.

1.C. LEXICAL VERB DETERMINES ARGUMENT STRUCTURE AND NUMBER OF PARTICIPANTS WHILE
AUXILLARY VERB CANNOT

Finally, the difference between lexical and auxiliary verb is that lexical verb determines argument
structure and number of participants while auxiliary verb cannot. For example,
i.? He 
the ball.
ii.?
o  in the example is a lexical verb. By identifying the lexical verb of a sentence, we know that this
sentence contains two arguments. The verb  implies that it has two participants, the one kicks and
the one who is kicked. The two participants are construed as theta-roles that the verb assigns, so that
kick assigns as an agent role as the external role and a theme or patient role as an internal role.

In example (a), although {walk} should carry inflectional-s to show singular, it carries nothing since it
proceed after the modal will. The idea is similar in the example (b), where the verb {eat} become root
word after the infinitive-to.

As conclusion, to differentiate between finite and non-finite verbs, we can base them based on the
following criteria if a verb changes from past tense to present tense, or if it is a third person singular, the
verb changes when form into plural or vice versa it is finite verb.

3. three major types of auxillary

There are three major types of auxiliary which are (i) primary auxiliaries, (ii) passive voice and (iii)
dummy auxiliaries.

3. A. Primary Auxilaries
Primary Auxilaries Include Perfect Aspect And Progressive Aspect. Perfect Have Followed By Past
Participle And Progressive Be Followed By ʹIng Form. Example Are Included Below,

a.He Has Killed The Beast Wear His Own Bere Hand

b. The Boy Is Playing With The Snake.

3.B Passive Voice

Next Is Passive Voice. Passive Constructions Are Made From Active Sentences By Changing The Position
Of The Subjects And Objects Around And By Adding The Form Of ʹTo Be. Verbs That Immediately Follow
After Be Must Have Past Participle Ending. For Example,

a.? I Eat Apple (active)

b.? The apple is eaten by me. (passive)

As shown in the above examples, the position of the subject and object are no longer in the same
position and the verb eat is added with a past participle ending(-en).

3.C. Dummy Auxiliary

Another element of an auxiliary verb is the dummy auxiliary. Dummy auxiliary refers to auxiliary(do).

Dummy auxiliary acts as a dummy when a declarative sentence without an auxiliary verb, changes into
an interrogative or a negated sentence.

For example,

a.? The boy went away. (declarative)

b.? B. the boys went away? (ungrammatical interogative)
c.? Did the boys go away?. (grammatical interogative)
d.? The boys not went away. (ungrammatical negated sentence)
e.? The boys didn͛t go away. (grammatical negated sentence)

The sentence in example (a) is a declarative sentence and grammatical. It is noted that the example in
(b) and (d) are ingrammatical sentences when they are form into interrogative and negated sentence. It
is impossible to insert one of the auxiliaries that have been used as it would change the meaning of the
sentence. (b) and (d) are not correct because they are ungrammatical sentences, however, sentences (c)
and (e) are corrects as they produce correct grammatical sentences. Dummy help to fulfil the auxilariy
verb when there is no other auxiliary present.