BITUMINOUS ROAD-final

BITUMINOUS ROAD
CONSTRUCTION IN INDIA
(Revised Edition)
PRITHVI SINGH KANDHAL

Associate Director Emeritus
National Center for Asphalt Technology (NCAT)
Auburn University, Alabama, USA
PHI Learning Private Limited

Delhi-110092
2017
BITUMINOUS ROAD CONSTRUCTION IN INDIA (Revised Edition)
Prithvi Singh Kandhal
@2016 by PHI Learning Private Limited, Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this book may
be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing
from the publisher.
ISBN-978-81-203-5258-2
The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher.
Second Printing (Revised Edition) September, 2017
Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, Rimjhim House, 111,
Patparganj Industrial Estate, Delhi-110092 and Printed by Rajkamal Electric Press, Plot
No. 2, Phase IV, HSIDC, Kundli-131028, Sonepat, Haryana.
To my wife
Ummed Kumari Kandhal
Who inspired self-confidence in me to achieve whatever little I have during my long career.
She also put up with my obsession with asphalt technology.
Contents
Preface..........................................................................................................................................xiii
Acknowledgements........................................................................................................................xv
1. Paving Bitumen ............................................................................... 1–38
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Historical Background 1
1.3 Bitumen Refining 2
1.4 Paving Bitumen Physical Tests 3
1.4.1 Consistency Tests 4
1.4.2 Aging Tests 9
1.4.3 Purity Tests 11
1.4.4 Safety Tests 11
1.4.5 Other Tests 12
1.5 Bitumen Grading System 13
1.5.1 History of Grading Bitumen 13
1.6 Selection of Bitumen for India 19
1.7 Modified Bitumen Binders 21
1.7.1 Types of Polymers 21
1.7.2 Compatibility of Polymers with Bitumen 22
1.7.3 Storage Stability 23
1.7.4 Crumb Rubber Modified Bitumen (CRMB) 23
1.7.5 Field Performance of Pavements with Polymer Modified Bitumen 25
1.7.6 Properties of Modified Bitumen Binders Used in India 25
1.7.7 Recommendations for Use of Modified Binders in India 26
1.8 Cutback Bitumen 27
1.9 Emulsified Bitumen 29
Summary 33
Questions 33
References 34
Suggested
Readings 35
2. Aggregate .....................................................................................39–81
2.1 Introduction 39
2.2 Geological Sources and Rock Types 39
2.2.1 Igneous Rocks 40
2.2.2 Sedimentary Rocks 40
2.2.3 Metamorphic Rocks 40
2.3 Indian Rock Systems and Their Occurrence 41
2.4 Aggregate Production 41
2.5 Aggregate Properties Related to Performance of Bituminous Pavements 45
2.5.1 Gradation and Size 45
2.5.2 Particle Shape, Angularity and Surface Texture 47
2.5.3 Porosity or Absorption 48
2.5.4 Cleanliness and Deleterious Materials 49
2.5.5 Toughness and Abrasion Resistance 50
2.5.6 Durability and Soundness 50
2.5.7 Expansive Characteristics 51
2.5.8 Polish and Frictional Characteristics 51
2.5.9 Mineral Filler 51
2.5.10 Potential for Moisture Induced Damage (Stripping) 51
2.6Aggregate Properties Used in Mix Designs 52
2.6.1Specific Gravity 52
2.6.2 Test Methods for Determining Specific Gravity of Aggregate 54
2.6.3 Surface Area 54
2.7 Aggregate Tests and Related Specifications 55
2.7.1Gradation and Size 55
2.7.2 Particle Shape, Angularity and Surface Texture (Coarse Aggregate) 57
2.7.3 Particle Shape, Angularity and Surface Texture (Fine Aggregate) 60
2.7.4 Plastic Fines in the Fine Aggregate 63
2.7.5Toughness and Abrasion Resistance 65
2.7.6 Durability and Soundness 69
2.7.7 Polish and Frictional Characteristics 70
2.7.8 Properties of Mineral Filler Including the Material Passing 0.075 mm Sieve 73
2.7.9 Potential for Moisture Induced Damage (Stripping) 74
Summary 75
Questions 76
References 76
Suggested
Readings 79
3. Hot Mix Asphalt Mix Design ..................................................... 82–135
3.1 Introduction 82
3.2 History of Mix Design 82
3.2.1 The Pat Test 83
3.2.2 Hubbard–Field Method 83
3.2.3 Hveem Mix Design Method 83
3.2.4 Marshall Mix Design Method 83
3.2.5 Superpave Mix Design Method 85
3.3 Objectives and Elements of Mix Design 85
3.3.1 Objectives 85
3.3.2 Gradation and Blending of Aggregates 86
3.3.3 Determining Laboratory Batch Weights for Preparing Asphalt Mixes 90
3.3.4 Bitumen Film Thickness 93
3.3.5 Volumetric Properties of Compacted Specimens 93
3.3.6 Procedures for Analysing Compacted Asphalt Mix 95
3.3.7 Bulk Specific Gravity of Total Aggregate ( Gsb) 96
3.3.8 Effective Specific Gravity of Aggregate ( Gse) 97
3.3.9 Maximum Specific Gravity ( Gmm) of Voidless Mixtures with Different Bitumen
Contents 97
3.3.10 Bitumen Absorption ( Pba) 98
3.3.11 Effective Bitumen Content ( Pbe) of Asphalt Mixes 98
3.3.12 Percent VMA in Compacted Asphalt Mix 99
3.3.13 Percent Air Voids (Va) in Compacted Mix Specimen 99
3.3.14 Percent VFB in Compacted Mix Specimen 99
3.4 Marshall Mix Design Procedures 100
3.4.1Evaluation of Paving Bitumen and Aggregates 100
3.4.2 Preparation and Testing of Marshall Mix Specimens for Determining Optimum
Bitumen Content 101
3.4.3 Considerations in Evaluating Final Mix Design 112
3.4.4 Moisture Sensitivity of the Designed Asphalt Mix 113
3.4.5 Modified Marshall Mix Design for Large Stone Mixes 115
3.5 Field Verification of Laboratory Mix Design 117
3.6 Introduction to Superpave Mix Design 118
3.6.1 Asphalt Binder Selection 121
3.6.2 Aggregate Selection 121
3.6.3 Selection of Design Aggregate Structure 121
3.6.4 Determine Optimum Binder Content 122
3.6.5 Checking the Selected Mix Design for Moisture Sensitivity 123
3.7 Loaded Wheel Testers for Proof Testing of Mix Design 123
3.7.1 Asphalt Pavement Analyzer (APA) 123
3.7.2 Hamburg Wheel Tracking Device (HWTD) 125
3.7.3 General Comments on LWTs 126
3.8 Asphalt Mixture Performance Tester (AMPT) 127
3.8.1 Test Specimens 128
3.8.2 Dynamic Modulus E* 129
3.8.3 Flow Number (Fn) 130
3.8.4 Flow Time (Ft) 131
Summary 131
Questions 132
References 132
Suggested Readings 135
4. Bituminous Paving Mixes and Surface Treatments ............ 136–201
4.1 Introduction 136
4.2 Fundamentals of Mix Selection Based on Their Intended Function 136
4.2.1 Provide Structural Strength 137
4.2.2 Facilitate Subsurface Drainage 138
4.2.3 Provide Surface Friction 138
4.3 Types of Bituminous Mixes Based on Gradation 139
4.4 Dense Graded Bituminous Mixes 140
4.4.1 Dense Bituminous Macadam (DBM) 140
4.4.2 Bituminous Concrete (BC) 142
4.5 Semi-dense Bituminous Mixes 143
4.5.1 Semi-dense Bituminous Concrete (SDBC) 143
4.5.2 Mixed Seal Surfacing (MSS) 144
4.6 Open Graded Bituminous Mixes 145
4.6.1 Base Mixes 145
4.6.2 Surface Mixes 149
4.7 Gap Graded Bituminous Mixes 161
4.7.1 Stone Matrix Asphalt (SMA) 161
4.8 Special Bituminous Mixes 171
4.8.1 Mastic Asphalt 171
4.8.2 Warm Mix Asphalt (WMA) 172
4.8.3 Readymade Pothole Patching Mix 178
4.8.4 Slurry Seal and Microsurfacing 190
4.8.5Porous Asphalt Pavement for Rainwater Harvesting 191
4.8.6 Recycled Asphalt Mix 196
4.8.7 Asphalt Mixes Containing Waste Materials 197
Summary 197
Questions 197
References 198
Annexure 201
5. Practices for Structural Design of Flexible Pavements ...... 202–226

5.2 AASHO Road Test 203
5.2.1 Present Serviceability Index (PSI) 203
5.2.2 Equivalent Single Axle Load (ESAL) 204
5.2.3 Original AASHO Equation 205
5.2.4 Limitations of AASHO Original Model 205
5.3 1993 AASHTO Pavement Design Guide 206
5.3.1 Time Constraints 206
5.3.2 Traffic Loading 206
5.3.3 Design Reliability 208
5.3.4 Pavement Serviceability Loss ( PSI) 209
5.3.5 Material Properties 209
5.3.6 Structural Number (SN) 212
5.4 AASHTO Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design 213
5.4.1 General Design Process 214
5.4.2 Hierarchical Levels 216
5.4.3 Climate 216
5.4.4 Traffic 216
5.4.5Material Properties 216
5.4.6 M-E Iterative Design Process 217
5.4.7 Local Calibration 218
5.4.8 Limitations of MEPDG 219
5.5 Other Flexible Pavement Design Methods 219
5.5.1 Asphalt Institute Method 219
5.5.2 Shell Pavement Design Method 220
5.6 Indian Roads Congress Method 221
5.6.1 2001 IRC Guidelines 221
5.6.2 2012 IRC Guidelines 224
Summary 224
Questions 225
References 225
6. Hot Mix Asphalt Production and Construction .................... 227–280

6.2 Asphalt Mix Production 227
6.2.1 Batch Plant 227
6.2.2 Drum Plant 237
6.3 Asphalt Mix Transportation and Laydown 240
6.3.1 Surface Preparation 240
6.3.2 Asphalt Mix Delivery 244
6.3.3 Paving Equipment and Paving Procedures 246
6.3.4 Mix and Mat Inspection 251
6.3.5 Constructing Joints 252
6.4 Asphalt Mix Compaction 255
6.4.1 Purpose of Compaction 256
6.4.2 Roller Types and Compaction Procedures 256
6.4.3 Factors Affecting Compaction 263
6.4.4Rolling Joints 263
6.4.5 Inspection of Compacted Mat 264
6.4.6 Segregation 265
6.4.7 Measurement of Density 265
6.4.8 Density Specifications 267
6.5 Quality Control/Quality Assurance (QC/QA) of Hot Mix Asphalt
Construction 270
6.5.1 Concept of Quality Control/Quality Assurance 270
6.5.2 Properties of Asphalt Mix 273
6.5.3Statistically Based End-Result Specifications 276
Summary 277
Questions 277
References 278
Suggested
Readings 279
7. Asphalt Pavement Distresses—Identification,

Causes and Treatments ........................................................... 281–304
7.2 Cracking of Asphalt Pavements 282
7.2.1 Load Associated (Fatigue) Cracking 282
7.2.2 Nonload Associated (Thermal) Cracking 284
7.2.3 Longitudinal Cracking 286
7.2.4 Block Cracking 287
7.2.5 Reflection Cracking 287
7.3 Spalling 288
7.4 Permanent Deformation 288
7.4.1Rutting due to Densification of Asphalt Pavement 288
7.4.2 Rutting due to Creep Failure of the Asphalt Mix 288
7.4.3 Corrugations 291
7.4.4 Swelling and Frost Heave 291
7.5 Slippage Cracking 292
7.6 Raveling 292
7.7 Scaling 293
7.8 Stripping 294
7.8.1Methodology for Investigating Stripping 298
7.8.2Current Practices for Minimising Stripping 300 7.9 Potholes 301
7.10 Reduced Skid Resistance 302
7.11 Rough Riding Quality 302
Summary 303
Questions 303
References 303
8. Maintenance and Rehabilitation of Asphalt Pavements .....305–322

8.2 Asphalt Pavement Serviceability 305
8.3 Pavement Surface Evenness 307
8.4 Pavement Surface Roughness 307
8.5 Pavement Structural Strength 309
8.5.1 Deflection Measurement Techniques 309
8.6 Maintenance of Asphalt Pavements 312
8.6.1 Routine Maintenance 312
8.6.2 Preventive Maintenance 314
8.6.3 Periodic Maintenance 317
8.7 Rehabilitation of Asphalt Pavements 317
8.7.1 Current Practices for Improving Ride Quality Programme (IRQP) and Periodical
Renewal (PR) 318
8.7.2 Recommendations for Improving Ride Quality Programme (IRQP) 319
8.7.3 Recommendations for Periodical Renewal (PR) 320
Summary 321
Questions 321
References 321
9. Recycling of Asphalt Pavements ........................................... 323–370

9.2 Benefits of Recycling Pavement Materials 323
9.3 Recycling Methods 324
9.4 Selection of Pavement for Recycling and Recycling Strategies 325
9.5 Removal of Existing Asphalt Pavement 327
9.5.1 Cold Milling 327
9.5.2 Ripping and Crushing 331
9.5.3 Crushing and Stockpiling 332
9.6 Hot Mix Asphalt Recycling 333
9.6.1 Hot Mix Asphalt Recycling in Batch Plant 334
9.6.2 Hot Mix Recycling in Drum Mix Plant 337
9.6.3 Hot Recycling Materials and Mix Design 340
9.6.4 Hot Recycled Asphalt Mix Construction 346
9.7 Hot In-Place Recycling (HIPR) 346
9.7.1 Surface Recycling Method and Equipment 347
9.7.2 Repaving Method and Equipment 347
9.7.3 Remixing Method and Equipment 349
9.7.4 HIPR: Materials, Mix Design and Construction 351
9.8 Cold Mix Recycling—Central Plant 352
9.8.1 Removal of Existing Pavement 352
9.8.2 Mixing 353
9.9 Cold In-Place Recycling (CIR) 354
9.9.1CIR Construction Methods and Equipment 355
9.9.2 Laydown, Aeration and Compaction 358
9.9.3Field Adjustments to Mix Design 359
9.9.4 Application of Wearing Course 359
9.9.5 Scope of Cold Recycling in India 360
9.9.6 Material and Mix Design for Cold Mix Asphalt Recycling 360
9.9.7 Job Mix Formula and Field Adjustments 364
9.9.8 Cold Recycling Construction Quality Control 364
9.10 Full Depth Reclamation 365
9.10.1Equipment and Construction Methods 365
9.10.2 Mix Design for FDR 367
Summary 368
Questions 369
References 369
10. Interesting Investigations of Premature Failures of
Asphalt Pavements ................................................................... 371–395
10.1 Introduction-371
10.2 General Investigational Approach-372
10.3 Investigation 1-373
10.4 Investigation 2- 377
Summary 393
Questions 394
Suggested Readings 395
Appendix A Superpave Asphalt Binder

Tests and Specifications ................................................................ 396–411
Index .................................................................................................. 413–416

Preface
“American roads are good not because America is rich, but America is rich because
American roads are good”.
— John F. Kennedy
An ambitious highway construction program is underway in India at the present time. Over
95% of highways in India like most other countries in the world have bituminous surface. The
bituminous component of flexible road pavements is not only important but also the most
expensive.
This book has been designed to serve as a textbook for the undergraduate and postgraduate
students of Civil Engineering for the courses on: Highway Materials (including bitumen and
aggregate); Highway Materials Testing and Laboratory (both basic and advanced); Highway
Construction and Maintenance; Pavement Materials and Construction; Pavement Deterioration
and Evaluation; Pavement Materials Characterization; Highway Construction and Quality
Control; Highway Pavement Failures; and Design of Flexible Pavements. Although these
courses are being taught in India at the present time, but there is no suitable textbook. Since
the book also discusses cutting-edge asphalt technologies, it is also suited for Ph.D. students
and researchers across India.
The book includes numerous simple, practical and illustrative examples, which can be used as
a good reference source for present and future practicing government highway engineers,
contractors, and consultants. Unlike typical reference books, it is packed with a large number
of photographs for easy comprehension of the subject matter. The author is reasonably abreast
of the latest asphalt technology and practices in the US as well as the current practices and
specifications for bituminous construction in India. This led him to develop this book in the
Indian context, especially in view of the relevant Indian Roads Congress and Bureau of Indian
Standards Codes.
This first ever text-cum-reference book in India covers A to Z of bituminous road construction.
It contains ten detailed chapters which have been devoted to: (1) Paving bitumen including
polymer modified bitumen; (2) Aggregate; (3) Hot mix asphalt mix design including Marshall
and Superpave; (4) Various types of bituminous paving mixes and surface treatments including
special mixes, such as stone matrix asphalt, warm mix asphalt and ready-made pothole mix; (5)
Structural design of flexible pavements; (6) Hot mix asphalt production and construction; (7)
Distresses in asphalt pavements—identification, causes and treatments; (8) Maintenance and
rehabilitation of asphalt pavements; (9) Recycling of asphalt pavements; and (10) Interesting
investigations of premature failure of asphalt pavements.
The last chapter is quite unique because it presents eight interesting investigations of
premature failure of asphalt pavements conducted by the author across the world. It presents
the problems and their resolutions with numerous actual photographs. It would also prepare
the students to tackle real-life problems and implement their knowledge in practice.
The author is indebted to Professor A. Veeraragavan, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT
Madras for reviewing the full manuscript and providing his useful suggestions which have
duly been incorporated.
Finally, the support provided by the Publisher, PHI Learning, Delhi is also acknowledged.

Acknowledgements
The permission to use figures from the NCAT Textbook was obtained from the US National
Asphalt Pavement Association Research and Education Foundation (NAPA REF) and is
hereby acknowledged. The permission granted by the US Transportation Research Board to
use figures from its publication, Hot Mix Asphalt Paving Handbook is also acknowledged.
The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) kindly
permitted the use of a nomograph from their 1993 “Pavement Design Guide”. Figures based
on the slides included in the NCAT Professor Training Program and the Asphalt Institute’s
“Train the Trainers” programme attended by the author have also been used with their kind
permission with all rights reserved. Photographs were also provided by InstroTek, Inc. and
Crafco, Inc., USA. None of these figures used in this book can be reproduced and used by
anybody else.

Paving Bitumen
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Paving bitumen is the most expensive and the most important (adhesive) ingredient in
bituminous road construction. Therefore, it is important to use it appropriately to realise its
full potential. This would require increased understanding of paving bitumen by highway
engineers.
The following is described in this chapter: historical background of bitumen; bitumen refining;
bitumen physical tests; bitumen grading system; selection of bitumen for India; modified
bitumen binders; cutback bitumen and emulsified bitumen.
1.2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Both asphaltic bitumen (simply called bitumen in India) and tar are considered bituminous
materials. Due to misconception, both terms: bitumen and tar are used interchangeably because
they are black and have similar application. However, bitumen and tar are two distinctly
different materials with different origins and different chemical and physical properties.
Bitumen either occurs naturally or is produced from petroleum crude by refining. Tar is
manufactured from destructive distillation of bituminous coal (that is why it is also called coal
tar) and has a very distinct smell. Coal tar is hardly used in paving at the present time because
it becomes brittle at low temperatures and it poses health hazards to workers when exposed to
its fumes [1].
Bitumen is mankind’s oldest engineering material because of its waterproofing and adhesive
properties. Naturally occurring bitumen was used in Sumeria about 6000 BC in its
shipbuilding industry. About 3000 BC, ancient Indus valley civilization used bitumen in
construction of large public baths or tanks by placing a 25 mm thick layer of bitumen between
courses of baked bricks to ensure waterproofing. Egyptians also used bitumen not only for
waterproofing but also in mummification as early as 2600 BC [1].
Commercial types of bitumen can be classified into two categories depending on
their origins:
Natural bitumen: These bitumen binders occur naturally in veins of rock formations such
as limestones or sandstones. They are either soft or hard, friable black material. The hard
variety such as gilsonite is black and brittle and mostly mined in the state of Utah in the
United States.
1
The relatively soft bitumen binder, similar to heavy petroleum occurs in the Trinidad Lake
deposit on the island of Trinidad and in the extensive “tar sands” throughout western Canada.
As bitumen is removed from the Trinidad Lake, pressure deep in the earth forces more
bitumen to the surface; as though nature has its own refining process. Trinidad Lake bitumen
has about 50% to 57% bitumen; rest is volcanic ash and organic matter. It is hard and has a
very low penetration of 3 to 10.
Petroleum bitumen: These are obtained by refining petroleum crude. After refining process
was developed in the early 1900s in the US and petrol (gasoline) was needed for automobiles,
large amounts of petroleum bitumen were available as a byproduct of the refining process.
This made the natural bitumen rather unimportant.
1.3 BITUMEN REFINING
Almost all paving bitumen used today in India is obtained by processing petroleum crude
oils.Over 75% of petroleum crude oil used at the present time in India is imported from foreign
countries such as Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Iran, Nigeria, Libya and Russia. Petroleum crude oil is
presently available in India in the following regions: Assam; Cambay (Khambhat), Gujarat;
KG Basin in Andhra Pradesh (both onshore and offshore); Cauvery, Tamil Nadu; Barmer,
Rajasthan; and Bombay High (offshore) in Maharashtra. Domestic refineries in India produce
paving bitumen from imported as well local petroleum crude.
Straight reduction through primary distillation is usually the first step in the refining of crude
petroleum. Figure 1.1 shows the distillation principle which is used in the atmospheric tower to
separate various crude fractions which have different boiling ranges.
Figure 1.1 Schematic of crude distillation in refinery (Courtesy: NAPA REF).

The crude oil is heated to about 343 oC (650 oF) in a large furnace to vaporise it partially.When
it is introduced in the atmospheric distillation tower, the relatively lighter components of
petroleum crude rise to the top, cool, condense and are drawn off on trays inside the tower [1].
For example, petrol (gasoline) goes to the top and is drawn off. The mid-tower or intermediate
fractions are drawn off at lower levels and are treated, if necessary, to make jet fuels, kerosene
and diesel. Further down waxes, lubricating oils and greases can also be recovered.
The bottom material (residuum) in the primary distillation tower is usually heated and
introduced in a vacuum distillation tower wherein heavy gas oils are produced and the
resulting residuum at the bottom is generally paving bitumen. The advantage of applying
vacuum (sometimes steam is also used) is that bitumen can be obtained at relatively lower
temperatures. At very high temperatures, bitumen can get cracked (molecules are thermally
broken apart) resulting in poor quality. The bottom fraction from the second tower is called
vacuum processed and steam refined bitumen. The penetration or viscosity grade of bitumen
can be controlled by the amount of heavy gas oil removed [1].
There are other refining processes to produce paving bitumen of desired grades and
characteristics. Examples are: solvent deasphalting; residuum oil supercritical extraction
(ROSE); and air blowing [1]. All these processes including air blowing (oxidation) should be
permitted in refineries only because stringent process and quality controls besides safety
precautions are required. Paving contractors or unqualified suppliers should not be permitted to
use air blowing to increase the viscosity of paving bitumen. Since the process of air blowing
(oxidation) is exothermic and therefore produces heat, refineries have a suitable system in
place to cool the product to storage temperature by recovering the energy from the reaction. All
this can be done as a controlled process in refineries only which have sophisticated plants such
as biturox (costing over 20 crores rupees). Environmental considerations also require gases
from the air blowing operation to be sent to a scrubber and/or incinerator.
Clause 4 of IS: 73–2013 “Paving Bitumen Specification” (for viscosity graded bitumen)
clearly states, “Bitumen shall be prepared by the refining of crude petroleum by suitable
methods”. Therefore, all viscosity graded (VG) bitumen should be supplied by refineries only.
Refined paving bitumen is widely used across the world in constructing roads, airfield
runways, parking lots, car race courses, railway tracks and for lining water reservoirs. In the
US, terms such as “asphalt cement” or “asphalt” are used in lieu of bitumen.
1.4 PAVING BITUMEN PHYSICAL TESTS
Bureau of Indian Standards IS: 73 “Paving Bitumen Specification” is used in India for
specifying paving bitumen. This standard gives the required physical tests and respective
specified test values.
Physical testing of paving bitumen can be categorised as follows [1]:

1.Consistency tests
23 2.Aging tests
24 3.Purity tests
25 4.Safety tests
26 5.Other tests
1.4.1 Consistency Tests
Consistency describes the degree of fluidity of bitumen at any particular temperature.

Bitumen is a thermoplastic material, that is, its consistency varies with the temperature.
Therefore, if comparison of different bitumen binders is to be made, it is necessary to
measure their consistency at the same temperature and shear loading conditions. The
following consistency tests are performed on paving bitumen:
Absolute viscosity at 60 °C
Viscosity can simply be defined as resistance to flow of a fluid. Viscosity grading of paving
bitumen is based on viscosity measurement at 60 °C. This temperature was selected because it
approximates the maximum bituminous pavement surface temperature during summer.
A capillary tube viscometer is used to perform the viscosity test at 60 °C. The Cannon-
Manning vacuum viscometer (Figure 1.2) is most commonly used. The ASTM D 2171 and IS:
1206 (Part 2) test methods describe the test procedures.
Figure 1.2 Cannon-Manning vacuum viscometer tube (Courtesy: NAPA REF).
The viscometer is mounted in a thermostatically controlled, constant temperature water or

oil bath which is maintained at 60 °C. Heated liquid bitumen is poured into the larger side
of the viscometer until it reaches the filling line. After the filled viscometer is kept in the
bath for a prescribed period of time to obtain the equilibrium temperature of 60 °C, a
specified partial vacuum is applied to the small side of the viscometer to cause the bitumen
to flow. Application of partial vacuum is necessary because the bitumen is too viscous to
flow at this temperature.
A vacuum control device and a vacuum pump are needed as part of the testing equipment
(Figure 1.3). After the bitumen starts to flow, the time (in seconds) required for it to flow
between two timing marks is measured. The measured time (in seconds) is multiplied by the
calibration factor for the viscometer tube to obtain the value for viscosity in poises, which is
the standard unit for measuring absolute viscosity. Manufacturers calibrate their viscometers
with standard oils and furnish the calibration factor with each viscosity tube [1]. At the
present time, the Cannon-Manning viscometer tube has to be imported in India.
Figure 1.3 Vacuum viscometer testing equipment (Courtesy: NCAT).
Only vacuum tube viscometers with specified partial vacuum level (that is specified shear
stress) can be used to measure absolute viscosity at 60 oC. Rotational viscometer such as
Brookfield cannot be used. In a non-Newtonian fluid such as bitumen below 100 oC, the
relation between the shear stress and strain rate is non-linear, and can even be time
dependent. Therefore, viscosity has to be measured at a specified shear stress level. In case
of Newtonian fluids, the measured viscosities are independent of the shear rate and there is
a single and unique value for viscosity. Brookfield rotational viscometer described later, is
suitable for testing Newtonian bitumen.
All government highway agencies and contractors must conduct this test to ensure whether
appropriate viscosity grade of paving bitumen is being supplied or not. For example, it is
quite possible that the bitumen supplier may be supplying softer VG-10 or VG-20 grade in
lieu of VG-30. Softer grade may cause bleeding and/or rutting in the asphalt layer.
Kinematic viscosity at 135 °C
The ASTM D 2170 or IS: 1206 (Part 3) is used to measure the kinematic viscosity at 135 oC
using the Zeitfuchs Cross-Arm viscometer (Figure 1.4). At this temperature, the bitumen is
sufficiently fluid to flow through the capillary tube under gravitational forces alone, and there
is no need to apply any partial vacuum. This temperature was selected because it approximates
the mixing and laydown temperatures used in the construction of bituminous pavement layers.
Figure 1.4 Zeitfuchs cross arm viscometer (Courtesy: NAPA REF).
After bitumen is poured into the large opening of the viscometer until it reaches the filling line,
the viscometer is placed in a clear oil bath to obtain the equilibrium test temperature. A slight
vacuum is applied to the small opening or a slight pressure is applied to the large opening to
induce the flow of the bitumen over the siphon section just above the filling line. Then the
gravitational forces cause the bitumen to flow downward in the vertical section of the capillary
tube. A stopwatch is used to measure the time (in seconds) taken by the bitumen to flow
between the two timing marks. The kinematic viscosity in centistokes is obtained by
multiplying this time by the calibration factor supplied with the viscometer tube. The unit of
centistokes is used in kinematic viscosity at 135 °C because gravitational forces induce flow and
the density of the material that affects the rate of flow [1].
Rotational viscometer such as Brookfield viscometer can also be used to determine bitumen
viscosity at 135 oC. This viscometer has also been included in the Superpave binder testing
system to measure viscosity at high construction temperatures. Most bitumen binders behave
as Newtonian fluids (stress response not dependent on shear rate) above 100 oC. Therefore,
any viscometer such as Zeitfuchs and Brookfield based on fundamental principles would yield
identical test values. The ASTM D 4402 describes the detailed testing procedure for rotational
viscometer.
The rotational viscometer is better suited for testing modified bitumen binders (such as
crumb rubber modified bitumen) compared to capillary viscometer because the latter’s
narrow capillaries can get clogged up preventing smooth flow. Figure 1.5 gives the
principle of rotational viscometer. The sample chamber is filled with heated bitumen
binder and brought to the testing temperature in a thermo-container. A spindle is then
suspended in the binder.
Torque is applied to the spindle through the viscometer motor to make it to rotate at a
constant speed of 20 revolutions per minute (RPM). The measured torque is directly
related to the viscosity of the bitumen binder. The rotational viscometer displays the
viscosity value as a digital readout. Figure 1.6 shows the complete equipment of the
Brookfield viscometer.
Depending on the viscosity range of the bitumen, different sizes of spindle are used. Each
spindle size covers a range of viscosities which overlap each other. Spindle number 21 is the
most frequently used spindle when first making a measurement.
Penetration
The penetration test is an empirical test used to measure the consistency of bitumen. Usually
penetration is measured at 25 ⁰C which also approximates average service temperature of the
bituminous pavements during the year. At this temperature, no simple test method is currently
available to measure the consistency of bitumen in terms of viscosity or visco-elasticity, which
is desirable form of measurement. The schematic of standard penetration test is shown in
Figure 1.7. Figure 1.8 shows the complete test set up. A container of bitumen is brought to the
standard test temperature (usually 25 ⁰C) in a thermostatically-controlled water bath. The
sample is placed under a needle of prescribed dimensions. The needle is loaded with a 100g
weight and is allowed to penetrate the bitumen sample for 5s. The depth of penetration is
measured in units of 0.1 mm (dmm) and is reported as penetration units. For example, if the
needle penetrates 6 mm, the penetration of bitumen is 60.
Figure 1.7 Schematic of penetration test (Courtesy: NAPA REF).
Figure 1.8 Complete set up of penetration test (Courtesy: NCAT).
The penetration test is run in accordance with ASTM D 5 or IS: 1203. The test can also be run
at other temperatures such as 4 oC. However, the needle load or penetration time or both are
then varied. At low temperatures such as 4 oC, the bitumen is very stiff and therefore
penetration of the needle is significantly lower if it is loaded with a 100 g weight and is
allowed to penetrate for 5 s only. At these temperatures, a 200 g weight and 60 s penetration
time have been used to obtain reasonably high penetration values [1] as per ASTM D 5.
Softening point
Softening point is an empirical test like the penetration test. It is measured by ring and ball
(R&B) method in accordance with ASTM D 36 or IS: 1205. It can simply be defined as the
temperature at which bitumen cannot support the weight of a steel ball and starts flowing. Its
purpose is to determine the temperature at which a phase change (semi solid to semi liquid)
occurs in the bitumen.
Figure 1.9 shows the test set up for determining softening point. The test consists of
taking a brass ring filled with bitumen and suspending it in a beaker filled with water or
ethylene glycol. A steel ball of specified dimensions and weight is placed in the centre of
the sample.The bath is heated at a controlled rate of 5 oC/min. When the bitumen softens,
the ball and
bitumen sink toward the bottom of the beaker. The temperature is recorded at the instant
when the softened bitumen sinks the prescribed distance and touches the bottom plate [1].
Figure 1.9 Softening point test (Courtesy: NAPA REF).

1.4.2 Aging Tests
Bitumen undergoes substantial short-term aging (hardening) when it is mixed with hot mineral
aggregates in a hot mix asphalt mixing plant. This is because the bitumen present in very thin
film around the hot aggregate is exposed to high heat in the mixing pug mill or drum. This
results in loss of heavy volatiles from the bitumen thereby increasing its viscosity significantly
during mixing. Indian paving bitumen specifications (IS: 73– 2013) do not allow increase in
viscosity of more than four times (that means viscosity ratio should not exceed 4). If the
viscosity ratio is more than 4, the paving bitumen may not be durable in service. In other
words, it may oxidise and harden prematurely.
After the bituminous pavement is constructed, long-term aging of the bitumen continues
during the service life of the pavement which is subjected to environmental and other factors.
Standard test method (pressure aging vessel) is available in the Superpave binder system to
approximate the long-term aging of bitumen. However, the following two tests are generally
used to approximate the short-term hardening conditions which occur in normal asphalt
mixing plants:
Thin film oven test
The thin film oven (TFO) test is conducted by placing a 50 g sample of bitumen in a
cylindrical flat-bottom pan (5.5 inches inside diameter and 3/8 inch deep). The bitumen layer
in the pan is about 1/8 inch deep. The pan containing the bitumen sample is transferred to a
shelf in a ventilated oven maintained at 163 oC (325 oF) (Figure 1.10). The shelf rotates at 5
to 6 revolutions per minute (RPM). The sample is kept in the oven for 5 h, and then
transferred to a suitable container for measuring penetration or viscosity of the aged bitumen.
The test method is described in ASTM D 1754 or IS: 9382. The aged bitumen is usually
required to meet specified maximum viscosity ratio at 60 oC which is four in case of IS: 73–
2013. A loss or gain in weight of the test sample is also measured and reported [1].
Figure 1.10 Thin film oven test (Courtesy: NAPA REF).
Rolling thin film oven test

A variation of the thin film oven test is in use by some agencies in the western United
States, although it has the same purpose. It is also specified in the Superpave asphalt system.
Figure 1.11 shows the rolling thin film oven (RTFO) used in ASTM D 2872. A specified
amount of bitumen is poured into a bottle, which is placed in a rack in the oven maintained at
163 oC (325 oF). The rack rotates at a prescribed rate around a horizontal axis. The rotating
bottle continuously exposes thin film of fresh bitumen. The orifice of the sample bottle passes
in front of an air jet during each rotation. The vapours accumulated in the sample bottle are
purged by the heated air from the jet.
The RTFO achieves about the same degree of hardening (aging) as the TFO but in less time
(only 75 min). Also, it can accommodate a larger number of samples than the TFO. The
RTFO is preferred over TFO when testing modified bitumen binders because of its rotating/
mixing action which avoids skin formation in the test sample which is likely in TFO test.
When setting up a new bitumen testing laboratory, it is recommended to purchase RTFO test
equipment rather than TFO test equipment, because IS: 73–2013 also specifies the former.
Figure 1.11 Rolling thin film oven test (Courtesy: NCAT).
1.4.3 Purity Tests
Refined bitumen is almost pure bitumen which, by definition, is entirely soluble in carbon
disulfide or trichloroethylene. Only very little amounts of impurities are generally present in
the refined bitumen. To determine the purity of bitumen, a solubility test (ASTM D 2042 or
IS: 1216) is conducted. A bitumen sample of known weight is dissolved in trichloroethylene
(rather than carbon disulfide which is flammable and presents a safety hazard), and is then
filtered through a glass fibre pad. The insoluble material retained on the pad is washed, dried
and weighed. The insoluble material constitutes the impurity in the bitumen sample.
Specifications for paving bitumen generally require a minimum of 99.0% solubility in
trichloroethylene. It is also desirable that the bitumen is free of water or moisture because it
can cause the bitumen to foam when it is heated above 100 oC [1].
All government agencies and contractors must conduct this simple test as a routine at the
time of delivery of the paving bitumen to detect deliberate adulteration of bitumen
(sometimes with marble slurry or like) by unscrupulous transporters. Adulterated bitumen is
not only of poor quality but it also results in lower bitumen content in asphalt mix.
1.4.4 Safety Tests
If bitumen is heated to a high enough temperature, it gives off enough vapour that it will flash
(ignite) in the presence of a spark or open flame. Flash point indicates the temperature to
which bitumen may be safely heated without the danger of instantaneous flash in the presence
of an open flame. This temperature is below that of the fire point, which is the temperature
where a material combusts. Although the flash point of paving bitumen is well above the
temperatures normally used in asphalt mix production, it is necessary to measure and control it
for safety considerations.
The Cleveland Open Cup Method (ASTM D 92 or IS: 1448) is used for determining the
flash point of paving bitumen (Figure 1.12). A brass cup partially filled with bitumen is
heated at a prescribed rate. A small flame is passed over the surface of the cup periodically.
The temperature at which sufficient vapours are released to produce an instantaneous
flash of flame is reported as the flash point [1].
Figure 1.12 Cleveland open cup method for flash point (Courtesy: NCAT).
Flash point can also be used to detect presence of some volatiles such as kerosene in the
bitumen which may have resulted from switching transport tankers. In such cases, measured
flash point would be significantly lower than the usual flash point.
1.4.5 Other Tests
Ductility test
Many asphalt paving technologists consider ductility as an important property of bitumen

which affects the performance of asphalt pavement especially its cracking [2]. The ductility
test, run in accordance with ASTM D 113 or IS: 1208, measures the distance in centimetre that
a standard briquette of bitumen will stretch before breaking (Figure 1.13). The cross-section of
the briquette at its smaller dimension is 1 cm2. The bitumen test sample is brought to the test
temperature in a water bath which is maintained at the standard temperature of 25 oC unless
otherwise specified. The two ends of the sample are separated at the rate of 5 cm/min until
rupture. The water must be at the same specific gravity as the bitumen prevents floating or
sinking of the stretched sample. Salt is added to increase the specific gravity, and alcohol is
added to decrease the specific gravity of the water.
Some engineers believe in running the ductility test at lower temperatures such as 15 oC and 4
oC rather than 25 oC. The pulling rate is usually lowered to 1 cm/min when the test is run at 4
oC to allow for more stretching prior to break [1]. It is preferred to conduct ductility test on
TFO or RTFO bitumen residue rather than original bitumen because the former represents the
bitumen which actually goes in the road at time of construction on day one of its service life.
Excessive air blowing of paving bitumen by unscrupulous suppliers usually decreases its
ductility thereby affecting its durability in service.
Figure 1.13 Ductility test (Courtesy NCAT).
Specific gravity
Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the mass of the material at a given temperature to
the mass of an equal volume of water at the same temperature. Specific gravity of the
bitumen changes when the bitumen expands on heating. Therefore, specific gravity
determinations are useful in making temperature-volume corrections or determining the
weight per unit volume of bitumen heated to its application temperature.
The pycnometer method is used to determine the specific gravity of bitumen (ASTM D 70 or
IS: 1202). Since the specific gravity varies with the temperature, test results are expressed in
terms of specific gravity at a given temperature for both the bitumen and the water used in the
test. Specific gravity of paving bitumen at 25 oC is used in hot mix asphalt mix design.
Spot test
The purpose of the spot test (AASHTO T 102) is to determine whether bitumen has been
damaged during processing due to overheating, resulting in cracking. In cracking, the
molecules are thermally broken apart. According to some engineers, the bitumen thus
produced is inferior, is less ductile, and is more susceptible to weathering or aging. Since
cracking is not likely to occur in modern refining practices, the spot test is usually not a
requirement in the specifications and is rarely used. The spot test is a crude form of paper
chromatography which involves a visual evaluation of a spot of bitumen dissolved in a
standard solvent (such as naphtha). A drop of the asphalt/ solvent mixture is placed on a
special filter paper and the results observed visually. If the spot formed is a uniformly
brown stain, the test is reported as negative and the bitumen is acceptable. However, if the
spot shows a darker area at the centre, the test is reported as positive and will disqualify the
bitumen [1].
1.5 BITUMEN GRADING SYSTEM
India has adopted a viscosity grading system for paving bitumen. The Bureau of Indian
Standards issued IS: 73–2006 “Paving Bitumen Specification” (Third Revision) in July 2006,
which specified paving bitumen by viscosity at 60 oC rather than the older system of grading
paving bitumen by penetration at 25 oC [3].
Before giving an overview of the new system, it will be prudent to review the history of
grading bitumen over the last 130 years. This review will assist in knowing what advances
have been made so far and what advances need to be made in future so far as grading and
selecting bitumen are concerned.
1.5.1 History of Grading Bitumen
Bitumen is a thermoplastic material, that is, its stiffness is dependent on its temperature as
shown in Figure 1.14. Its stiffness decreases as its temperature is increased. This temperature
versus stiffness relationship is different for different bitumen binders based on the origin of the
petroleum crude and/or method of refining. This is quite evident in Figure 1.14 wherein
bitumen A and bitumen B have different relationships.
Therefore, it is obvious a test temperature needs to be defined at which the grading will be
done and bitumen binders compared. If bitumen A and bitumen B are to be compared,
bitumen B is stiffer than bitumen A at 25 oC whereas the situation is reversed at 60 oC.
Although the stiffness of bitumen at very low temperatures is also important to resist thermal
cracking. Figure 1.14 shows three temperatures at which the stiffness of bitumen has
significance as follows:
Figure 1.14 Temperature versus stiffness relationships of different bitumen binders.

Stiffness at 135 oC: The temperature of 135 oC is near the temperatures used for mixing and
compacting asphalt mixtures during construction. At this temperature, bitumen is thin like
motor oil so that it can be mixed with aggregate easily. It is useful to determine the stiffness
(measured in terms of kinematic viscosity) of the bitumen to establish proper mixing and
compaction temperatures for asphalt mixtures.
Stiffness at 60 oC: The temperature of 60 oC is near the maximum bituminous pavement

temperature on a hot summer day, when rutting is likely to occur as shown in Figure 1.15. It is
useful to determine the stiffness (in terms of viscosity) of the bitumen at 60 oC so that its
minimum stiffness can be specified to ensure adequate resistance to rutting during hot
summer. Rutting of asphalt pavements is the most prevalent problem in the world including
India.
Figure 1.15 Rutting occurs at maximum pavement temperatures during summer.
Stiffness at 25 oC: The temperature of 25 oC is near the average annual temperature of an

asphalt pavement during a year. It is useful to determine the stiffness (in terms of penetration)
of the bitumen at 25 oC so that we can specify its maximum stiffness (minimum penetration)
to resist pavement raveling and/or fatigue cracking (Figure 1.16) resulting from aged/brittle
bitumen after 5 to 10 years in service. Unlike rutting which may occur right after
construction, raveling/fatigue cracking usually occurs after 5 to 10 years in service, especially
if the pavement is structurally inadequate.
Figure 1.16 Fatigue cracking may occur after bitumen has aged in service.
Grading by chewing
Prior to the development of the penetration test, chewing in mouth was the first mode of
testing to determine stiffness (hardness) of bitumen during the late 19th century. Experienced
bitumen inspectors in the US used the technique for testing and accepting bitumen for
paving. Obviously, the test temperature was 98.6 oF (37 oC) equal to the average human
body temperature.
Penetration grading
Grading of bitumen by penetration test at 25 oC was adopted by the American Society for
Testing and Materials (ASTM) committee D 04 on road and paving materials in 1903, about
110 years ago. As mentioned earlier under physical tests, in the penetration test, a needle
loaded with 100 g is allowed to penetrate the bitumen maintained at 25 oC temperature in a
water bath, for 5 s. The resulting penetration is measured in mm; 1 penetration unit = 0.1
mm.The greater the penetration, the softer is the bitumen. ASTM standard D 946 specified
five penetration grades for bitumen binders:
5888 1. 40–50 (Hardest bitumen grade)
5889 2. 60–70
5890 3. 85–100
5891 4. 120–150
5892 5. 200–300 (Softest bitumen grade)
Prior to 2006, the 100 year old penetration grading system was used in India with 60 to 70
penetration grade being most widely used. The softer 80 to 100 penetration grade has been
used for low-volume roads and spray applications (such as in surface dressing) in India. The
penetration grading system has the following disadvantages [1]:
1. It is based on an empirical test and not on a fundamental test.

2. It cannot be used effectively for polymer-modified bitumen.
3. Similitude at 25 oC is very deceptive to performance at higher and lower service
temperatures. This is evident in Figure 1.17 wherein three 60 to 70 grade bitumen binders A,
B, and C have the same penetration of 65 but different stiffness values at higher (say 60 oC)
and lower (say 0 oC) service temperatures. For example, bitumenC is more prone to rutting
compared to bitumen B and bitumen A, since its stiffness (viscosity) at 60 oC is lower.
4. No bitumen viscosity is available near asphalt mixing and compaction temperatures
for the guidance of contractors.
5. Penetration grading does not control the temperature-susceptibility (slope of
temperature versus stiffness line) of bitumen binders. Highly temperature-susceptible
bitumen binders (with steep slopes) are not desirable because they are very soft at high
service temperatures and very stiff at low service temperatures.
Figure 1.17 Three 60 to 70 penetration grade bitumen binders with different values of
stiffness at high and low service temperatures.
Viscosity grading
Viscosity grading at 60 oC was introduced in the United States during 1970s to address
construction problems (tender mixes which could not be rolled without the mix pushing and
shoving under the roller) and high temperature performance (rutting during hot summer) as
mentioned earlier. The 60 to 70 penetration grade bitumen most widely used in the US prior
to 1970s was significantly variable in terms of resistance to rutting. Some 60 to 70 penetration
bitumen binders also had very low viscosity at 135 oC, which caused tender mix problems
(pushing and shoving of the mix under the roller) during construction. Viscosity grading is
based on a fundamental, scientific viscosity test, which is conducted at 60 oC (near the
maximum pavement temperature during summer) and its measurement unit is poise.
The test equipment for measuring viscosity both at 60 oC and 135 oC is simple and is already
available in most bitumen testing laboratories in India. Six asphalt cement (AC) viscosity
grades were established in the US as follows:
Grade Viscosity at 60 °C, poises

AC-2.5 (Softest) 250 +/– 50
AC-5 500 +/– 100
AC-10 1000 +/– 200
AC-20 2000 +/– 400
AC-30 3000 +/– 600
AC-40 (Hardest) 4000 +/– 800
Bitumen is called “asphalt cement” or just “asphalt” in the United States. Low viscosity
grades such as AC-2.5 and AC-5 were used in cold climate of Canada. The AC-10 was used in
the northern tier states of the US and AC-20 was used in most of the US. Originally, only five
viscosity grades: AC-2.5, AC-5, AC-10, AC-20 and AC-40 were proposed with mean viscosity
doubling from grade to grade and no overlap in viscosity range. However, southern states such
as Florida, Georgia, and Alabama with hot climate considered AC-20 to be too soft and AC-40
to be too hard. On insistence by these states, AC-30 was incorporated in the viscosity grades.
This did result in some overlap of viscosity between AC-30 and AC-40 grades. Since no state
in the US has used AC-40 grade, there is no performance experience with this grade.
Figure 1.18 depicts the graphical representation of viscosity graded AC-30 bitumen
(equivalent to VG-30 in India). The following advantages resulted from adopting the
viscosity grading system for bitumen:
1. Unlike penetration grades, same viscosity grade bitumen binders gave similar rutting
performance in hot summer.
2. Minimum penetration values were retained in the viscosity grading system to maintain
acceptable performance (in terms of resistance to fatigue cracking) at yearly average
service temperature of 25 oC.
3. Minimum specified values of kinematic viscosity at 135 oC helped to minimise the
potential of tender mixes during construction.
4. Minimum specified penetration at 25 oC and minimum specified kinematic viscosity
at 135 oC established the maximum allowable temperature susceptibility (slope of
temperature versus stiffness line).
5. Viscosity graded bitumen binders were suitable for a wide range of temperatures: 25
oC for raveling/fatigue cracking; 60 oC for rutting; and 135 oC for construction.
6. Since the viscosity values are measured at two temperatures, bitumen suppliers could
provide to the users rational and accurate asphalt mixing and compaction temperatures
(corresponding to bitumen viscosity of 170 and
0 centistokes, respectively).
Figure 1.18 Graphical representation of viscosity-graded AC-30 (VG-30) bitumen.
Superpave performance grading

The viscosity grading system gave excellent performance results in the US for over 20
years.However, the viscosity grading system, although more rational than the penetration
grading system, was still based on experience. A 50 million dollar, 5 year strategic highway
research programme (SHRP) was undertaken from 1987 to 1992 to develop a performance
based grading system for bitumen, which was based on engineering principles to address
common asphalt pavement distress problems. The so-called Superpave performance
grading system includes new bitumen tests and specifications with the following salient
features [4, 5, 6]:
1. Tests and specifications are intended for bitumen “binders”, which include both
modified and unmodified bitumen.
2. The physical properties measured by Superpave bitumen tests are directly related to
field performance by engineering principles rather than just the experience.
23 3. A long-term bitumen aging test, which simulates aging of bitumen during 5 to 10
years in service, was developed and included for the first time.
24 4. Tests and specifications are designed to eliminate or minimise three specific types
of asphalt pavement distresses: rutting, fatigue cracking, and thermal cracking. Rutting
typically occurs at high temperatures, fatigue cracking at intermediate temperatures, and
thermal cracking at low temperatures.
5. As shown in Figure 1.19, the entire range of pavement temperatures experienced at
the project site is considered. New testing equipment were developed/adopted for
testing bitumen for this purpose. A rotational viscometer is used to measure the bitumen
viscosity at 135 oC. A dynamic shear rheometer (DSR) is used to measure the
viscoelastic properties of the bitumen at two temperatures: high temperature
corresponding to the maximum 7-day pavement temperature during summer at the
project site, and intermediate temperature corresponding to the average annual
temperature of the pavement at the project site. A bending beam rheometer and a direct
tension tester are used to measure the rheological properties of the bitumen at the
lowest pavement temperature during winter at the project site.
Figure 1.19 Superpave performance grade bitumen testing is conducted over the entire range
of temperatures experienced at the project site (Courtesy: FHWA).
The Superpave performance grade (PG) bitumen is based on climate. For example, PG 64–
22 bitumen is suitable for a project location, where the average 7-day maximum pavement
temperature is as high as 64 oC, and the minimum pavement temperature is –22 oC.
The high temperature grades are: PG 52, PG 58, PG 64, PG 70, PG 76, and PG 82. The low
temperature grades are: –4, –10, –16, –22, –28, –34 and so forth. Both high and low
temperature grades are in increments of 6 oC.
For example, a project location in Rajasthan has a maximum record 7-day pavement
temperature of 70 oC in summer and a minimum record pavement temperature of –3 oC. A
PG 70–4 bitumen will be specified for paving that project.
It is expected that in the near future, the Superpave performance grading system will be
adopted in India in lieu of viscosity grading system, especially in case of modified
bitumen binders. A detailed discussion of Superpave performance grading (PG) tests and
associated performance related specifications is given in Appendix A.
1.6 SELECTION OF BITUMEN FOR INDIA
There is no question the 110-year-old penetration grading system used in India was outdated,
inadequate, and unsuitable for the ambitious highway construction programme in India.
Ideally, the latest Superpave performance grading system should be used. However, it
involves complex and expensive testing equipment. The highway specifying agencies would
also need to be trained for its implementation. Therefore, it was realistic and practical to adopt
the 30-year old viscosity grading system.
Thus the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) adopted IS: 73–2006 which specified viscosity
grading for the first time in India1. This bitumen grading system had an excellent
performance history in the United States including the south eastern states, which have hot
climate and heavy rainfall similar to India. A vast storehouse of published papers is also
available on the development, use, and experience with viscosity graded bitumen binders [7 to
14]. The adoption of Superpave performance grading system can be considered as a long-term
goal or for use on very important, large paving projects if needed at the present time.
Table 1.1 gives the former Indian specifications for bitumen (IS 73:1992) for three penetration
grades: 40 to 50 (S 45), 60 to 70 (S 65), and 80 to 100 (S 90).
Table 1.1 Former penetration graded bitumen specifications in India (After IS: 73–1992)
Characteristics
1 Viscosity grading was introduced in India by Kandhal in 2006 with the support of the
Ministry of Road Transport and Highways.
It should be noted that several tests and requirements given in the former penetration-
graded bitumen specifications IS: 73–1992 (Table 1.1) are not there in the viscosity-graded
specifications in Table 1.2, because they are simply redundant and unnecessary owing to
the reasons given in Reference 3.
Therefore, the adoption of viscosity graded bitumen specification reduced the total number
of tests to 8 only compared to penetration graded bitumen specification, which used 12
tests.
This reduced the time and cost of testing bitumen without compromising its quality [3].
IS: 73–2006 “Paving Bitumen Specification (Third revision)” was subsequently

revised in 2013 to conform generally to ASTM D 3381 standard. Table 1.2 gives the
general specification requirements for 4 viscosity grades (VG) as per IS: 73–2013
(Fourth revision) [15].
As mentioned earlier, in the US the term asphalt cement (AC) is used in lieu of bitumen.
That is why the viscosity grades were termed AC-10, AC-30, etc. In India, the term
viscosity grade (VG) was introduced in lieu of AC grades. Both grading systems are
generally similar.
For example, VG-30 is similar to AC-30 and so forth.
Table 1.2 Viscosity graded (VG) bitumen specification in India (IS: 73– 2013, fourth
revision) Characteristics
Tables 1.3 and 1.4 give recommended guidelines for selection of viscosity grade (VG) of
paving bitumen in India. Table 1.3 gives the general guidelines including the equivalent
penetration grades. Table 1.4 gives the selection criteria based on climatic conditions.
Table 1.3 Viscosity graded (VG) bitumens and their general applications Viscosity grade
(VG)
Select the hottest period of 7 consecutive days during the past at least 5 years from MET
weather records and determine the average of those seven consecutive hot days.
1.7 MODIFIED BITUMEN BINDERS
Bituminous binders are predominantly used in surfacing the vast network of roads in India. In
recent years, traffic loads and tyre pressures have increased, which has created a situation for
which modified binders with enhanced performance are needed. Modified binders are those
bituminous binders whose properties have been modified by the use of additive(s). Bitumen
binders have been modified [1, 16, 17] in order to:
5888 1. Stiffen binders and mixes at high temperatures to minimise rutting.
5889 2. Soften binders at low temperatures to improve relaxation properties and strain
tolerance thus minimising non-load associated thermal cracking.
5890 3. Improve fatigue resistance especially where higher strains are imposed on
bituminous mixes.
5891 4. Improve aggregate-bitumen bonding to reduce (not necessarily eliminate) stripping.

5892 5. Improve bituminous pavement durability with accompanying net
reduction in life cycle costs.
5893 6. Permit thicker films of bitumen on aggregate in special bituminous mixes such as
open graded asphalt friction courses (porous asphalt) and stone matrix asphalt (SMA).
1.7.1 Types of Polymers
The term “polymer” simply refers to a very large molecule made by chemically reacting many
(poly) smaller molecules (monomers) to one another either in long chains or clusters. The
sequence and chemical structure of the monomers from which it is made determines the
physical properties of a specific polymer. When polymers are incorporated into bitumen, the
properties of the modified bitumen depend on the polymer system used and the compatibility of
the polymer with the bitumen [16].
Polymers most often used in modifying bitumen can be grouped in two general categories:
elastomers and plastomers. As the name implies, elastomers can be stretched like a rubber band
and recover their shape when the stretching force is released. Elastomers add only a little
strength to the bitumen until they are stretched when they really get stronger. Plastomers form a
tough, rigid, three-dimensional networks within the bitumen. These plastomers give high initial
strength to the bitumen to resist heavy loads. However, plastomers may crack at high strains
[16].
Polymer droplets can also be emulsified in water; this water based emulsion is called latex
[example, styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) latex]. It is easy to incorporate the water based latex
into water based asphalt emulsions. That is why surface dressing (chip seals) and slurry seals
were the first paving applications in the US, which took advantage of polymer modified
bitumen [16].
If two or more different monomers are used to make polymers, the resulting polymers are called
random or block copolymers. For manufacturing block copolymers, a polymer of one monomer
is chemically reacted to a block of another monomer.
Elastomers
Elastomeric polymers have the ability to resist permanent deformation and cohesive failure in
the bituminous mix by stretching and then recovering their shape when the deforming force is
removed. Similar to a rubber band, an elastomer exhibits little strength at low tensile strains.
That is why if the stiffness of a bituminous mix is measured as resilient modulus (a non-
destructive low strain test), it may be similar to the mix made with unmodified base bitumen.
Since the tensile strength of an elastomer increases with elongation, dynamic tests which
measure accumulated shear strain over a number of cycles should be used to fully understand
the value of elastomeric modification of the bituminous mix [16].
Several different types of elastomeric polymers are used for modifying bitumen. Examples are:
styrene-butadiene-styrene (SBS) block copolymer; styrene-butadiene rubber; styrene isoprene
styrene (SIS); and ethylene terpolymer (ETP).
Plastomers
As mentioned earlier, the rigid, three-dimensional networks of plastomers impart quickly the
tensile strength to the bituminous mix under heavy loads. These bituminous mixes also exhibit
high moduli in low strain tests such as resilient modulus. However, despite high early strength,
these mixes have lower strain tolerance. At high pavement strains such as those occurring in
bituminous overlay over concrete joints, such mixes crack in form of fatigue cracking or
reflection cracking [16].
Plastomers used for modifying bitumen for flexible pavement construction are generally
polyolefins such as polyethylene, polypropylene or copolymers of polyolefins. Polyolefins are
typically incompatible with bitumen and separate quickly in heated storage. However, some
novel chemical systems have been developed to stabilise polyethylene in bitumen.
Examples of plastomers for modifying bitumen are: ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA); ethylene
butyl acrylate (EBA); polyethylene; and ethylene-methyl-acrylate (EMA) copolymer.
1.7.2 Compatibility of Polymers with Bitumen
It should be recognised that there is a complex relationship between the chemical composition
of bitumen binders, their colloidal structure, and their physical and rheological properties.
Anything such as a polymer which modifies the chemical composition of bitumen definitely
modifies its structure and consequently, its properties [18].
1.7.3 Storage Stability
The storage stability of modified binders is very important during actual use. Since the modified
binders have two distinct phases, there is always a potential for separation or sedimentation
unless the polymer and bitumen are chemically cross-linked like some reactive terpolymers,
which have better storage stability. The potential for separation increases when (a) the
difference in density between the two phases increases, and (b) the viscosity of the continuous
phase decreases [18].
1.7.4 Crumb Rubber Modified Bitumen (CRMB)
During the time period when highway engineers in the US were trying to understand complex
polymer modified bitumen (PMB) systems as previously discussed, came another far more
complex and least understood modified binder: crumb rubber modified bitumen (CRMB). In the
US, CRMB is simply called asphalt rubber (AR) binder. Rubber from discarded tyres is ground
to a particulate or crumb prior to adding it to bitumen to produce CRMB [19].
Charles McDonald, who was an engineer with City of Phoenix, Arizona, US, developed the AR
technology in the early 1960s. The use of AR or CRMB was sporadic in the US until 1991,
when the US Congress mandated its use in all 50 states through central legislation. This was
done in spite of the fact that the performance of bituminous pavements with CRMB was mixed
in the US in the past [20]. Whereas in some projects, the CRMB enhanced the performance of
the bituminous pavement, there was no significant improvement in other projects. This political
decision by the US Congress (counterpart of parliament in India), which was not based on
sound engineering principles, was opposed both by the asphalt industry and the state highway
departments’ officials at that time [19].
Since most of the states did not have any experience in using CRMB, the US Federal Highway
Administration (FHWA) undertook an ambitious practical training programme for state
highway engineers. The US training manual emphasised the importance of stringent quality
control requirements right from the production of the CRMB at or in close proximity of hot mix
asphalt plant; transportation of CRMB from production site to asphalt mix plant; storage of
CRMB in contractor’s plant; and final testing of CRMB just prior to adding it to aggregates in
asphalt plant pug mill or drum.
During the mandate, all 50 states in the US used CRMB in numerous bituminous paving
projects from 1991 until 1995 when the mandate was repealed. Thereafter, most states
discontinued the routine use of CRMB in bituminous paving mixtures. There are three primary
reasons for this:
0 (a) First, the use of CRMB requires development of a state wide infrastructure consisting of
strategically placed blending terminals or on-site blending units. This is required because
CRMB must be used as soon as possible because its quality can start to deteriorate as early as 6
h after production.
0 (b) Second, the quality control requirements right from the production to the end use of
CRMB are too cumbersome because of two issues: (i) crumb rubber tends to separate and settle
down in the bitumen, and (ii) crumb rubber is prone to degradation (devulcanisation and
depolymerisation) if its use is delayed thereby losing its vital properties including elasticity and
viscosity [19].
0 (c) Third, many states such as Arkansas, Georgia, Kansas, Minnesota, Nevada, Washington,
and Wisconsin reported mixed performance of bituminous pavements constructed with CRMB
and the cost effectiveness of CRMB was found to be none to marginal.
At the present time, CRMB is used on a routine basis only in four states in the US: Arizona,
California, Florida, and Texas. The remaining 46 states do not appear to have much interest in
developing the necessary infrastructure and implementing the necessary quality control
programme to ensure effective use of CRMB.
Production of CRMB
The CRMB is produced by the so-called wet process in which crumb rubber is added to hot
bitumen and the mixture is agitated mechanically until there is a “reaction” between the
bitumen and crumb rubber. The “reaction” is not a chemical process but rather a diffusion
process that includes the physical absorption of aromatic oils from the bitumen into the polymer
chain of the rubber. The rubber particles swell as they absorb oils, which cause the viscosity of
the CRMB to increase during the first hour or so. After the “reaction” and associated swelling is
over, the viscosity of the blend levels off [21].
If the CRMB is maintained at high temperature for a prolonged period of time (as little as 6 h),
the crumb rubber begins to degrade (devulcanise and depolymerise) causing the CRMB
viscosity to decrease from its plateau level (also called the target viscosity). Physical and
chemical properties of CRMB are influenced by the following factors [22]: Bitumen crude
source and method of refining: The chemical composition of bitumen varies from one
petroleum crude source to another, from which it is refined. No two crude sources are the same.
The method of refining also affects bitumen’s chemical composition in terms of asphaltenes and
maltenes contents. Since bitumen is a hydrocarbon and crumb rubber also contains substantial
amounts of hydrocarbons, their mutual chemical compatibility affects the physical and chemical
properties of CRMB. The type and amount of oil readily available in bitumen for absorption by
crumb rubber also affects these properties. Bitumen binders low in aromatic oils tend to produce
CRMB with poor adhesive properties.
Source of crumb rubber: Crumb rubber can be obtained from truck tyres or automobile tyres
or both. Whole truck tyre contains 18% natural rubber compared to 9% in an automobile tyre
and 2% in tyre treads. The amount of natural rubber has shown to affect the properties of
CRMB significantly. Each lot of crumb rubber may have different chemical composition
depending on the source (truck tyres or automobile tyres or mixture of both) and therefore,
when combined with the same source of bitumen may give different properties.
Method of producing crumb rubber: Crumb rubber is produced from discarded tyres by two
methods: (a) grinding at ambient temperatures, and grinding cryogenically cooled tyre rubber.
The grinding method affects the crumb rubber particle morphology, which in turn affects the
rate of reaction and properties of CRMB.
Amount and size of crumb rubber: Both the amount and size of crumb rubber particles affect
the properties of CRMB.
Transportation of CRMB
Even after the crumb rubber has “reacted” with bitumen, it has a tendency to separate from
bitumen partially and settle down during transportation and storage at the contractor’s plant
until CRMB is used. Therefore, it is essential that the truck tankers carrying CRMB are
equipped with heavy-duty recirculation devices or mechanical agitators to keep the crumb
rubber in suspension.
CRMB Use in the US
Even then, the few states in the US, which use CRMB on a routine basis at the present time,
require that the CRMB should be used within a specified number of hours after production.
For example, California, Kansas, and Arizona specify that the CRMB must be used within 4 h,
6 h, and 10 h, respectively [22]. This kind of requirement does not allow the CRMB to be
produced at oil refineries, which are generally far away from asphalt mix plants. That is why an
infrastructure of numerous blending terminals or on-site blending units is necessary within a
state.
1.7.5 Field Performance of Pavements with Polymer Modified Bitumen
Polymer modified bitumen binders especially those with elastomers are routinely used today
in the US in flexible pavement structures or overlays carrying high volumes of traffic. On the
basis of the field performance comparisons made between PMB modified and unmodified
bitumen sections, it has been found that PMB mixes significantly enhance not only the
rutting performance of flexible pavements but also their fatigue and fracture performance.
1.7.6 Properties of Modified Bitumen Binders Used in India
Indian standard IS: 15462 gives specification for polymer and rubber modified bitumen
with related test methods [23]. The modified bitumen has been classified into four types:
(a) Type A, polymer modified bitumen (PMB) (plastic); (b) Type B, polymer modified
bitumen (PMB) (elastomeric); (c) Type C, natural rubber and SBR latex based; and (d)
Type D, CRMB.
Selected specification requirements for Type B which is most widely used in India are given
in Table 1.5.
Table 1.5 Selected requirements for polymer modified bitumen (elastomeric) Grade
The PMB grades are based on the mid value of the specified penetration range. For example,
PMB 70 has a penetration range of 50 to 90.
Besides conventional tests discussed earlier, the following elastic recovery and separation
tests are conducted on modified bitumen.
The procedure for elastic recovery test is given in the Indian standard IS: 15462. Briefly, the
modified binder is elongated up to 10 cm deformation in a ductility machine at the specified
test temperature. The test specimen is immediately cut into two halves at the mid point using
scissors. The specimen is kept undisturbed in the water bath for one hour before testing. After
one hour, the elongated half of the specimen is moved back into position near the fixed half
of the specimen so that the two pieces of modified bitumen just touch each other. The length
of the recombined specimen is x cm. Elastic recovery (%) is equal to 10-(x/100)*100.
Test for determination of potential separation of constituents within the modified bitumen
when maintained at high temperatures, is also given in the Indian standard. Separation is
evaluated by comparing the softening point of the top and bottom samples taken from a
conditioned, and sealed tube of modified bitumen. The conditioning consists of placing the
sealed tube containing modified bitumen in a vertical position at 163 oC in an oven for a
period of 48 h and then placing the tube in the vertical position in a freezer to solidify the
sample. Top and bottom samples are then recovered from the tube for testing.
1.7.7 Recommendations for Use of Modified Binders in India
There is an urgent need to collate all available good performance data on different modifiers
to identify the gaps, and to institute systematic studies for filling those gaps. In the interim,
the history of development, use, and experience with modified binders in developed countries
should be helpful in making recommendations for their use in India. It has been well
established that modified binders made with different polymers (elastomers and plastomers)
and different modifiers (crumb rubber and natural rubber) are complex systems with vastly
different physical and chemical characteristics. Therefore, there cannot be a common
specification for these different types of modified binders.
Polymer modified bitumen (PMB) with elastomers is most commonly used with success on
major highways in the developed countries because elasticity in this PMB provides
resistance to both rutting and fatigue cracking. Such PMBs are also relatively more stable
and maintain their integrity better compared to PMBs with plastomers, CRMB, and natural
rubber modified bitumen (NRMB). Superpave performance grades (PG) have been made
successfully with these PMBs. PMBs with elastomers are therefore recommended for
heavily trafficked roads in India.
Polymer modified bitumen with plastomers are hardly used in flexible pavements in the
developed countries because although they provide higher strength initially, they are prone to
cracking at high strains and do not rebound after deforming force is removed. Therefore, there
is no need to have a specification in India for PMBs with plastomers to avoid its unnecessary
and improper use, until proper technical justification is provided.
A separate specification may be considered if desired for natural rubber modified bitumen
(NRMB) for its limited use in India to support the local industry in southern India. It should not
be used on heavily trafficked roads where only PMBs with elastomers should be used as
mentioned earlier. However, NRMB should be used with caution because like CRMB, it has
degradation problems if kept at high temperature for too long.
It has been established that CRMB is much more complex and least understood compared to
PMBs with elastomers. Because of the complex and varying chemical composition of crumb
rubber obtained from tread/side wall of truck and/or car tyres, its compatibility with bitumen is
always questionable. That is why CRMB has given mixed performance in the US. No high
performance grade (PG grade) such as PG 76–22 can be made with CRMB because it lacks
adequate elastic component. If India were to adopt PG grading today, PG 76–22 would be
recommended for heavily trafficked roads. The CRMB may not perform satisfactorily in
tropical climatic conditions on highways catering to very heavy traffic.
If CRMB is considered for use on medium trafficked roads, it should have its own separate
specification and should be specified as such for specific projects. This is because its elastic
recovery is considerably lower than that of PMBs with elastomers.
If CRMB is specified for medium trafficked roads, it should be blended on-site in close
proximity of hot mix plants so that it can be used within 6 to 8 h after production. Obviously, if
on-site blending is done, a fully equipped testing laboratory staffed with qualified technicians
should be mandatory at the blending terminal.
In any case, CRMB must be tested at the time of delivery by the government highway agency
and contractors to ensure its quality in terms of integrity and elasticity.
Use of any modified binder in bituminous mix on low volume rural roads is not desirable.
1.8 CUTBACK BITUMEN
Cutback bitumen is liquid bitumen which is manufactured by adding (cutting back) petroleum
solvents (also called cutter stock or diluent) to neat bitumen. It is made to reduce the bitumen
viscosity to facilitate lower application temperatures. It is analogous to oil paint which can be
thinned as required for application by adding a solvent such as turpentine. On application to
aggregate or pavement the solvent in the cutback bitumen escapes by evaporation, thus leaving
the bitumen residue on the surface. Based on the relative rate of evaporation of the solvent used,
cutback bitumen is divided into three types (Table 1.6):
Table 1.6 Grades and uses of cutback bitumen (After IS: 217–2009) Type
Rapid curing (RC): The RC cutbacks are produced by adding a light diluent of high volatility
(generally gasoline or naphtha) to bitumen. These are used primarily for tack coat and surface
dressing (chip seals) where rapid curing after application is desirable to retain chips on
opening to traffic.
Medium curing (MC): The MC cutbacks are produced by adding a medium diluent of
intermediate volatility (generally kerosene) to bitumen. These are generally used for prime
coat, readymade stockpile pothole patching mixtures, and open graded cold asphalt mixes.
These give adequate time to facilitate its penetration as a prime coat and also to mix with
aggregate to produce and store readymade pothole patching mixes. The RC cutback would
cure prematurely in such applications.
Slow curing (SC): The SC cutbacks are produced by adding oils of low volatility (generally
diesel or other gas oils) to bitumen. They are also called road oils. These are generally used
for prime coat, stockpile patching mixtures, dust palliatives and dense graded cold asphalt
mixes.These are hardly used across the world at the present time.
Cutback bitumen is commercially available in different viscosity grades as shown in Table

1.6. The thinnest and most fluid grade is designated by the suffix number 30, which is
available in MC type only. Other suffix numbers, 70, 250, 800, and 3000, denoting
increasingly higher viscosities, are available in all types. These suffix numbers represent the
minimum kinematic viscosity in centistokes at 60 oC for the particular grade; the maximum
kinematic viscosity being twice the minimum viscosity. Specifications for SC, MC, and RC
type cutback asphalts are given in ASTM D 2026, ASTM D 2027, and ASTM D 2028,
respectively [1]. The IS: 217 “Specification for Cutback Bitumen” is used in India for all
cutback grades [24].
Emulsified bitumen (simply called emulsion) is increasingly being used in lieu of cutback
bitumen due to environmental regulations, loss of high energy products and concern for
safety, as explained later.
Although it is a good move to replace cutback bitumen with emulsified bitumen, there are
some practical problems. For example, MC-30 medium curing bitumen is more effective as
prime coat compared to slow setting emulsified bitumen. This is because MC-30 penetrates
unbound pavement courses such as wet mix macadam (WMM) to more depth and also in
less time compared to slow setting emulsion. That is why many highway agencies in the
world including MORTH and IRC [25] permit the use of MC-30 cutback as primer. This
issue is discussed later in prime coat in the chapter on hot mix asphalt construction.
Similarly, MC-250 and MC-800 cutback bitumen are very effective in producing generic,
unpatented readymade stockpile pothole patching mixes, which have been permitted and used
in the US by many highway agencies as exception in lieu of emulsified bitumen. It is difficult
to produce such mixes which have a shelf life of at least 6 months with emulsions alone. Such
a mix was developed in the US and has been used successfully there for about 30 years [26].
That patching mix (called Section 485 material in Pennsylvania) was also adjudged the best
mix in a nationwide 4 year US study [27]. This mix was introduced in India as the most
effective and economical readymade pothole patching mix [28]. The Jaipur Development
Authority has successfully used this so-called Kandhal readymade pothole patching mix
produced with MC-800 cutback bitumen since 2010 [29]. Finally, this specification has now
been adopted by the Indian Roads Congress as IRC: 116–2014, “Specification for Readymade
Bituminous Pothole Patching mix Using Cutback Bitumen” [30]. There is urgent need to
implement this unpatented, proven technology all across India to tackle the menace of
potholes.
Since only MC cutback bitumen is permitted in India, Table 1.7 gives some selected test
requirements and acceptable test values for four MC grades: MC-30, MC-70, MC-250 and
MC-800.
Table 1.7 Selected requirements of four medium curing cutback bitumen grades (After
IS: 217–2009)
As mentioned earlier, MCs are solutions of bitumen and kerosene. The user agencies must
ensure that the right grade of MC is being supplied by testing its kinematic viscosity at 60 oC
and also ensure the MC has the minimum amount of residue bitumen in it by conducting a
distillation test. Under no circumstances the cutback should be allowed to be manufactured in
the field by contractor or highway agency; it should be supplied by refinery or approved
manufacturer. This is necessary to ensure specified quality standard and also avoid safety
hazards during manufacturing process.
1.9 EMULSIFIED BITUMEN
As mentioned earlier, emulsified bitumen (simply called emulsion) is increasingly being used
in lieu of cutback bitumen for the following reasons:
Environmental regulations: Emulsions are relatively pollution free. Unlike cutback bitumen
there are relatively small amounts of volatiles to evaporate into the atmosphere other than
water.
Loss of high energy products: When cutback bitumen cures, the diluents which are high
energy, and high price products are wasted into the atmosphere.
Safety: Emulsions are safe to use. There is little danger of fire as compared to the cutback
bitumen, some of which have very low flash points.
Lower application temperature: Emulsions can be applied at relatively low temperatures

compared to cutback bitumen, thus saving fuel costs. Emulsions can also be applied
effectively to a damp pavement, whereas dry conditions are generally required for cutback
bitumen.
Emulsified bitumen is a mixture of bitumen, water, and emulsifying agent. Because the
bitumen will not dissolve in water, bitumen and water exist in separate phases as shown in
Figure 1.20. Hot bitumen and water containing the emulsifying agent (soap is one example)
are passed under pressure through a colloid mill to produce extremely small (less than 5 to 10
microns) globules or droplets of bitumen which are suspended in water (Figure 1.21) (The
term “asphalt cement” or “asphalt” in these figures means bitumen).
The emulsifying agent imparts an electric charge (generally either positive or negative) to the
surface of the droplets which causes them to repel one another, and thus the globules do not
coalesce. Emulsified bitumen is also categorised as liquid bitumen because, unlike neat
bitumen, it is liquid at ambient temperatures. Emulsions are made to reduce the bitumen
viscosity for lower application temperatures. They are ideal for use in remote areas where
heating facilities are not easily available [1].
Two most commonly used types of emulsified bitumen are as follows:
0 1. Anionic: Electro-negatively charged bitumen droplets (ASTM D 977 or IS: 3117)

1 2. Cationic: Electro-positively charged bitumen (ASTM D 2397 or IS: 8887) If the
emulsifying agent is anionic, the bitumen droplets bear a negative charge. If the emulsifying
agent is cationic, the droplets bear a positive charge.
Figure 1.21 Manufacture of emulsified bitumen (Courtesy: NAPA REF).
Most mineral aggregates bear a positive or a negative or mixed charge on the surface. Most
siliceous aggregates, such as sandstone, quartz and siliceous gravel, are predominantly
negatively charged and therefore are generally compatible with the positively charged cationic
emulsified bitumen. On the other hand, some aggregates such as limestone bear a positive
surface charge and are therefore generally compatible with the negatively charged anionic
emulsified bitumen. This occurs because opposite charges attract one another [1] (Figure
1.22). However, in India only cationic emulsion which is versatile is generally used in road
construction.
When emulsified bitumen is mixed with aggregate, it “sets” or “breaks” because the
asphalt droplets react with the surface of the aggregate and coalesce, squeezing out the
water between them. The evaporation of water is the primary method which finally
causes the anionic emulsified bitumen to “break” or “set” and produces a continuous
film of bitumen residue on the aggregate or pavement. Therefore, anionic emulsions
break slowly at low ambient temperatures and humid conditions. Cationic emulsified
bitumen on the other hand breaks primarily by some electro-chemical processes and do
not completely rely on weather conditions.
Figure 1.22 Compatibility of emulsified bitumen with aggregates.
Both anionic and cationic emulsified bitumen are further graded according to their “setting”
rate. The anionic emulsified bitumen type includes rapid setting (RS), medium setting (MS),
and slow setting (SS) as specified in ASTM D 977 or IS: 3117. The setting rate is controlled
by the type and amount of the emulsifying agent. The anionic grades in ASTM D 977 are: RS-
1, HFRS-2, RS-2, MS-1, HFMS-2, MS-2, MS-2h, SS-1, and SS-1h. The “h” designation
means harder base bitumen used in the emulsion. The “HF” designation refers to a high float
residue, which is an indication of chemical gelling of the emulsion residue. The IS: 3117 for
anionic type emulsified bitumen specifies only three grades: RS, MS, and SS. There are no
sub grades. All three grades have Saybolt Furol viscosity of 20 to 100 s at 25 oC. The
minimum bitumen content is 65% for RS and MS and 57% for SS grade.
The cationic emulsified bitumen types which are specified in ASTM D 2397 also include
cationic rapid setting (CRS), cationic medium setting (CMS), and cationic slow setting (CSS)
grades. The cationic grades are CRS-1, CRS-2, CMS-2, CMS-2h, CSS-1, CSS-1h, and CQS-
1h. Designation “h” indicates hard base bitumen and CQS-1h indicates quick set hard base
bitumen for slurry seal system.
Selection and use of different emulsified bitumen types are given in ASTM D 3628.
Generally, they are used in the US as follows:
Rapid setting grades (Surface dressing and penetration macadam): These applications
require the emulsion to set (break) rapidly after application so that road can be opened to
traffic as soon as possible. The RS grade is used in India for tack coat.
Medium setting grades (Open graded cold asphalt-aggregate mixtures): This application
requires the emulsion to set at a medium rate to allow enough time for its mixing with
open graded aggregate. A rapid setting emulsion would set prematurely before mixing
can be done.
Slow setting grades (Tack coat, prime coat, fog seal, dense graded cold asphalt-aggregate
mixtures, and slurry seals): Slow setting grades allow easy dilution with water for spraying
when applying tack coat, prime coat and fog seals which are discussed in detail in Chapter 6.
These grades also allow mixing with dense graded aggregates and also mixing with
fines in case of slurry seals.
Usually the amount of emulsified agent is increased successively to change RS grade to MS

grade to SS grade. Only cationic emulsified bitumen conforming to IS: 8887 is primarily
used in India for road applications. Unlike ASTM standards, cationic grades are not
identified by a prefix “C”
in India and therefore can be misleading to asphalt paving technologists from outside India.
Table 1.8 gives the different grades of cationic emulsified bitumen types specified in India
together with their applications as per IS: 8887 [31]. Emulsions can be diluted by adding
compatible water to it. However, it should first be trial checked in the laboratory. If water is
hard and incompatible, it may break the emulsion prematurely. Whereas slow setting emulsions
are easier to dilute, rapid setting emulsions may set (break) prematurely.
Table 1.8 also gives some selected tests and specified test values for emulsified bitumen types
most commonly used in India. Since emulsified bitumen is a mixture of bitumen and water, it is
important to check the amount of bitumen in the emulsion to determine whether it meets the
minimum requirement. This can be accomplished by obtaining bitumen residue by evaporation
test.
A crude field check can be made to determine whether the supplied emulsion is RS, MS or SS
type. Mix about 5 g of emulsion with about 100 g of moist 5 mm or 10 mm size aggregate.
If the mix can be made with almost 100% coating, it is MS or SS type. If the emulsion sets
(breaks) without coating the aggregate, it is RS type. To differentiate between MS and SS
types, mix about 5 g of supplied emulsion with about 100 g of stone dust (used in hot mix
plant). If the mix can be made with about 100% coating, it is SS type; otherwise it is MS type.
Table 1.8 Grades, uses and selected requirements of cationic emulsified bitumen (As per IS:
8887–2014)
Polymer modified emulsified bitumen is also available commercially for use in

microsurfacing which will be discussed in Chapter 4.
A detailed discussion on the use of emulsified bitumen in prime coat and tack coat
applications is given in Chapter 6 on hot mix asphalt construction.
Summary
Paving bitumen is the most important (adhesive) ingredient in bituminous road
construction. It is necessary to test the paving bitumen to ensure its quality meets the
Indian standards specifications IS: 73 for neat paving bitumen and IS: 15462 for modified
paving bitumen.
Necessary tests given in the specifications have been discussed in this chapter.
Viscosity grading of paving bitumen was adopted in India in 2006, which was a
significant improvement over penetration grading used earlier. There is a need to
move towards Superpave performance grading (PG) in the near future.
Judicious use of modified bitumen needs to be made on high-traffic roads to minimise rutting
and fatigue cracking.
Use of emulsified bitumen should be encouraged except in some applications such as prime
coat and readymade pothole patching mix, where cutback bitumen gives better performance.
QUESTIONS
23 What is the difference between bitumen and tar? Why tar is not widely used in paving
at the present time?
24 Draw a sketch of the primary distillation tower used in refining petroleum crude showing
some products which are drawn off it.
25 Briefly describe four test methods used conventionally for measuring the consistency of
paving bitumen.
26 Why bitumen aging tests are conducted? List the main differences between the
thin film oven test and the rolling thin film oven test.
27 It is suspected that the supplied paving bitumen is adulterated with marble dust.
Describe the test which should be used to determine the presence and amount of the
marble dust.
23 Briefly describe the significance of testing the consistency of the road
paving bitumen at the following three specific temperatures: 25 oC, 60 oC,

and 135 oC.
23 List the advantages of viscosity grading in comparison to penetration grading of

paving bitumen.
24 Briefly describe the Superpave performance grading (PG) of bitumen binders.
25 List four advantages of using modified bitumen binders in comparison to unmodified

bitumen binders.
26 Describe briefly the elastomers and plastomers used in modifying bitumen

binders.
27 Differentiate between cutback bitumen and emulsified bitumen. Why the latter is
generally preferred?
28 Which bituminous binders are used for prime coat and tack coat why?
References
23 Roberts, F.L., P.S. Kandhal, E.R. Brown, D.Y. Lee, and T.W. Kennedy, Hot Mix
Asphalt Materials, Mix Design, and Construction, 2nd ed., NAPA Education Foundation,
USA, 1996.
24 Kandhal, P.S., “Low-Temperature Ductility in Relation to Pavement Performance”,

ASTM
Special Technical Publication 628, 1977.
23
24 Kandhal, P.S., “An Overview of the Viscosity Grading System Adopted in India for
Paving Bitumen”, Indian Roads Congress, Indian Highways, April 2007.
25 Anderson, D.A. and T.W. Kennedy, “Development of SHRP Binder

Specifications”, Journal of the Association of the Asphalt Paving Technologists, Vol.
62, 1993.
26 McGennis, R.B., S. Shuler, and H.U. Bahia, “Background of Superpave Binder Test
Methods”, FHWA Report no. FHWA-SA-94–069, July 1994.
27 “Superpave Performance Graded asphalt Binder Specification and Testing”,

Asphalt Institute, Superpave Series No. 1 (SP-1), 1994.
28 Kandhal, P.S., L.D. Sandvig, and W.C. Koehler, “Asphalt Viscosity Related
Properties of In-Service Pavements in Pennsylvania”, ASTM Special Technical
Publication 532, 1973.
29 Kandhal, P.S. and M.E. Wenger, “Asphalt Properties in Relation to Pavement

Performance”, TRB, Transportation Research Record 544, 1975.
30 Kandhal, P.S. and W.C. Koehler, “Significant Studies on Asphalt Durability:

Pennsylvania Experience”, TRB, Transportation Research Record 999, 1984.
31 Kandhal, P.S., “Low-Temperature Properties of Paving Asphalts”, TRB State-of-the-

Art Report 7, 1988.
32 Kandhal, P.S. and W.C. Koehler, “Effect of Rheological Properties of Asphalts on

Pavement Cracking”, ASTM Special Technical Publication 941, 1987.
33 Kandhal, P.S., L.D. Sandvig, and M.E. Wenger, “Shear Susceptibility of Asphalts in
Relation to Pavement Performance”, Proceedings Association of Asphalt—Paving
Technologists, Vol. 42, 1973.
34 Kandhal, P.S., “Evaluation of Low-Temperature Cracking on Elk County Research

Project”, TRB, Transportation Research Record 777, 1980.
5888
5889 Welborn, J.Y., E.R. Oglio, and J.A. Zenewitz, “A Study of Viscosity-Graded
Asphalt Cements”, Proceedings Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists, Vol. 35,
1966.
5890 Bureau of Indian Standards, IS: 73–2013, “Paving Bitumen—

Specification”, 2013.
5891 Kandhal, P.S. and M.P. Dhir, “Use of Modified Bituminous Binders in India: Current
Imperatives”, Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, October-December 2011.
5892 King, Gayle, H. King, R.D. Pavlovich, A.L. Epps, and P.S. Kandhal, “Additives in
Asphalt”, Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists, Journal of Asphalt Paving
Technology, Vol. 68A, 1999.
5893 Brule, B., “Polymer—Modified Asphalt Cements used in Road Construction

Industry: Basic Principles”, Transportation Research Board, Transportation Research
Record 1535, 1996.
Kandhal, P.S., “Quality Control Requirements for Using Crumb Rubber Modified Bitumen
(CRMB) in Bituminous Mixtures”, Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, Vol. 67 (1), 2006.
Shuler, T.S., R.D. Pavlovich, J.A. Epps, and C.K. Adams, “Investigations of Materials
and Structural Properties of Asphalt-Rubber Paving Mixtures: Volume 1”, Texas
Transportation Institute Report FHWA/RD-86/027, 1986.
0 Kandhal, P.S. and D.I. Hanson, “Crumb Rubber Modifier Technologies”, Federal
Highway Administration, Crumb Rubber Modifier Workshop Manual, March 1993.
1 Hanson, D.I., J.A. Epps, and R.G. Hicks, “Construction Guidelines for Crumb Rubber
Modified Hot Mix Asphalt”, Federal Highway Administration Report DTFH61-94-C-00035,
August 1996.
2 Bureau of Indian Standards, IS: 15462–2004, “Polymer and Rubber Modified Bitumen
—
Specification”, 2004.
0 Bureau of Indian Standards, IS: 217–1988, “Specification for Cutback Bitumen”,

Second Revision, Reaffirmed, 1999.
1 Indian Roads Congress, IRC: 16–2008, “Standard Specification and Code of

Practice for Prime and Tack Coat”, 2008.
2 Kandhal, P.S. and D.B. Mellott, “Rational Approach to Design of
Bituminous Stockpile Patching Mixtures”, Transportation Research Board, Transportation

Research Record 821, 1981.
3 Wilson, T.P., “Strategic Highway Research Program Pothole Repair Materials and
Procedures”, TRB, Transportation Research Record 1392, 1993.
4 Kandhal, P.S., “A Simple and Effective Method of Repairing Potholes in India”,

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, Vol. 69 (3), October-December 2008.
5 “Getting the Right Mix: Simple Cost-effective Solution for Repairing Roads”, Cover
Story, Construction Week Magazine, Vol. 4 (11), July 2013, Mumbai.
6 Indian Roads Congress, IRC: 116–2014, “Specification for Readymade Bituminous

Pothole Patching Mix Using Cut-back Bitumen”, 2014.
0
1
2 Bureau of Indian Standards, IS: 8887–2014, “Bitumen Emulsion for Roads
(Cationic Type) Specification”, 2014.
Suggested Readings
Anderson, D.A. and T.W. Kennedy, “Development of SHRP Binder Specifications”, Journal
of the Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists, Vol. 62, 1993.
Bahia, H.U., et al., “Characterization of Modified Asphalt Binders in Superpave Mix

Design”, Transportation Research Board, NCHRP Report 459, 2001.
Bahia, Hussain, Haifang Wen, and C.M. Johnson, “Developments in Intermediate
Temperature Binder Fatigue Specification”, Transportation Research Board, Circular
No. E-C 147, December 2010.
36 Bituminous Road Construction in India Barth, E.J., Asphalt Science and Technology,
Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, New York, 1962.
Brown, A.B., J.W. Sparks, and O. Larsen, “Rate of Change of Softening Point,
Penetration, and Ductility of Asphalt in Bituminous Pavement”, Proceedings AAPT,
Vol. 26, 1957.
Brown, E.R., P.S. Kandhal, D.Y. Lee, and K.W. Lee, “Significance of Tests for Highway
Materials”, American Society of Civil Engineers, Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering,
February 1996.
Corbett, L.W., “Refining Processing of Asphalt Cement”, TRB,

Transportation Research Record 999, 1984.
D’Angelo, John, “New High-Temperature Binder Specification Using Multistress Creep and
Recovery”, Transportation Research Board, Circular No. E-C 147, December 2010.
Doyle, P.C., “Cracking Characteristic of Asphalt Cement”, Proceedings AAPT, Vol. 27,
1958.
Finn, F.N., K. Nair, and J.M. Hilliard, “Minimising Premature Cracking in Asphaltic
Concrete Pavement”, TRB, NCHRP Report 195, 1978.
Fromm, H.J. and W.A. Phang, “Temperature Susceptibility Control in Asphalt Cement
Specifications”, HRB, Highway Research Record 350, 1971.
Gaw, W.J., “Measurement and Prediction of Asphalt Stiffness at Low and Intermediate
Pavement Service Temperatures”, Proceedings AAPT, Vol. 47, 1978.
Halstead, W.J., “The Relation of Asphalt Ductility to Pavement

Performance”, Proceedings AAPT, Vol. 32, 1963.
Halstead, W.J., “Relation of Asphalt Chemistry to Physical Properties and Specifications”,

Proceedings AAPT, Vol. 54, 1985.
Heithaus, J.J. and D.F. Fink, “An Examination of the Significance of the Oliensis Spot
Test”, Proceedings AAPT, Vol. 28, 1959.
Heukelom, W., “An Improved Method of Characterising Asphaltic Bitumens with the Aid of
their Mechanical Properties”, Proceedings AAPT, Vol. 42, 1973.
Hubbard, P. and Gollomb, H., “The Hardening of Asphalt with Relation to Development of
Cracks in Asphalt Pavements”, Proceedings AAPT, Vol. 9, 1937.
Kandhal, P.S., “Low Temperature Shrinkage Cracking of Pavements in Pennsylvania”,
Proceedings AAPT, Vol. 47, 1978.
Kandhal, P.S., “Low-Temperature Ductility in Relation to Pavement Performance”,

ASTM
Special Technical Publication 628, 1977.
Kandhal, P.S. and M.E. Wenger, “Measurement of Asphalt Viscosity at 77 oF (25 oC) with
a Vacuum Capillary Viscometer”, Proceedings AAPT, Vol. 44, 1975.
Kandhal, P.S. and W.C. Koehler, “Pennsylvania’s Experience in the Compaction of

Asphalt Pavements”, ASTM Special Technical Publication 829, 1984.
Kandhal, P.S., et al., “Low-Temperature Properties of Paving Asphalt Cements”,

Transportation Research Board, State-of-the-Art Report 7, 1988.
Kandhal, P.S., “Selection of Bitumen for Paving Highways”, Indian Roads Congress,
Indian Highways, July 2005.
Paving Bitumen 37
Kandhal, P.S., R. Dongre, and M.S. Malone, Prediction of Low-Temperature Cracking of

Pennsylvania Project Using Superpave Binder Specifications, Asphalt Paving Technology,
Vol. 65, 1996.
Kandhal, P.S. and S. Chakraborty, “Effect of Asphalt Film Thickness on Short- and Long-
Term Aging of Asphalt Paving Mixtures”, Transportation Research Board, Transportation
Kandhal, P.S., D.B. Mellott, and G.L. Hoffman, “Laboratory and Field Characterization
of Sulphlex as a Paving Binder”, American Society for Testing and Materials, Special
Technical Publication No. 807, 1983.
Kandhal, P.S., “Evaluation of Sulphur Extended Asphalt in Bituminous Mixtures”,

Proceedings Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists, Vol. 51, 1982.
Kandhal, P.S., “Evaluation of Six AC-20 Asphalt Cements Using the Indirect Tensile Test”,
Transportation Research Board, Transportation Research Record No. 712, 1979.
Kandhal, P.S., “Low Temperature Shrinkage Cracking of Pavements in Pennsylvania”,

Kandhal, P.S. and M.E. Wenger, “Evaluation of Properties of AC-20 Asphalt Cements”,
Transportation Research Board, Transportation Research Record No. 544, 1975.
Kandhal, P.S., L.D. Sandvig, and W.C. Koehler, “Asphalt Viscosity Related Properties of In-
Service Pavements in Pennsylvania”, American Society for Testing and Materials, Special
Technical Publication, No. 532, 1973.
Kandhal, P.S. and W.C. Koehler, “Significant Studies on Asphalt Durability:
Pennsylvania Experience”, TRB, Transportation Research Record 999, 1984.
Marasteanu, M., “Low-Temperature Testing and Specifications”, Transportation

Research Board, Circular No. E-C 147, December 2010.
Oliensis, G.L., “The Spot Test”, Proceedings AAPT, Vol. 6, 1935.
Petersen, J.C., “Chemical Composition of Asphalt as Related to Asphalt Durability—

State- of-the-Art”, TRB, Research Record No. 999, 1984.
Pink, H.S., R.E. Merz, and D.S. Bosniack., “Asphalt Rheology: Experimental
Determination of Dynamic Moduli at Low Temperatures”, Proceedings AAPT, Vol. 49,
1980.
Pfeiffer, J. Philip (Ed.), Properties of Asphaltic Bitumen, Elsevier Publishing Company, New
York, 1950.
Puzinauskas, V.P., “Evaluation of Properties of Asphalt Cements with Emphasis on

Consistencies at Low Temperatures”, Proceedings AAPT, Vol. 36, 1967.
Reinke, Gerald, “Use of Hamburg Rut Testing Data to Validate the Use of Jnr as a
Performance Parameter for High-Temperature Permanent Deformation”, Transportation
Research Board, Circular No. E-C 147, December 2010.
Rostler, F.S. and R.M. White, “Composition and Changes in Composition of Highway
Asphalts 85 to 100 Grade”, Proceedings AAPT, Vol. 31, 1962.
Rostler, F.S., Fractional Composition: Analytical and Functional Significance (Chapter 6:

Bituminous Materials-Asphalts, Tars, and Pitches), Vol. 2, Asphalts, Edited by Arnold J.
Hoiberg, Robert E. Krieger Publishing Company, Huntington, New York, 1979.
38 Bituminous Road Construction in India Schweyer, H.E., “A Pictorial Review of

Asphalt Rheology”, Proceedings AAPT, Vol. 43A, 1974.
Schweyer, H.E. and J.C. Busot, “Experimental Studies on Viscosity of Asphalt Cements
at 77 oF”, HRB, Highway Research Record 361, 1971.
Schweyer, H.E., R.L. Baxley, and A.M. Burns, “Low-Temperature Rheology of Asphalt
Cements— Rheological Background”, ASTM Special Technical Publication 628, 1977.
Terrel, R.L. and J.L. Walter, “Modified Asphalt Pavement Materials: The European
Experience”, Proceedings the Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists, Volume 55,
1986.
Traxler, R.N., “Durability of Asphalt Cements”, Proceedings AAPT, Vol. 32, 1963.
Traxler, R.N., Asphalt: Its Composition, Properties and Uses, Reinhold Publishing
Corp., New York, 1961.
Vallerga, B.A. and W.J. Halstead, “Effects of Field Aging on Fundamental Properties of
Paving Asphalts”, HRB, Highway Research Record 361, 1971.
Van der Poel, C., “A General System Describing the Viscoelastic Properties of Bitumens and
its Relation to Routine Test Data”, Journal of Applied Chemistry, May 1954.
Von Quintus, H., J. Mallela, and M.S. Buncher, “Quantification of Effect of Polymer-Modified
Asphalt on Flexible Pavement Performance”, Transportation Research Board, Transportation
Welborn, J.Y., E.R. Oglio, and J.A. Zenewitz, “A Study of Viscosity Graded Asphalt
Cements”, Proceedings AAPT, Vol. 35, 1966.
Welborn, J.Y., “Relationship of Asphalt Cement Properties to Pavement Durability”,

TRB, NCHRP Report 59, 1979.
Welborn, J.Y. and W.J. Halstead, “Testing of Asphalts and Asphalt Mixtures”,
Proceedings AAPT, Vol. 43A, 1974.
Aggregate
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Aggregates play a major role in bituminous road construction. They constitute about 94% to
95% by weight of hot mix asphalt and therefore, their properties are very important to the
performance of the bituminous pavement system. For example, use of aggregate particles with
round shape may increase the potential of rutting within asphalt courses. Besides particle shape,
there are numerous other properties of aggregate which affect the performance of asphalt
pavements. Those properties and related tests for their measurement will be discussed in this
chapter.
However, aggregate related introductory topics such as geological sources and rock types;
Indian rock systems and their occurrence; and aggregate production will be presented first.
2.2 GEOLOGICAL SOURCES AND ROCK TYPES
Aggregates used in highway construction are largely obtained from natural rock available in the
region. Gravel formed from breakdown of any natural rock and usually found in old stream or
river beds can also be used after crushing if angular shape is desired [1]. When natural rocks
deteriorate, the most resistant final residue is sand. Quartz is the predominant mineral in sand
which usually ranges in size from 2.36 mm to 0.075 mm.
Other types of aggregates which are not natural have also been used in bituminous construction.
Examples are: (a) slag either blast furnace or steel slag normally produced as by-product in steel
industry, and (b) light weight aggregate produced by heating clay to very high temperatures [2].
Both provide very good frictional (skid) resistance in bituminous pavements. However, due to
their high absorption, they require relatively higher bitumen contents.
Geologists have classified natural rocks into three groups based on their origin. Their discussion
is as follows:
2.2.1 Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks are formed by the cooling of molten rock magma when it moves towards surface
of the earth. If the magma is erupted onto the earth’s surface, it forms extrusive igneous rocks.
If it never reaches the earth’s surface, it forms intrusive rocks. Both extrusive and intrusive
rocks have similar range of chemical composition but intrusive rocks have coarser grains than
the rapidly chilled extrusive rocks. The former cools slowly and therefore crystals grow to
larger sizes [2].
Examples of igneous rocks are: granite; basalt; diorite; gabbro; diabase; and
rhyolite. Basalt, diabase and gabbro are also called trap rock.
2.2.2 Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary rocks are formed from the weathering, erosion and deposition and compaction
of rock materials through agents like wind, water and ice. They are also formed as a result
of consolidation of chemical precipitates such as some marine carbonate mud and marine
animals or plants. Sedimentary rocks are generally layered (or stratified).
Examples of sedimentary rocks are: limestone; dolomite; sandstone (formed from sand);
siltstone (formed from silt) and shale (formed from clay). Siltstones and shales are usually
weak and therefore not desirable in bituminous road construction.
Limestones, dolomites and sandstones vary in abrasion resistance and soundness from fair to
good depending on whether their grains are poorly or well cemented. Some sedimentary rocks
tend to produce flat aggregate particles when crushed.
Quite often, sandstone and limestone quarries may contain layers of undesirable shale
between sound rock layers. The shale should not be included in the crushing
operation.
2.2.3 Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic rocks are formed when existing igneous or sedimentary rocks undergo changes
(metamorphosing) due to pressure and heat. Changes occur in terms of their mineral structure
due to recrystallisation.
Examples of metamorphic rocks are: gneiss (metamorphosed from granite); schist

(metamorphosed from basalt); quartzite (metamorphosed from sandstone); slate
(metamorphosed from shale); and marble (metamorphosed from limestone).
Slates tend to be platy and therefore crush to flat particles. Also, being unsound slates
do not produce good quality aggregates. Marbles have serious adhesion problem with
bitumen.
Both gneiss and quartzite are generally resistant to abrasion and are sound. However,
quartzite is susceptible to stripping. Gneiss is similar to schist except that it has less than
50% mica.
However, any rock with more than 10% to 25% mica is likely to be unsound and also
produces excessive amount of flat particles, which render them undesirable for bituminous
road construction [2].
2.3 INDIAN ROCK SYSTEMS AND THEIR OCCURRENCE
Important Indian geological rock systems which may be good sources of aggregates along
with the rock types and their occurrence are listed as follows [3]: The Archean System: It is
among the first formed rocks on the earth. Its rocks are primarily found in Tamil Nadu,
Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan.
The rocks are primarily granites and gneisses (metamorphosed from granites).
The Dharwar System: It consists of primarily metamorphosed sedimentary rocks. These

rocks are found in Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand, Meghalaya, Orissa and Rajasthan.
Quartzite is the most common rock which can be used in bituminous road construction.
The Vindhyan System: It covers large areas in Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh,

Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. This system contains limestones, sandstones, shales and
slates.
The Tertiary System: It is found mostly in Himalayas and coastal areas of Gujarat, Kerala
and Tamilnadu. This system contains limestones which can be used as aggregate.
2.4 AGGREGATE PRODUCTION
Strength, resistance to abrasion, and soundness of aggregates are mainly derived from the
characteristics of the parent rock. However, proper production process in a stone quarry can
ensure good quality (by eliminating layers of weak/weathered rock) and desired particle shape
of the aggregate for bituminous road construction. The aggregate should essentially be cubical
in shape, not flat or elongated.
Before blasting of rock is undertaken, the overburden usually consisting of soil and
decomposed rock must be removed completely (Figure 2.1). Blasting of sound rock must
produce suitable size chunks of rock, which can be fed into the primary crusher (Figure 2.2).
The crushing operation must be done so that size reduction takes place in stages (Figure
2.3). Typically, a jaw crusher (Figure 2.4) is used as primary crusher and a standard cone
crusher is used as secondary crusher. Primary crusher usually reduces the stone size to
maximum size ranging from 200
0 to 25 mm. Secondary and tertiary crushers reduce the aggregate to the desired size.
Stone crushers utilise four different mechanisms for size reduction: impact, attrition,
shearing and compression. Most crushers utilise a combination of all four mechanisms as
described below [1].
Impact means sharp and instantaneous impingement of a rock piece against another rock
piece. Impact may be by way of gravity or dynamic impact. Impact is used for size reduction
as one of the mechanisms in most crushers except the cone crusher [2]. Impact crushers
(Figure 2.5) generally produce desirable cubical shape aggregate particles [4]. Attrition
means rubbing (grinding) pieces of rocks between two hardened surfaces to cause size
reduction. This mechanism is used in hammer mills, gyratory crushers and cone crushers [1].
Shear crushing mechanism occurs as a result of trimming and cleaving action typically
in a singe-roll crusher, which also uses impact and compression.
Figure 2.1 Removal of overburden in stone quarry.

Figure 2.2 Typical quarry operation.
Figure 2.3 Simple quarry set up.

Figure 2.4 Jaw crusher (Courtesy: NAPA REF).
Figure 2.5 Impact crusher (Courtesy: NAPA REF).
Compression mechanism is utilised through compressive forces applied to rock trapped

between two hardened surfaces to reduce the size of large stone particles of very hard and
abrasion resistant rock. Jaw crushers using the compression mechanism are very effective.
Gyratory, cone, and roll crushers also utilise compression mechanism.
The type(s) of crusher(s) must be selected based on the suitability of the rock type and
specifications of the aggregate in terms of gradation and particle shape.
During the crushing operations, various screen decks are used to separate the aggregate into
different sizes such as 40 mm, 20 mm, 10 mm, 5 mm and so forth (Figure 2.6). Some crushing
and screening operations also have the capability to wash the aggregate at some point if
excessive amounts of dust (material passing 0.075 mm sieve) are not desirable.
Quality control must be exercised at the crushing/screening operations by frequently

sampling and testing the produced aggregate to ensure it meets the specification
requirements.
Figure 2.6 Sizing and screening operations in quarry.
2.5 AGGREGATE PROPERTIES RELATED TO PERFORMANCE OF

BITUMINOUS PAVEMENTS
The following aggregate properties are related to performance of bituminous pavements [5]1.
2.5.1 Gradation and Size
Aggregate gradation is defined as the distribution of various particle sizes expressed as a

percentage of the total weight. It is determined by sieve analysis which consists of passing the
total aggregate through a stack of sieves arranged progressively smaller openings from top to
bottom. The weight of aggregate retained on each sieve is determined. However, it is a common
practice to express gradation as total percent passing various sieve sizes.
Typical US sieves used for aggregate gradation are 50.8 mm, 37.5 mm, 25.4 mm, 19 mm, 12.5
mm, 9.5 mm, 4.75 mm, 2.36 mm, 1.18 mm, 0.6 mm, 0.3 mm, 0.15 mm, and 0.075 mm.
In India there is a proliferation of sieve sizes such as mixture of US and British Standard (BS)
sieves. Quite often, different bituminous mixes in India specify different sieve sizes. There is a
need to adopt uniform sieve sizes so that there is no need to purchase so many different sieves.
Aggregates are usually divided for reference into three components: coarse aggregate, fine
aggregate, and mineral filler. Coarse aggregate is generally defined as the material retained on
2.36 mm sieve and fine aggregate is defined as material passing 2.36 mm sieve but generally
retained on 0.075 sieve. Mineral filler is usually the material passing 0.3 mm or 0.075 mm
sieve.
Typically, the sizes of the successive US sieves differ by a factor of approximately two.
Therefore, when gradation is plotted on a logarithmic scale, the distance between two
successive sieve sizes is about equal [1].
Ideally, it would appear reasonable to obtain densest packing of aggregate particles.

However, in case of asphalt mixes, it is necessary to have adequate voids in the mineral
aggregate (VMA) to accommodate sufficient amount of bitumen for mix durability and
sufficient amount of air voids so as to avoid bleeding and/or rutting of the bituminous pavement
[6, 7, 8]. The concept of VMA is discussed in Chapter 3 on hot mix asphalt mix design.
Ideal gradations for maximum packing of aggregate particles have been suggested by many
researchers. However, the so-called Fuller’s curve is quite well known. The following is the
equation for Fuller’s maximum density curve:
P = 100( d/ D) n
Where
d = diameter of the sieve size in question
P = total percent passing or finer than the sieve D = maximum size of the aggregate
n = exponent
1 The most comprehensive ever US national study on aggregates in asphalt was led by
Kandhal as principal investigator.
According to Fuller, maximum density is obtained for an aggregate when exponent n is

equal to 0.5 [1].
Subsequent studies by the US Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) in early 1960s using
different aggregates showed an average value of 0.45 for exponent n, which was used to
develop the gradation chart as shown in Figure 2.7. This so-called 0.45 power gradation chart
is really very convenient for determining maximum density line for any mix. Different
methods have been used to establish the maximum density line for a mix on this chart.
However, the US Superpave mix design system requires obtaining the maximum density line
by connecting the origin (0,0) at the lower left of the 0.45 power gradation chart to the
maximum aggregate size (defined later) at the upper right of the chart as shown in Figure 2.7
[9].
It should be noted that the maximum density line obtained on the 0.45 power gradation chart is
for guide only. Actual line may be slightly off depending on the aggregate particle shape and
angularity.
Asphalt mix designations typically use the nominal maximum aggregate size (NMAS).
Superpave mix designation system defines NMAS and maximum aggregate size as follows:
Figure 2.7 0.45 power aggregate gradation chart (Courtesy: NAPA REF).
Nominal maximum aggregate size (NMAS): One sieve larger than the first sieve to retain
more than 10% material.
Maximum aggregate size: One sieve larger than the nominal maximum aggregate size
(NMAS).
Typically, densely graded aggregates are used in construction of asphalt courses. Since
gradation of aggregate significantly affects the performance of the asphalt courses in terms of
rutting, it should be selected after testing at least three different gradations [10, 11, 12].
Besides densely graded aggregates, gap graded aggregates are used in asphalt mixes such as
stone matrix asphalt (SMA), which is highly rut resistant. Gap graded aggregate is devoid
of certain aggregate sizes, which gives it stone-on-stone contact of the coarse aggregate
particles [13, 14]. Open graded aggregate is also used in porous asphalt mixes such as open
graded friction course (OGFC); such mixes have significantly lower amount of fine
aggregate. Both SMA and OGFC are discussed in detail in Chapter 4 on bituminous paving
mixes together with their gradations.
2.5.2 Particle Shape, Angularity and Surface Texture
Various studies on the effect of particle shape, angularity, and surface texture of aggregates
on the performance of asphalt mixtures have generally indicated the following [5]:
1. Particle shape, angularity, and surface texture of the coarse aggregate are more critical
in open graded asphalt mixtures compared to dense graded mixtures.
0 2. Particle shape, angularity, and surface texture of the fine aggregate have more
influence on the physical properties of the dense graded asphalt mixtures compared to those
of the coarse aggregate.
1 3. Angular and rough-textured aggregate particles are desirable to obtain asphalt

mixtures that resist permanent deformation or rutting (Figures 2.8 and 2.9) and fatigue
cracking. Such aggregate particles also enhance the pavement frictional resistance (skid
resistance) when used in wearing course.
0 4. When gravel aggregate is used in asphalt mix, a high percentage of crushed particles
are desirable to obtain crushed faces with sharp edges and rough surface texture (Figure
2.10).
1 5. Whereas cubical particles are preferred, the presence of flat and elongated aggregate
particles is not desirable in asphalt mixtures (Figure 2.11). Such particles tend to break down
(especially in open graded mixtures) during production and construction, thus affecting the
durability of asphalt mixtures.
Figure 2.9 Shearing behaviour of aggregate (Courtesy: FHWA).

Figure 2.11 Cubical (lower left), flat (lower right) and elongated (top) aggregate
particles.
2.5.3 Porosity or Absorption
Mineral aggregates used in asphalt mixtures have some porosity and therefore, tend to
absorb some bitumen binder as seen in Figure 2.12 [15, 16]. However, mix design
procedures take into account the amount of absorbed (ineffective) bitumen binder and
compensate by incorporating additional binder in the mix. When properly designed,
asphalt mixtures containing highly absorptive blast furnace slag aggregate perform
satisfactorily. If the absorbed binder is not compensated for, the following problems may
occur: (a) insufficient binder after absorption leading to raveling, cracking, or stripping;
(b) potential premature aging of bitumen binder; and (c) construction problems, such as
segregation.
Many highway agencies specify maximum permissible water absorption for aggregates to be
used in asphalt mix. For example, the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MORTH)
specifies a maximum water absorption of 2%. It is generally believed that highly absorptive
aggregate is associated with poor quality. However, this is not always true. There are many
aggregates (such as some limestones in Iowa, USA) which are highly absorptive (water
absorption as much as 7%) but are tough and sound [17]. Therefore, as long as any aggregate
meets the other specified quality requirements, a maximum limit on water absorption in not
reasonable especially when low absorption aggregate has to be transported unnecessarily over
a long distance.
Generally aggregate with high water absorption also has high bitumen absorption.
Therefore, if less absorptive aggregate is available near the project site, it may not be
economically attractive to use high absorptive aggregate because paving bitumen is
expensive. There is no definitive relationship between water absorption and bitumen
absorption; it varies widely [17].
However, as a rule of thumb, on average bitumen absorption is about 60% of water absorption.
Figure 2.12 Absorption of bitumen by some gravel aggregate particles can be seen in the
core.
Test for water absorption
Both MORTH and IRC require IS: 2386 (Part 3), “Method of Test for Aggregate for
Concrete—Specific Gravity, Density, Voids, Absorption and Bulking” to determine
water absorption for both coarse aggregate and fine aggregate. The nomenclature of
this IS standard indicates both water absorption and specific gravity in this test is for
aggregate for cement concrete. This standard test is outdated and is not suitable at all
for aggregate to be used in asphalt mixes because it would give erroneous test results
both for water absorption and specific gravity.
ASTM C 127, “Specific Gravity and Absorption of Coarse Aggregate” and ASTM C 128,
“Specific Gravity and Absorption of Fine Aggregate” should be used to determine both water
absorption and specific gravity of aggregates to be used in asphalt mixes. Both of these test
methods use the latest method for determining the saturated surface dry (SSD) condition
which is so vital for accurately determining water absorption and specific gravity. This issue
will be discussed in detail later under “specific gravity”.
2.5.4 Cleanliness and Deleterious Materials

“Cleanliness” is concerned with coatings on aggregate particles or excess material passing
the 0.075 mm sieve. “Deleterious materials” include individual aggregate particles which
are weak, reactive, or unsound. The adhesion between the bitumen binder and aggregate
can be inhibited by the presence of dust and clay coatings on the coarse and/or fine
aggregate, which results in stripping of the asphalt mixture [18, 19]. In the presence of
water, some very fine clayey material may cause stripping by partially emulsifying the
bitumen binder. Deleterious materials such as a clay lumps, friable particles, shale, coal,
glassy particles, free mica, and vegetation are also detrimental to asphalt mixes [5].
2.5.5 Toughness and Abrasion Resistance
Aggregate should be tough and resistant to abrasion to withstand degradation (breakdown of

particles) during construction (handling, drying in drum, mixing, paving and compaction) and
during service under traffic loading. If aggregate degrades, it may cause pop outs and/
or raveling. Pop outs result when the aggregate at the road surface gets fractured and pops out.
Raveling is progressive loss of aggregate particles from the asphalt road surface. These
distresses are described in Chapter 7 on asphalt pavement distresses. The Los Angeles
abrasion test is the most widely used and investigated method for assessing aggregate
toughness and abrasion resistance. No comprehensive, definitive studies have directly related
aggregate toughness and abrasion resistance properties with degradation during construction,
asphalt properties, or pavement performance. However, there is consensus that aggregate
should be “reasonably” tough and resistant to abrasion.
2.5.6 Durability and Soundness
As mentioned earlier, aggregate should be durable and sound so that it can withstand
weathering in service. Although aggregate is coated with bitumen film, the latter is worn off
by traffic in case of asphalt wearing course. Raveling, pop outs and potholing can occur if
unsound aggregate is used in asphalt mix (Figure 2.13).
Figure 2.13 Asphalt surface pop outs due to unsound aggregate.
2.5.7 Expansive Characteristics

Some aggregates, such as steel slag, tend to expand if not properly cured. The use of uncured
or partially cured steel slag aggregate can cause significant swell and pop outs in the asphalt
pavement and lead to its disintegration [4, 20]. ASTM D 4792—“Potential Expansion of
Aggregates from Hydration Reactions” is available to evaluate such aggregate’s potential for
expansion. The maximum expansion for fine aggregate should be restricted to 0.5% [20].
2.5.8 Polish and Frictional Characteristics
Polish and frictional characteristics of the aggregate used in asphalt wearing courses influence
the friction between the asphalt surface and vehicle tires. Frictional characteristics are
determined by macro texture and micro texture of asphalt surface. Aggregate gradation
controls the macro texture and basic rock properties control the micro texture of coarse
aggregate particles is the parameter most often used for assessing suitability of a rock source
for providing frictional resistance. However, aggregate size is also known to influence
pavement surface friction. In addition, other mix properties such as bitumen content and air
voids also affect pavement surface friction.
Carbonate rocks such as limestone generally tend to polish easily and lose their frictional
resistance [21]. Aggregate with high silica content such as sandstone generally does not
polish easily and therefore produces good frictional resistance [1].
2.5.9 Mineral Filler
Numerous studies have shown that the properties of mineral filler (especially the material
passing 0.075 mm sieve) have a significant effect on the performance of the asphalt mixtures
[22, 23, 24, 25]. Fines can influence the performance of asphalt mixtures as follows:
1. Depending on the particle size, fines can act as filler or as an extender of bitumen binder.
In the latter case, an over-rich asphalt mix can result, leading to flushing and/ or rutting
(Chapter 7).
0 2. Ultra fines may have a considerable effect on bitumen binder—making it act as a much
stiffer grade of bitumen than with the neat bitumen.
2.5.10 Potential for Moisture Induced Damage (Stripping)
Bitumen must readily wet (coat) the aggregate surface, stick to it, and resist stripping (loss of
adhesion) in presence of water. That is why surface chemistry of the aggregate particles has a
significant role in resisting stripping [18, 19, 26]. Some aggregates appear to have a greater
affinity (attraction) for water than for bitumen and bitumen film on such aggregates gets
detached or stripped when exposed to moisture or water [18]. These aggregates are called
hydrophilic (water loving). Most siliceous aggregates such as sandstone, quartz and siliceous
gravel are in this category. On the other hand, some aggregates have greater affinity for
bitumen compared to water, they are called hydrophobic (water hating). Many calcareous
aggregates such as limestone are in this category. Figure 2.14 shows the general surface
chemistry of different types of rocks and their degree of affinity to bitumen.
Figure 2.14 Surface characteristics of different rocks in terms of their affinity to
water and bitumen (Courtesy: FHWA).
2.6 AGGREGATE PROPERTIES USED IN MIX DESIGNS
2.6.1 Specific Gravity
The specific gravity of an aggregate is useful in making weight-volume conversions for

determining void parameters during the mix design of asphalt mixes. By definition, the
specific gravity of aggregate is the ratio of the weight of a unit volume of the material to the
weight of an equal volume of water at approximately 23 oC [1]. When using the metric
system, the unit weight of water is 1.0 g/ml (cc). Therefore, the equation for specific gravity
is as follows: Specific gravity = Weight in grams/Volume in millilitre Three different
aggregate specific gravities are used for asphalt mix design based on the method used to
define the volume of the aggregate particles (the weight being the same).
Bulk specific gravity (Gsb)
The bulk specific gravity considers the volume of the solid aggregate particle (including
impermeable voids) plus the volume of water permeable voids (pores or capillaries) that
become filled with water after 24 h soaking (Figure 2.15). In other words, bulk specific
gravity ( Gsb) is equal to the weight of dry aggregate divided by the volume of solid
aggregate plus volume of impermeable voids plus volume of water permeable voids.
Figure 2.15 Aggregate bulk specific gravity.
Apparent specific gravity (Gsa)
The apparent specific gravity considers only the volume of the solid aggregate particle. It does
not include the volume of any permeable voids (pores or capillaries) that become filled with
water after 24 h soaking (Figure 2.16). Impermeable voids within solid aggregate particles are
considered its part. In other words, apparent specific gravity ( Gsa) is equal to the weight of
dry aggregate divided by the volume of solid aggregate plus volume of impermeable voids.
Figure 2.16 Aggregate apparent specific gravity.
Effective specific gravity (Gse)
The effective specific gravity considers the volume of the solid aggregate particle (including
impermeable voids) plus the volume of water permeable voids (pores or capillaries) that
become filled with water after 24 h soaking minus the volume of the permeable voids filled
with asphalt (bitumen) (Figure 2.17). In other words, effective specific gravity ( Gse) is equal
to the weight of dry aggregate divided by the volume of solid aggregate plus volume of
impermeable voids plus volume of water permeable voids minus volume of asphalt permeable
voids.
Figure 2.17 Aggregate effective specific gravity.
2.6.2 Test Methods for Determining Specific Gravity of Aggregate
Some highway engineers in India may be using IS: 2386 (Part 4) to determine water absorption
and specific gravity of aggregate. As mentioned earlier, this standard is for aggregate to be used
in cement concrete and not in bituminous concrete (or asphalt mixes). Not only this standard is
outdated, it would give erroneous test results both for water absorption and specific gravity.
The MORTH and IRC require asphalt mixes to be designed as per the Asphalt Institute, MS-2
(Sixth edition) which requires determining the bulk and apparent specific gravity of coarse
aggregates and fine aggregates using ASTM C 127 and ASTM C 128, respectively. These
standards define precisely the achievement of saturated surface dry (SSD) condition of the
aggregate, which is vital for obtaining precise and reproducible test results for aggregate
specific gravity. Whereas achieving the SSD condition of coarse aggregate with absorbent cloth
is rather easy, it is difficult to achieve the same for fine aggregate. Over the years, many
procedures have been developed to establish the SSD condition of fine aggregate, such as
colorimetric procedures [27] and drying-drum method
ASTM C 128 includes various criteria for establishing the SSD condition including the sand
cone test. ASTM C 127 for bulk specific gravity of coarse aggregate requires weighing both dry
and SSD coarse aggregate in air and weighing saturated aggregate under water. ASTM C 128
for bulk specific gravity of fine aggregate requires use of a pycnometer. Both dry and SSD fine
aggregates are weighed in air. The weight of pycnometer filled with water only and the weight
of the pycnometer filled with SSD sample and water are also determined. In summary, ASTM C
127 and C 128 should be used for determining specific gravity of the aggregates to be used in
bituminous road construction in India.
2.6.3 Surface Area
Surface area of the total aggregate particles used in asphalt mix can be estimated from its
gradation. Given the bitumen content in the mix, surface area can be used to estimate the
“average” film thickness of the bitumen coating the aggregate. Combination of low optimum
bitumen content and high surface area is not desirable because it produces thin bitumen film
around the aggregate particles. Various studies have shown that at least 6 micron to 8 micron
bitumen film thickness is desirable for optimising the durability of asphalt mix [29]. Thinner
bitumen films oxidise (age) at faster rates, thereby reducing the service life of asphalt
pavements.
It should be noted that the concept of “average film thickness” is elusive and difficult to
define. It is highly unlikely that all particles in asphalt mix have the same film thickness. Fine
aggregate particles may have thicker film thickness than the coarse aggregate particles. For all
practical purposes, very fine particles might simply be embedded in the bitumen/filler mortar.
In any case, determination of relative surface areas may be helpful for comparing
different asphalt mixes in terms of their durability.
Surface area of a total aggregate is calculated in the following way. The total percent passing
each sieve size is multiplied with a “surface area factor” developed by the Asphalt Institute as
given in Table 2.1 [6]. All these multiplication products are summed up to give the total
surface area in terms of m2/kg. All surface area factors must be used in the calculations.
Table 2.1 also gives a sample calculation for determining the total surface area of MORTH
BC grading 2.
2.7 AGGREGATE TESTS AND RELATED SPECIFICATIONS
Various aggregate tests will be discussed in the following order: Bureau of Indian Standards
or MORTH specifications; ASTM/AASHTO/US test methods; and test methods which have
been used primarily in research work. The first two are meant for practicing highway
engineers in India. Test methods used in research work will be described very briefly for
academicians and researchers with proper references. It is hoped that Indian highway
engineers will be progressive and will adopt more rational/scientific test methods in future.
2.7.1 Gradation and Size
Gradation of aggregate and its size is determined through sieve analysis as described
earlier. The IS: 2386—“Method of Test for Aggregate for Concrete” is used for sieve
analysis in India. In the US, ASTM C 136, “Sieve Analysis of Fine and Coarse Aggregates”
is used. Figures 2.18 and 2.19 show typical sieving equipment used in the US for large size
and small size aggregates, respectively.
Figure 2.19 Sieving small size aggregate in laboratory.
Dense or continuously graded asphalt mix is typically used in asphalt pavements across the
world. The dense gradation is selected at or near the vicinity of the maximum density line.
However, when Superpave mix design system was developed in the US, the aggregate
specification included a restricted zone that lies along the maximum density gradation between
the intermediate size (either 4.75 mm or 2.36 mm, depending on the NMAS) and the 0.3 mm
size. The restricted zone forms a band through which gradations were recommended not to
pass (Figure 2.20). The restricted zone requirement was adopted in Superpave to reduce the
potential of tender or rut-prone asphalt mixes. However, many asphalt paving technologists
questioned the inclusion of the restricted zone because in many cases mixes with gradations
passing through this zone performed well in the field. Therefore, a comprehensive US national
study [31, 32] was undertaken to evaluate the validity of the restricted zone. It was concluded
in that study that asphalt mixes passing through the restricted zone performed equal or better
than asphalt mixes outside the restricted zone if all other mix design criteria were met. Based
on those recommendations, AASHTO deleted the restricted zone from the Superpave system.
2.7.2 Particle Shape, Angularity and Surface Texture (Coarse Aggregate)
It is believed that excessive flat and elongated aggregate particles are undesirable. Perfectly
cubical aggregates (which are generally not encountered) may also be undesirable.
IS: 2386 (Part 1)—Flakiness Index and Elongation Index
This Indian Standard generally follows the British Standard 812 (Part 105) to determine
flakiness index (FI) and elongation index (EI). The flakiness index of an aggregate is the
percentage by weight of particles in the aggregate whose least dimension (thickness) is less
than 0.6 of the mean size. For this test, the mean size of the aggregate is defined as the mean
of the two sieve aperture sizes between which the particle is retained by sieving. The test is
not applicable to sizes smaller than 6.5 mm (1/4 inch). The aggregate is sieved through
specified square aperture British Standard sieves. Each size fraction should give at least 200
pieces for testing. A metal thickness gauge with slotted openings is used to identify flaky
particles (Figure 2.21). Each slot on the gauge comes is identified with two sieve sizes
between which the aggregate is to be tested was retained. The width of the slot is 0.6 of the
mean aggregate size. Slotted sieves of the appropriate slot width are also available for testing
a large number of samples. The total amount of aggregate passing the gauge is weighed and is
expressed as the percentage of the total sample to report the flakiness index. The flakiness
index method is not subjective and therefore, does not depend on the tester’s judgment [5].
The flakiness index method is believed to be reproducible, practical, and reasonable in cost.
The elongation index after British Standard 812 (Part 105) is defined as the percentage by
mass of the particles in a single-sized aggregate whose greatest dimension (length) is more
than 1.8 times the mean dimension of the two sieves between which the aggregate to be tested
was retained. Gauges with pins set with appropriate gaps (Figure 2.21) are used to separate the
particles by hand [5].
The MORTH and IRC specify that the combined flakiness index and elongation index should
not exceed 35%, which appears reasonable although no definitive studies relating flat and
elongated (F and E) particles to asphalt pavement performance are available at the present
time. The combined flakiness and elongation index is determined as follows. After carrying
out the flakiness index test, the flaky material is removed from sample and the remaining
portion is used for carrying out the elongation index. Indices so worked out are added
numerically to give the combined flakiness and elongation index
ASTM D 4791—Flat particles, elongated particles, or flat and elongated particles in

coarse aggregate
This ASTM method determines the percentages of flat or elongated particles in coarse
aggregates, which are defined as those particles of aggregate having a ratio of width to
thickness or length to width greater than a specified value. A proportional calliper device
(Figure 2.22) is used to identify the flat or elongated particles by testing individual particles of
specific sieve sizes. The percentage of flat particles, elongated particles, and total flat and
elongated particles is calculated either by number or by mass. This test is very simple. Very
few states in the US measure flat or elongated particles separately. Most states measure the
ratio of the minimum dimension (thickness) to the maximum dimension (length) of the
aggregate particle to determine the percentage of flat and elongated particles. Usually,
a maximum percentage of ratios of 1:3 to 1:5 are specified. However, this ratio represents
neither flatness nor elongation of the aggregate particles and therefore, its engineering value
is questionable.
ASTM D 5821—Percent of fractured particles in coarse aggregate
This test is conducted on the material retained on 4.75 mm sieve. It is usually performed on
round gravel which needs to be crushed to produce fractured face(s). A fractured face is a
face that exposes the interior of the gravel particle. Fractured particles contained in a sample
are weighed after separation and the percentage by weight determined. A face is considered a
“fractured face” only if it has a projected area at least as large as one quarter of the maximum
projected area of the particle and the face has sharp and well-defined edges. This test is
primarily applicable to coarse gravel aggregate. It is practical and reasonable in cost.
Significant amount of research has been done in relating the amount of fractured particles in
gravel to the asphalt mix stability. Most studies have shown that the mix stability increases as
the percentage of fractured particles in gravel is increased. Most states using gravel aggregate
in asphalt mixtures specify minimum percentages of particles with fractured faces. This test
does not quantify the aggregate particle shape or its surface texture. Some states specify the
minimum percentage of particles with one or more fractured faces. Others specify the
minimum percentage of particles with two or more fractured faces (for example, 90%). The
requirement varies for base course, binder course, surface course, and open graded friction
course (OGFC).
This test should be adopted in India so that river or bank gravel can be used effectively after
crushing in bituminous road construction. Requirement of minimum 95% two crushed faces
appears reasonable for high traffic roads [4].
ASTM D 3398—Index of aggregate particle shape and surface texture
This test is based on the concept that the volume of voids between uniform size, packed
coarse aggregate particles indicates the combined effect of aggregate shape, angularity and
surface texture. The result of this test is expressed as particle index of the aggregate [33].
Five cylindrical molds ranging from 51 mm to 203 mm in diameter are used for compacting
different size fractions of aggregates with tamping rods. Aggregate composed of rounded
particles with smooth surface texture may have low voids with a particle index of 6 or 7. On
the other hand, aggregate with highly angular crushed particles with rough surface texture can
have particle indexes of 15 to 20 or more. This test method is very cumbersome and time
consuming. Therefore, it is not suitable for routine testing. It has been used in research
studies.
Coarse aggregate particle shape from image analysis techniques
In recent years, digital image processing technique has been introduced for evaluating
particle shape and angularity of both coarse and fine aggregates
0 These are discussed later under the fine aggregate particle shape and surface texture.
Unfortunately, these methods do not generally indicate the surface texture of the aggregate.
Also, the combined effect of particle shape, angularity and surface texture cannot be
evaluated. However, image analysis techniques are fairly reproducible because the
measurements are not subjective and therefore, are not based on the tester’s judgement. Once
the technique is fully automated, it is expected to be practical and reasonable in cost.
AASHTO TP 56—Uncompacted voids in coarse aggregate
This test is similar to the uncompacted voids in fine aggregate test (ASTM C 1252). The test
uses the appropriate gradation (–12.5 mm + 4.75 mm) used in the asphalt mixture. The coarse
aggregate is dropped through a funnel into a container (Figure 2.23). Both the funnel and
containers are proportionally larger than those used in ASTM C 1252 [5]. The concept of this
test is explained in detail later when ASTM C 1252 is discussed. Researchers have related the
uncompacted voids in coarse aggregate to rutting is asphalt pavements [5, 34].
2.7.3 Particle Shape, Angularity and Surface Texture (Fine Aggregate)
Fine aggregate obtained by crushing is called crushed sand or manufactured sand which
mostly has angular particles and therefore, desirable in bituminous construction to enhance
mix resistance to rutting. On the other hand, natural sand (from river banks or beds) generally
has round particles and smooth surface texture. Many highway agencies control fine
aggregate particle shape and surface texture in asphalt mixes by limiting the amount of natural
sands. For example, IRC: 111–2009, “Specifications for Dense Graded Bituminous Mixes”
does not allow any natural sand in binder and wearing courses and no more than 50% in base
courses. However, the use of generic terms such as natural sand or crushed/manufactured sand
in specifications is not sufficient. Some natural sands are inherently sub-angular rather than
completely rounded.
Similarly, not all manufactured sands are very angular. There was a need to quantify the shape
and texture of the fine aggregate in order to write national specifications.
An extensive study2 of manufactured sands, natural sands, and their blends was conducted
to quantify their particle shape and surface texture by determining their uncompacted voids
[35, 36]. This test is described next. It was concluded that a value of 44.5 for uncompacted
voids separated manufactured sands from natural sands. Subsequently, a comprehensive US
national rutting study was performed which confirmed that a fine aggregate uncompacted void
of 44.5 or more was desirable for reasonable rut resistance of asphalt mix [37]. Therefore, the
Superpave mix design adopted a rounded value of 45 for fine aggregate uncompacted voids to
ensure reasonable particle shape and texture. The test for uncompacted voids in fine aggregate
is now an ASTM and AASHTO test as described below. This national test used in the US for
fine aggregate should also be adopted for bituminous road construction in India.
ASTM C 1252 or AASHTO T 304—Uncompacted void content of fine aggregate as

influenced by particle shape and surface texture
In this method used in Superpave, a 100 cm3 cylinder is filled with fine aggregate of
prescribed gradation by allowing the sample to flow through a funnel into the calibrated
cylinder (Figures 2.24 and 2.25). Excess material is struck off (Figure 2.26) and the cylinder
with aggregate is weighed. Uncompacted void content of the sample which is termed fine
aggregate angularity (FAA) is then computed using this weight and the bulk dry specific
gravity of the aggregate. The concept of this test method is: round and/or smooth texture
aggregate particles pack together densely (resulting in lower uncompacted void content)
compared to angular and/or rough texture aggregate particles. Three variations of the method
are used. However, Method A which uses a sample of specified gradation with material
passing 2.36 mm sieve and retained on 0.150 mm sieve is most commonly used. The
performance predictability of this test is considered good [4, 37]. It is a practical test, and its
cost is also reasonable. Minimum FAA requirement of 45% is used for high traffic roads in
Superpave mix design.
Figure 2.24 Schematic of fine aggregate angularity (FAA) test equipment (Courtesy:
NAPA REF).
The following test methods have also been used to quantify fine aggregate particle shape,
angularity and texture.
ASTM D 3398—Index of aggregate particle shape and texture
This test was described earlier for coarse aggregate. As mentioned earlier, this test is very
time consuming and expensive because of increased labour cost. It has been used primarily
for research purposes.
Fine aggregate particle shape from image analysis
Several researchers have attempted to use image analysis to measure fine aggregate angularity
(FAA). Methods are still being developed or improved. Reference 5 gives various image
analysis methods which have been reported in recent years. Again, image analysis systems do
not indicate the combined effect of aggregate particle shape, angularity, and surface texture.
2.7.4 Plastic Fines in the Fine Aggregate
The following test procedures are used to ensure the cleanliness of aggregates and
minimise the amounts of deleterious materials:
IS: 2720 (Part 37)—Determination of sand equivalent values of soils and fine aggregates
This test has been adapted from ASTM D 2419. The sand equivalent test is used to determine
the relative proportions of plastic fines or claylike material in fine aggregates. Fine aggregate
passing the 4.75 mm sieve is placed in a graduated, transparent cylinder which is filled with a
mixture of water and a flocculating agent. After agitation and 20 min of settling, the sand
separates from the clay-like fines, and the heights of sand and sand plus clay are measured
(Figures 2.27 and 2.28). The sand equivalent is the ratio of the height of the sand to the height
of sand plus clay times 100. Higher sand equivalent will be obtained if a cleaner fine aggregate
is used. Minimum specified sand equivalent values for fine aggregate in asphalt mix ranges
from 25 to 60 in the US [4]. The minimum requirement of 45 is most common. The MORTH
and IRC specify a minimum sand equivalent value of 50. The sand equivalent test was
developed to control the quality of aggregates for asphalt mixes and untreated bases [38].
Researchers have shown a very good correlation between sand equivalent value of the
aggregate and the asphalt mix resistance to stripping [39, 40]. This test is quick to perform;
requires very simple equipment, which can be used with minimal training or experience; and
has given reasonably good results.
Figure 2.27 Schematic of sand equivalent test.

IS: 2720 (Part 5)—Determination of liquid and plastic limit
This test has been adapted from ASTM D 4318. The plasticity index (PI) is being used by
several agencies to measure the degree of plasticity of fines. The PI is the difference
between the liquid limit and the plastic limit of the material passing 0.425 mm sieve. ASTM
D 1073 (Standard Specification for Fine Aggregate in Bituminous Paving Mixtures) and D
242 (Standard Specification for Mineral Filler for Bituminous Paving Mixtures) limit the PI
of this fraction passing the 0.425 mm sieve (including the mineral filler) to a value of 4 or
less. The MORTH and IRC also specify PI not to exceed 4. A review of literature indicates
no reported correlation between the PI and the field performance of asphalt mix.
IS: 2386 (Part 1)—Material finer than 0.075 mm by washing
Material finer than 0.075 mm can be separated from larger particles much more efficiently
and completely by wet sieving than through the use of dry sieving. Therefore, when accurate
determination of material finer than 0.075 in fine or coarse aggregate is desired, this method is
used on the sample prior to dry sieving (which may not be effective for some adherent fines or
dust coatings). This test method does not evaluate the quality of the fines—it measures the
total quantity only; therefore, it is unlikely that the test values will be related to asphalt
pavement performance unless they are very excessive. The IRC: 111–2009 specifies the
material passing 0.075 mm sieve should not exceed 5% in case of coarse aggregate.
Although the sand equivalent test has the potential to predict the performance of asphalt
mixtures in terms of moisture susceptibility, this test primarily determines the quantity of
claylike materials in aggregate. The test does not evaluate the quality of the claylike material,
which may be equally detrimental to asphalt mix resistance to moisture-induced damage. The
following methylene blue test can be used to evaluate the quality of the claylike fines, if
any, present in aggregate.
Methylene Blue Test: This French test method is recommended by the International Slurry
Seal Association (ISSA) to quantify the amount of harmful clays of the smectite
(montmorillonite) group, organic matter, and iron hydroxides present in fine aggregate. The
test method, “Determination of Methylene Blue Adsorption Value (MBV) of Mineral
Aggregate Fillers and Fines” is contained in Technical Bulletin 145 of ISSA [41]. MBV can
also be determined using ASTM D 837. The principle of the test is to add quantities of a
standard aqueous solution of the dye (methylene blue) to a sample until adsorption of the
dye ceases. The portion of the fine aggregate passing the 0.075 mm sieve is tested for MBV.
10 g of the sample are dispersed in 30 g of distilled water in a beaker. 1 g of methylene blue is

dissolved in enough distilled water to produce 200 ml of solution, so that 1 ml of solution
contains 5 mg of methylene blue. This methylene blue solution is titrated step wise in 0.5 ml
aliquots from the burette into the continually stirred fine aggregate suspension. After each
addition of methylene blue solution and stirring for 1 min, a small drop of the aggregate
suspension is removed with a glass rod and placed on a filter paper. Successive additions of
methylene blue solution are made until the end point is reached. Initially, a well-defined circle
of methylene blue-stained dust is formed and is surrounded with an outer ring or corona of
clear water. The end point is reached when a permanent light blue coloration or “halo” is
observed in this ring of clear water.
The methylene blue value (MBV) of a specific fine aggregate fraction is reported as
milligrams of methylene blue per gram of specific fine aggregate fraction such as: MBV = 5.3
mg/g. The MBV expresses the quantity of methylene blue required to cover the total surface
of the clay fraction of the sample with a mono-molecular layer of the methylene blue.
Therefore, the MBV is proportional to the product of the clay content times the specific
surface of the clay. Results from the methylene blue test can be interpreted as a general rule-
of-thumb as shown in Table 2.2 [40].
Both the methylene blue and sand equivalent tests provide comparable results in characterising
fine aggregates for moisture-susceptibility of asphalt mixes [1, 40]. The methylene blue test is
simple and practical.
2.7.5 Toughness and Abrasion Resistance
The following test procedures (or variations thereof) are used in India, US and other
countries to determine the toughness and resistance to abrasion of coarse and fine aggregates
[42].
IS: 2386 (Part 4)—Determination of aggregate abrasion value using

Los Angeles machine
This test method has been adapted from ASTM C 131. The Los Angeles abrasion test is the
most widely specified test for evaluating the resistance of coarse aggregate to degradation by
abrasion and impact. The test was originally developed in the mid-1920s by the Municipal
Testing Laboratory of the City of Los Angeles, California. A 5,000 g sample of aggregate
having a specified grading is placed in a steel drum along with 6 to 12 steel balls each
weighing about 420 g (Figure 2.29). The drum is rotated for 500 revolutions. A shelf within
the drum lifts and drops the aggregate and steel balls about 68 cm (27 inch) during each
revolution. The resulting vigorous tumbling action combines impact, which causes the more
brittle particles to shatter, with surface wear and abrasion as the particles rub against one
another and against the steel balls. Following the completion of 500 revolutions, the sample is
removed from the testing machine and sieved dry over a 1.70 mm (No. 12) sieve. The percent
passing the 1.70 mm (No. 12) sieve, termed the percent wear or percent loss, is the Los
Angeles degradation value for the sample. Although widely used, the predictive capability of
the Los Angeles abrasion test for coarse aggregate is rated only fair. The test is relatively
simple and practical.
The MORTH and IRC specify a maximum Los Angeles abrasion loss value of 30% for
bituminous concrete (BC) and 35% for other mixes (IRC: 111– 2009). These values appear
stringent. Most states in the US use 40% for surface course mixes and 45% for base courses.
Several states in the US use as high as 50% and have not reported any performance
problem [5, 30].
IS: 2386 (Part 4)—Aggregate impact value
This test has been adapted from British Standard 812 (Part 3). It is not used in the US. The
MORTH and IRC specifications require the aggregate to meet either Los Angeles abrasion or
aggregate impact value requirement. In this test, a standard sample, with sizes ranging from
14.0 mm to 10.0 mm in diameter is subjected to loading in the form of 15 blows from a 100
mm diameter hammer (Figure 2.30). The sample suffers degradation due to impact loading.
A 2.36 mm sieve is used as the reference diagnostic sieve. The percentage of material
passing this sieve, relative to initial weight, gives the aggregate impact value. The
aggregate impact value provides a measure of resistance to degradation (break down) from
impact only. A lower numerical value indicates a tougher, more wear-resistant aggregate.
Performance predictability is unknown [43] although this is a standard test in Britain. The
apparatus used is relative portable and cheap to operate, allowing both laboratory and field
testing. The MORTH and IRC specify a maximum aggregate impact value of 24% for BC
and 27% for other mixes.
British standard 812 (Part 3)—Aggregate crushing value
This test is not used in India or the US. In this test, a sample of approximately 2 kg is
subjected to a continuous compressive load transmitted through a piston (Figure 2.31). A
total load of 400 kN on a 150 diameter piston or a load of 100 kN on a 75 mm piston is
achieved in 10 min. As in the aggregate impact value, the fines passing the British Standard
2.36 mm sieve are measured and a percentage of the initial sample weight calculated. This is
the aggregate crushing value. Again, a lower value indicates a stronger and tougher
aggregate. It has been reported that crushing resistance does a good job of separating
suitable and unsuitable aggregate [43]. The equipment and test procedure are simple and
inexpensive, although a loading machine is required.
ASTM D 6928—Resistance of coarse aggregate by abrasion in the
Micro-Deval apparatus
This test, developed in France during the 1960s has been adopted by Provinces of Quebec and
Ontario in Canada. The Los Angeles abrasion test, which is run dry, is not appropriate for
some fine-grained, and soft-rock aggregates (e.g., argillaceous carbonates and shales) which
tend to absorb the impact energy of the steel balls and thus give low Los Angeles abrasion
test values. However, these materials may be susceptible to slaking and particle degradation
when wet, thereby giving poor pavement performance [44]. It is not possible to test the
aggregate in moist or wet condition in the Los Angeles abrasion machine because the fines
tend to adhere to the side of the drum. The Micro-Deval test was developed to include the
influence of moisture, which may significantly alter aggregate toughness and abrasion
resistance. For testing coarse aggregate in the Micro-Deval device, a 1500 g sample is
initially soaked for at least 1 h with 2 l of tap water. The sample, water, and an abrasive
charge of 5 kg of 9.5 mm diameter steel balls are placed in a jar and revolved at 100 RPM for
2 h (Figure 2.32). The sample is then washed and oven dried. The loss is the amount of
material passing the 1.18 mm sieve expressed as a percent by mass of the original sample.
Extensive studies have established good correlation between Micro-Deval test results and the
field performance of asphalt pavements [1, 44].
2.7.6 Durability and Soundness
Durability and soundness tests are designed to simulate the destructive action of environmental
factors (for example, wetting-drying and freezing-thawing). Freezing-thawing are more
detrimental than wetting or wetting-drying and as a result, most test procedures simulate
freezing-thawing. Water in pores or voids expands upon freezing, causing a breakdown of
aggregate particles. The sulphate soundness tests were developed to simulate this action and
were used in lieu of freezing and thawing because of the lack of adequate refrigeration
equipment in the past. Reliable, relatively inexpensive refrigeration equipment is now
available, but the sulphate tests are still used extensively.
The following test methods are generally used to determine the resistance of aggregates in
asphalt mixtures to degradation when exposed to weathering, that is, wetting-drying and/or
freezing-thawing [4, 30, 42, 45].
IS: 2386 (Part 4)—Soundness of aggregate by sodium sulphate or magnesium

sulphate
This test has been adapted from ASTM C 88. The sodium sulphate or magnesium
sulphate test is widely used as an index of general aggregate quality. The latter is tougher
on the aggregate. The soundness is intended to provide an estimate of the resistance of
aggregate to weathering action. In the soundness test, the test sample is washed, dried
and separated into specified size fractions. Each sample then is immersed in containers
(Figure 2.33) in a solution of sodium or magnesium sulphate of specified strength for 16
h to 18 h at a temperature of 1 °C. Next, the sample is removed from the solution and
permitted to drain for 15 5 min. It is then dried at a temperature of 110 5 °C until
constant weight is achieved. Usually, the sample is subject to five cycles of immersion
and drying. During the immersion cycle, the sulphate salt solution penetrates the pores in
the aggregate. Partial or complete oven-drying dehydrates the sulphate salt precipitated
in the pores. The internal expansive force, derived from the rehydration of the sulphate
salt upon re-immersion, is intended to simulate the expansion of water upon freezing.
After completion of the required number of immersion and drying cycles, the sulphate
salt is washed out of the sample.
The sample is sieved through specified sieves somewhat smaller than the original sieves on
which a given size fraction was retained. The resulting weighted average loss for each size
fraction is used as the indication of durability of the aggregate. Lower losses indicate sounder
aggregate. The MORTH and IRC specify maximum losses of 12% and 18% when sodium
sulphate and magnesium sulphate are used, respectively. These requirements appear
reasonable considering specifications in other countries and the most comprehensive
aggregate research study ever taken in the US [5].
AASHTO T 103—Soundness of aggregates by freezing and thawing
This test is designed to furnish information for judging the soundness of aggregate subjected to
weathering. To perform the test, aggregate is washed and dried to constant mass at a
temperature of 110 5 °C and then separated into individual size fractions by sieving. There are
three procedures for immersion and saturation with water prior to the start of freezing-thawing
cycles. After completion of the specified number of cycles, samples are dried to constant
weight and sieved. The resulting weighted average loss for each size fraction is used as the
indication of soundness of the aggregate. The performance predictability of AASHTO T 103 is
unknown because it has not been used extensively.
2.7.7 Polish and Frictional Characteristics
The following test methods are used for determining the polish and frictional characteristics of
aggregates and highway pavements:
IS: 2386 (Part 4)—Polished stone value (PSV) of coarse aggregate
This standard test method has been adapted from ASTM E 303, “Measuring Surface
Frictional Properties Using the British Pendulum Tester”. It is used to determine the relative
effects of polishing on coarse aggregate. Samples are prepared by placing individual
aggregate particles in a mold and partially filling the mold with a bonding
agent such as epoxy. The resulting specimens have one face with exposed aggregate for
polishing and testing (Figure 2.34). The friction value of the sample before polishing is
determined first. The pendulum tester is leveled and zeroed, the height of the pendulum
adjusted so as to impact the same area of the test specimen at each test, and a thin film of
water applied to the specimen surface (Figure 2.35). The pendulum is released and a reading
of the arc swung through by the pendulum recorded. The arc is inversely related to the
frictional resistance of the sample.
Readings are then taken after polishing with the British polish wheel (ASTM D 3319). Values
are reported as the polished stone value (PSV). Nine hours of polishing has generally been
found to be adequate to obtain reasonably ultimate polished surface [21]. Polished stone values
are basically a measure of frictional resistance. Higher values indicate higher frictional
resistance and imply greater skid resistance. As specimens are polished, maintenance or
smaller reductions in frictional resistance indicates greater resistance to polishing. The
MORTH and IRC specify a minimum PSV of 55 for aggregate used in wearing course only.
Many asphalt mixes contain aggregate from more than one source, which further complicates
the delineation of the suitability of rock sources. This is often particularly true for fine
aggregate components. Because of the complexity of the problem, a test method such as IS:
2386 or ASTM E 303 that measures only the micro texture of coarse aggregate may not be
an efficient means of evaluating suitability for polish and friction resistance of asphalt
pavement surface. ASTM E 274 described later is more appropriate for measuring the overall
frictional resistance of the road surface.
Insoluble residue in carbonate aggregates (ASTM D 3042)
Limestone aggregates usually have a potential for polishing rather easily. However, there are
some limestones which contain high amounts of non-carbonated materials and have acceptable
polished stone values. This test gives the percentage of non-carbonate (acid insoluble) material
in carbonate aggregates, which may indicate indirectly the polish susceptibility or friction
properties. A 500 g sample of aggregate retained on 4.75 mm sieve, is put in a glass beaker
with 1000 ml of hydrochloric acid solution. The mixture of sample and acid is agitated until
effervescence stops. An additional 300 ml of acid is added and the procedure repeated until
effervescence stops. Next, the beaker is heated to 110 oC, and new acid added in increments
until effervescence stops. The aggregate residue is washed over a 0.075 mm sieve, dried and
sieved again. The weight of the material retained on the 0.075 mm sieve is determined and
expressed as a percentage of the original sample weight and reported as the insoluble residue.
Larger insoluble residues indicate larger percentages of siliceous minerals which are
considered more polish resistant than carbonate materials [30].
ASTM E 274—Skid resistance of paved surfaces using a full-scale tyre

Skid resistance of existing road surfaces can be determined with the locked-wheel skid trailer
which is towed by a vehicle. The skid trailer (usually with two wheels) is usually towed at a
test speed of 64 km/h. When the tyre reaches the test speed, water is jetted in front of the tyre
to wet the road surface. Either one or both wheels are then locked to measure the skid
resistance of the road surface. The resistance offered by the road surface is measured by a
torque applied to the trailer axle. This torque is converted into a numerical value called friction
number (FN). Higher friction numbers indicate greater frictional resistance [30].
It should be noted that the locked wheel trailer is the primary method for measuring pavement
surface friction properties. The British pendulum is the primary method for measuring
aggregate or mix polish and friction properties in the laboratory.
2.7.8 Properties of Mineral Filler Including the Material

Passing 0.075 mm Sieve
The MORTH and IRC specify gradation and plasticity index (PI) not exceeding 4 for mineral
filler. This is similar to practices in most countries including the US. The gradation is
specified as: 100% passing 0.6 mm sieve; 95% to 100% passing 0.3 mm sieve; and 85% to
100% passing the 0.075 mm sieve.
Plasticity index (PI) is determined in accordance with IS: 2720 (Part 5) —“Determination of
Liquid and Plastic Limit” or in accordance with ASTM D 4318. However, the PI is applicable
to the entire gradation of the mineral filler, which may contain as much as 30% material
retained on the 0.075 mm sieve. The PI limits are not suitable for hydrated lime and hydraulic
cement.
Most asphalt plants have sufficient bag house fines to meet the quantitative requirements of
the material passing the 0.075 mm sieve. Therefore, there is a need to characterise this
material. The following test methods have been used by some highway agencies and
researchers; some are also applicable to added mineral fillers [1, 22, 23].
AASHTO T 88 particle size analysis of soils (Hydrometer Method)

This test method has been used to determine the particle size distribution below 0.075
mm down to 0.001 mm.
Particle size distribution with automated laser device
Particle size distribution has also been conducted with automated laser device [1]. Fluid
suspension of water, surfactant and the mineral filler at the appropriate concentration level are
passed in front of a laser beam. The resulting light diffraction is detected and fitted to an
optical model (Fraunhofer model is recommended) which gives data output in terms of the
particle size distribution. The equipment can measure particle size down to 0.375 microns.
British standard (BS) 812—Rigden voids
Void content in fines compacted to maximum density (generally called Rigden voids)
appears to have good potential for characterising the fines. Void content is regulated by
four basic properties of fines—particle shape, particle size, particle-size distribution, and
particle surface structure [22]. A sample of vacuum-oven-dried fines is either vibrated in a
graduated cylinder or compacted in a small mold with a compaction hammer (as specified
in BS 812) to maximum packing. The void content in the compacted sample is calculated
from the bulk specific gravity of compacted fines and the apparent specific gravity of the
fine solids [5]. The voids in the filler at its closest packing are of major importance for the
behaviour of filler-asphalt systems [46, 47]. If filler is mixed with less bitumen than is
required to fill its voids, a stiff and dry product is obtained. Overfilling the voids with
bitumen, on the other hand, imparts a fluid character to the fines-bitumen mix. According
to Rigden’s concept, a portion of the bitumen can be regarded as “fixed” in the inter- and
intra-granular pores of the filler, while the remaining part of the bitumen is “free”.
Methylene blue test
The methylene blue test was described previously in the test for plastic fines in the fine
aggregate. This test has the potential for identifying those
materials in fines which are likely to be detrimental to the resistance of the asphalt mixtures
to moisture-induced damage such as stripping [5].
German filler test
The German filler test [5] measures the amount of fines or mineral filler required to absorb 15
g of hydraulic oil. The hydraulic oil is put in a small bowl, then 45 g of filler is added and
mixed. It is attempted to form a ball of this mixture. If a ball is formed and holds together,
more mineral filler is added in 5 g increments, until the mix loses cohesion and no ball can be
formed. At this time, all of the hydraulic oil is “fixed” in the voids of the mineral filler and
there is no excess to provide the necessary cohesion to hold the fine particle together. The
total amount of mineral filler added at this point is reported as the test value. It appears that
the simple German filler test provides information similar to Rigden voids.
2.7.9 Potential for Moisture Induced Damage (Stripping)
The following tests are conducted to determine the potential of aggregates for moisture
induced damage (stripping):
IS: 6241—Determination of stripping value of road aggregates
The MORTH and IRC: 111–2009 require that the coarse aggregate used in asphalt mix should
have minimum coating of 95% when tested with IS: 6241. In this test, coarse aggregate
passing 20 mm sieve and retained on 12.5 sieve is mixed with 5% bitumen, cooled, covered
with distilled water, and placed in water bath maintained at 40 oC for 24 h. On cooling, the
extent of stripping of bitumen is estimated visually while the mix is still under water. This test
is primarily used for screening coarse aggregate only. If a fine aggregate of different
mineralogical composition which is susceptible to stripping is used in the asphalt mix, then IS:
6241 alone does not indicate the asphalt mix susceptibility to moisture induced damage. That
is why the test method described next is necessary for testing the total mix.
AASHTO T 283—Resistance of compacted asphalt mixtures to moisture induced damage
AASHTO T 283 which was developed3 in the US has been incorporated in MORTH and
IRC standard, IRC: 111–2009 as a component of asphalt mix design [18]. An outline of this
test is given as annexure in the IRC standard.
Briefly, six test specimens of the designed mix are made with a Marshall compactor so that
compacted specimens have air voids of 7.0 +/– 0.5%. Three specimens are vacuum-saturated
with water and then subjected to one freeze and one thaw cycle.
The indirect tensile strength of these three conditioned specimens is determined and compared
with the indirect tensile strength of the unconditioned (control) specimens. The average
tensile strength of the conditioned specimens should be at least 80% of the average tensile
strength of the unconditioned specimens. That is, the retained tensile strength or tensile
strength ratio (TSR) should be at least 80% [18].
ASTM D 3625—Effect of water on bituminous coated aggregate using boiling water
Whereas the preceding AASHTO T 283 test is more reliable and gives a quantitative
measurement of stripping in terms of tensile strength, ASTM D 3625, “Boiling Water Test”
is essentially a subjective screening test for the bituminous mix to determine its potential for
stripping [18]. If an anti-stripping agent was required, this screening test can generally detect
its presence or absence in the asphalt mix. Asphalt mix sample can be obtained from truck or
paver and placed in a container of boiling distilled water and boiled for 10 min. After
cooling, water is decanted and the boiled asphalt mix is spread on a white paper towel. Visual
observation is made of percent retained coating, which is usually acceptable if it is at least
95%.
Summary
Properties of aggregate affect the performance of bitumionus pavements significantly. These
properties need to be determined by appropriate test methods and kept within recommended
limits to ensure desired performance of the pavement. Examples of some important aggregate
properties are as folllow:
Whereas cubical aggregate particles are preferred, the presence of flat and elongated (F&E)
aggregate particles is not desirable. Flakiness index and elongation index tests are used to
determine the amounts of F&E particles.
Aggregate should be clean in terms of dust and clay coatings, which inhibits the adhesion
between the bitumen binder and aggregate surface. Sand equivalent test is used to determine the
amount of dust and clay material in the aggregate.
Aggregate should be tough and resistant to abrasion to withstand degradation (breakdown of

particles) during construction and subsequently under traffic loading. Tests such as Los Angeles
abrasion test and aggregate impact test are used to evaluate toughness and abrasion resistance of
the aggregate.
3 AASHTO T 283 which is also referred to as modified Lottman test was developed by Kandhal by combining the
good features of the Lottman test method and the Root-Tunnicliff method.
Aggregate should also be durable and sound so that it can withstand weathering (wetting/drying
or freezing/thawing) in service. Test such as sodium sulphate or magnesium sulphate are used to
evaluate the soundness of aggregate to be used in asphalt course.
There is a need to adopt more rational and performance related aggregate tests in the future.
QUESTIONS
0 Briefly describe how aggregate properties can affect the performance of bituminous
pavements.
1 List the three principal geological rock types; describe how they were formed in nature; and
cite one example of each.
2 List and briefly describe three aggregate properties which are related to performance of
bituminous pavements.
3 Which test is most commonly used to determine the toughness and abrasion
resistance of aggregate? Briefly describe the test procedure.
4 Why soundness of aggregate is important? Briefly describe the test most commonly used
for determining the soundness.
5 Which three types of specific gravity of aggregate are used in asphalt mix design?
Differentiate between them in terms of weight/volume relationship using sketches.
0 Briefly describe the tests used for determining the potential of aggregates for moisture
induced damage (stripping).
1 Why the presence of plastic fines in the fine aggregate is detrimental to the asphalt
mix? Briefly describe the test commonly used for determining the presence and amount of
plastic fines.
2 Why thin and elongated coarse aggregate particles are not desirable in asphalt mixes?
3 Briefly describe the test used for determining the polish and frictional characteristics
of aggregate.
References
Ȁ⸀ĀᜀĀᜀĀᜀĀᜀĀᜀĀᜀĀᜀĀᜀЀĀȀ⸀ĀᜀĀᜀĀᜀĀᜀĀᜀĀᜀĀᜀĀ0 Roberts, F.L., P.S.
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Lanham, Maryland, 1996.
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(Ed.), The Aggregate Handbook, National Stone Association, Washington, DC,
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0
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0
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6 Kandhal, P.S., F. Parker, and D.A. Manglorkar, “Evaluation of Alabama Limestone

Aggregates for Asphalt Wearing Courses”, Transportation Research Board, Transportation
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Related to Performance of Asphalt Paving Mixtures”, Transportation Research Board,
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4 Kandhal, P.S., R.B. Mallick, and M. Huner, “Measuring Bulk Specific Gravity of Fine
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7 Kandhal, P.S. and L.A. Cooley Jr., “The Restricted Zone in the Superpave
Gradation Specification”, Transportation Research Board, National Cooperative
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8 Kandhal, P.S. and L.A. Cooley Jr., “Effect of Restricted Zone on Permanent
Deformation of Dense-Graded Superpave Mixtures”, ASTM Special Technical
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512
513Kandhal, P.S., J.B. Motter, and M.A. Khatri, “Evaluation of Particle Shape and Texture:
Manufactured Versus Natural Sands”, Transportation Research Record 1342, 1992.
514Kandhal, P.S., M.A. Khatri, and J.B. Motter, “Evaluation of Particle Shape and Texture of
Mineral Aggregates and Their Blends”, Journal of the Association of Asphalt Paving
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1
2
3 Wu, T., F. Parker, and P.S. Kandhal, “Aggregate Toughness/Abrasion Resistance and
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Suggested Readings
Benson, P.E. and W.H. Ames, “The Precision of Selected Aggregate Test Methods”,
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the Properties of Bituminous Aggregate Mixtures”, Proceedings Association of Asphalt
Paving Technologists, Vol. 36, 1967.
Campen, W.H. and J.R. Smith, “A Study of the Role of Angular Aggregates in the
Development of Stability in Bituminous Mixtures”, Proceedings of the Association of Asphalt
Chowdhury, A., J.W. Button, D. Wilson, E. Masad, and B.D. Prowell, “Image Analysis
Techniques to Determine Fine Aggregate Angularity, Aggregate Contribution to Hot Mix
Asphalt (HMA) Performance”, ASTM STP 1412, American Society for Testing and
Materials, 2001.
Day, H.L., “A Progress Report on Studies of Degrading Basalt Aggregate Bases”,

Highway Research Board Bulletin 344, 1962.
Fookes, P.G., C.S. Gourley, and C. Ohikere, “Rock Weathering in Engineering Time”,
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Goode, J.F. and L.A. Lufsey, “A New Graphical Chart for Evaluating Aggregate
Gradations”, Proceedings of the Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists, Vol. 31,
1962.
Hosking, R., “Road Aggregates and Skidding”, Transportation Research Laboratory,

State-of-the-Art Review 4, HMSO, London, 1992.
Hossain, M.S., F. Parker, and P.S. Kandhal, “Tests for Evaluating Fine Aggregate Particle
Shape, Angularity, and Surface Texture”, Transportation Research Board, Transportation
Huang, E.Y., “A Test for Evaluating the Geometric Characteristics of Coarse Aggregate
Particles”, Proceedings of ASTM, Vol. 62, 1962.
Hveem, F.N. and T.W. Smith, “A Durability Test for Aggregates”, Highway Research
Record 62, 1964.
Kandhal, P.S., S.A. Cross, and E.R. Brown, “Heavy Duty Asphalt Pavements in
Pennsylvania: Evaluation for Rutting”, Transportation Research Board,
Lees, G., “The Measurement of Particle Elongation and Flakiness: A Critical Discussion of
British Standard and Other Test Methods”, Magazine of Concrete Research, Vol. 16 (49),
1964.
Li, M.C. and I. Kett, “Influence of Coarse Aggregate Shape on the Strength of Asphalt
Concrete Mixtures”, Highway Research Record 178, 1967.
Livneh, M. and J. Greenstein, “Influence of Aggregate Shape on Engineering Properties
of Asphalt Paving Mixtures”, Highway Research Record 404, 1972.
Masad E., J.W. Button, and T. Papagiannakis, “Fine-Aggregate Angularity: Automated

Image Analysis Approach”, Transportation Research Board, Transportation Research
Record 1721, 2000.
Maupin, G.W., “Effect of Particle Shape and Surface Texture on the Fatigue Behaviour of
Asphalt Concrete”, Highway Research Record 313, 1970.
McLeod, N.W. and J.K. Davidson, “Particle Index Evaluation of Aggregates for Asphalt
Paving Mixtures”, Proceedings Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists, Vol. 50, 1981.
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Aggregate for Asphalt Concrete”, Transportation Research Board, Transportation Research
Record 1250, 1989.
Melville, P.L., “Weathering Study of Some Aggregates”, Proceedings Highway

Research Board, Vol. 28, 1948.
Minor, C.E., “Degradation of Mineral Aggregate”, Symposium on Road and Paving

Materials, American Society for Testing and Materials, STP 277, 1959.
Nijboer, L.W., “Plasticity as a Factor in the Design of Dense Bituminous Road Carpets”,
Elsevier, USA, 1948.
Sharif, R.L., “Fatigue Behaviour of Conventional and Rationally Designed Bituminous Mixes
on Simulated Subgrade”, Transportation Research Board, Transportation Research Record
549, 1975.
Stephens, J.E. and K.C. Sinha, “Effect of Aggregate Shape on Bituminous Mix
Characteristics”, Proceedings Association of Paving Technologists, Vol. 47, 1978.
Szymoniak, T., T.S. Vinson, J.E. Wilson, and N. Walker, “The Dimethyl Sulfoxide (DMSO)
Accelerated Weathering Test for Aggregates”, Geotechnical Testing Journal, American
Society for Testing and Materials, Vol. 10 (4), 1987.
Wedding, P.A. and R.D. Gaynor, “The Effect of Using Crushed Gravel as the Coarse and Fine
Aggregate in Dense Graded Bituminous Mixtures”, Proceedings of the Association of Asphalt
Winford, J.M., “Evaluation of Fine Aggregate Particle Shape and Texture and Its Effect
on Permanent Deformation of Asphalt Paving Mixtures”, Ph.D. Dissertation, Auburn
University, Alabama, 1991.
Woolf, D.O., “The Relation between Los Angeles Abrasion Test Results and the Service
Records of Coarse Aggregates”, Proceedings Highway Research Board, 1937.
Wu, T., F. Parker, and P.S. Kandhal, “Evaluation of Tests for Toughness/Abrasion
Resistance and Durability/Soundness of Coarse Aggregates”, Journal: Cement, Concrete and
Aggregates, Vol. 21 (1), 1999.
Hot Mix Asphalt Mix Design
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The purpose of hot mix asphalt mix design is to determine proper blend of aggregates and
paving bitumen to produce a mix which will perform as intended within the road pavement
structure.
Although various asphalt mix design procedures are available, the Marshall mix design is
most widely used in many countries of the world including India. Therefore, Marshall mix
design will be presented in detail in this chapter.
Superpave mix design method which is more rational than the Marshall mix design method
was adopted by the US in 1992. Since it may potentially be adopted in India in the near
future, it has been introduced in the chapter.
Some highway agencies like to “proof test” mix designs with simulative loaded wheel testers
such as Hamburg wheel. Recently, the US have developed the asphalt mixture performance
tests (AMPT) based on cutting-edge, fundamental technology to supplement the Superpave
mix design. Both simulative tests and AMPT have been discussed in this chapter.
3.2 HISTORY OF MIX DESIGN
No rational asphalt mix design system probably existed when earlier asphalt pavements were
constructed in the US in late 19th Century. At that time, sheet asphalt or sand asphalt mixes
were used with coal tar or Trinidad Lake asphalt as binders.
Cliff Richardson, considered a prominent asphalt paving technologist during that period,
obtained samples of those earlier pavements and analysed them. He understood the role of
mix proportioning and optimum bitumen content. He documented the important principles of
asphalt mix design including air void content and voids in the mineral aggregate (VMA) in his
book, The Modern Asphalt Pavement, back in 1905 [1].
3.2.1 The Pat Test
Richardson has described the so-called Pat Test in his book, which can probably be considered
as the first asphalt mix design to determine optimum bitumen content of fine graded mixes.
Pat samples of asphalt mixes containing different percentages of bitumen content were
prepared. A brown manila paper was then pressed against these pat samples resulting in
residual stains on the papers. A “heavy” stain meant too much binder and a “light” stain meant
too little binder. A “medium” stain meant the right or optimum binder content. Richardson
included illustrations of these stains in his historical book.
3.2.2 Hubbard–Field Method

Charles Hubbard and Frederick Field developed a test method in the mid-1920s for
determining the optimum bitumen content of fine graded asphalt mixes being commonly
used at that time. The maximum load developed when a mix specimen of 2 inches (50.8
mm) in diameter and 1 inch (25.4 mm) high was forced (extruded) through a smaller 1.75
inches (44.4 mm) diameter orifice, was recorded. That load was reported as the stability
value. Plots were made of bitumen content versus stability and optimum bitumen content
selected based on stability. This was perhaps the first attempt to quantify the asphalt mix
strength. This “extrusion” type test was applicable at that time because cars and trucks had
solid rubber tyres which had a punching effect on the pavement. Hubbard– Field method
became unpopular when solid tyres were replaced with pneumatic tyres which exerted
lesser contact pressure on the road surface and also the Marshall mix design method
appeared on the scene.
3.2.3 Hveem Mix Design Method
Francis Hveem of California developed the Hveem stabilometer to measure asphalt mix
stability at different bitumen contents. Specimens measuring 4 inches (101.6 mm) in diameter
and 2.5 inches (63.5 mm) high are compacted with a kneading compactor. A vertical load is
applied on the circular surface and the amount of vertical load transmitted horizontally is
measured indirectly through an oil media surrounding the specimen restrained in a neoprene
diaphragm. It appears like a pseudo-triaxial test. Development of the Hveem method took
place during 1930s and 1940s at about the same time as Marshall mix design method.
However, Hveem method was implemented only in California and some western states of the
US. Marshall method was adopted by a vast majority of states.
3.2.4 Marshall Mix Design Method
Bruce Marshall (Figure 3.1) of the Mississippi Highway Department in the US developed,
the earliest version of the Marshall mix design method in 1939. Later, the US Army Corps
of Engineers modified the test equipment and design procedures so that they could use it as
portable equipment for designing airfield pavements across the world during World War II.
Extensive laboratory and field experiments were conducted to establish a laboratory
compaction effort which would yield densities similar to those obtained in the field after
subjected to aircraft loadings. Based on those experiments, weight of the Marshall
compaction hammer, height of fall, and number of blows were finalised [2].
Later, the Marshall mix design method was used for designing asphalt mixes for roads.
Initially most mixes for roads were designed using 50 blows of Marshall hammer on each side
of specimen. However, due to increase in traffic and tyre pressures on major highways, the
number of blows was increased from 50 to 75. The fundamental requirement in Marshall mix
design method is that laboratory compaction should approximate the in-place density after 2 to
3 years of service under traffic. However, it is not easy because several factors such as traffic,
climatic conditions, construction density, and time of construction affect the in-place density
after 2 to 3 years. Therefore, laboratory compaction is at best a good approximation of field
density. Over the years, many states in the US modified the Marshall mix design criteria in
different ways [3, 4].
The Marshall mix design method has the following limitations:

1. It involves empirical rather than rational method of measuring strength (stability) and
strain (flow).
2. Adequate specified stability does not necessarily mean that the mix has adequate resistance to
permanent deformation (rutting).
3. Since the laboratory specimens are compacted with impact loads from a hammer, the
orientation of aggregate particles may not be similar to that obtained in the field under rollers.
4. Since the traffic loads and tyre pressures have increased substantially during and after the
1980s, even 75 blow Marshall compaction cannot simulate the high in-service density obtained
in the field under traffic.
Superpave mix design method (discussed next) was adopted in the US to overcome most of the
preceding limitations of the Marshall mix design method. Nonetheless Marshall mix design is
still a good tool for establishing optimum bitumen content for a given specific blend of
aggregates. Since it is still specified and used in India, it will be discussed in detail in Section
3.4 of this chapter.
3.2.5 Superpave Mix Design Method
A five-year, 50 million dollar US Strategic Highway Research Program (SHRP) was undertaken
in 1987 for developing a new system for specifying asphalt materials and mixtures. Superpave,
short for Superior Performing Asphalt Pavements, was the final product of SHRP. Superpave
includes a new system for selecting performance based asphalt binder grades and stringent
requirements for mineral aggregates. A new hot mix asphalt mix design procedure using
Superpave gyratory compactor was developed [5]. Brief introduction to the Superpave mix
design method is discussed in Section 3.6 of this chapter.
3.3 OBJECTIVES AND ELEMENTS OF MIX DESIGN
3.3.1 Objectives
Asphalt mix design primarily involves selecting and proportioning materials (aggregate and
bitumen) to obtain desired properties in the mix. The overall objective for asphalt mix design is
to determine appropriate gradation of aggregates and optimum bitumen content, which would
ensure the following [1]:
23 1. Sufficient bitumen to ensure a durable asphalt pavement.
24 2. Sufficient mix strength to withstand traffic without significant rutting.
25 3. Adequate range of air voids usually 3% to 5% in the compacted asphalt mix. Minimum
3% is required to allow for additional compaction under traffic and to allow room for expansion
of bitumen during hot summer without flushing, bleeding and loss of stability. Maximum 5% is
required so that the mix is not too permeable to air which can cause premature hardening
(oxidation) of bitumen and not too permeable to water which can cause moisture induced
damage (stripping).
23
24 4. Sufficient workability to ensure smooth and efficient placement of the designed mix
without segregation in the field.
25 5. Sufficient skid or frictional resistance in case of wearing course mix when the pavement is
wet. This can be ensured by selecting aggregate which has rough surface texture and is resistant
to polishing by traffic.
26 6. Sufficient resistance to moisture induced damage. Stripping of bitumen from aggregate

surface can take place in presence of moisture or water especially if there is lack of
compatibility between aggregate and bitumen. In such cases, anti-stripping agent (liquid or
hydrated lime) has to be used in the asphalt mix.
Two other desirable mix properties which are not evaluated in the Marshall mix design method
are: (a) resistance to fatigue cracking, and (b) resistance to low temperature cracking.
The final mix design should achieve a good balance between all desired mix properties. Since
Marshall mix design method is not based on performance, it is necessary to select a measured
parameter that best reflects all desired properties. Extensive research has hown that air void
content is that parameter. Its acceptable range is 3% to 5%. Therefore, it is desirable to select
the optimum bitumen content which yields 4% air voids.
3.3.2 Gradation and Blending of Aggregates
Gradation
Aggregate gradation specifications for asphalt mixes have been developed by the Indian Roads
Congress (IRC) and the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MORTH) through
accumulated field experience like any other highway agencies. Most specifications require
dense graded aggregate gradations of different sizes to optimise desirable mix properties for
different bituminous courses in the pavement [6, 7]. Effect of mix gradation on rutting potential
of dense graded asphalt mixes has been researched extensively [8, 9, 10] and has been used to
shape mix gradations over the years.
Theoretically, it would seem reasonable that the gradation which gives the densest aggregate
particle packing is the best. Such gradation with maximum density usually provides increased
stability due to increased inter-particle contacts and reduced voids in the mineral aggregate.
However, these densest gradations may not provide sufficient room for enough bitumen
binder to ensure mix durability and enough air voids space to avoid bleeding and/or rutting
as discussed earlier. Such dense gradations are also more sensitive to the changes in bitumen
content during mix production. This can be solved by slightly deviating from the maximum
density line which was discussed in detail in Chapter 2 on aggregates.
Mix design of asphalt mixes requires aggregate gradation analysis and blending of
aggregates to obtain the desired gradation within the specified range in the project
specifications.The selected gradation should also yield a mix which satisfies the criteria of
the Marshall mix design.
Usually a “single aggregate” is not available commercially which has the desired
gradation. Different “sized aggregates” such as 20 mm, 10 mm and stone dust (called fine
aggregate in the US) are available which need to be combined (blended) to obtain the
desired gradation. The following laboratory procedures are necessary to achieve this
objective [1, 11]:
1. Obtain representative samples of all available aggregates from aggregate stockpiles.

Do not obtain samples at the bottom or top of the stockpiles; rather in the middle after
removing about 150 mm of the surface material.
23 2. Dry all aggregate samples to constant weight at 105 ºC to 110 ºC. Use separate
pans for each aggregate sample.
23 3. Perform dry and washed sieve analysis and specific gravity tests on all samples
including mineral filler. Perform dry sieve analysis as per ASTM C and washed sieve
analysis as per procedure in ASTM C 117. It is necessary to perform washed sieve analysis
so that the actual dust content (material passing 0.075 mm sieve) can be obtained. In dry
gradation analysis, the dust adhering to the aggregate particles is not accounted for. If the
aggregate is clean, dry sieve analysis may be accurate enough. To conduct a dry sieve
analysis split the sample of the aggregate size specified in the test; determine its total dry
weight; pour it on a set of sieves and shake; weigh the material retained on each sieve;
determine the percent retained on each sieve; and calculate the percent passing each sieve.
To conduct the washed sieve analysis, first wash the aggregate with water over 0.075 mm
sieve; dry it; weigh it; pour over the set of sieves; shake it; weigh the material retained on
each sieve; and calculate the percent material passing each sieve.
5888 4. Plot the gradation of each aggregate source on a gradation chart preferably the 0.45
power gradation chart (Figure 3.2) discussed in detail in the chapter on aggregates. The
specified gradation band should also be plotted.
23 5. Compute the blend of aggregate required to produce the desired mix gradation using
the full gradation of each individual aggregate as discussed next.
Blending of Aggregates
Blending of two or more different sized aggregates to achieve the gradation within the
specification band largely involves trial and error. Although mathematical and graphical
methods or computer programs can be used sometimes for advantage, the final tweaking of
blend proportions may still require some trial and error.
Computer spread sheets (such as Excel) can be used to assist in quickly evaluating a number
of alternative blends and also in plotting the gradation with respect to specified band of
gradation. Both trial and error and mathematical methods are explained in this chapter since
graphical methods are used rarely.
From the gradation plot which shows individual aggregate gradations and the specification
band (with mid-range gradation), it is easy to discern that the individual aggregate closer to
the target gradation will more likely be used in larger proportions compared to the
gradations farther away (Figure 3.3).
Mathematical Method: The following two basic equations are used to determine
proportions of two or more aggregates to be blended [1, 11]:
P = Aa + Bb + Cc + ………………………….(3.1)
a + b + c + … = 1.00…………………………(3.2)
Where,
P = Percentage of the combined aggregate passing a given sieve A, B, C, …
Percentage of material passing a given sieve for the individual aggregates a, b, c, … =
Proportions of the individual aggregates used in the combination, their total being 1.00
The combined percentage P in Eq. (3.1) for each of the different sieve sizes should be
reasonably close to the median (mid-range) gradation of the specified band and in no case
should fall outside the band. More importance should be given to two specific sieve sizes: (a)
the sieve that has about 40% to 50% of material through it, usually it is 4.75 mm or 2.36 mm
sieve, and (b) the 0.075 mm sieve which controls the amount of dust or filler in the mix. The
objective should be to first make the material passing these two important sieves reasonably
close to the median of the specified band. Then, further trial and error attempts can be made
to bring the other sieves reasonably within the band.
It is also helpful to note which aggregate contributes most of the material passing through
a specific sieve and then establish “initial” blend proportions based on gradations on that
critical sieve.
An example of the mathematical method for blending two aggregates follows:

Table 3.1 gives the gradations of two aggregates A and B which need to be blended to satisfy
the specification gradation range also shown in the table. The 2.36 mm sieve can be
considered as the critical sieve because it generally divides the coarse and fine aggregates.
The median gradation shows 40% as the target ( Q) for material passing the 2.36 mm sieve.
Mathematical method can be used to calculate the blend proportions of aggregates A
and B to achieve this target as follows:
Aa + Bb = Q………………………….(3.3)
a + b = 1…………………………….(3.4)
Considering the material passing 2.36 mm in Eq. (3.3), 2.2
a + 82.5 b = 40………………………(3.5)
Multiplying Eq. (3.4) with 2.2, we get 2.2a + 2.2 b = 2.2……………………..(3.6)
Subtracting Eq. (3.6) from Eq. (3.5), we get (82.5 – 2.2) b = 40 – 2.2 = 37.8
By solving above, we get b = 0.471 (that is 47.1%)
Therefore, a = 100 – 47.1 = 52.9%
Therefore, blend proportions for aggregates A and B are 52.9% and 47.1%, respectively.
Using these blend proportions, the gradation of the blend is shown in Table 3.1. It is
reasonably close to the median gradation and is within the specified range. However, it is
quite common to fine tune the blend proportions further through trial and error especially if
there is some problem with the 0.075 mm sieve.
Trial and Error Method: An example of applying trial and error method for blending two
aggregates is as follows:
Refer to Table 3.2 which gives gradations for two aggregates A and B; gradation band as
specified; and target (median) gradation to be achieved. After a review of these gradations, a
guess is made to use 40% aggregate A and 60% aggregate B. The resulting blend is shown in
Table 3.2. However, it can be seen this trial resulted in a gradation coarser than the target
gradation.
Since aggregate B has a lot of fines, it was decided to increase its percentage from 60% to
65% as shown in Table 3.3. The resulting blend is reasonably closer to the target gradation
especially 1.18 mm sieve size. Any further increase of aggregate B would not be desirable
because the gradation would become much finer on 4.75 mm, 0.15 mm and 0.075 mm sieves.
3.3.3 Determining Laboratory Batch Weights for Preparing Asphalt Mixes
After blending proportions are established which satisfy the specified gradation band, it
is time to prepare asphalt mixes weighing in each size fraction. That is, laboratory batch
weighs have to be computed. It is considered convenient to use the same weight of
aggregate in each batch of trial mixes containing different bitumen contents. This way,
the only variable is the amount of bitumen binder to be added to prepare the mix [11].
The objective of batching is to ensure that the laboratory blend matches closely with the
field aggregate blend. Therefore, different size aggregate stockpiles must maintain
reasonably consistent gradation. Table 3.4 gives the average gradation of 4 different sized
aggregates taken from the stockpiles to produce DBM grading 2 mix. Blending
calculations established the proportion of each aggregate to be used to meet the specified
band, which is given in the table. The objective is to compute batch weights to prepare the
asphalt mix with different bitumen content for the mix design.
For any research related to aggregate gradation, one may want to divide each stockpile into all
sieve sizes given in the specification. However, for routine mix design purposes, it is quite
accurate and practical to breakdown aggregate from each stockpile into the following 5
fractions only:
Plus 19.0 mm
Passing 19.0 mm; retained on 9.5 mm
Passing 2.36 mm
Next, for each aggregate the percentages passing/retained for the preceding 5 fractions are
calculated as shown in Table 3.5. All percentages add to 100.
The objective is to make several batches of aggregate, each batch typically weighing 1200 g
to make one Marshall specimen. The weight of each aggregate stockpile size fraction is
determined as follows: batch weight (1200 g) times the percentage of each aggregate in the
total blend needed times the percentage of each stockpile fraction. Calculations are shown
in Table 3.6.
If there is an aggregate fraction which represents less than one percent of a stockpile and there
is another stockpile of the same aggregate type, substitutions can be made. For example, Table
3.5 shows that the 4.75 mm to 2.36 mm fraction of aggregate A is only 0.2% (less than one
percent). If aggregate B happens to be of the same mineralogy type, the amount of this size
fraction supposed to come from aggregate A can rather be obtained from aggregate B.
To keep the weighing of aggregate batches simple, the total weight of aggregate (in this case
1200 g) would be kept the same and the weight of bitumen would be varied to obtain different
bitumen contents in the mix. The weight of bitumen required for each batch is determined by
dividing the aggregate batch weight (1200 g) by one minus the bitumen content (expressed as
a decimal) as shown in Table 3.7. For example, the weight of bitumen for the 5% bitumen
content by weight of mix is calculated as follows:
Total batch weight = 1200/(1 – 0.05) = 1263.2

Weight of bitumen = 1263.2 – 1200 = 63.2 g
Thus, each batch of aggregates is prepared by starting with a tared pan and adding all
aggregate fractions one by one as per weights shown in Table 3.6.
3.3.4 Bitumen Film Thickness
The concept of “average” bitumen film thickness in asphalt mix based on aggregate surface
area was discussed in detail in Section 2.6.3 of the chapter on aggregates [12, 13]. The
necessary calculations for obtaining the bitumen film thickness based on gradation and
bitumen content of the asphalt mix was demonstrated [11]. Some highway agencies in the US
require that the average bitumen film thickness be calculated based on the final gradation and
optimum bitumen content obtained from Marshall or Superpave mix design. The calculated
bitumen film thickness should meet or exceed the specified thickness (generally between 6
and 8 microns).
3.3.5 Volumetric Properties of Compacted Specimens
As mentioned earlier, specimens of asphalt mixes are made in laboratory using a compactive
effort which would result in a compacted density reasonably close to the expected field
density after 2 to 3 years’ densification by traffic. It has been determined that the volumetric
properties of laboratory or field compacted asphalt mix specimens give some indication of
expected in-service performance of the asphalt pavement. The volumetric properties or
parameters include voids in the mineral aggregate (VMA), air voids (Va), and voids filled
with bitumen (VFB). This chapter shall define these void parameters and shall give test
procedures/calculations for obtaining them.
Figure 3.4 illustrates three constituents of a compacted asphalt mix: mineral aggregate;
bitumen (labelled as asphalt); and air voids which occupy certain individual volume in it. Let
us imagine bitumen has been removed completely from the compacted specimen as shown in
Figure 3.4. The resulting inter-granular space between the mineral aggregate particles is
called voids in mineral aggregate (VMA). Air voids (Va) are the air pockets between
bitumen coated aggregate particles as shown in this figure. The space or volume occupied by
the bitumen within the VMA, expressed as a percentage, is called voids filled with bitumen
(VFB). It is also called voids filled with asphalt (VFA) in the Asphalt Institute MS-2 [11].
Figure 3.5 shows the weight-volume relationships of a compacted asphalt mix specimen.
Bitumen has been labeled as “asphalt” in the figure. Volumes of all constituents (air,
binder, absorbed binder and aggregate) are shown on left and their respective weights are
shown on the right of the diagram (weight of air being zero).
Let us assume the total volume of the compacted specimen = 100 cc; volume of air ( Va) = 4.0
cc; volume of effective (unabsorbed) binder ( Vbe) = 9.8 cc; and volume of mineral aggregate (
Vs) = 85 cc.
Voids in mineral aggregate (VMA): The VMA is equal to volume of air plus volume of
effective (unabsorbed) binder expressed as a percentage of total volume of specimen.
Therefore, in this example VMA = (4.0 + 9.8)/100 = 13.8%.
Air voids: Air voids is equal to the volume of air expressed as a percentage of total volume
of specimen. Therefore, in this example air voids = 4.0/100 = 4.0%.
Voids filled with bitumen (VFB): The VFB is equal to the volume of effective (unabsorbed)
binder (bitumen) expressed as a percentage of VMA. Therefore, in this example VFB =
9.8/13.8= 71.0%.
Bitumen content by weight of total mix: Total volume of binder (bitumen) =9.8+1.2=
11.0 cc. Weight of binder (assuming its specific gravity is 1.00) = 11.0 g.
Weight of aggregate in the specimen (assuming its specific gravity is 2.700) = (volume)
(specific gravity) = (85) (2.700) = 229.5 g.
Total weight of mix in the specimen = weight of aggregate plus weight of total binder =
229.5 + 11.0 = 240.5 g.
Bitumen content by weight of total mix = (11/240.5) 100 = 4.57%.
Bitumen absorbed by weight of aggregate and by weight of total mix:

Let us assume the volume of absorbed bitumen (binder) = 1.2 cc. Weight of binder
(assuming its specific gravity is 1.00) = 1.2 g.
Weight of aggregate in the mix = 229.5 g. Percent bitumen absorbed by weight of

aggregate = (1.2/229.5)100 = 0.52%.
Weight of total mix = 240.5 g. Percent bitumen absorbed by weight of total mix =
(1.2/240.5)100 = 0.50%.
3.3.6 Procedures for Analysing Compacted Asphalt Mix
The following measurements and calculations need to be made for void analysis of
compacted asphalt mix:
0 1. Measure the bulk specific gravity of the coarse aggregate (ASTM C 127) and the fine
aggregate (ASTM C 128). These were discussed in the chapter on aggregates.
1 2. Measure the specific gravity of the mineral filler if used (ASTM D 854).
2 3. Measure the specific gravity of the bitumen (ASTM D 70 or IS: 1202).
3 4. Calculate the bulk specific gravity of the combined aggregates using blend proportions of
different aggregates.
5. Measure the theoretical maximum specific gravity of the loose asphalt mix prepared near
optimum bitumen content (ASTM D 2041). The outline of this test is given as annexure
to IRC: 111–2009 “Specification for Dense Graded Bituminous Mixes” [6]. The
optimum test conditions for conducting this test have been established based on
extensive research [14]. Under no circumstances, the theoretical maximum specific
gravity of the mix should be calculated by formula. It must be measured by testing the
loose mix.
0 6. Measure the bulk specific gravity of the compacted specimen of the asphalt mix
(ASTM D 2726). It involves weighing the specimen in air and under water.
0 7. Calculate the effective specific gravity of the combined aggregate.
1 8. Calculate the theoretical maximum specific gravity of the loose asphalt mix at other
2 bitumen contents used in the mix design.
3 9. Calculate the percentage bitumen absorbed by the mineral aggregate.

0
10. Calculate the effective bitumen content of the asphalt mix.
1 11. Calculate voids in the mineral aggregate (VMA) in compacted

2 specimens.
3 12. Calculate air voids in the compacted specimens.
4 13. Calculate voids filled with bitumen (VFB).
5 14. Summarise all test data.
EXAMPLE: Table 3.8 gives all measured test data for the example.
3.3.7 Bulk Specific Gravity of Total Aggregate ( Gsb) Since the total aggregate consists of
different fractions of aggregates all having different specific gravity values, the bulk specific
gravity of the total aggregate ( Gsb) is calculated using the following equation:
Where,
Gsb = Bulk specific gravity of total aggregate P 1, P 2, Pn = Individual percentage of each

aggregate fractions by weight of total aggregate G 1, G 2, Gn = Individual bulk specific
gravity of each aggregate fraction Since it is difficult to measure the bulk specific gravity of
filler, its apparent specific gravity can reasonably substituted for bulk specific gravity.
Using the test data from Table 3.8 and proportions of different aggregate, Eq.
(3.7) has been solved as follows:
3.3.8 Effective Specific Gravity of Aggregate ( Gse) The effective specific gravity of
aggregate ( Gse) is calculated from the following equation:
Where,
Gse = Effective specific gravity of aggregate
Gmm = Maximum specific gravity of voidless loose asphalt mix Pmm = Percent by
weight of total loose mix = 100
Pb = Bitumen content at which Gmm was determined, percent Gb = Specific gravity of
bitumen
Using the test data in Table 3.8, Eq. (3.8) is solved as follows:
3.3.9 Maximum Specific Gravity ( Gmm) of Voidless Mixtures with Different
Bitumen Contents
It is necessary to determine the maximum specific gravity ( Gmm) of all mixes with different
bitumen contents to calculate the amount of air voids in all those mixes. However, it is not
necessary to measure Gmm for all mixes. It is better to measure Gmm of the mix containing
bitumen content close to the optimum and then determine the effective specific gravity ( Gse)
of the aggregate used in all mixes. Then, that Gse value can be used to calculate Gmm of all
other mixes containing different bitumen contents using the following equation:
Where,
Gmm = Maximum specific gravity of voidless asphalt mix Pmm = Percent by weight of
loose asphalt mix = 100
Ps = Aggregate content percent by weight of mix Gse = Effective specific gravity of
aggregate used in mix Gb = Specific gravity of bitumen
Using the specific gravity test data from Table 3.8 and the effective specific gravity, Gse,
determined earlier, the Gmm at bitumen content ( Pb) of 4.0% would be:
3.3.10 Bitumen Absorption ( Pba)
Usually bitumen absorption ( Pba) is expressed as a percentage by weight of aggregate rather

than as a percentage of total weight of mix. Bitumen absorption is calculated by using the
following equation:
Where,
Pba = Percent absorbed bitumen by weight of aggregate Gse = Effective specific gravity
of aggregate
Gsb = Bulk specific gravity of aggregate
Using the bulk specific gravity and effective specific gravity of the aggregate determined
earlier (Tables 3.8 and 3.9), percent bitumen absorbed, Pba, is determined as follows:
3.3.11 Effective Bitumen Content ( Pbe) of Asphalt Mixes The effective bitumen content
( Pbe) of asphalt mix is its total bitumen content minus percent bitumen absorbed by the
aggregate particles. It is the effective bitumen outside the aggregate which really acts as
glue and determines the performance of the asphalt mix. The Pbe can be calculated with the
following equation:
Using the test data

from Tables 3.8 and 3.9, Eq. (3.11) is solved as follows:
3.3.12 Percent VMA in Compacted Asphalt Mix
As discussed earlier, VMA is the intergranular space between aggregate particles in

compacted asphalt mix. It can be calculated by subtracting the volume of aggregate
(determined by its bulk specific gravity) from the total bulk volume of the compacted
specimen. The following equation is used.
Where,
VMA = Voids in mineral aggregate, percent of bulk volume Gsb = Bulk specific gravity of
total aggregate Gmb = Bulk specific gravity of compacted mix specimen Ps = Aggregate
content, percent by weight of total mix Using the data from Tables 3.8 and 3.9, Eq. (3.12) for
VMA is solved as follows:
3.3.13 Percent Air Voids (Va) in Compacted Mix Specimen
The air voids, Va, in the compacted mix specimen consist of small air spaces between the
bitumen coated aggregate particles. Air voids as percentage by volume of the compacted
specimen can be determined by the following equation:
Where,
Va = Air voids in compacted specimen, percent of total volume Gmm = Maximum specific
gravity of the voidless asphalt mix Gmb = Bulk specific gravity of compacted specimen
Using the data from Tables 3.8 and 3.9, Eq. (3.13) is solved as follows:
3.3.14 Percent VFB in Compacted Mix Specimen
The voids filled with bitumen, VFB, is the percentage of intergranular void space between
the aggregate particles, i.e., VMA, that are filled with bitumen (absorbed bitumen is not
considered).The VFB can be calculated using the following equation:
Where,VFB = Voids filled with bitumen as percent of VMA
VMA = Voids in mineral aggregate, percent of bulk volume of compacted specimen Va = Air
voids in the compacted specimen, percent of total volume Using the data from Table 3.9, Eq.
(3.14) is solved as follows
The values of all calculated properties including the void parameters are summarised in
Table 3.9.
3.4 MARSHALL MIX DESIGN PROCEDURES
The following Marshall mix design procedures need to be followed: 3.4.1
Evaluation of Paving Bitumen and Aggregates
Before developing the Marshall mix design, representative samples of paving bitumen and
aggregates proposed to be used on the project should be collected. These samples must be
tested and must meet all specification criteria as laid down in MORTH specifications [7] and
IRC: 111–2009 “Specifications for Dense Graded Bituminous Mixes” [6]. Test methods for
testing paving bitumen and mineral aggregates were described in Chapters 1 and 2,
respectively.
Normally, VG-30 paving bitumen is used for most asphalt projects in India. Determine its
specific gravity, and viscosity at 60 oC and viscosity at 135 oC. Plot the temperature-viscosity
graph as shown in Figure 3.6 using these two viscosity values. Mixing temperature should be
selected to provide a viscosity of 170 +/– 20 centistokes (cSt). Compaction temperature
should be selected to provide a viscosity of 280 +/– 30 (cSt). In case of polymer modified
bitumen (PMB), recommendations of the manufacturer should be followed.
3.4.2 Preparation and Testing of Marshall Mix Specimens for Determining

Optimum Bitumen Content
The Asphalt Institute refers to ASTM D 1559 in MS-2 (Sixth edition) for preparing and
testing Marshall specimens. However, the ASTM has deleted D 1559 and replaced it with the
following two ASTM standards:
0 ASTM D 6926, “Practice for Preparation of Bituminous Specimens Using Marshall
Apparatus”
1 ASTM D 6927, “Test Method for Marshall Stability and Flow of Asphalt Mixtures”
It is recommended to use the preceding two ASTM standards in lieu of the deleted ASTM
D 1559.
The following steps are needed to complete the Marshall mix design [1]:
Step A (Preparation of compacted specimens and testing for specific gravity)
A1: Dry and sieve aggregates into sizes mentioned in the last section on batching and store in
clean containers. Separate sufficient aggregate to make 18 specimens of approximately 1150 g
or 1200 g each. In this example, we will use 1150 g. Minimum aggregate and bitumen
requirements to develop optimum bitumen content for a given gradation are 25 kg and 4 litres,
respectively.
A2: Weigh out 18 specimens placing each in a separate container and heat to mixing
temperature determined earlier (Figure 3.7). However, the total aggregate weight should be
established after preparing and testing a trial specimen described next. Bitumen should also be
heated to mixing temperature in oven (Figure 3.8).
A3: Preparation of a trial specimen is generally desirable prior to preparing all specimens.
Measure height ( h 1) of the compacted trial specimen and check against the height
requirement of 2.50 +/– 0.20 inches (63.5 +/– 5.1 mm) for Marshall specimen. If specimen
height is outside the permissible range, adjust the quantity of aggregate using the following
formula (in inches): Q = (2.50/ h 1)1150 g………………….(3.15)
Where,
Q = Weight of aggregate to produce a 2.50-inch tall specimen, gram
h 1 = Height of the trial specimen, inch
A4: Heat a sufficient amount of bitumen to prepare 18 specimens. Three compacted

specimens each should be prepared at 5 different bitumen contents. Bitumen contents are
usually selected in 0.5% increments with at least two bitumen contents above estimated
“optimum” and at least two below “optimum”. See appropriate specifications for a guide on
approximate “optimum”bitumen content or the estimate of optimum can be based on
experience. Three loose mixture specimens should be made near the optimum bitumen content
to measure the theoretical maximum specific gravity. (As mentioned earlier, do not compute
the theoretical maximum specific gravity by a formula; actually measure it with the vacuum
method.) The precision of the test is best when the mixture is close to the optimum bitumen
content. It is preferable to measure the maximum specific gravity in triplicate. After averaging
the results from these three tests and calculating the effective specific gravity of the aggregate,
the maximum specific gravity for the other four bitumen contents can be calculated using the
formula given earlier.
A5: Review appropriate specifications to determine the number of blows to be applied per
side. In India, MORTH specifies 75 blows per side for all roads. However, for city streets
which do not carry heavy traffic, it is recommended to apply 50 blows per side otherwise a
dry, less durable asphalt mix would result.
A6: Remove hot aggregate, place on a scale, and add the proper weight of bitumen in a crater
made in the aggregate to obtain the desired percentage of bitumen (Figure 3.9).
A7: Mix bitumen and aggregate until all the aggregate is coated. Mixing can be by hand, but a
mechanical mixer is preferred. When mixing is done by hand, place the mixing bowl on a hot
plate to ensure mix does not cool while mixing.
A8: Check temperature of freshly mixed material; if it is above the compaction temperature,
allow it to cool to compaction temperature; if it is below compaction temperature, discard
the material and make a new mix. Some states in the US permit mixes to be placed back in
the oven to be reheated. Some states require one-hour oven curing time (similar to
Superpave) after laboratory mixing to simulate short-term bitumen hardening (aging) which
takes place during mixing, transportation and paving operations in the field. In case of
absorptive aggregates, this oven curing also ensures absorption of bitumen by aggregate
which may be sometimes time dependent [3, 15, 16].
A9: Place a paper disc into an assembled, preheated Marshall mold and pour in loose asphalt
mix (Figure 3.10). Check the temperature again. Spade the mixture with a heated spatula or
trowel 15 times around the perimeter and 10 times over the interior. Remove the collar and
mound materials inside mold so that middle is slightly higher than edges. Attach mold and
base plate to pedestal. Place preheated hammer in mold, and apply the appropriate number of
blows (usually 75 blows in India) to top side of specimen (Figure 3.11).
A10: Remove the mold from base plate. Place a paper disc on top of specimen and rotate
the mold 180 degrees so that top surface is on bottom. Replace mold collar and attach mold
and base plate to pedestal. Place hammer in mold and apply the same number of blows to
bottom as were applied to the top.
A11: Remove paper filters from top and bottom of specimens. Cool specimens and extrude
from mold using a hydraulic jack. Place identification marks on each specimen with an
alphanumeric code using a grease pencil. Allow specimens to sit at room temperature
overnight before further testing. Figure 3.12 shows 15 specimens made at 5 different bitumen
contents.
A12: Determine the bulk specific gravity ( Gmb) of each specimen by weighing in air.
Submerge samples in water and allow saturating prior to getting submerged weight in saturate
surface dry (SSD) condition (Figure 3.13). Remove sample and weigh in air in SSD condition.
This test is conducted in accordance with ASTM D 1188. Another method which can be used
is the ASTM D 6752, “Test Method for bulk Specific Gravity and Density of Compacted
Bituminous Mixture Using Automatic Vacuum Sealing Method”.
A13: Measure the maximum specific gravity of the loose asphalt mix samples in
accordance with ASTM D 2041. Figure 3.14 shows typical testing equipment with
vacuum arrangement.
This specific gravity is required for voids analysis. If the mix contains absorptive aggregate, it
is recommended to place the loose mix in an oven (maintained at the mix temperature) for at
least one hour so that the bitumen binder is completely absorbed by the aggregate prior to
testing. Keep the mix in a covered container while in the oven. If the test is run in triplicate on
the mix containing near optimum bitumen content, average the three results, calculate the
effective specific gravity of the aggregate, and then calculate the maximum specific gravity
for the remaining four mixes with different bitumen contents.
Step B (Determination of Marshall stability and flow)
B1: Heat the water bath to 60 oC and place specimens to be tested in the bath for at least
30 min but not more than 40 min (Figure 3.15). Place specimens in the bath in a
staggered manner to ensure that all specimens have been heated for the same length of
time before testing.
Use a water bath large enough to hold all specimens prepared for the mix design.
B2: After heating for the required amount of time, remove a specimen from the bath, pat
with towel to remove excess water, and quickly place in the Marshall testing head (Figure
3.16).
B3: Bring loading ram into contact with testing head. Zero the flow gauge, and place the
gauge on rod of testing head (Figure 3.17). Zero the pens if using a load-deformation recorder
(Figure 3.18). Apply load at 2 inches/min (50 mm/min) until maximum load is reached.
When load just begins to decrease, remove the flow meter, stop ram movement, and record
stability (maximum load) in lbs (or kN) and flow in 0.01 inch (0.25 mm). Testing should be
completed within 1 min from the time specimen is removed from hot water bath.
B4: Repeat Steps B2 and B3 until all specimens have been tested.
Step C (Calculation of mix volumetrics)
Refer to the section on weight volume relationship in this chapter to complete the
calculations in the following sub-steps:
C1: For each specimen, use the bulk specific gravity ( Gmb) from Step A12 and the maximum
specific gravity ( Gmm) from A13 to calculate the percent air voids (Va) as follows:
………………………………………………………………
C2: Calculate the VMA for each Marshall specimen using the bulk specific gravity of the
aggregate ( Gsb) and the bulk specific gravity of the compacted mix ( Gmb), and the
percentage of aggregate by weight of total mix ( Ps) as follows
………………………………………………………
C3: Calculate the voids filled with bitumen (VFB) for each Marshall specimen using
the air voids and VMA as follows:
……………………………………….
Step D (Preparation of plots)
D1: Tabulate results from testing, correct stability for specimen height (ASTM D 6927),
and calculate average of each set of 3 specimens. Table 3.10 shows a suggested summary
of all test data obtained for mix design for BC grading 2 [11].
D2: Prepare the following 6 plots on graph paper (Figure 3.19):
 Bitumen content versus bulk specific gravity (or density or unit weight)
 Bitumen content versus Marshall stability
 Bitumen content versus flow
 Bitumen content versus air voids
 Bitumen content versus VMA
 Bitumen content versus VFB
D3: Review the plots for the following common trends [11]:
 Stability usually increases with increasing bitumen content, reaches a peak, and then
decreases.
 Flow should increase with increasing bitumen content.
 Density increases with increasing bitumen content, reaches a peak, and then
decreases.
 Peak density usually occurs at higher bitumen content than peak stability.
 Percent air voids should decrease with increasing bitumen content.
 Percent VMA decreases with increasing bitumen content, reaches a minimum,

and then increases.
 Percent VFB increases with increasing bitumen content.
Step E (Determination of optimum bitumen content)
The following two methods are commonly used to determine the optimum bitumen content
from the plots:
Method 1: Asphalt Institute Method in MS-2 (Sixth edition)
(a) From each of the 5 plots (air voids, VMA, VFB, stability, and flow), determine the
acceptable range of bitumen contents which satisfies the specification for that property.
(b) Determine the narrow range of acceptable bitumen contents which satisfies all 5
properties. This can be determined easily if a strip plot is made of bitumen content versus
acceptable range of bitumen content for each property as given in Asphalt Institute MS-2
(Sixth edition).
In the past, it was a common practice to average the bitumen contents at maximum stability
(peak); maximum unit weight (peak); and mid-point of specified range of air voids
(typically 4%). However, this practice is not reproducible because the plots on stability and
unit weight are very subjective and can be drawn in different ways. Moreover, recent
research has shown that the asphalt mix at 4% air voids gives optimum resistance to rutting
and fatigue cracking. That is why the next method is recommended.
Method 2: National Asphalt Pavement Association (NAPA) Procedure
23 (a) Determine the bitumen content which corresponds to 4.0% air voids. This is the
optimum bitumen content.
24 (b) Determine the following properties at this optimum bitumen content by referring to
the plots:
 Marshall stability
 Flow
 VMA
 VFB
(c)Compare each of these values against the specification values and if all satisfy the
specification requirements, then the preceding optimum bitumen content is satisfactory. If
any of these properties is outside the specification range, the mixture may have to be
redesigned. As mentioned earlier, this criterion of selecting optimum bitumen content at 4.0%
air voids is also followed in the Superpave mix design. It is also included in IRC: 111–2009
“Specifications for Dense Graded Bituminous Mixes” drafted by the Author [6]. Other
specification requirements are given in Table 3.11.
Table 3.11 Specifications for dense graded bituminous mixes in terms of Marshall
parameters (IRC: 111-2009)
3.4.3 Considerations in Evaluating Final Mix Design All preceding six curves plotted in
the Marshall mix design should be examined together carefully especially for their trends. If
it appears from the curves that the asphalt mix is very sensitive (in terms of six properties)
to slight variations in bitumen content, it may be necessary to change the mix gradation.
Bitumen content may vary by permissible +/– 0.3% during production which should not
affect these properties too much.
Some discussion of the void parameters: VMA, air voids and VFB are as follows [11]:
VMA
Generally, it is difficult to meet the minimum VMA requirements when designing the asphalt
mix. In those cases, attempt should be made to deviate from the maximum density line to
increase the VMA. It would be preferable to have the design VMA at least 0.3% above the
required minimum so that during production, the mix can still meet the minimum
requirement. It is quite common that the field produced VMA is less than the laboratory
designed VMA despite the fact that gradation is about the same in both cases This
phenomenon of the so-called “VMA collapse” during mix production is not fully understood.
Experience has shown that excessive VMA is not desirable. Not only it results in high
bitumen content (and therefore expensive), it also lowers the mix resistance to rutting. Many
states in the US now require that the design VMA should not be more than 2% above the
minimum VMA requirement. It is a reasonable requirement and must be followed by mix
designers.
Normally, the bitumen content versus VMA plot gives a U-shaped flat curve which is
acceptable if the bottom of the curve is above the required minimum VMA. As bitumen is
added to the mix in increments, it acts like a lubricant and facilitates tight packing of
aggregate particles which results in lowering of the VMA. After a point (at the bottom of the
curve), additional bitumen forces the aggregate particles apart resulting in increasing VMA
(rising of the curve). It is recommended that the selected optimum bitumen content is not on
the “wet” or right side of the bottom of the curve because such mix is likely to bleed and/or
rut. The optimum bitumen content must be slightly on the left side of the bottom [11].
Whereas a flat U-shaped VMA curve is reasonable, a steep U-shaped VMA curve indicates
designed mix is too sensitive to variations in bitumen content.
Air voids
As mentioned earlier, the optimum bitumen content should target 4.0% design air voids. It
should be noted again here that laboratory mix design air voids cannot or hardly obtained in
the compacted asphalt mat at the time of actual construction. Air voids as much as 7% to 8%
at the time of construction are permissible in most specifications across the world. It is
“assumed” that traffic will densify the asphalt mix from 7% to 8% air voids to the design 4%
air voids during the first 2 to 3 years. It is always an assumption which depends on several
factors such as time of construction, traffic volume, climate, and compactibility characteristics
of the asphalt mix. Nonetheless, selecting optimum bitumen content much below 4.0%
increases the potential for rutting. This is because rutting in the field takes place when the
asphalt mat has been compacted by traffic below 3% air voids [19].
On the other hand, selecting optimum bitumen content above 5% is likely to result in asphalt
pavement with high air voids even after densification by traffic. Such pavement would be
permeable to air and water and would age faster affecting its durability. The pavement may
also have moisture induced damage (stripping).
VFB
Since VFB is calculated from VMA and air voids, some asphalt paving technologists
believe it is redundant once the minimum VMA and range of air voids are specified.
However, the VFB criterion provides an additional factor of safety in mix design in terms of
performance.
The requirement for VFB has the following advantages [11]:
 VFB helps prevent the design of asphalt mixes with marginally-acceptable VMA.
 It indirectly limits the maximum level of VMA, which was discussed earlier and
therefore, the maximum level of bitumen content.
 Mixes designed for heavy traffic will not meet the VFB criterion with relatively low air
voids (typically less than 3.5%) even though the air voids is within 3% to 5% range.
3.4.4 Moisture Sensitivity of the Designed Asphalt Mix Moisture sensitivity of the
designed asphalt mix is tested using AASHTO T 283, “Resistance of Compacted Asphalt
Mixtures to Moisture-Induced Damage”. It is determined for the mix with the design
aggregate gradation and optimum binder content. An outline of this test is given in the
annexure of IRC: 111–2009 which is simpler and slightly different than AASHTO T 283 in
terms of aging and conditioning the specimens. Briefly, 6 compacted specimens are made
with 7% air voids. Three compacted specimens are conditioned by vacuum saturating with
water before one freeze cycle (16 h at –18 °C) and one thaw cycle (24 h at 60 °C) in a water
bath (Figure 3.20).
Indirect tensile strength of both conditioned and control (dry) specimens are obtained
(Figures 3.21 and 3.22). Tensile strength ratio (TSR) is calculated by dividing the tensile
strength of wet (conditioned) specimens with that of the dry (control) tensile strength value.
The MORTH and IRC specifications require 80% minimum TSR. If it is less than 80%, liquid
anti-stripping agent or hydrated lime must be used to minimise stripping problem [20].
3.4.5 Modified Marshall Mix Design for Large Stone Mixes
Many asphalt paving technologists believe that the use of large size stone (maximum size of
more than one inch or 25 mm) in the binder and base courses will minimise or eliminate the
rutting of heavy duty pavements. The equipment specified in the standard Marshall design
consists of a 4-inch (101.6 mm) diameter compaction mold intended for mixes containing
aggregate up to l inch (25 mm) maximum size only. This has inhibited the use of large stone
mixes because it is generally recognised that the diameter of the mold should be at least four
times the maximum nominal size aggregate in the mix to be molded.
Kandhal [21, 22, 23, 24, 11] developed the modified Marshall method for preparing and
testing a 6-inch (152.4 mm) diameter specimens. This method was adopted as ASTM D 5581,
“Resistance to Plastic Flow of Bituminous Mixtures Using Marshall Apparatus (6-inch
diameter specimen)” and it is used across the world for designing large stone mixes. It has
also been included in the Asphalt Institute MS-2 (Sixth edition). The modified Marshall
method has the following significant differences from the conventional Marshall method:
0 (a)Compaction hammer weighs 22.5 pounds (10.2 kg)

(b) Specimen size is 6 inches (152.4 mm) in diameter and 3 × 3/4 inch (95.2 mm) in height
(c) Specimen weighs about 4,050 g
(d) Number of blows needed is 1.5 times the number of blows needed for a standard
Marshall specimen to obtain equivalent compaction levels.
Almost same compaction levels were achieved in both molds of different sizes because
Kandhal ensured same compaction energy level per unit volume of the specimen was
applied.
Comparative test data (4 inches versus 6 inches diameter specimens) obtained from various
US highway agencies and producers confirmed that the compaction levels were reasonably
close and similar specimen densities were obtained [24].
Figures 3.23 and 3.24 show a view of 4 inches and 6 inches Marshall molds and breaking
heads, respectively.
From a theoretical viewpoint, an external load applied to the circumference of a cylinder may
be considered as acting directly on the diametrical cross-section of the cylinder. This permits
calculation of the stress in pounds per square inch. The standard 6 inches (152.4 mm)
specimen is 3.75 inches (95.2 high, which gives a diametrical cross-section of 22.5 square
inches (145.2 cm2). The standard 4 inches (101.6 mm) specimen is 2.5 inches (63.5 high and it
has a diametrical cross-section of 10.0 square inches (64.5 cm2). Therefore, on the basis of
unit stress, the total load on a 6-inch specimen should be 2.25 times the load applied to a 4-
inch specimen of the same mix. This means the stability ratio should be 2.25.
Flow units measured by the testing machine are the values for the total movement of the
breaking heads to the point of maximum stability. When flow is considered on a unit basis
(inch per inch of diameter), the flow value for a 6-inch specimen will be 1.5 times that of a 4-
inch diameter specimen. This means the flow ratio should be 1.5.
The preceding stability ratio and flow ratio were also confirmed in the comparative study
mentioned earlier [24]. This would mean that the minimum Marshall stability requirement
for 6 inches diameter specimens should be 2.25 times the requirement for 4 inches diameter
specimens. For example, if 1000 pounds (454 kg) minimum stability is currently being
specified using standard Marshall, then 2250 pounds (1021 kg) minimum stability should
be specified for large stone mixes using the modified Marshall testing equipment.
Similarly, the specified range of flow values for 6 inches specimens should be adjusted to 1.5
times the values required for 4 inches specimens. For example, if the specified range for 4
inches is 8–16; it should be adjusted to 12–24 for 6 inches specimens.
Stability correlation table was also developed by Kandhal and is included in ASTM D
5581 and the Asphalt Institute MS-2, Sixth edition. Precision of this test method was
found to be satisfactory [25].
3.5 FIELD VERIFICATION OF LABORATORY MIX DESIGN
It has been said that if the field produced asphalt mix has properties (such as VMA, air voids
and VFA) very close to the laboratory designed asphalt mix, it is just coincidental. This has
been demonstrated and documented in the US Demonstration Project No. 74, “Field
Management of Asphalt Mixes” initiated by the US Federal Highway Administration.
Seventeen asphalt mixes from 15 State Highway Agencies’ paving projects were evaluated in
this project [18]. Of the 17 mixes, there were only two mixes where the actual production met
the mix design targets. Ten mixes should have been modified during production while five
mixes should have been totally redesigned. The demonstration project confirmed that current
laboratory mix design procedures do not represent actual mix production. Flawless laboratory-
designed mixes can incur mix-related problems during production which can lead to premature
pavement deterioration.
Demonstration Project No. 74 concluded that a field mix verification of the material
produced at the asphalt plant should be included as a second phase in the design process.
Mix verification is defined as the validation of a mix design within the first several hundred
tons of production. It may also require tweaking the laboratory designed job mix formula.
Field management of hot mix asphalt provides a viable tool to identify the differences
between plant produced and laboratory designed asphalt mixes and effectively reconcile
these differences.
The following observations were made from statistical analysis of field data from 24 FHWA
demonstration projects [18]:
0 1. Significant differences existed between the volumetric properties of the laboratory

designed (job mix formula) and the plant produced hot mix asphalt.
1 2. VMA is affected most by the amount of 0.075 mm material and the relative
proportions of coarse and fine aggregates.
2 3. VMA in the plant produced mix can be increased by reducing the amount of 0.075 mm
material or natural sand in the asphalt mix. VMA can also be increased by moving the
aggregate gradation away from the maximum density line especially for asphalt mixes with
no natural sand.
3 4. Air void content is affected most by bitumen content, 0.075 mm material and the
relative proportions of coarse and fine aggregates.
4 5.Air void content can be increased by reducing bitumen content or 0.075 mm material
or both.
The following recommendations were made to reconcile differences between the volumetric
properties of the laboratory designed and plant produced hot mix asphalt.
23 1.Flow charts were provided as general guidelines for reconciling the VMA and air voids
differences between the laboratory designed and plant produced asphalt mixes [18].
24 2. If the composition of the produced mix meets the job mix formula (JMF) and the
VMA of the produced mix has a minor deviation (less than 0.3%) from the JMF, it has been
suggested to adjust the amount of 0.075 mm material (fines) in the mix. One percent
decrease in the 0.075 mm material to cause an average increase of 0.3% in the VMA can be
used as an approximate guide to determine the quantitative adjustment required for the
0.075 mm material to effect the desired change in VMA value. Obviously, it will vary from
mix to mix.
23 3. After the production VMA is reconciled, the next step is to check the air voids. If the air
voids has a minor deviation (less than 0.5%) from the JMF, it is recommended to adjust the
0.075 mm material. The 0.075 mm material will need to be decreased to increase the air voids.
24 4. After the differences in the volumetric properties are reconciled, maintain control charts
for mix composition (bitumen content and gradation) and volumetric properties (VMA and
air voids) during the entire production period. This information would reaffirm or provide
more data to reconcile differences in future.
3.6 INTRODUCTION TO SUPERPAVE MIX DESIGN
Superpave is an integrated system for Superior Performing Asphalt Pavements. It

includes the following:
 Asphalt binder specification including binder test methods and equipment
 Mixture design including stringent material quality requirements, new compaction

equipment, and volumetric proportioning of materials
Whereas the Marshall method consists of laboratory compaction with impact forces (fall of a
hammer) and a compaction mold of 4 inches (101.6 mm) in diameter which can accommodate
maximum aggregate size of 25 mm only, a compactor was developed for the Superpave
system with the following goals:
 Should simulate field densification including realistic aggregate particle orientation

during construction with rollers and subsequently by traffic
 Should consider traffic and climate
 Should accommodate large size aggregates
 Should provide measure of mix compactibility during the process of compaction
The preceding goals were achieved by the development of the Superpave gyratory
compactor (SGC) which has the following features:
 It compacts in gyratory mode (both axial and shearing action) to simulate construction and
traffic densification
 It evaluates densification process during compaction by measuring the decreasing

specimen thickness after each gyration
 Its 150 mm diameter can accommodate aggregate up to 37.5 mm size
0 Figure 3.25 shows the schematic of the Superpave gyratory compactor (SGC) with all its
components: reaction frame; rotating base; tilt bar; loading ram; mold and height measurement
device. A typical plot obtained from the SGC is also shown.
The gyratory compactor puts 600 kPa pressure on the specimen and operates at 30 gyrations
per minute. Combined with the external tilt angle of 1.25 degree, SGC imparts realistic
kneading action for compacting asphalt mix in the mold (Figure 3.26). A typical Superpave
gyratory compactor is shown in Figure 3.27.
Using the measured bulk specific gravity of the final specimen and the recorded change in
height during compaction, expressed as percent Gmm (maximum specific gravity of asphalt
mix) with number of gyrations can be calculated. It is typically plotted on a semi-log scale and
results almost in straight line at least in the initial portion. Percent Gmm is actually an indirect
expression of air voids in the specimen. For example, 94% Gmm indicates (100 – 94) or 6%
air voids.
In development of Superpave mix design, the binder content is varied. The binder content is
selected at 96% of the maximum specific gravity (that is 4.0% air voids). At this binder
content each of the other criteria is checked.
There are three critical points on the SGC curve (Figure 3.28). The N stands for number of
gyrations. The N initial is of importance because it is not desirable to have asphalt mix that
compacts too easily. The N design is important for designing the mix at design number of
gyrations (similar to 75 blows in the Marshall method). The N maximum is of importance to
prevent having asphalt mix that continues to compact under traffic leading to rutting.
The following SGC criteria is used:
• N initial: Check for tenderness
If a mix compacts too quickly in the SGC, it may be tender (prone to pushing and
shoving under roller) during construction and may present compaction problems.
• N design: Check for design volumetrics
Compare volumetrics (VMA, air voids and VFB) at the design level of compaction.
0 N maximum: Optional check for rutting Hot Mix

Asphalt Mix Design 121
Mixes compacting to less than 2% air voids in the SGC may exhibit rutting problems during
its service life.
Table 3.12 shows the current AASHTO N design requirements. Note that SGC requirements
vary with traffic levels. The higher the traffic levels, the higher the values of N initial and N
design.
Table 3.12 Current AASHTO N design table
During initial mix design, specimens are compacted up to N design gyrations only. Density of
specimen is evaluated at two points: N initial for compactibility evaluation and N design for
mix design evaluation in terms of volumetric. Only the final selected mix is compacted to N
maximum to evaluate its rutting potential.
The Superpave mix design involves the following four steps: Material selection; Design
aggregate structure; Design binder content; and Moisture sensitivity [5].
3.6.1 Asphalt Binder Selection
The performance grade (PG) asphalt binder is selected based on the highest and lowest
pavement temperatures at the project site. For example, PG 64–22 asphalt binder grade is
suitable for high pavement temperature of 64 °C and low pavement temperature of –22 °C.
3.6.2 Aggregate Selection
Selected aggregates must meet the criteria for the following “consensus” aggregate properties:
coarse aggregate angularity (CAA); fine aggregate angularity (FAA); flat and elongated
particles (FEP); and sand equivalent (SE). Consensus properties are mandatory. Criterion is
different if the asphalt mix is within 100 mm from the road surface compared to if it is more
than 100 mm from the road surface.
Aggregates must also meet the agency’s specifications for the following source
aggregate properties:
 Los Angeles abrasion
 Sodium or magnesium sulphate soundness
 Clay lumps and friable particles

3.6.3 Selection of Design Aggregate Structure
The following steps are involved in selection of design aggregate structure:
0 Establish three trial blends of different gradation within the broad control points
 Check aggregate consensus properties for the blends (weighted average of the
consensus properties is considered when more than one aggregate is involved)
 Compact specimens to the design number of gyrations based on traffic
 Evaluate trial blends in terms of volumetric properties
 Select suitable design aggregate structure from the three blends evaluated
23
24 Figure 3.29 shows the 0.45 power gradation chart showing the Superpave gradation
control points. These points are located at maximum aggregate size, nominal maximum
aggregate size (NMAS), 2.36 mm sieve, and 0.075 mm sieve. Selected gradation must pass
through these control points. This is unlike Marshall mix design where all gradation sieves
have to be within agency’s specified gradation band. This gives the flexibility to the mix
designer to try different trial gradations rather than aiming for the mid points of the agency’s
gradation band.
As mentioned in the chapter on aggregates, the restricted zone proposed in earlier version
of Superpave was found to be redundant based on a comprehensive national research
project1 and therefore it was deleted [26, 27, 28].
Three trial gradations are selected and compacted asphalt specimens are made with estimated
design bitumen content. The compacted specimens are evaluated for N initial and N design
and volumetric properties (air voids, VMA, and VFB). Based on these parameters, the best
aggregate structure (gradation) is selected.
3.6.4 Determine Optimum Binder Content
The selected trial blend is used to make mixtures with four binder contents. Their volumetric
properties are determined and the optimum binder content is selected at 4.0% air voids. Other
volumetric properties are then checked to see they also meet the design criteria. ( 1 This Superpave
technology related US national research project was led by Kandhal as principal investigator).
The selected mix design must also meet the dust proportion (DP) criterion. DP is the ratio of
percentage of minus 0.075 mm material in the mix and the percentage of effective
binder content. The acceptable range for DP is 0.6–1.2. The requirement for DP ensures some
minimum dust is present in the mix and excessive dust is avoided.
3.6.5 Checking the Selected Mix Design for Moisture Sensitivity
Moisture sensitivity of the designed asphalt mix is tested using AASHTO T 2832. It is
determined for the mix with the design aggregate blend and optimum binder content [20].
The procedure and criteria are the same as those described in the Marshall mix design
earlier. The requirement for tensile strength ratio (TSR) is 80% minimum. If it is less than
80%, an anti-stripping agent must be used to minimise stripping problem.
3.7 LOADED WHEEL TESTERS FOR PROOF TESTING OF MIX DESIGN
When Superpave mix design method was developed in the US in the strategic highway
research program (SHRP) during 1987–1992, it was just a volumetric mix design with no
strength test. Many highway engineers who were used to conduct strength test such as
Marshall stability, felt uncomfortable when they changed over from Marshall or Hveem
method to the Superpave method. Although the predictive capability of those empirical
strength tests was questionable, nonetheless they provided some indication of the mix rut
resistance. While national research projects were undertaken to develop simple performance
tests to complement the Superpave mix design, many highway agencies in the US started to
use loaded wheel testers (LWTs) to proof test the volumetric mix designs.
A standardised laboratory equipment and test procedure that predicts field-rutting potential
was considered highly beneficial to the asphalt paving industry. Such equipment could also
proof test the mix designed with the Marshall mix design method [29, 30]. The LWTs
facilitate accelerated evaluation of rutting potential in the designed mixes. However, an
acceptable correlation between rutting in the laboratory and actual field rutting needs to be
developed to have confidence in the LWTs. Some highway agencies using LWTs have
recognised this fact and have conducted research to determine the degree of correlation
between field performance and results from laboratory LWTs, which is applicable to their
local traffic and environmental conditions. A comprehensive US national study3 was
undertaken for evaluating the LWTs especially the asphalt pavement analyzer described
later [31, 32, 33, 34].
Two LWTs which are most commonly used in the US are the asphalt pavement analyzer
(APA) and the Hamburg wheel tracking device (HWTD).
3.7.1 Asphalt Pavement Analyzer (APA)
The APA is shown in Figure 3.30. It can test both beam and cylindrical specimens. Beam 3
inches). Laboratory prepared cylindrical specimens are generally 150 mm in diameter and
75 mm high, which can be compacted by Superpave gyratory compactor or Kandhal-
modified Marshall compactor for large stone mixes as specified in the Asphalt Institute
MS-2 [11]. Cylindrical specimens are more common in the US because of ease in
fabrication. Two cylindrical specimens abutting against each other make one test specimen
as shown in Figure 3.30. dimensions are generally 125 mm wide, 300 mm long, and 75 mm
high (5 inches × 12 inches
23
(2 AASHTO T 283 was developed by Kandhal by combining the best moisture sensitivity test methods (such as
Lottman method and Root and Tunnicliff method) available at that time.
3 This comprehensive US national study on LWTs was led by Kandhal as principal investigator. )
Testing of samples within the APA generally consists of applying a 445 N (100 lb) load onto
a pneumatic linear hose pressurised to 690 kPa (100 psi). The load is applied through an
aluminium wheel onto the linear hose, which resides on the sample. The loaded wheel tracks
back and forth over the test specimen to induce rutting. Testing is typically accomplished for
a total of 8000 loading cycles (one cycle is defined as the backward and forward movement
over samples by the wheel). At the conclusion of the 8000 cycle loadings, permanent
deformation (rutting) is measured.
Beams are most often compacted to 7% air voids, while cylindrical samples have been
fabricated to both 4% and 7% air voids. Tests can also be performed on cores or slabs taken
from an actual pavement. Test temperatures for the APA have ranged from 40.6 °C to 64 °C
(105 °F to 147 °F). Some researchers have used a wheel load of 533 N (120 lb) and hose
pressure of 830 kPa (120 psi) with good success. The APA can test specimen both in air or
submerged in water.
The complete test protocol for APA is given in AASHTO TP 63, “Determining Rutting
Susceptibility of Asphalt Paving Mixtures Using Asphalt Pavement Analyzer”.
3.7.2 Hamburg Wheel Tracking Device (HWTD)
The HWTD as shown in Figure 3.31 was developed in Hamburg, Germany. It is used as a
specification requirement for some of the most travelled roadways in Germany to evaluate
rutting and stripping. Tests within the HWTD are conducted on a slab that is 260 mm wide,
320 mm long, and typically 40 mm high (10.2 inches × 12.6 inches × 1.6 inches). These
slabs are normally compacted to 7 1% air voids using a linear kneading compactor. Similar
to APA, cylindrical specimens are also commonly used in the US. Testing in the HWTD is
conducted under water at temperatures ranging from 25 °C to 70 °C (77 °F to 158 °F), with
50 °C (122 °F) being the most common temperature. Loading of samples in the HWTD is
accomplished by applying a 705 N (158 lb) force onto a 47 mm wide steel wheel. The steel
wheel is then tracked back and forth over the slab sample. Test samples are loaded for 20000
passes or until 20 mm of deformation occur. The travel speed of the wheel is approximately
340 mm/s [33].
The complete test protocol for HWTD is given in AASHTO T 324 and European
Standard EN: 12697–22. The HWTD devices are available commercially to conform to
both standards.
As shown in Figure 3.32, results obtained from the HWTD consist of rut depth, creep slope,
stripping inflection point, and stripping slope. The creep slope is the inverse of the
deformation rate within the linear region of the deformation curve after post compaction and
prior to stripping (if stripping occurs). The stripping slope is the inverse of the deformation
rate within the linear region of the deformation curve, after the onset of stripping. The
stripping inflection point is the number of wheel passes corresponding to the intersection of
the creep slope and the stripping slope. This value is used to estimate the relative resistance of
the asphalt sample to moisture-induced damage. When stripping occurs, the water in the bath
is usually muddied from the fines released from the aggregate surface after bitumen film is
peeled off.
3.7.3 General Comments on LWTs
All LWTs used in the world have similar general operating principles. Essentially, a load is
tracked back and forth over compacted asphalt test specimen (slab or cylinder) to induce
rutting. Within the operating specifications for each of the LWTs, two test parameters are
always specified: air voids and test temperature. This is primarily due to the fact that these two
parameters have the most effect on rutting test results. As air voids increase, rut depths also
increase. Likewise, as test temperature increases, rut depths also increase.
Concerning the air void content for test specimens, there are two schools of thought. Some
asphalt paving technologists believe that specimen air void contents should be approximately
7%, since this air void content represents typical as constructed asphalt mat density. Others
believe that test specimens should be compacted to 4% air voids, as actual shear failure of
asphalt mixes usually takes place below approximately 3% [31].
Based upon review of the laboratory wheel tracking devices and the related literature
detailing the laboratory and field research projects, the following observations have been
made [31, 32, 33, 34]:
 Both cylindrical and beam (or slab) specimens can be used to rank asphalt mixes with
respect to rutting.
 Results obtained from the wheel tracking devices seem to correlate reasonably well to
actual field performance when the local in-service loading and environmental conditions
are considered.
 The wheel tracking devices seem to reasonably differentiate between

performance grades of asphalt binders.
 Wheel tracking devices, when properly correlated to local traffic and environmental
conditions, have the potential to allow the highway agency the option of a pass/fail
or
 “go/no go” type criteria. The ability of the wheel tracking devices to adequately
predict the magnitude of the rutting in the field has not been determined at this
time.
 A device with the capability of conducting wheel tracking tests in both air and
submerged in water will offer the user the most options of evaluating their mixes.
3.8 ASPHALT MIXTURE PERFORMANCE TESTER (AMPT)
National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP) project 9–19 was undertaken
to develop “simple performance tests (SPT)” for hot mix asphalt (HMA) as a complement
to the Superpave mix design. However, it was soon realised that it was not possible to
develop “simple” tests which are based on fundamental engineering principles for highly
complex material like HMA. The asphalt mixture perfomance tester (AMPT) was
developed later in NCHRP 9–29 [35, 36] to conduct three performance related tests on
HMA to complement the Superpave mix design. These are: dynamic modulus, flow number
and flow time. Figure 3.33 shows a typical AMPT used in the US.
The major difference between the AMPT tests and other rut resistance test methods such as
loaded wheel testers (LWT) discussed earlier is that the former is based on fundamental
mechanical principles. Because of this, AMPT tests can be used in the most recent
AASHTO mechanical empirical pavement design guide (MEPDG) to estimate the
performance of the pavement constructed with the tested HMA. Thus, for the first time,
AMPT has been able to provide a link between the mixture design and structural analysis.
At the present time, three AMPT tests have been developed for permanent deformation
(rutting) only and are being implemented across the US. The AMPT test for fatigue cracking
is still under development. Researchers are using the existing AASHTO T 321, “Fatigue Life
of Compacted HMA Subjected to Repeated Flexure Bending” to evaluate the potential for
fatigue cracking.
The three AMPT tests which have been developed are as follows:
 Dynamic modulus, E* (primary test)
 Flow number, Fn (repeated load triaxial test especially to determine HMA potential
for tertiary deformation)
 Flow time, Ft (static creep test proposed as a surrogate simple test in lieu of Fn)
3.8.1 Test Specimens

Test specimens for dynamic modulus, flow number and flow time are prepared as
follows.Compact specimens in the Superpave gyratory compactor (SGC) with 150
diameter and 165 mm height. Drill 100 mm diameter by 150 mm high specimen from
the SGC specimen. Figure 3.34 shows a cored test specimen with a hollowed SGC
specimen. Coring is done to obtain a good representative HMA specimen for testing,
which does not have any edge effect such as high surface air voids and
honeycombing typically found on compacted specimens.
Cored specimens should have as-constructed air void content (typically 7%). Since actual air
voids in cored specimen are usually 1.5% to 2.5% lower than the whole SGC specimen,
adjustments need to be made to allow this.
The AMPT shown in Figure 3.33 is a servo-hydraulic testing device developed to test
asphalt mixes over a range of temperatures and frequencies. The AMPT is used for all
three tests: dynamic modulus, flow number and flow time. Wherein no confining pressure
is used for determining the dynamic modulus at present, confining pressure may be used if
so desired to determine flow number and flow time. AMPT is available globally now and is
moderately priced. It is highly automated and therefore easy to use and largely free of
operator errors.It is expected that asphalt research in India would use such devices rather
than the Marshall stability and flow, which is largely unreliable when comparing asphalt
mixes with different aggregates, binders and additives.
3.8.2 Dynamic Modulus E*
Dynamic modulus is determined using AASHTO TP 79, “Determining the Dynamic

Modulus and Flow Number for Asphalt Mixtures Using the Asphalt Mixture Performance
Tester (AMPT)”. Continuous sinusoidal axial loading (without any rest period) is applied
under controlled stress at the desired frequency (for example, 10 Hz for highway speed and
0.1 Hz for intersection traffic) and the desired temperature. Applied stress should be such that
the resulting strain is smaller than 200 micro strain. Specimen is tested in unconfined
condition. Essentially test specimen is not damaged in this test and can be used for other tests
such as flow number [37].
Applied axial stress and resulting axial strain response of the specimen is measured with
LVDT. Dynamic modulus E* is calculated by dividing peak loading stress by peak axial
strain. Critical minimum values of E* have been established based on climate, traffic,
pavement structure and depth of asphalt layer from the surface. By conducting the dynamic
modulus test at various temperatures and frequencies, an E* master curve can be developed
for direct use in the AASHTO mechanistic empirical pavement design guide (MEPDG). The
temperature- and frequency-dependent characteristics of HMA are captured in the master
curve developed from the concept of time-temperature superposition. Master curve can be
used to determine E* at any temperature and frequency for pavement structural design.
It should be noted that if laboratory dynamic modulus data cannot be obtained the current
MEPDG, allows the use of Witczak predictive model equation [38]. However, the pavement
design engineer needs to provide the following inputs for the equation: bitumen binder
viscosity in poises; loading frequency in Hz; percent air voids; effective binder content percent
by volume; cumulative percent retained on 19 mm sieve; cumulative percent retained on 9.5
mm sieve; cumulative percent retained on 4.75 mm sieve; and percent passing the 0.075 mm
sieve. The Witczak predictive model equation is given in Chapter 5 on “Practices for Structural
Design of Flexible Pavements”.
The predictive equation shows binder viscosity is only one of the eight inputs to determine the
dynamic modulus. The resilient modulus (Mr) which is used in India for pavement structural
design is analogous to the dynamic modulus. Therefore, Mr cannot be predicted by viscosity
alone as has been done in IRC: 37–2012, “Guidelines for the Design of Flexible Pavements”
wherein it has been based on the viscosity grade (such as VG-30 and VG-40) of the paving
bitumen. This has been discussed in detail in the chapter on paving bitumen.
Since the resilient modulus and not the dynamic modulus is used in India, a discussion on
their comparison is in order. ASTM D 7369–11, “Determining the Resilient Modulus of
bituminous Mixtures by Indirect Tension Test” is used to determine the Mr at one relevant
temperature and one relevant frequency of loading. Unlike the dynamic modulus, sinusoidal
pulse loading with 0.1 s and rest period of 0.9 s is used in determining the resilient modulus
in the indirect tension mode. The resilient modulus became popular in the US after it was
incorporated in the 1993 AASHTO pavement design guide. However, in the current
MEPDG, resilient modulus (Mr) has been replaced by the dynamic modulus (E*).
Resilient modulus is theoretically an ideal elastic modulus which only considers recoverable
(resilient) strain. However, HMA is believed to behave as a viscoelastic material rather than
elastic material. Dynamic modulus (also known as complex modulus) provides a better
characterization of HMA than the resilient modulus because it encompasses a range of
temperatures and frequencies. Whereas, the dynamic modulus can be used effectively in
designing pavement structural system, it has been determined that it does not indicate HMA
potential for rutting. Numerous HMA core samples were taken from test sections of the
National Center for Asphalt Technology (NCAT) test track and tested for dynamic modulus
E* at 64 °C
and 10 Hz. There was no correlation between the E* and measured field rut depth. It is
probably due to the fact that E* test is a non-destructive test which does not mobilise the
effect of aggregate structure (such as interlocking). Flow number (Fn) which is discussed
next had satisfactory correlation with the field rut depths.
3.8.3 Flow Number (Fn)
Another approach to evaluate permanent deformation of HMA is to determine its potential for
tertiary or shear deformation as shown in Figure 3.35. When HMA specimen is subjected to
triaxial loading cycles, the permanent strain (inch per inch) curve has three stages: primary
(which occurs from specimen seating and initial deformation); secondary (which is relatively
straight in nature); and tertiary (which results when the specimen fails and shear deformation
begins). Flow number is the number of cycles at which tertiary deformation begins as shown
in Figure 3.35. If HMA is not prone to fail prematurely in rutting, the secondary stage
continues until the maximum permissible rut depth (usually 10 mm to 12 mm) is reached.
During flow number testing in the AMPT, the cylindrical specimen is subjected to a repeated
compressive load pulse at a specified test temperature which is usually the expected
pavement temperature. The pulse load is applied for 0.1 s followed by a rest period of 0.9 s.
The resulting permanent axial strains are measured for each load pulse and used to
determine the flow number when the test specimen exhibits uncontrolled tertiary flow. At
the present time, an unconfined flow number test using a repeated axial load of 600 kPa (87
psi) is conducted with the AMPT at the expected pavement temperature in accordance with
AASHTO TP 79 [37].
Specimens for the flow number test are prepared to target 7% air void content. The measured
flow number is compared to criteria developed in NCHRP Project 9–33 for HMA subjected to
different design traffic levels. A higher flow number (Fn) indicates a more rut resistant asphalt
mix. For example, if the design traffic exceeds 30 million ESALs, the flow number should be
at least 740. This criterion is for unconfined flow number test. Confining pressure may be
introduced later based on ongoing research [37].
3.8.4 Flow Time (Ft)
Flow time test was developed as a simple, inexpensive, surrogate test for flow number (Fn)
because it just uses static creep rather than repeated load. It may be suitable for laboratories
where machine with repeated loading capacity is not available. Like flow number, the flow
time test also measures HMA resistant to tertiary flow of cylindrical specimen in a triaxial
state of static load. Test is conducted at the expected pavement temperature with design stress
loading.
Confining pressure is between 5 psi and 30 psi. After static load is applied, a plot of loading
time (in seconds) versus axial deformation is obtained. Flow time is read in seconds at the
point where tertiary deformation begins similar to what is shown in Figure 3.35.
Good correlation has been obtained between flow number and flow time. However, with the
development of the moderately priced AMPT machine (shown in Figure 3.33), it is easy to run
the flow number test and therefore interest in the flow time test is fading within the US at the
present time. The flow number test being more fundamental in nature than the flow time test, it
is also preferred by most asphalt technologists.
Summary
Hot mix asphalt mix design has evolved from early 20th century to the present time starting
from the so-called pat test to Hubbard-Field method to Hveem and Marshall methods to
Superpave system. Since Marshall mix design is used in India at the present time, it has been
described in detail in this chapter.
Elements of mix design such as gradation; blending of aggregates; film thickness and
volumetric properties of compacted specimens (VMA, air voids, and VFB) have been
presented.
Marshall mix design procedures such as evaluating bitumen and aggregates; preparation and
testing of compacted specimens; and determination of optimum bitumen content have been
described in detail.
Field verification of laboratory mix design and steps to reconcile differences between
laboratory designed and field produced asphalt mix have been presented.
Introduction to Superpave mix design which may be adopted in India in near future has been
presented.
Loaded wheel testers such as asphalt pavement analyzer and Hamburg wheel tracking device,
which have been used to proof test both Marshall and Superpave designs, have been described.
Asphalt mixture performance tester (AMPT) based on cutting-edge technology to determine
the dynamic modulus and mix resistance to rutting (in terms of flow number and flow time)
has been described in detail.
QUESTIONS
0 List and briefly describe any four objectives of asphalt mix design.
1 Why different aggregates need to be blended for asphalt mix design? Which
blending methods are primarily used?
2 Draw a sketch of compacted asphalt mix specimen and label volumes of its ingredients.
Explain what constitutes voids in mineral aggregate (VMA); air voids; and volume filled
with bitumen (VFB).
An asphalt mix with a maximum specific gravity of 2.523 was compacted in the Marshall
mold with 75 blows on each side. The bulk specific gravity of the compacted specimen was
determined to be 2.392. Calculate the percent air voids in the compacted specimen.
Why a narrow range of air voids (3% to 5%) is used for selecting the optimum bitumen
content of the asphalt mix?
Determine the percentage of air voids in a compacted asphalt mix specimen if the bulk specific
gravity of the compacted specimen is 2.401 and the maximum specific gravity of the loose
asphalt mix is 2.530.
Show the general trend observed in 6 plots when bitumen content is plotted on the x-axis
and unit weight; Marshall stability; flow; air voids; VMA; and VFB are plotted on the y-
axis.
Draw a plot of bitumen content versus VMA and explain the general trend.
Briefly describe the test used for determining the moisture sensitivity of the designed mix.
Why modified Marshall method is used? How does it differ from the conventional
Marshall method?
Compare Marshall mix design method with Superpave mix design method in terms of
materials selection and compaction.
11520Briefly describe the Hamburg wheel tracking device in terms of its function and
features.
11521Briefly describe the following asphalt mixture performance tests (AMPT):

Dynamic modulus; Flow number; and Flow time.
References
Roberts, F.L., P.S. Kandhal, E.R. Brown, D.Y. Lee, and T.W. Kennedy, Hot Mix Asphalt
Materials, Mixture Design and Construction, 2nd ed., NAPA Education Foundation,
Lanham, Maryland, 1996.
Hot Mix Asphalt Mix Design 133
0 White, T.D., “Marshall Procedures for Design and Quality Control of Asphalt Mixtures”,
Proceedings Association of Asphalt Paving Technologist, Vol. 54, pp. 265–284, 1985.
1 Kandhal, P.S. and W.C. Koehler, “Marshall Mix Design Methods: Current
Practices”, Proceedings Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists, Vol. 54, 1985.
2 Kandhal, P.S., “Changes in Mix Design to Improve Performance:
Selected State Experiences”, Proceedings Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists,

Vol. 57, l988.
3 Superpave Mix Design, “The Asphalt Institute Superpave Series No. 2 (SP-2)”, 2001.
4 Indian Roads Congress IRC: 111–2009, “Specifications for Dense Graded

Bituminous Mixes”, 2009.
5 Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, “Specifications for Road and Bridge Works”,
Fifth Revision, New Delhi, 2013.
6 Kandhal, P.S., S.A. Cross, and E.R. Brown, “Evaluation of Heavy Duty Asphalt
Pavements for Rutting”, Proceedings Seventh International Conference on Asphalt
Pavements, Nottingham, U.K., Vol. 4 (Construction), 1992.
0
1 Kandhal, P.S., S.A. Cross, and E.R. Brown, “Heavy Duty Asphalt Pavements in
Pennsylvania: An Evaluation for Rutting”, Transportation Research Board,
2 Kandhal, P.S. and R.B. Mallick, “Effect of Mix Gradation on Rutting Potential of
Dense-Graded Asphalt Mixtures”, Transportation Research Board, Transportation
3 The Asphalt Institute, “Mix Design Methods for Asphalt Concrete and Other Hot Mix
Types MS-2”, Sixth Edition, 1997.
4 Kandhal, P.S. and S. Chakraborty, “Effect of Asphalt Film Thickness on Short- and
Long-Term Aging of Asphalt Paving Mixtures”, Transportation Research Board,
5 Kandhal, P.S. and S. Chakraborty, “Evaluation of Voids in the Mineral Aggregate for
HMA Paving Mixtures”, Proceedings Canadian Technical Asphalt Association, Vol. 41,
November, 1996.
6 Kandhal, P.S. and M.A. Khatri, “Improved Rice Method for Determining Theoretical
Maximum Specific Gravity of Asphalt Paving Mixtures”, Transportation Research Board,
7 Kandhal, P.S. and M.A. Khatri, “Evaluation of Asphalt Absorption by Mineral

Aggregates”, Asphalt Paving Technology, Vol. 60, 1991.
8 Kandhal, P.S. and M.A. Khatri, “Relating Asphalt Absorption to Properties of

Asphalt Cement and Aggregate”, Transportation Research Board, Transportation
9 Christensen, D.W. and R.F. Bonaquist, “Volumetric Requirements for Superpave

Mix Design”, TRB, National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP) Report
567, 2006.
10 Kandhal, P.S., K.Y. Foo, and J.A. D’Angelo, “Control of Volumetric Properties of
Hot-Mix Asphalt by Field Management”, Transportation Research Board, Transportation
0 Brown, E.R. and S.A. Cross, “A National Study of Rutting in Asphalt Pavement”,
Journal of the Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists, Vol. 61, 1992.
1 Kandhal, P.S., “Moisture Susceptibility of HMA Mixes: Identification of Problem and

Publication (QIP) No. 119, December 1992.
2 Kandhal, P.S., “Large Stone Asphalt Mixes: Design and Construction”, Proceedings
Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists, Vol. 59, 1990.
3 Kandhal, P.S., “Design of Large Stone Asphalt Mixes to Minimise Rutting”,

4 Kandhal, P.S., “Design of Large Stone Mixes for Low-Volume Roads”, Proceedings
International Conference on Low Volume Roads, Transportation Research Board,
5 Kandhal, P.S., “Testing and Evaluation of Large Stone Mixes Using Marshall Mix
Design Procedures”, National Asphalt Pavement Association Information Series 108, 1990.
6 Kandhal, P.S. and T. Wu, “Precision of Marshall Stability and Flow Test Using 6-inch
(152.4 mm) Diameter Specimens”, ASTM, Journal of Testing and Evaluation, Vol. 24
(1), January, 1996.

0 Kandhal, P.S. and L.A. Cooley Jr., “The Restricted Zone in the Superpave
Gradation Specification”, Transportation Research Board, National Cooperative
1 Kandhal, P.S. and L.A. Cooley Jr., “Investigation of the Restricted Zone in the
Superpave Aggregate Gradation Specifications”, Asphalt Paving Technology, Vol. 71, 2002.
0
1 Kandhal, P.S. and L.A. Cooley Jr., “Effect of Restricted Zone on Permanent
Deformation of Dense-Graded Superpave Mixtures”, ASTM Special Technical
2 Zhang, J., L.A. Cooley Jr., and P.S. Kandhal, “Comparison of Fundamental
and Simulative Test Methods for Evaluating Permanent Deformation of Hot-Mix
Asphalt”, Transportation Research Board, Transportation Research Record 1798,
2002.
3 Brown, E.R., P.S. Kandhal, and J. Zhang, “Performance Testing for Hot-Mix
Asphalt”, Transportation Research Board, E-Circular E-C068, September 2004.
4 Kandhal, P.S. and L.A. Cooley Jr., “Accelerated Laboratory Rutting Tests: Evaluation
of the Asphalt Pavement Analyzer”, Transportation Research Board, National Cooperative
5 Kandhal, P.S. and L.A. Cooley Jr., “Simulative Performance Test for Hot Mix
Asphalt Using Asphalt Pavement Analyzer”, Journal of ASTM International, Vol. 3 (5),
2006.
6 Cooley, L.A. Jr. and P.S. Kandhal, “Loaded Wheel Testers in the United States: State of
Practice”, Transportation Research Board, Transportation Research Circular Number E-C016,
July 2000.
7 Cooley, L.A. Jr. and P.S. Kandhal, “Evaluation of Asphalt Pavement Analyzer as a
Tool to Predict Rutting”, Proceedings Ninth International Conference on Asphalt
Pavements, International Society for Asphalt Pavements, Copenhagen, Denmark, August
17–22, 2002.
8 Bonaquist, R.F. et al., “Simple Performance Tester for Superpave Mix Design”,
Transportation Research Board, National Cooperative Highway Research Program Report
513, 2003.
1. Bonaquist, R.F., “Refining the Simple Performance Tester for Use in Routine
Practice”, Transportation Research Board, National Cooperative Highway Research
Program Report 614, 2008.
2. Federal Highway Administration, “Asphalt Mixture Performance Tester (AMPT)”, Tech

Brief No. FHWA-HIF-13–005, February 2013.
3. Federal Highway Administration, “Asphalt Material Characterization for AASHTO
Ware Pavement Design Using Asphalt Mixture Performance Tester (AMPT)”, Tech Brief
No.
FHWA-HIF-13–060, September 2013.
Suggested Readings
Advanced Asphalt Technologies, “A Manual for Design of Hot Mix Asphalt with
Commentary”, Transportation Research Board, National Cooperative Highway Research
Program Report 673, 2011.
Brown et al., “Performance of Coarse Graded Mixes at Westrack— Premature Rutting

Study”, Final Report FHWA-RD-99–134, June 1998.
Cooley, LA. Jr., J. Zhang, P.S. Kandhal, A.J. Hand, and A.E. Martin, “Significance of
Restricted Zone in Superpave Aggregate Gradation”, Transportation Research Board,
E-Circular, September 2002.
Kandhal, P.S. and R.B. Mallick, “Potential of Asphalt Pavement Analyzer (APA) to
Predict Rutting of Hot Mix Asphalt”, Proceedings 1999
International Conference on Accelerated Pavement Testing, Reno, Nevada, October 18–20,
1999.
Kandhal, P.S., K.Y. Foo, and R.B. Mallick, “Critical Review of VMA Requirements in
Superpave”, Transportation Research Board, Transportation Research Record 1609, 1998.
Kandhal, P.S. and E.R. Brown, “Comparative Evaluation of 4-inch and 6-inch Specimens for
Testing Large Stone Asphalt Mixes”, Proceedings First Materials Engineering Congress,
American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 1, 1990.
Richardson, C., The Modern Asphalt Pavement, John Wiley & Sons, 2nd ed., New York, 1912.
Bituminous Paving Mixes and Surface Treatments
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Bituminous mixes are used in a flexible pavement to serve the following three important
functions: (a) provide structural strength; (b) facilitate subsurface drainage; and (c) provide
surface friction especially when pavement is wet. Mixes are generally selected based on
these three primary functions.
Bituminous mixes can generally be classified based on the nature of their gradations: dense
graded; semi-dense graded; open graded; and gap graded. Dense graded asphalt mixes are
most commonly used in bituminous pavements. However, there are some special mixes with
different gradations/features to serve a specific function within the flexible pavement system.
These special mixes may include but not limited to: open graded permeable asphalt base for
subsurface drainage; open graded friction course (OGFC) to provide improved wet pavement
frictional resistance; gap graded which is highly rut resistant mix for heavy duty pavements
(stone matrix asphalt); mixes which can be produced and compacted at cooler temperatures
compared to hot mix asphalt (warm mix asphalt); mixes which can be used to repair potholes
without any preparation of the pothole during rainy weather and cold weather (readymade
pothole patching mix); mixes for preventive maintenance of bituminous surfaces (slurry seal
and microsurfacing); and porous asphalt for rainwater harvesting. Recycled asphalt mixes will
be discussed in another chapter.
4.2 FUNDAMENTALS OF MIX SELECTION BASED ON THEIR INTENDED

FUNCTION
Bituminous mixes are used in a flexible pavement to serve the following three important
functions [1]:
1. Provide structural strength

2. Facilitate subsurface drainage
4. 3. Provide surface friction especially when wet
4.2.1 Provide Structural Strength
Figure 4.1 shows a typical cross-section of flexible pavement in a developed country like
USA. The structural bituminous courses can consist of bituminous binder course and
bituminous surface or wearing course as shown in Figure 4.1. Providing structural strength is
the primary purpose of most bituminous mixes except those used in very thin surfacing. The
objective is to disperse appropriately the dynamic and static effects of traffic wheel loads to
the underlying pavement layer such as bituminous/crushed stone base course. For low-volume
roads, only a granular base and a bituminous wearing course may suffice based on structural
requirements. Normally, lower layers of base courses including those of bituminous base
courses (as provided in developed countries) should have desired stiffness characteristics to
act as good foundation, which should be effective in dispersing the traffic loads to the lower
layers. Upper layers of bituminous binder course have the requirement of being effective in
re-bounding against the dynamic effect of traffic load. In other words, the top layers of
bituminous binder courses should have adequate stiffness to resist rutting coupled with the
flexibility to be effective in re-bounding. The flexibility characteristics of asphalt layers
should, therefore, increase from bottom upwards.
From the perusal of the current literature and practices, it is observed that the preceding
requirements can normally be fulfilled by using continuously dense graded bituminous mixes
with nominal maximum aggregate size (NMAS) decreasing from base course through binder
course to surface or wearing course. The nominal maximum aggregate size is defined as one
sieve larger than the first sieve to retain more than 10% of combined aggregate [2].
Base course mixes, which use relatively larger size aggregate, are not only stiff/stable but also
are economical because they use relatively lower bitumen contents. Surface or wearing course
mixes with smaller aggregate on the other hand have relatively higher bitumen contents,
which not only impart high flexibility but also increase their durability. The binder
(intermediate) course mix serves as a transition between the base course and wearing course.
Several studies have shown that permanent deformation (rutting) within flexible pavement is
usually confined to the top 100 mm to 150 mm of the pavement. This means both the binder
and wearing course mixes should be designed to be resistant to rutting. That is why in
extreme cases of heavy traffic loads and high tyre pressures, it is considered prudent to use
stone matrix asphalt (SMA) mix in which due to stone-on-stone contact, the load is carried
directly by the coarse aggregate skeleton. The SMA will be discussed later in the chapter. An
idealised cross-section for a heavy-duty flexible pavement including the SMA is shown in
Figure 4.2.
4.2.2 FacilitateSubsurface Drainage
Typically, granular sub-base (GSB) in a flexible pavement is intended to provide subsurface

drainage. However, in many situations relatively higher permeability compared to GSB may
be required. Open graded, permeable asphalt treated base (PATB) has been used extensively
in the US on major highways to provide positive subsurface drainage. It is considered as a
separate course exclusively for subsurface drainage.
4.2.3 Provide Surface Friction
For the safety of the motoring public, bituminous wearing course should provide adequate
surface friction or skid resistance especially when the pavement is wet. Surface friction is
contributed by the macro and micro surface texture of the compacted asphalt mix [2]. Macro
surface texture depends on the mix gradation; open graded mixes have higher macro surface
texture compared to dense graded mixes. High macro texture also allows rainwater water to be
squeezed out from below the tyre.
Micro surface texture is contributed by the aggregate surface after bitumen film has been
worn by traffic. Aggregates which do not polish readily provide good micro surface texture.
Open graded friction course (OGFC) usually 20 mm to 25 mm thick is especially designed
as an open graded mix with interconnected voids that provide drainage within the course
during heavy rainfall. The OGFC will be discussed later in this chapter.
4.3 TYPES OF BITUMINOUS MIXES BASED ON GRADATION
Bituminous mixes can generally be classified based on the nature of their gradations: dense
graded; semi-dense graded; open graded; and gap graded. Dense graded mixes are
continuously graded generally in the proximity of the maximum density line (discussed in the
chapter on aggregate). Open graded mixes lack in the amount of the fine aggregate (sand). Gap
graded mixes lack materials generally of two or three sizes. Semi-dense mixes fall somewhere
between dense graded and open graded mixes. Figure 4.3 depicts the general trend of dense
graded, open graded, and gap graded mixes on a gradation chart.
4.4 DENSE GRADED BITUMINOUS MIXES
Dense graded bituminous mixes are primarily continuously graded mixes as mentioned
earlier. These mixes consist of aggregate particles of all sizes progressively packed into each
other. Such mixes derive their strength from inter-particle surface friction. Most flexible
pavements in the world use dense graded bituminous mixes for structural strength. Two types
of dense graded bituminous mixes are used in India each with two gradations: (a) dense
bituminous macadam (DBM), and (b) bituminous concrete (BC). Both are DBM and BC are
discussed as follows:
4.4.1 Dense Bituminous Macadam (DBM)

At the present time, the dense bituminous macadam (DBM) is specified for use as a base
course and/or binder course. Two gradations of the DBM are used. Grading 1 has a nominal
maximum aggregate size (NMAS) of 37.5 mm and grading 2 has a NMAS of 25 mm.
Table 4.1 gives the existing MORTH composition of DBM gradings 1 and 2 [3]. The specified
percentage of fine aggregate is the same in both gradings (28% to 42%). The main difference is
just some large size aggregate particles (25 mm to 45 mm size) are contained in grading 1. Use
of large stone mix (NMAS of 37.5 mm or larger) has several disadvantages.
The 37.5 mm NMAS mix has been found very prone to segregation resulting in honeycombing
(Figure 4.4). This mix also becomes permeable at relatively lower air void content levels as
compared to the 25 mm NMAS mix, thereby increasing the potential for water/ moisture
related damage. Figure 4.5 clearly shows the effect of NMAS on field permeability [4, 5]. As
the NMAS increases, the permeability also increases multi-fold at a given void level.
The preceding disadvantages outweigh the “marginal” gain in stability (resistance to rutting), if
any; over a 25 mm NMAS mix. Since grading 1 is highly permeable, it has to be sealed or
overlaid before rainy season, otherwise, water will penetrate it and damage the underlying wet
mix macadam (WMM) course (also called crushed stone base course). On many national
highways in India, deteriorated DBM grading 1 in the lower lift of the total DBM, which was
disintegrated due to stripping, could not be retrieved intact by coring (Figure 4.6). Therefore,
only DBM grading 2 is considered suitable as base course in both lifts.
4.4.2 Bituminous Concrete (BC)
Two gradings of the bituminous concrete (BC) are used in India at the present time. Grading
1 has a NMAS of 19 mm and grading 2 has a NMAS of 13 mm [3]. Since DBM grading 2
was considered suitable as base course, there is a need to select a binder course and a
wearing (surface) course. The BC grading 1 with a NMAS of 19 mm is suitable for a binder
course because by definition it binds the base course (NMAS of 25 mm) and the wearing
course (NMAS of 13 mm) with an intermediate (transition) NMAS of 19 mm. The BC
grading 2 with a NMAS of 13 mm is suitable for a wearing course. Therefore, BC grading 1
needs to be “renamed” as a binder course in lieu of wearing course and used as such in the
pavement design in lieu of the upper lift of DBM. This conforms to general practice in
developed countries.
There is a need to add a new BC gradation with a NMAS of 9.5 mm, which can be used for
light to medium traffic, and in urban areas (not catering to commercial traffic) to provide
smooth and highly impermeable and durable bituminous road surface [1]. The BC grading 3
is also suitable for thin asphalt lifts and should be preferred over BC grading 2. This BC
gradation with a NMAS of 9.5 mm is being used successfully across the US even on
interstate (national) highways. However, if the road is expected to carry overloaded trucks, it
is recommended to use BC grading 2. All three BC gradations are shown in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2 Recommended bituminous concrete (BC) gradations Specification

4.5 SEMI-DENSE BITUMINOUS MIXES
Two semi-dense bituminous mixes are used in India: (a) semi-dense bituminous concrete
(SDBC), and (b) mixed seal surfacing (MSS), which are discussed as follows:
4.5.1 Semi-dense Bituminous Concrete (SDBC)
There is no engineering logic in using a “semi-dense” mix when only dense, continuously
graded mixes are technically desirable. In most developed countries either dense mixes (hot
mix asphalt) are provided or the open graded friction course (OGFC) is provided as wearing
course [2]. Semi-dense mixes which are neither dense graded nor open graded, contain the so-
called “pessimum” voids when constructed [6]. Pessimum represents opposite of optimum.
The objective is to stay out of the “pessimum” void range. A “semi-dense” mix, which has a
potential for having “pessimum” voids in it, is likely to trap moisture/water and cause
stripping [7].
If SDBC is used over open graded, highly permeable bituminous macadam (BM), rainwater
permeates through the semi-dense SDBC (or its cracks) and is stored in the underlying BM.
The BM is described later. The water or moisture vapour from the BM can cause stripping
(loss of adhesion between bitumen and aggregate surface) in the BM as well as in the
overlying SDBC, quite often also causing debonding (scaling) of the SDBC from the BM.
This scaling results in numerous “shallow potholes” on the road as shown in Figure 4.7.
The Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MORTH) deleted the SDBC in 2012 from its
specifications [3].
4.5.2 Mixed Seal Surfacing (MSS)
The Indian Roads Congress (IRC) adopted the mixed seal surfacing (MSS) specification
IRC:SP: 78–2008 [8] probably as an alternate to the premix carpet (PMC); both are applied in
20 mm thickness. The PMC is discussed later in the chapter. Since hot mix asphalt plants are
now widely available across India, it was considered practical and easy to adopt a hot mix
which would encompass or incorporate both the PMC and the sand seal in one mix rather
than two different applications as described later. This would also reduce cost of construction.
As shown in Table 4.3, two gradations are specified for MSS: one is “closed” gradation
(Type A with NMAS of 9.5 and the other is “open” gradation (Type B with NMAS of 9.5
mm or 12.5 mm). Since the “closed” graded mix has NMAS of 9.5 mm, it can be placed in 20
mm thick course similar to PMC. Both are recipe type mixes with no mix design
requirements such as Marshall required for BC.
Both MSS mixes are not really dense graded mixes but are semi-dense graded (especially
Type B). Well-designed dense graded BC grading 3 with NMAS of 9.5 mm proposed earlier
under BC can be used to achieve the same purpose. That would ensure an almost
impermeable and durable mix, also designed with the Marshall method.
4.6 OPEN GRADED BITUMINOUS MIXES
Open graded bituminous mixes have minimal amounts of fine aggregate (sand) and
therefore are highly permeable to water. Such mixes have been used as base mixes as well
as surface mixes for specific functions as discussed below.
4.6.1 Base Mixes
Three open graded bituminous mixes have been used as base mixes: asphalt treated
permeable base (ATPB); bituminous macadam (BM); and built-up spray grout (BUSG). All
three are discussed as follows:
Asphalt Treated Permeable Base (ATPB)
Typically, granular sub-base (GSB) in a flexible pavement is intended to provide subsurface

drainage. However, in many situations where granular sub-bases contain high percentages of
fines (material passing the 0.075 mm sieve), such layers are found to be not very effective.
In developed countries like USA, permeable asphalt treated base (PATB) has been used
extensively on major highways to provide positive subsurface drainage. The PATB is also
called asphalt treated permeable base (ATPB) in the US. The PATB basically does not
constitute a conventional base course. It is considered as a separate course exclusively for
subsurface drainage. From cost consideration, PATB is not recommended for most highways
in India where GSB alone should suffice. However, it is felt that a specification similar to
those of PATB should be available for use in exceptional drainage problem situations. The lift
or layer thickness of the PATB generally ranges from 75 mm to 100 mm, which can be
compacted in one lift.
The PATB mix consists of coarse aggregate only without any fine aggregate. Typically
AASHTO aggregate gradations no. 57 or 67 are used. AASHTO no. 57 has a nominal
maximum aggregate size (NMAS) of 25 mm. Its gradation is 100% passing 37.5 mm; 95% to
100% passing 19 mm; 25% to 60% passing 12.5 mm; 0% to 10% passing 4.74 mm; and 0% to
5% passing 2.36 mm sieve. It can be considered equivalent to 20 mm aggregate in India.
Bitumen content in PATB ranges from 2% to 3% by weight of mix. Anti-stripping agent must
be used in the mix. Mixing temperature usually ranges from 110 ºC to 140 ºC. There is no
problem of bitumen binder drain down because the mix is not very hot and the bitumen
content is very low. Compaction in the field is usually started when mix cools down to about
90 ºC and is terminated at about 40 ºC. A steel wheeled tandem roller weighing 8 tons to 12
tons is used in static mode only to compact the PATB. Excessive compaction must be avoided.
The PATB is provided between the granular sub-base (GSB) and the bituminous base course
[1]. Figures 4.8 and 4.9 show two typical provisions of PATB. The concept is to provide
a two-layer drainage system. It is on the presumption that water accumulated in the sub-base
always seeks least path of flow and some part of it flows upwards into the PATB rather than
travelling altogether a long distance to the edge of the sub-base. Water collected in the PATB
is then drained out in two ways. The PATB can either be connected to a subsurface pavement
edge drain as shown in Figure 4.8 or it can be extended all the way to the edge of the
embankment or “day lighted” as shown in Figure 4.9. This two-layer subsurface drainage
system is very effective in quickly removing water, which may enter the pavement by any
manner.
It is of paramount importance to ensure that the PATB layer is not blocked in any way at the
outlet, otherwise, it will be saturated with water and thus create a “bath tub” scenario in the
pavement.
This phenomenon will not only induce stripping within the PATB (due to pore water pressure
build up under traffic) but also in the bituminous courses overlying it. Premature failures of
pavements from this phenomenon have been experienced in California.
Bituminous Macadam (BM)
Bituminous macadam (BM) is an open graded, highly permeable, and recipe type mix
produced without any quality control on its volumetrics or strength (stability). It can have void
content as high as 20% to 25% compared to the dense graded DBM with void content between
3% and 5% (Figure 4.10) [9]. Being highly permeable BM has the potential to attract moisture
or water.
Figures 4.11, 4.12 and 4.13 show typical cross-sections of flexible pavements used in India at
the present time. Figure 4.11 does not have a BM layer and DBM is resting directly on
WMM, which is considered proper. However, Figures 4.12 and 4.13 show cross-sections
where BM has been used as a base, binder or profile corrective course (PCC) with no outlet
for water thus creating the so-called “bath tub” situation within the pavement.
No permeable asphalt layer is desirable within the pavement structure (unless it is
specifically for drainage with proper outlets) whether it is a profile corrective course (PCC),
base course, or binder course. If this fundamental requirement is disregarded, the potential
for premature pavement distress is increased. As mentioned earlier, a permeable layer
always attracts and traps water, moisture or moisture vapour. Water can come from the top
through cracks, from the sides, or from the unbound courses underneath [10, 11, 12]. This
leads to stripping of bitumen in the permeable layer as well as in the adjacent layers
overlying or underlying it due to traffic action thereby resulting in premature failure of the
road.
Figure 4.14 shows an example of premature failure of road in North Eastern States of India
due to presence of water in the BM; SDBC was the course overlying the BM.
Considering that 100 mm thick open graded BM is equal to 70 mm dense graded DBM, the
latter is actually about 10% cheaper than the former based on equivalent structural strength
[1].
Built-up Spray Grout (BUSG)
Built-up spray grout (BUSG) has been recommended as a base course for flexible
pavements.It is not a bituminous mix; rather a two-layer composite construction of
compacted, almost singe sized crushed aggregates with application of hot bitumen after
each layer. Single sized key aggregate is then applied at the top. Obviously, this type of
bituminous construction is highly permeable because the sprayed bitumen does not fill the
voids in the coarse aggregate adequately. Therefore, BUSG has the potential to attract
water or moisture. This has been proven from the fact that potholes repaired with BUSG
technique quite often reappear in a year or two. Therefore, BUSG has been rightly deleted
from recently revised 2013 MORTH specification [3].
4.6.2 Surface Mixes
Three open graded bituminous mixes have been used as surface mixes: open graded friction
course (OGFC); premix carpet (PMC); and surface dressing. The last one is rather a surface
treatment. These all are discussed in detail as follows:
Open Graded Friction Course (OGFC)
Open graded friction course (OGFC) is an open graded hot mix asphalt (HMA) mixture with
interconnecting voids that provides improved surface drainage during rainfall. The rainwater
simply drains vertically through the OGFC to an impermeable underlying layer like
bituminous concrete (BC) grading 2 and then flows laterally within the OGFC (usually 20 mm
thick) to its day lighted edge on to the shoulder. There is no accumulation of rainwater on the
road surface. The US National manual on the design, construction and maintenance of open
graded asphalt friction courses was developed in 2002 [13]1.
OGFC has the following safety and environmental features:
Improved wet pavement frictional resistance: Extensive research conducted in the US,
Canada, and Europe clearly indicates the superior wet pavement frictional resistance (skid
resistance) of OGFC in comparison to dense HMA and Portland cement concrete (PCC)
surfaces. The resulting reduction in wet weather accidents has also been documented.
Figure 4.15 clearly shows the difference between conventional dense graded HMA and OGFC
in Oregon, USA. Motorists feel safer when driving on OGFC surface during rain [13].
Hydroplaning: The OGFC prevents hydroplaning (like skidding on ice and loss of control)
of vehicles during rains because the rainwater permeates it leaving no continuous water film
on the road surface.
Reduced splash and spray: When driving during rain, motorists run into heavy spray from
vehicles (especially trucks) travelling ahead. It is no longer possible to view the roadway ahead
due to diminished visibility. The use of OGFC almost eliminates spray because there is no
standing water on the road surface. Again, Figure 4.15 clearly shows it.
Glare: Another benefit from the use of OGFC is the reduction of glare from headlights in wet
conditions. Obviously it contributes to better visibility and reduced driver fatigue.
Improved visibility of pavement markings: The pavement markings on OGFC surface have
high night visibility especially during wet weather. This contributes to improved safety.
The US National manual on OGFC was developed by Kandhal in 2002.
Noise reduction: Tyres rolling on the road cause air to be forced away in front of, and
sucked in behind, the area of contact between the tyre and the road. This air pumping
generates high-frequency noise. On OGFC, the pumping, and thereby the noise generated to
the surroundings, is reduced because the air is pumped down into the porous pavement.
Porous OGFC also reduces noise by absorbing some of the noise emitted by vehicles. On
dense surfaces such as PCC, the noise emitted towards the pavement is reflected to the
surroundings [14].
OGFC mix design: The OGFC was first tried in the US during 1970s [15]. However, its
service life was less than desirable. Subsequently, the mix design for the new-generation
OGFC mixes was developed based on research conducted at the National Center for Asphalt
Technology (NCAT); observation of in-place performance of OGFC mixes in Georgia, and
experience in Europe [16, 17]. This mix design used in the US is conducted in four steps: (1)
materials selection, (2) selection of design gradation, (3) determination of optimum binder
content, and (4) evaluation for moisture susceptibility. Since the OGFC also has stone-on-
stone contact its mix design is very similar to that of the stone matrix asphalt (SMA)
discussed in detail later.
Step 1: Materials selection
The first step in the mix design process is to select materials suitable for OGFC. Materials
needed for OGFC include aggregates, asphalt binders, and additives (such as fibre). Guidance
for suitable aggregates is essentially based on similar recommendations for stone matrix
asphalt (SMA). The coarse aggregate for OGFC must be adequately strong to carry the traffic
loads similar to SMA because OGFC is designed to have stone-on-stone contact. Fractured
faces are also required to provide a coarse aggregate structure with high internal friction. If
the fractured face count is significantly less than 100% (for example in partially crushed
gravels), the OGFC mix will not have the desired resistance to rutting. Crushed gravel must
have at least 90% particles with two faces and 100% particles with one face resulting from
crushing. Aggregates with relatively low absorption (less than 2% water absorption) are
preferred.
Binder selection should be based on factors such as environment, traffic, and expected
functional performance of OGFC. High stiffness binders, generally two grades stiffer than
normally used for the local climatic conditions made with polymers are recommended for hot
climates or cold climates with freeze-thaw cycles, medium to high volume traffic conditions,
and mixes with high air void contents (in excess of 20%). The addition of fibre is also
desirable under such conditions to significantly reduce binder drain down
during transportation of the mix and allow for high binder content for a durable OGFC. For
low to medium volume traffic, either polymer modified binders or cellulose fibres (added at
about 0.3% of total mix) may be sufficient. The dosage rate depends upon the result of mix
drain down test described later in case of SMA.
Step 2: Selection of design gradation
Table 4.4 shows the recommended gradation for OGFC. Similar to SMA, the OGFC must
have a coarse aggregate skeleton with stone-on-stone contact to minimise rutting. Coarse
aggregate in this case is defined as the aggregate fraction retained on a 4.75 mm sieve. The
condition of stone-on-stone contact within an OGFC mix is defined as the point at which the
voids in coarse aggregate (VCA) fraction of the blend of the compacted OGFC mixture
(VCAmix) is less than the VCA of the coarse aggregate fraction of the blend alone in the dry-
rodded test. Again, this is determined similar to SMA discussed later in this chapter.
Select three trial gradations (falling along the coarse and fine limits and one in the middle)
within the range of gradation given in Table 4.4. For each trial gradation, compact specimens
at a binder content between 6.0% and 6.5% using 50 gyrations of a Superpave gyratory
compactor (SGC) or 50 blows of Marshall hammer. If fibres are to be used, they should be
included in these trial mixes. Determine the air voids and voids in coarse aggregate for each
compacted mix (VCAmix). If the VCAmix of the compacted mix is equal to or less than the
voids in coarse aggregate—dry-rodded condition (VCADRC), stone-on-stone contact exists.
To select the design gradation, choose the trial gradation that has stone-on-stone contact
combined with high voids in total mix (at least 18%).
Step 3: Determine optimum binder content
Using the selected design gradation, prepare OGFC mixes at three binder contents in
increments of 0.5%. Also, determine the bulk specific gravity of compacted OGFC
(compacted with 50 blows of Marshall hammer) and the theoretical maximum specific
gravity of the loose OGFC mixture. Determine the air voids at all three binder contents.
Conduct a drain down test (exactly similar to SMA) on loose mix at a temperature 15 °C
higher than the anticipated production temperature. Since OGFC is an open graded mix,
there is significant potential, the binder may drain down in the truck during transportation
resulting in fat and lean OGFC on the road, which is not desirable. A maximum drain down
of 0.3% by weight of total mix as recommended for SMA is also considered applicable to
OGFC. The complete test method is given in ASTM D 6390 which is described in case of
SMA later in this chapter.
Conduct the Cantabro abrasion test on unaged and aged compacted OGFC specimens. This
test evaluates the resistance of compacted OGFC specimens to abrasion loss. This is an
abrasion and impact test carried out in the Los Angeles abrasion machine (ASTM method C
131). The mass of the compacted OGFC specimen is determined to the nearest 0.1 g, and is
recorded. The compacted test specimen is then placed in the Los Angeles abrasion machine
without the charge of steel balls. The operating temperature is usually 25 oC. The machine is
operated for 300 revolutions at a speed of 30 rpm to 33 rpm. The eroded test specimen is then
removed and its mass determined to the nearest 0.1 g. The percentage abrasion loss is
calculated based on specimen’s original mass [16, 17].
The recommended maximum permitted abrasion loss value for freshly compacted specimens
is 20%. However, some European countries specify a maximum value of 25%. Resistance to
abrasion usually improves with an increase in binder content. However, this resistance is also
related to the rheological properties of the binder. For a given gradation and binder content,
mixes containing unmodified binders generally have less resistance to abrasion than mixes
containing polymer modified binders.
Aged compacted OGFC specimens should also be subjected to Cantabro abrasion test to
evaluate the effect of accelerated laboratory aging and hence field aging on resistance to
abrasion. Because of very high air void contents, the asphalt binder in OGFC is prone to
hardening (oxidation) at a faster rate than dense graded HMA, which may result in reduction
of its cohesive and adhesive strength leading to ravelling. Therefore, the mix design should be
subjected to an accelerated aging test.
Aging is accomplished by placing five compacted specimens (compacted with 50 SGC

gyrations or 50 blows with a Marshall hammer) in a forced draft oven set at 85 oC for 120
h (5 days). This long-term aging is in accordance with AASHTO PP 2-01 “Standard
Practice for Mixture Conditioning of Hot-Mix Asphalt.” The specimens are then cooled to
25 oC and stored for 4 h prior to Cantabro abrasion test. The average of the abrasion
losses obtained on 5 aged specimens should not exceed 30%, while no individual result
should exceed 50%.
The optimum binder content is selected when the OGFC mixture meets the following
criteria:
Air voids: A minimum of 18% is acceptable, although higher values are desirable. The
higher the air voids are, the more permeable the OGFC .
Abrasion loss on unaged specimens: The abrasion loss from the Cantabro test should not
exceed 20%.
Abrasion loss on aged specimens: The abrasion loss from the Cantabro test should not
exceed 30%.
Drain down: The maximum drain down should not exceed 0.3% by total mixture mass.
If none of the binder contents tested meet all four criteria, remedial action will be
necessary. Air voids within OGFC are controlled by the binder content and aggregate
gradation. If air voids are too low, the binder content should be reduced. If the abrasion
loss on unaged specimens is greater than 20%, more asphalt binder is needed. Abrasion
loss values of aged specimens in excess of 30% can be remedied by either increasing the
binder content or changing the type of binder additive. If the binder drain down values are
in excess of 0.3%, the amount of binder and/or type of binder or fibre additive can be
adjusted. Fibre stabilisers are typically incorporated into the mix at a rate of 0.2% to 0.5%
by weight of the total mix.
Step 4: Evaluate mix for moisture susceptibility
The mix designed with Step 1 through Step 3 should be evaluated for moisture susceptibility
using AASHTO T 283 with five freeze/thaw cycles in lieu of one cycle. The tensile strength
ratio (TSR) should be at least 80%. AASHTO T 283 should be modified as follows:
(a) Specimens compacted with 50 gyrations of SGC or 50 Marshall blows should be used.
5. (b) Apply a partial vacuum of 26 inches Hg for 10 min to saturate the compacted
specimens to whatever saturation level is achieved.
6. (c) Keep the specimens submerged in water during freeze cycles to maintain saturation.
Mix Production and Placement: There are some significant differences between the
procedures of producing and placing OGFC and conventional HMA mixtures. Specific
modifications must be made to standard HMA production facilities equipment, plant
operations, and field construction techniques as follows [13]:
Asphalt Plant Modifications
The main modification required to a standard HMA production facility is the addition of
cellulose fibre feed device. Typical dosage rates are 0.3% for cellulose fibre by total mixture
mass. Generally, fibres can be produced in two forms: loose fibres and pelletized fibre. Fibres
in a dry, loose state are supplied packaged in plastic bags or in bulk. Both fibre types have
been added successfully into batch or drum plants. However, pelletized cellulose fibres are
easy to add in both batch and drum plants and therefore should be preferred. If the pellets
contain a given amount of bitumen binder (to bind the fibres) that must be accounted for in the
total binder content of the HMA mixture. The pelletized fibre is placed in a hopper from
where it is metered and conveyed to the pug mill of a batch plant or to the drum of a drum
plant. The pellets are mixed with heated aggregate thus melting the asphalt binder and
allowing the fibre to mix with the aggregate. It is very important that the fibre addition be
calibrated to ensure the consistency of the fibre content in the mix. Fat spots are likely to result
on the surface of the finished OGFC pavement if the fibre is not thoroughly dispersed in the
mix and/or the fibre content is not controlled.
Asphalt Plant Production
When cellulose fibres are used in OGFC mixtures, it is necessary to increase both the dry
mixing time and the wet mixing time when using a batch HMA facility. This ensures a
thorough dispersion of fibres during the dry mixing cycle and a uniform coating of all
aggregate particles by the asphalt binder during the wet mixing cycle. The OGFC mixture
should not be stored in surge bins or silos for extended periods of time due to potential drain
down problems.
Hauling
Since the polymer modified bitumen binder in the OGFC has a tendency to bond, it is
necessary to apply a heavy and thorough coat of an asphalt release agent to truck beds. Also,
truck beds should be raised after spraying to drain any puddles of the release agent. The
puddled release agent, if not removed, will cool the mix. Tarping each load of OGFC is
essential to prevent excessive crusting of the mix during transportation. The cold lumps do not
break down readily and cause pulls in the mat. A long haul distance will compound this
problem. The HMA production, hauling, and paving should be coordinated so that paving
continues smoothly without stops. Too few trucks will cause the paver to stop, thus producing
bumps.Too many trucks will cause delays in unloading thereby resulting in cooling of the
OGFC mix and formation of cold lumps.
Placement
The OGFC should only be placed on an impermeable asphalt course such as BC grading 2
unless the pavement is specifically designed to be permeable. Otherwise, during rainfall, the
water will pass through the OGFC and be trapped in the underlying pavement layer, resulting
in potential moisture damage (stripping). The OGFC mat should be day lighted on the shoulder
so that rain water percolating through the OGFC can drain out freely at its edge.
Conventional steel wheel rollers are used to compact the OGFC. No pneumatic tyre rolling is
required. It is critical to keep the roller within 15 m (50 ft) of the paver to compact the OGFC
while it is still hot and workable. The breakdown roller usually completes one to two complete
coverages of the mat in static mode to compact a thin lift (20 mm or 3/4 inch) OGFC. The
breakdown roller may have to be operated in a vibratory mode at transverse joints and
occasionally longitudinal joints to help knock down a high joint. Generally, use of vibratory
compaction should be discouraged.
OGFC containing polymer modified asphalt binder (especially the one containing fibre too) is
an extremely harsh mix and does not lend itself to hand raking unlike conventional HMA.
Raking, if attempted, produces rough areas with excessive voids in the finished mat. Therefore,
it is very important to have the entire screed heated well to avoid any raking.
Longitudinal joints in the OGFC pavement are constructed by placing the mix approximately
1.5 mm (1/16 inch) above the previously placed and compacted lane. Therefore, it is important
for the edge of the screed or extension to follow the joint exactly to prevent excessive overlap.
Scope of OGFC in India: Since OGFC will be placed over dense graded BC grading 2 in India,
it is an additional cost to the project primarily to ensure the safety of motor vehicles during wet
weather. Therefore, in a developing country like India it should be used sparingly and
judiciously in critical locations of the highways, which are prone to accidents during rains.
Premix Carpet (PMC)
Premix carpet (PMC) consists of laying 20 mm thick open graded bituminous mix to serve as a
wearing course. Aggregate for the mix consists of a blend of two single size aggregates: passing
22.5 mm and retained on 11.2 mm, and passing 13.2 mm and retained on 5.6 mm sieve.
Viscosity grade bitumen is used; the grade being selected based on climate and traffic. It can be
VG-10 or VG-30. The bitumen content by weight of mix is approximately 3.3% calculated
based on the aggregate and aggregate application rates specified in IRC: 14–2004,
“Recommended Practice for Open Graded Premix Carpet”.
During early 1960s, it was very common to use bituminous surface dressing or chip sealing on
most types of roads in India. Surface dressing which is described next was very effective in
water-proofing the water bound macadam (WBM) roads because of heavy bitumen application
rate followed by chip application.
The PMC was introduced with the IRC publishing its specification for the first time in 1962.
It was realised that the PMC was highly permeable to rainwater due to single size aggregate
being used in the mix. Therefore, the use of sand seal coat was warranted to seal the surface
of the open graded mix. Sand was mixed with about 7% bitumen, applied on the open
surface, and rolled.
With the advent of the PMC, surface dressing started to die across India and is almost non-
existent in many states such as Rajasthan at the present time. This is ironical that surface
dressing is still being used extensively and successfully on low to medium-trafficked roads in
developed countries such as US, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. It is contended that
surface dressing is successful in those countries because the construction (bitumen application
and chip spreading) is mechanised there. However, it can be mechanised in India too because
bitumen distributors (already available for tack coat work) and mechanised chip spreaders
(being manufactured in Gujarat) are alreadyavailable [18]. In fact many states already have an
item of surface dressing by “mechanical means” in their basic schedule of rates (BSR).
Unfortunately, due to significant increase in vehicular traffic and PMC’s inherent potential for
attracting moisture/water, its service life has decreased significantly in recent years. Its air
void content is estimated to be over 25%. Although a sand seal coat is provided on the surface
of the PMC, it is not completely effective in making the PMC waterproof at the surface. Even
if there is a small patch where the PMC has lost its sand seal, the surface water on the road
can penetrate it at that spot, flow sideward like in OGFC, and flood the entire PMC below the
sand seal (Figure 4.16). The hydraulic pressure induced by traffic in the water trapped within
the PMC below the seal coat is likely to cause stripping within the PMC and the underlying
bituminous course. If the underlying course is WMM or WBM, it would get saturated and
lose its strength especially if it contains some plastic material.
The surface water permeability of an in-service PMC was determined in Rajasthan and
Tamil Nadu with a grease ring method (Figure 4.17). Although it is simple, crude, falling
head water permeability test, it does give some relative permeability values. A ring about
225 mm in diameter and about 25 mm high is made on the road surface to be tested using
heavy grease.
A steel ring or putty can also be used in lieu of heavy grease. The ring is filled with water up
to a depth of 12.5 mm and timer is started. Time taken by the water to penetrate and disappear
from the road surface is measured in seconds as measure of relative water permeability.
It was quite evident from the field experiments that generally the PMC layer with sand seal
coat would easily trap water during rains in many cases. Once the PMC is saturated with
water, the hydraulic pressure resulting from traffic above can loosen up the sand seal in other
areas of the PMC [19]. This phenomenon has been observed on city streets (Figure 4.18). As
already mentioned, the hydraulic pressure also causes stripping in the PMC as well as in the
underlying bituminous course. That is why PMC deteriorates rather rapidly during monsoons
especially in towns and cities where streets usually get flooded.
Obviously, there are cases where PMC with good, uniform sand seal coat and/or very dry
climate has endured well. However, fundamentally the question is why to place a highly
porous bituminous mix like PMC in the first place and then try to seal it. There is no
available data as to what depth, if any; the estimated 6 mm thick sand seal coat really
penetrates the 20 mm thick PMC when rolled. Unlike surface dressing which has been
researched widely across the world, hardly any research data is available for PMC in India
where it is widely used [19].
Also, no significant published data on average life of PMC in India is available. Some
engineers believe its average life to be 2 to 3 years without significant distress such as raveling
and potholes. Therefore, for low to medium-trafficked roads where PMC is used right now, it
is recommended to use single or double surface dressing. The PMC is not as effective for
waterproofing as the surface dressing because the latter involves a very thick application of
bitumen binder on the existing road surface. If ‘black” road surface is desirable for surface
dressing for public perception as well as minimise chip loss, precoated chips can be used.
It should be noted that all these alternatives are much cheaper than the PMC as shown in
Table 4.5. Note that the cost of single coat surface dressing is only 1/3 of the cost of PMC.
Its use on low volume rural roads would save India thousands of crores of rupees every
year.
For medium to heavy-trafficked roads and city roads, BC grading 2 can be used in lieu of the
PMC. It is preferable to use 40 mm depth to ensure adequate compaction during construction
(thin lifts cool rapidly especially during night paving on urban roads). Although the initial
cost of 40 mm BC grading 2 is about 50% more than the cost of 20 mm PMC, BC grading 2
is actually 24% cheaper than the PMC based on life cycle cost analysis (LCCA) given in
annexure to this chapter. This is a very conservative analysis in that the remaining service
life, salvage value, maintenance expenses, and user operating costs were not even considered,
which all favour BC. Therefore, savings will be much more than 24%. More importantly, BC
grading 2 provides significant structural strength to the road pavement for future traffic
growth whereas PMC has almost no structural strength to offer.
Surface Dressing
According to IRC standard IRC: 110–2005, “Specification and Code of Practice for Design
and Construction of Surface Dressing”, surface dressing is a common and cost effective
surface treatment used: (a) to provide a dust free wearing course over a granular base course
such as water bound macadam (WBM) or wet mixed macadam (WMM); (b) to provide
impermeability to road surface against water percolation during rain; (c) to provide a high
friction riding surface; and (d) to serve as a renewal coat for periodic maintenance of
bituminous wearing surfaces [20].
Wearing course of surface dressing has been known for its durability all over the world on low
volume roads because the thick film of bitumen in the surface dressing oxidises slowly and
retains flexibility for a longer period. Surface dressing has also been recommended strongly
for low volume roads in IRC:SP: 72–2007, “Design of Flexible Pavements for Low Volume
Rural Roads” [21].
The surface dressing work involves application by spraying of proper grade of paving
bitumen (usually VG-10) or rapid setting cationic emulsion to a previously prepared surface
followed by application of cover aggregate of appropriate size and gradation and well rolled
in place. Surface dressing does not increase the structural strength nor does it restore or
improve the riding quality of the existing pavement.
Figures 4.19, 4.20 and 4.21 show the application of bitumen binder; application of cover
aggregate; and rolling operations involved in surface dressing. Figure 4.22 shows close up of
road surface after application of surface dressing. Figure 4.23 (a) and (b) show embedment
of cover aggregate into the bitumen binder just after rolling and after traffic compaction,
respectively [20]. Aggregate particles tend to lie on their flattest side (the most stable
orientation); the average thickness of surface dressing is the average least dimension (ALD)
as shown in Figure 4.23 (c).
The optimum thickness (height) to which the sprayed bitumen should rise between aggregate
particles is about 75% of the ALD of the cover aggregate. If the thickness of the binder is more
than the optimum, surface is likely to bleed and become slippery. If the thickness of the binder
is less than the optimum, it may cause loss of cover aggregate by the action of traffic.
Single-coat surface dressing consists of spraying a layer of binder and spreading one layer of
cover aggregate and rolling. Two-coat surface dressing consists of a rolled single-coat surface
dressing followed by a second coat of binder and another layer of cover aggregate and rolling
again. The size of aggregate used in the second layer is smaller than that of the first layer
aggregate so that it may interlock in the surface interstices of the first layer.
Precoated cover aggregate can also be used to impart black colour to the surface dressing
and also minimise loss of cover aggregate particles. Precoating is done with 0.75% to
1% bitumen by weight of aggregate. Precoated aggregate should be free flowing so that
it can be spread either manually or by a mechanical spreader without sticking [22].
The IRC: 110–2005 “Specification and Code of Practice for Design and Construction of
Surface Dressing” gives approximate rate of application of binder and cover aggregate. It also
gives very good, rational guidance on the design and construction of surface dressing based
on the ALD of the cover aggregate; volume of traffic; condition of existing surface; climatic
condition; and type and shape of aggregate particles. This is similar to rational design
methods used in developed countries [23].
Besides significantly lower construction cost, surface dressing offers the following
functional advantages compared to PMC [18]:
7. 1. Excellent sealing of road surface, which does not allow ingress of rainwater
into the lower layers thus resulting in a durable pavement
8. 2. Minimises oxidation of bitumen because it exists in thick film and stone chips provide
protection from sun rays
9. 3. Higher resistance to skidding which reduces accident hazards
10. 4. Retards reflection cracking because of flexible behaviour
11. 5. Environmental friendly because chips need not be heated
12.
The use of mechanised bitumen distributor and chip spreader, which are already available in
India needs to be mandated to ensure the functional success of surface dressing.
4.7 GAP GRADED BITUMINOUS MIXES
The most commonly used gap graded bituminous mix is stone matrix asphalt (SMA) which is
discussed as follows:
4.7.1 Stone Matrix Asphalt (SMA)
Recent years have seen increasing traffic levels on highways across the world (Figure
4.24). Special tyre designs permit tyres to be inflated to high pressures causing high
stresses on road pavement. Sometimes roads are also subjected to overloading.
Conventional dense graded asphalt mixes are sometimes not adequately rut resistant
under these conditions. A highly rut resistant asphalt mix was badly needed. The stone
matrix asphalt (SMA) came to rescue! The SMA is a tough, highly stable, rut resistant
asphalt mix that relies on stone-on-stone contact to provide strength and a rich mortar
to provide durability The other significant advantages of SMA are: improved surface
frictional resistance; noise reduction; and better night time visibility compared to
conventional dense graded asphalt mix.
History of SMA
SMA was developed in Germany during 1960s as a mix resistant to premature wear
damage from studded tyres. However, it was discovered soon SMA was also highly rut
resistant. It has been used in Europe since 1970s. The first SMA project in the US was
placed in 1991 in Wisconsin. Over 15 million tons of SMA has been placed in the US with
excellent performance results. Early SMA pavements in the US were constructed using
Germany’s “recipe” type specifications. No rational mix design was available. Soon it was
realised that “recipe” type mixes may not work in the US with a wide variety of
aggregates available in the country. The National Center for Asphalt Technology (NCAT)
conducted a national comprehensive research project to develop a rational mix design
method for SMA especially to ensure stone-on-stone contact despite the use of
geologically different aggregates with different particle shape and angularity [24, 25].
Subsequently, the US national manual for designing and constructing SMA pavements
was developed to provide guidance for its implementation across the US2.
Severe rutting was observed in India on some national highways especially due to overloaded
trucks. To alleviate that situation, SMA was introduced in India. The national specification
for SMA for the Indian Roads Congress was developed in 2008. Since then, SMA has been
placed on many national highways and has performed really well.
SMA Versus Dense Graded Asphalt Mix
The SMA is a gap graded asphalt mix rather than a dense graded mix. This means the mix
lacks certain sizes of aggregate (has gaps). It has abundance of coarse aggregate particles
(material retained on 4.75 mm sieve) which have stone-on-stone contact providing a stone
skeleton to carry the load without rutting. The SMA also has high binder content typically
about 6%. It also has high dust content (material passing 0.075 mm sieve) typically 8% to 12%
compared to conventional dense graded mix with dust content usually less than 6%. Because
of high binder content, stabilising additive such as cellulose fibre is used to prevent binder
drain down to the bottom of trucks during transportation of this mix. 2 Both the US National
Manual and Indian Roads Congress specification for SMA were developed by Kandhal.
Figure 4.25(a) shows the structure of a typical dense graded asphalt mix. Note that the coarse
aggregate particles do not have much contact with each other and are separated by the fine
aggregate (sand) particles which have to carry the load.
Figure 4.25 (b) shows the stone-on-stone coarse aggregate structure (skeleton) only of
SMA without showing the fine aggregate, filler and binder.
Figure 4.25 (c) shows the stone-on-stone coarse aggregate structure (skeleton) of SMA now
filled with small amount of the fine aggregate, filler and binder. Since less fine aggregate is
used, most of the space has to be filled with lots of dust (filler) and high content of binder.
High binder content also gives increased durability to SMA. Note that the stone-on-stone
contact of the coarse aggregate particles is still intact. Any extra amount of fine aggregate
would result in loss of stone-on-stone contact which is fundamentally necessary for SMA.
Figure 4.26 shows typical gradations of dense graded asphalt mix and SMA. Note that the
SMA gradation is not continuously graded unlike dense graded asphalt mix.
Figure 4.27 shows typical SMA road surface texture in the background. The core in the
photograph shows two layers: SMA on the top and dense graded mix at the bottom. Note the
abundance of coarse aggregate in SMA layer.
SMA Mix Design
The following steps are involved in the mix design [4]:
1. Materials selection (aggregate, binder and cellulose fibre)
2. Evaluate three trial gradations (all within the specified band for SMA) in terms of
volumetrics especially voids in coarse aggregate (VCA) to ensure stone-on-stone contact
3. Establish optimum binder content for selected gradation
4. Evaluate binder drain down and moisture susceptibility
Since the load is carried by coarse aggregate particles, aggregate should be tough and
cubical. It should also be clean, and preferably with low absorption of water. Bitumen binder is
usually VG-30 as per IS: 73–2013 [26] or polymer modified binder PMB-40 as per IS: 15462
“Polymer and Rubber Modified Bitumen Specification”. The SMA will also contain cellulose
fibre usually 0.3%; pelletized fibre is preferred for easy of handling and introducing in the batch
plant. Some fibre pellets use paving bitumen to bind them. This bitumen content in the pellets
should be accounted for in the optimum binder content.
Table 4.6 shows the gradations for SMA binder course and SMA wearing course as per
IRC:SP: 79–2008 “Specifications for Stone Matrix Asphalt”. Use of SMA in both courses is
recommended unless it is assured that the BC binder course is highly stable and rut resistant.
As mentioned earlier, pavement courses within 100 mm to 150 mm from the road surface
need to be highly rut resistant.
To conduct SMA mix design, three trial gradations are used. The following steps are
involved:
1. Use selected aggregates to blend and make three gradations

2. These gradation should be fine, coarse, and in the middle within the SMA specification
band
3. Combine with 6% to 6.5% bitumen and compact specimens with 50 blow Marshall or 100
gyrations of Superpave gyratory compactor (SGC)
The SMA primarily consists of coarse aggregate particles and between these particles is the
binder rich mortar. The objective is to get the SMA volumetrics right in terms of voids in
coarse aggregate (VCA), air voids and voids in mineral aggregate (VMA).
Therefore, the three trial gradations are evaluated to see if they meet the volumetric
criteria (air voids, VMA, and VCA to ensure stone-on-stone contact). The minimum
binder content criterion (5.8% in the IRC code) should also be satisfied.
Mix Design Criteria
The SMA specimens compacted with 50 blows of Marshall hammer or 100 gyrations of the
SGC should meet the following requirements:
1. VMA (17% minimum)
2. Air voids (4.0%)
3. Binder content (5.8% minimum)
4. Drain down (0.3% maximum)
5. Mix VCA should be less than VCA in dry rodded aggregate.
Although air voids and VMA are used as criteria for design of both dense graded mix and
SMA, VCA is exclusively used for SMA. Requirement on VCA ensures stone-on-stone
contact of coarse aggregate in SMA, which is its fundamental feature. The VCA in
compacted SMA should be less than VCA in bare, dry rodded coarse aggregate. Both types
of VCA need to be determined by testing, which will be discussed next.
Voids in Coarse Aggregate—Dry-Rodded Condition (DRC)
Use ASTM C 29 to determine VCADRC. Use the aggregate retained on the breakpoint sieve
(usually 4.75 mm). Place the aggregate in the specified
bucket in three layers, rodding each layer 25 times as specified in the test method. Use the
following formula given in the test method to determine VCADRC.
……………………………………………………………………………
Where,
VCADRC = Voids in the coarse aggregate in the dry-rodded condition Gca = Bulk specific
gravity of the coarse aggregate Yw = Unit weight of water (998 kg/m3)
Ys = Unit weight of coarse aggregate fraction in dry-rodded condition (kg/m3) After the
SMA specimens are compacted, they are analysed for VMA, air voids and VCA.
The determination of VMA and air voids is similar to that of dense graded asphalt mixes as
presented in the chapter on mix design. The VCA in compacted SMA is determined by the
following equation:
………………………………………………………..
Where,
VCAmix = Voids in coarse aggregate in compacted SMA
Gmb = Bulk specific gravity of compacted specimen Gca = Bulk specific gravity of coarse
aggregate fraction Pca = Percent coarse aggregate in the total mix Now, the VCA in the
dry-rodded condition should be compared with the VCA in compacted SMA. The latter
should be lower than the former to ensure stone-on-stone contact in the SMA.
Let us assume that we tried three trial gradations which had 20%, 25%, and 30% passing
4.75 mm sieve. The VCA in dry-rodded condition will be the same for these three gradations
because the same bare coarse aggregate retained on 4.75 mm sieve is tested.
However, the VCA in the compacted SMA would vary for these three gradations. Whichever
gradation(s) produce VCAmix less than the VCADRC would be selected because it ensures
stone-on-stone contact. Then the gradation which also meets all other volumetric requirements
well should be selected.
To determine the optimum binder content, the following steps are taken:
1. Select the optimum gradation from the three trial blends
2. Make specimensat 3 binder contents (for example, 5.5%, 6.0% and 6.4%)
3. Make a plot of binder content versus air voids
4. Optimum binder content is selected at 4.0% air voids
5. Recheck all other volumetric parameters at the optimum binder content for compliance
Next, the binder drain down test must be conducted to ensure binder in the loose SMA mix
does not drain to the bottom of the truck while being transported. If right amount of cellulose
fibre is not used, drain down may occur, which will result in fatty spots on the compacted
SMA mat. Test is conducted with the wire gauge cylinder as shown in Figure 4.28 [27].
About 1200 g of loose SMA mix is placed in the cylinder which is then hung for 60 min in an
oven maintained at the mixing temperature or 15 oC above this temperature as specified.
Any binder draining from this cylinder is determined by weighing the cylinder or the catch
plate underneath. Total drain down should not exceed 0.30% of the total weight of the loose
SMA mix. The Schellenberg binder drainage test can also be used. It involves placing about 1
kg of the hot SMA mix in a specified glass beaker; keeping the beaker in oven maintained at
170 oC for 1 h; emptying the beaker gently; and reweighing it to determine the residue in the
beaker. Both drainage tests are described in detail in the annexure to IRC:SP: 79–2008.
Lastly, the moisture susceptibility of the designed SMA mix should be evaluated using
AASHTO T 283 similar to what is done in both Marshall and Superpave mix designs. Again,
the compacted specimens should have 7+-1% air voids and should be conditioned with one
freeze-thaw cycle. The minimum tensile strength ratio (TSR) should be 85%. Outline of
AASHTO T 283 is also given in the annexure to IRC:SP: 79–2008.
Some highway agencies in the US require performance testing of the designed SMA mix,
which is done with a specified loaded wheel tester (LWT). The LWTs were discussed in the
chapter on mix design. Figure 4.29 shows SMA and conventional dense graded mix specimens
after subjected to loaded wheel testing.
SMA Mix Production
The following points need to be considered in case of aggregates and mineral filler
(dust) used in SMA production:
Since coarse aggregate (retained on 4.75 mm sieve) content is about 72% to 80% of the total
aggregate, it may be necessary to have more than one cold feed bin for the coarse aggregate.
Since the percentage of mineral filler is quite high (about 10%), mineral filler may have to
be added (to supplement bag house fines) which is best done from a silo.
Although VG-30 bitumen can be used, most highway agencies in the US specify a
polymer modified binder (PMB) for SMA. In India, PMB-40 meeting IS: 15462 should
generally be used.
Stabilising additive in the SMA to prevent binder drain down is usually cellulose fibre.
As mentioned earlier, pelletized fibre is preferred because it is easy to handle and add in
the batch plant. Figure 4.30 shows a close up of palletized cellulose fibre.
SMA mix production temperature usually ranges from 160 °C to 170 °C. This temperature
is higher than typically used for conventional mixes because SMA has both polymer
modified binder as well as cellulose fibre.
SMA Construction
It is recommended to build a trial section first so as to ensure the SMA mix satisfies all
specification requirements such as compacted mix volumetrics, binder content and drain
down. It should also be ensured that the in-place compacted mat density meets or exceeds
the target specification density [4].
The SMA mix can be hard and sticky; it is difficult to do hand work during placement.
Therefore, aim should be to keep the paver moving steadily without too many stops. Usual
required compacted mat density is at least 94% of maximum specific gravity ( Gmm), that is,
no more than 6% air voids in the compacted mat. Reduction in thickness from loose mat to
compacted mat is about 10% to 15% compared to 20% to 25% in case of conventional dense
mix. This should be considered when matching SMA pavement with typical dense graded
mix like BC.
Building a control strip at the start of the SMA project is also helpful in establishing the
optimum rolling pattern for the project.
Rolling of SMA should be done promptly. This means breakdown roller should always
be very close to the paver. The first pass should be in vibratory mode.
Figure 4.31 shows fatty spots/areas on the compacted SMA mat. This usually results from
lack of fibre or non-uniform dispersion of fibre in the mix, which results in binder draining
down to the truck bed.
Constructing good longitudinal joints can be tough in case of SMA because the mix is stiff
and does not lend to hand work easily. But it can be done with extra care [4].
Performance of SMA Pavements
A national study was conducted in the US to evaluate the performance of SMA. Performance
was measured primarily based on rut depth after roads had been subjected to traffic. The
histogram in Figure 4.32 shows the rutting results of that study. It can be seen in most cases
that rut depth was less than 4 mm, with a large number of projects with rut depth even less
than 2 mm, which is almost negligible [28].
The performance of SMA pavements constructed in India on national highways has

also been excellent up to date.
Cost of SMA
The cost of SMA has been reported to be about 25% to 30% higher than that of BC in India.
Increased cost is due to cost of cellulose fibre; use of modified binder; and relatively higher
binder content. However, life/cycle cost studies conducted in the US have shown SMA is
quite cost effective based on improved performance and significant increase in service life.
Use of SMA in construction of heavy-duty bituminous pavements in India is expected to
increase in future.
4.8 SPECIAL BITUMINOUS MIXES
As mentioned earlier, there are special bituminous or asphalt mixes which are designed and
used for specific function(s) within the flexible pavement systems. Some of these special
mixes: mastic asphalt; warm mix asphalt (WMA); readymade pothole patching mix; slurry
seal and microsurfacing; and porous asphalt for rainwater harvesting are described as
follows:
4.8.1 Mastic Asphalt
Mastic asphalt has been used successfully in India on traffic roundabouts, road intersections,
and on bridge decks. Bituminous wearing courses on roundabouts and at intersections tend to
rut under slow-moving or standing traffic. Mastic asphalt provides a rut resistant mix in this
situation. Bridge decks require not only good water proofing but also a wearing course which
does not crack when subjected to vibrations, and (b) does not rut under channelized heavy
traffic. Mastic asphalt fulfils these requirements satisfactorily.
Mastic asphalt is prepared with suitably graded coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, filler and
hard bitumen binder. The IRC: 107–2013 “Specification for Bitumen Mastic Wearing
Courses”specifies the mix proportions and properties of aggregates, lime (used as filler), and
bitumen. Industrial grade 85/25 bitumen with 20–40 penetration and 80 oC to 90 oC softening
point is most commonly used in mastic asphalt. The hard bitumen combines with filler to
make a hard mortar or “mastic” which imparts toughness to the mastic asphalt. The size of the
coarse aggregate depends on the thickness of the mastic asphalt course which generally varies
from 25 mm to 50 mm.
Mastic asphalt is usually manufactured in India using the conventional, labour intensive
method which involves the use of a mastic cooker and three stages of mixing and cooking.
First, the filler alone is heated to a temperature of 170 oC to 200 oC in a mechanically

agitated mastic cooker and half of the required quantity of bitumen (also heated to 170 oC to
180 oC) is added to the filler, mixed and cooked for 1 h. Second, the fine aggregate and the
remaining quantity of bitumen is added, mixed and cooked for another hour. Finally, the
coarse aggregate is added, mixed and cooked for another 1 h. Therefore, at least three hours’
cooking is needed to prepare the mastic asphalt. The hot, liquid like mastic asphalt can be
poured like fresh cement concrete [29].
After the existing road surface is prepared suitably, a grid of angle irons of size 25 mm or 50
mm is laid out to contain the hot mastic asphalt. The poured mastic asphalt is levelled off with
a float. Since the mastic asphalt provides a smooth surface which is slippery, precoated stone
chips (9.5 mm to 13.2 mm in size) are spread manually over it and pressed into it while it is
still plastic at temperature between 80 oC and 100 oC. These chips should protrude about 3
mm to 4 mm over the mastic surface. This procedure provides some sort of surface friction to
the mastic asphalt but it is not safe for motor vehicles travelling over 50 km/h to 60 km/h.
Mastic asphalt is called Gussasphalt in Germany. The process of producing and laying it is
fully mechanised there. A layer of stone chips is broadcast over hot Gussasphalt to cover the
entire area and rolled in to provide high surface friction. That is why Gussasphalt is widely
used on high-traffic, no-speed-limit “autobahns” (expressways) in Germany. The first ever
Gussasphalt highway project was constructed in the US in 1972 [30]3. Its design,
construction and performance details are referred to in IRC: 107–2013 Specifications for
Mastic Asphalt.
Since mastic asphalt is produced at significantly high temperatures compared to conventional

hot mix asphalt, some countries have imposed a ban on its use in metropolitan areas to
minimise air pollution. Under such circumstances, stone matrix asphalt (SMA) which was
discussed earlier, can be substituted for mastic asphalt. The SMA is also a highly rut resistant
mix and is also suitable for bridge decks.
4.8.2 Warm Mix Asphalt (WMA)
Warm mix asphalt (WMA) is a fast emerging new technology which has a potential of
revolutionising the production of asphalt mixtures. The WMA technology allows the mixing,
lay down, and compaction of asphalt mixes at significantly lower temperatures compared to
hot mix asphalt (HMA). The technology can reduce production temperatures by as much as
30% [31, 32]. Asphalt mixes are generally produced at 150 °C or greater temperatures
depending mainly on the type of binder used. The WMA mixes can be produced at
temperatures of about 120 °C or lower.
The development of WMA was initiated in Europe in the late 1990s primarily in response to
the need for greenhouse gas reduction under the Kyoto Protocol. The WMA technologies
such as Aspha-min, WAM Foam, and Sasobit were developed during that time. The US
National Asphalt Pavement Association (NAPA) organised a European Scan tour in 2002 to
examine these three WMA technologies. The National Center for Asphalt Technology
(NCAT) initiated research [33] on WMA technologies in 2003.
New WMA technologies such as Evotherm were later developed within the US.
Although WMA originated in Europe, the US made great progress in evaluating and
implementing WMA technologies.
Advantages of WMA and Importance for India
Warm mix asphalt offers the following significant advantages: Energy savings: The most
obvious benefit of WMA is the reduction in fuel consumption. Fuel is used to dry and heat the
aggregate. Studies have shown that lower plant mix temperatures associated with WMA can
lead to as much as 30% reduction in energy consumption [31].
Decreased emissions: The WMA produces emissions (both visible and non-visible) from the
burning of fossil fuels at a significantly reduced level compared to HMA. This would permit
asphalt plants to be located in and around non-attainment areas such as large metropolitan
areas that have air quality restrictions (Figure 4.33). (3 Prof. Kandhal supervised and
documented this first ever Gussasphalt project in the US.)
Decreased fumes and odour: The WMA produces lower fumes and odour both at the plant
and the paving site compared to HMA. This would also result in improved working
conditions at both places.
Decreased binder aging: Short-term aging of liquid bitumen binder takes place when it is
mixed with hot aggregate in pug mill or mixing drum. This aging is caused by the loss of
lighter oils from the liquid bitumen binders during mixing at high temperatures. It is
believed that the short-term aging of the binder will be reduced significantly because the loss
of lighter oils will be less at relatively lower mixing temperatures. This may enhance asphalt
pavement durability.
Extended paving season: By producing WMA at normal HMA temperatures, it may be

possible to extend the paving season into the colder months of the year or in places located on
high altitudes since the WMA additives or processes act as a compaction aid. Further, by
narrowing the difference between compaction temperature and ambient air temperature the
rate of cooling is decreased. The WMA may also be transported over longer distances as
compared to HMA with reduced loss of mix temperature in the hauling units. This advantage
should facilitate the Indian Border Roads Organisation (BRO) in constructing asphalt roads in
high altitude, extremely cold regions and/or remote areas far away from hot mix plants [31].
Compaction aid for stiffer mixes: The WMA additives and processes may be used to
improve the compactibility of stiff mixes when mix is produced closer to typical HMA
production temperatures. Smaller reductions in temperature may also be possible. There is
extensive experience with the use of certain types of WMA technologies with SMA in Europe.
Increased amount of reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP): Research [34] has shown that
the percentage of RAP can be increased in WMA compared to HMA during hot recycling.
Generation of carbon credits for India: Developing countries like India can earn
Certified Emission Reductions (CERs) or popularly known as carbon credits under the
Kyoto Protocol if technologies such as WMA are introduced and implemented.
Warm Mix Asphalt Technologies: Features and Evaluation
A mix is considered warm mix in the US if the mix is produced at the plant with
approximately 50º F (28 ºC) or cooler temperature than the temperature used in typical HMA.
The WMA technologies are also applicable to mixes made with polymer modified bitumen
binders.
The WMA technologies can be classified broadly as: (a) those that use water, (b) those that
use some type of organic additive or wax, and (c) those that use chemical additives or
surfactants [35].
Technologies which introduce small amounts of water to hot bitumen binder take advantage
of the phenomenon when water turns into steam at atmospheric pressure, it expands in
volume by a factor of 1673. This causes tremendous increase in the volume of bitumen binder
which not only helps in coating the aggregate easily but also lowers the mix apparent
viscosity. Processes to introduce water into the bitumen binder consist of foaming nozzles,
use of hydrophilic material such as zeolite or use of damp aggregate. Bitumen binder
temperature typically is the same as that used for hot mix asphalt.
Technologies that use organic additives or waxes lower the bitumen binder viscosity above
their respective melting points. It should be ensured that their melting points are above the
in-service pavement temperatures during hot summers so that permanent deformation or
rutting does not become a problem [35]. Technologies that use some chemical additive and/
or surfactants produce a variety of different mechanisms to coat the aggregate and

facilitate compaction at lower temperatures.
In 2003, the National Center for Asphalt Technology (NCAT) in the US was given the task of
evaluating some proprietary WMA technologies from Europe and one WMA technology
developed in the US [31]. The objective was to perform a laboratory study to determine the
applicability of WMA technologies/products to typical paving operations and environmental
conditions commonly found in the United States. The studies were designed to answer the
following questions:
1. Does the WMA technology affect the compactibility of asphalt mix in the Superpave
gyratory compactor and, therefore, its optimum binder content?
2. Does the WMA technology affect the structural strength of the asphalt mix in terms of
resilient modulus?
3. Does the WMA technology increase the rutting potential of asphalt mix at high
temperatures?
4. Does the WMA technology necessitate some cure time for the asphalt mix before opening
to traffic?
5. Does the WMA technology increase the potential for moisture damage since the mix is
produced at significantly lower temperatures?
Incomplete drying of the aggregate may result from lower temperatures. Thus, the water
trapped in the coated aggregate may cause moisture damage. Also some WMA technologies
introduce additional water during mixing [35].
As mentioned earlier, several WMA technologies have been developed in Europe and the
US. More are being developed. At the present time, over 22 WMA technologies have been
developed. A general description of some WMA technologies evaluated by NCAT in 2003 is
as follows:
Aspha-min®: Aspha-min is a product of Eurovia Services GmbH based in Germany.

Aspha-min is a manufactured synthetic sodium aluminium silicate, better known as
zeolite.The crystalline structure of zeolite has large interconnected spaces, which can hold
water molecules. Eurovia’s Aspha-min contains approximately 21% water by mass, which
is released in the temperature range from 85 °C to 185 °C. When Aspha-min is added to
the mix at the same time as the liquid asphalt binder, water is released. This water release
causes the asphalt binder to microscopically foam, which allows increased workability
and aggregate coating at lower temperatures. According to Eurovia’s recommendations,
Aspha-min is added at a rate of 0.3% by mass of the asphalt mix, which can result in a
potential 28 °C reduction in typical HMA production temperatures.
Aspha-min zeolite is approximately a 50-mesh material, which may be added directly to the
pug mill of a batch plant. It can be added to a drum plant through RAP collar or
pneumatically fed using a specially built feeder. Aspha-min is available as a fine white
powder in 25 kg or 50 kg bags or in bulk for silos.
Sasobit®: Sasobit is a product of Sasol International, Hamburg, Germany. Unlike Aspha-

min, which relies on foam to enhance mix workability at lower temperatures, Sasobit is a
paraffin-wax compound derived from coal gasification using the Fischer-Tropsch (F-T)
process. The smaller crystalline structure of the F-T wax is believed to reduce brittleness at
low temperatures as compared to bitumen paraffin waxes. Sasobit is designed as an “asphalt
flow improver”, both during the asphalt mixing process and during lay down operations, due
to its ability to lower the viscosity of the liquid asphalt binder. This decrease in viscosity
allows working temperatures to be decreased by 17 ºC to 54 ºC [35].
Sasol recommends that Sasobit be added at a rate of 0.8% or more by mass of the binder, but
not to exceed 3%. Sasobit can be blended into hot liquid bitumen binder at the blending
plant (terminal) without the need for high shear mixing. Sasobit is available in two forms:
flakes for molten additions or prills or small pellets (Figure 4.34) for direct addition to the
mix.
In the United States, Sasobit has been blended with the liquid bitumen binder at the terminal
or blown directly into the mixing chamber at the same point cellulose fibres were being added
to an SMA. Commercial supplies of Sasobit are available in 25 kg bags and 600 kg super-
sacks.
Evotherm: Evotherm technology based on chemical additives was developed in 2004 by
Mead Westvaco Asphalt Innovations in the United States. It is based on a chemistry
package that includes additives to improve coating and workability, adhesion promoters,
and emulsification agents. The chemistry is delivered in an emulsion with a relatively
high asphalt residue (approximately 70%). In the Evotherm Emulsion Technology (ET),
the water in the emulsion is liberated in the form of steam when it is mixed with hot
aggregate. The resulting WMA appears like HMA in appearance and has a mix
temperature ranging from 85 ºC to 115 ºC. No plant modifications are required for using
Evotherm. The produced asphalt mix can be stored in silos.
A newer process, Evotherm Dispersed Asphalt Technology (DAT) was developed in 2005
and introduced in the field in 2007. Evotherm DAT uses the same chemical additives as
Evotherm ET but it is injected directly into the asphalt binder line just before it enters the
mixing zone of the drum plant. In case of batch plant, the chemical additive can be fed
directly into the pug mill. No substantial modifications to the plant are required except a
separate pipe line to inject the additive. Evotherm has been used in the US on numerous
WMA projects including the NCAT test track.
WMA Issues in the US at National Level
Although the NCAT laboratory study in 2003 provided some answers about selected WMA
technologies, there remained three major concerns at the national level after numerous WMA
test sections using various technologies were constructed in the US in subsequent years.
These were:
1. A formal WMA mix design was needed
2. Guidelines for identifying and limiting potential moisture susceptibility of WMA were
needed
3. Field performance data was needed for WMA at the national level To address the
preceding major concerns, three national cooperative highway research program (NCHRP)
projects were undertaken. General findings from those projects are discussed as follows:
NCHRP Project 9–43 on Mix Design Practices for WMA: This project was completed
in 2011 with the following comments, conclusions and recommendations [36]:
1. Most all WMA projects in the US were constructed with the same job-mix formula as
HMA in terms of binder grade, binder content and gradation. Follow the same in future as
WMA mix designs.
2. If proper mix conditioning procedures (such as 2 h at compaction temperatures) are

followed prior to compaction of specimens, there was no significant difference between the
volumetric properties of WMA and HMA especially if the binder absorption was less than 1%.
(It should be noted that earlier WMA studies indicated significantly lower laboratory air voids
in case of WMA compacted specimens compared to HMA compacted specimens.)
3.Moisture sensitivity and rut resistance of some WMA were significantly different than
those of HMA; these need to be checked directly. In many cases anti-stripping agent is
required in WMA to meet the specified tensile strength ratio (TSR) obtained byAASHTO T
283. Many WMA technologies now incorporate anti-stripping agent as part of the package.
Rut resistance should be checked using the flow number test of the asphalt mixture
performance test (AMPT) which is now considered as part of the Superpave mix design
method.
4. For pavement design, determine the dynamic modulus of the WMA independently
following AMPT rather than using the dynamic modulus of the HMA.
5. There is no need to develop separate WMA mix design method, rather an appendix titled;
“Special Mix Design Considerations for WMA” will be appended to existing Superpave
volumetric mix design.
Obviously not all of the recommendations can be used in India at the present time because
Marshall mix design is used rather than the Superpave mix design.
NCHRP Project 9–49 on Evaluation of Moisture Susceptibility of WMA Technologies:

This research project was undertaken to: (a) assess whether WMA technologies adversely
affect the moisture susceptibility of asphalt pavements, and (b) develop guidelines for
identifying and limiting moisture susceptibility in asphalt pavements. Both laboratory and
field investigations were involved in this project. The project was completed in 2014; the
following general conclusions were reported [37]:
1. No significant differences in terms of moisture damage were found in the field between
WMA and HMA pavements in service.
2. Addition of anti-stripping agents compatible with WMA technology and the component
binder and aggregate materials will likely mitigate the potential for moisture susceptibility
of asphalt pavements.
3. The use of WMA that will not sustain a summer of aging prior to multiple freeze and thaw
cycles or wet/cold days in the first winter should be approached with caution.
4. The project recommended a flow diagram for identifying and limiting moisture
susceptibility in WMA pavements.
NCHRP Project 9–47A on Field Performance of WMA Technologies: This project was
undertaken to assess the short term field performance of WMA projects constructed with
single or multiple WMA technologies with HMA as a control section. Most projects were in
service for 3 to 5 years. Production and lay down procedures used during construction were
also documented. The project was completed in 2014; the following general conclusions
were presented [38]:
1. Except for reduced mixing and compaction temperatures, no substantial differences in

production and lay down practices of WMA and HMA were observed.
2. In-service performance of WMA and HMA was almost same with little or no rutting; no
evidence of moisture damage; and very little indication of transverse and longitudinal
cracking. All projects had less than 5 mm rutting when evaluated.
3. Laboratory testing of WMA mix at time of construction showed expected lower stiffness
that may have had effect on rutting and cracking. However, over several years of service
these differences, when present, were not great enough to affect the relative performance of
WMA and HMA.
4.8.3 Readymade Pothole Patching Mix
Development of potholes on Indian roads and streets after the onset of monsoons is a common
phenomenon at the present time. Every year, there is a public outcry and newspapers are full
of pictures showing potholed road pavements. Hot mix asphalt plants are usually shut down
during monsoons and no hot bituminous mix is available for filling potholes. Therefore, many
potholes are either not repaired or repaired with antiquated techniques.
The following are the major disadvantages of potholes when they are not repaired at all or
repaired with improper techniques:
1. Inconvenience to motoring public
2. User delays which cost money in terms of their time
3. Extra fuel consumed when the vehicles have to stop or go very slow
4. Excessive wear and tear of the vehicles, which require frequent repairs
5. Increased air pollution caused by vehicle emission due to slow or stopped traffic
6. Accidents resulting from the tendency of the vehicles to go around the potholes
7. Increased real cost of repairing potholes in terms of labour because the government
agencies have to keep on repairing the same potholes several times during the monsoon
8. Significant environmental impact due to most of the reasons mentioned above such as
increased fuel usage, increased air pollution, increased consumption of energy in
repairing the potholes with stopgap techniques
There is a need to implement a simple and effective method of repairing potholes not only
during monsoons and cold winter but also throughout the year. This can be achieved by using
the latest cold mix asphalt technology for producing and stockpiling readymade bituminous
pothole patching mix. A conventional batch type or drum hot mix asphalt plant is used to
produce a large stockpile of patching mix prior to the onset of monsoons. A properly designed
and produced stockpile mix can maintain its workability (ease of handling), ease of placement,
and compaction at ambient temperatures for at least 6 months. In other words, this cold mix
can be used not only during monsoons but afterwards as well to repair isolated potholes and
utility cuts. A hot mix is not economical and suitable for repairing isolated potholes and utility
cuts because the hot mix keeps on cooling in the truck and therefore cannot be compacted
adequately to provide a durable patch.
Various manufacturers have promoted many proprietary, readymade, pothole-patching

products. These mixes are usually tailor made with one stone type under strictly controlled
conditions and supplied in drums or bags. The cost of such materials is very high, which makes
their use prohibitive from the economic standpoint. Therefore, there is a need to specify a
generic patching mix, which can be produced by all hot mix asphalt plants in India using local
aggregates. Such a generic patching mix was developed4 during the late 1970s in the US [39].
Field trials of that patching mix were highly successful in Pennsylvania throughout the year
including hot, rainy summers and snowy, freezing winters. Therefore, this mix was considered
suitable for Indian climatic conditions as well. Extensive field trials of this mix in Rajasthan
during monsoons have been highly successful as reported later. This generic patching mix was
developed by Kandhal while serving as Chief Asphalt Engineer of the Pennsylvania
Department of Transportation in the US.
Challenges of Mix Design
It is difficult to design stockpile patching mix tures because the properties required in
stockpiling and handling and after the material is placed in the pothole are contradictory.
Some of these contradictory requirements are as follows [39]:
Aggregate gradation: For good mixture workability, an open gradation is desired. After
the mix is placed, however, a denser gradation is needed to improve durability.
Aggregate shape: To obtain good workability, angular aggregate shape should be

avoided.However, once the mix is in place, a high degree of angular ity is desirable for
better stability.
Binder viscosity: Lower binder viscosity is desired for storage ability and workability, but
after placement higher viscosity is desirable as soon as possible for better cohesion of the
mixture.
Binder content: Greater residual bitumen con tent in the mixture is needed to obtain thicker
films on the aggregate for stickiness and durability, but there is a potential binder drainage
problem in the stockpile just after stockpiling while the mix is hot.
In case of cold patching mixtures, it is not possible to use conventional methods of mix
design generally used for hot bituminous mixes such as the Marshall method. Not only are
the specimen preparation and testing diffi cult, but also the desired design criteria for the
stockpile patching mixtures are largely unknown.
New Concepts
In the past, the use of larger-sized aggregate (12.5 mm to 19.0 mm) in the stockpile mix ture
was promoted in the US to obtain higher stability. Such a mixture can be successful if the
patching technique is ideal (for example, making edges ver tical, cleaning, applying tack coat,
and compacting adequately). However, ideal patching techniques are not always used and
mixtures that contain large ag gregate start to ravel under traffic, which results in premature
failure of the patch. Another concept is to disregard the stability and makes the mixture finer
and more pliable so that it will be more tolerant of abuse during placement and performs
under traffic. This finer mix, if placed less than 75 mm (3 inch) deep in one lift in a confined
area, should be stable. For deeper and/or larger holes, the mixture has to be compacted in
layers.
The cohesive and adhesive qualities of a mix de pend mainly on the composition of the mortar
(bitu minous binder plus fines). If there are excessive fines or dust (material passing the 0.075
mm sieve) in the mixture, the mortar will be lean, less tacky, and friable. It is no coincidence
that most of the expensive commercial patching products are made from clean stone. Several
extraction tests run on such products have revealed that the fines are usually less than 1%. In
the absence of excessive fines, mixtures are very tacky; therefore, tack coating of the pot hole
will not be required. Many con ventional stockpile patching mixtures had not per formed
satisfactorily because of excessive fines. Such mixes are dull and friable and lack cohesive
and adhesive qualities.
Recommended Improved Formulation
In view of the challenges of mix design and new con cepts, the characteristics discussed
below appeared desirable for development of a satisfactory and economical stock pile
patching mixture [39].
Finer and Predominantly One-sized Gradation: A gradation consisting of 100% passing

the 9.5 mm or 4.75 mm sieve has the following advantages:
1. The mix is pliable and workable.
4 2. Due to increased surface area, more bituminous binder can be incorporated into the mix
to improve its durability.
5 3. The mix remains pliable for a prolonged period of time and continues to densify easily
under traf fic and will continue to adapt to the changing geom etry of the pothole. This
characteristic enhances its chances of survival.
Normally, a finer dense gradation will not have good workability. However, if it is made of
pre dominantly one-sized aggregate (100% passing the 9.5 or 4.75 mm sieve and mostly
retained on the 1.18 mm sieve), the following advantages result: (a) the workability of the
mixture is in creased significantly, and (b) the mixture can cure effectively.
Clean Aggregate: As discussed earlier, it is very important to keep the dust content (material
passing the 0.075 mm sieve) in the mixture as low as possible to impart tackiness. This
would significantly improve the adhesive and cohesive properties of the mixture.
Angular Aggregate Shape: Angular aggregate shape is desirable for better stability. Since a
finer and predominantly one- sized gradation is used, the effect of aggregate angularity on
the workability of the mix is mini mal. Angular crushed stone aggregate is an ideal material.
Use of Least Absorptive Aggregate: Highly absorbent aggregates should be avoided. The
aggregate water absorption should preferably be limited to ap proximately 1%.
Adequate Binder Content: It has been determined that at least 4.5% residual bituminous
binder (total binder minus diluent) is required in a stock pile patching mixture made from an
aggregate whose water absorption is 1.0% or less. If the ag gregate absorbs water in excess of
1.0%, the residual binder content should be increased by a similar amount. For example, an
aggregate that absorbs 1.5% water should have 5.0% minimum residual bituminous binder.
The factor limiting the maximum amount of the bituminous binder is drainage in the
stockpile just after manufacture. The drain age can be minimised or eliminated by using
lower mix temperatures and limiting the stockpile height to 1.2 m (4 ft) during the first 48
h.
Proper Type and Amount of Anti-stripping Agent: The anti-stripping agent is a very
important part of the formulation of the stockpile mixture. A mixture should retain its coating
in the stockpile under adverse weather conditions, during handling, and in the pothole after
placement. A stockpile patching mixture, which is more pervious than a densely graded hot
mix, has to withstand by far the most severe weather and traffic effects. It has to sur vive in
conditions that led to the creation of the pothole in the first place (such as poor base,
inadequate drainage, and deteriorated adjacent pavement). Rain or melting snow provides
water. The pneumatic tyres of vehicles provide high pressures. This combination can emulsify
the bituminous binder or displace it from the aggregate. If sufficient stripping occurs as a
result of this action, the traffic will dislodge the aggregate particles.
There are many commercially available anti-stripping agents in the market for use with the
medium curing (MC) cutback bitumens. Experience has shown that there is no single
additive that will work with all aggregate types. Therefore, it is essential that the type of
anti-stripping agent and its amount be selected after testing with the aggregate that is
actually being used in the mix. The required tests are: wet coating test, static immersion
test, and stripping test with the job aggregate. These are described later.
Specifications
The salient features of Pennsylvania’s stockpile patching material specifications

are discussed as follows [39]:
Production: The stockpile patching mix must be produced using a conventional batch type
hot mix plant, which is operated at relatively low temperatures. Drum mix plant can be used
in India if there is no flame in the drum when volatile cutback is introduced for mixing.
Bituminous Materials: Since it is a cold mix, medium curing cutback bitumen conforming to
IS: 217 “Specification for Cutback Bitumen” should be used as a binder. MC-800 grade
cutback bitumen should be used in India’s hot climate. MC-250 grade cutback bitumen should
be used when the patching mix is intended to be used in extremely cold regions in North or in
high altitude places. This is because MC-250 has relatively low viscosity at 60 ºC compared to
MC-800 and therefore will provide better workability at cold ambient temperatures.
Unfortunately, no pure emulsified bitumen is available, which is as effective as medium
curing cutbacks.
The MC cutback bitumen should be treated with anti-stripping agents to meet the
requirements of the wet coating test, the static immersion test, and the stripping test
performed with the actual job aggregate. The use of anti-stripping agents should be
mandatory because the patching mix should not be susceptible to moisture or water damage
(stripping) so as to survive in a hostile environment of a pothole [39].
Wet Coating Test: Heat the unwashed job aggregate, cutback bitumen and distilled water to
40 °C in a suitable oven. Weigh 100 g of dry aggregate into a suitable mixing container (such
as seamless tin can, 16 oz capacity). Add 3 ml of distilled water. Mix thoroughly with a
spatula until the aggregate particles are uniformly wetted. Add cutback bitumen equivalent to
5.0 +/ 0.2 g of bitumen residue. Mix rigorously with the spatula until all aggregate is coated,
but not more than 5 min. Transfer the contents into a 400 ml beaker containing 150 ml of
distilled water (22 ºC–32 ºC). Let stand for 15 min and visually determine the percent of
retained coating, which should be at least 98%.
Static Immersion Test: The coated aggregate as prepared in the preceding wet coating test
shall remain immersed in the beaker of distilled water (22 ºC–32 ºC) for 24 h. At the end of
this period, visually determine the percent of retained coating while the sample remains
immersed in water, which should be at least 95%.
Stripping Test: Stripping test is also called water resistance test. Fifty grams of patching mix,
whether freshly prepared or taken from the bag/stockpile, shall be heated at 120 ºC in a
laboratory oven for 1 h, cooled to 95 ºC in laboratory air, and then placed in 400 ml of boiling
water in a 600 ml glass beaker and stirred with a glass rod at the rate of 1 revolution per second
for 3 m. The water shall be decanted and the mix shall be spread on an absorbent paper for
visual observation of the coating. The aggregate shall be at least 90% coated with a bituminous
film.
Composition of Mixture: The patching mix should conform to the gradation given in Table
4.7.
It should be noted again that the material passing 0.075 mm sieve is restricted to
2% maximum (based on washed gradation). This is very essential for the quality
and durability of the patching mix. As far as possible, aggregate with 1.0% or less
water absorption should be used. If the water absorption exceeds 1.0%, the amount
of residual bituminous material should be increased as shown in Table 4.8.
Example to explain the residual bitumen content: If the total amount of MC cutback bitumen
in the mix is 6.0% and the cutback has 80% bitumen (residual) and 20% diluent (such as
kerosene), the residual bitumen content in the mix is 0.6 times 80%, which is equal to 4.8%.
The contractor must obtain the actual percentage of residual bitumen in the MC cutback
from the approved supplier.
Preparation of Mixture: As mentioned earlier, the stockpile patching mix should be

produced in a conventional hot mix plant. The mix should be such that it can be stocked,
handled, placed, and finished without stripping of the bitumen from the aggregate. To prevent
stripping and avoid heat build-up in a stockpile (which may burn the entire stockpile), the
mixed material should not be stockpiled no higher than 1.5 m for the first 48 h.
The mineral aggregate should be clean and surface dry before mixing. The temperature of
aggregate and bituminous material should comply with those shown in Table 4.9.
Since the range of aggregate temperature is rather low and the maximum aggregate
temperature is restricted to 65 ºC, it may not be possible to dry the aggregate within this
temperature range. Therefore, the aggregate is quite often processed in a dryer at high
temperatures and allowed to cool before the bituminous material is added. Drying the
aggregate at high temperatures will also help in reducing the fines (material passing 0.075 mm
sieve), which will go into the bag house. The resulting mix then would have fines less than 2%
as required in the stringent gradation specifications.
Performance History
Performance in the US: As mentioned earlier, this bituminous stockpile mix was developed
in the late 1970s in Pennsylvania [39]. Pennsylvania has the fourth largest highway network
in the US. During its development, this generic patching mix was placed side by side in many
potholes with other types of patching materials including some expensive, proprietary
products to compare its performance in the field (Figures 4.35 and 4.36). After its
performance was found very satisfactory, it was adopted as a standard cold patching mix in
Section 485 of the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation ( PennDOT) specification.
That is why it is also called Section 485 material and has been used for over 30 years to this
date. It is especially used during harsh cold/snowy weather as well as hot/rainy weather when
hot mix cannot be used. There is no need to dry the pothole; just the water in the pothole
needs to be swept off before placing the mix (Figure 4.37).
A nationwide evaluation [40] of various bituminous stockpile patching mixtures/patching
processes was conducted in the US during 1991 and 1992 under the US Strategic Highway
Research Program (SHRP) project H-106. Many states with different climate were involved in
the field evaluation. The H-106 field experiment was part of the most expensive field
experiment of its kind ever undertaken. Data were collected on the performance and cost
effectiveness of various cold mix materials and procedures for repairing potholes in
bituminous pavements.
At the conclusion of this 4-year field study, this generic Section 485 material was adjudged
first in ranking among all readymade cold patching materials including many proprietary
products. It had a survival rate of 78% after about 4 years, which is considered very high.
The project was terminated after 4 years because most of the other patching
mixes/procedures had failed.
One of the main advantages of cold stockpile patching mix is that the crews can take needed
amount of the mix in truck to the job site and return unused portion to the stockpile.
The mix is placed in the pothole with a shovel without any preparation and compacted with
truck tyres if a roller is not readily available. In India, hand rammers with long handles or
equal can be used effectively. For better performance, it is recommended to place and
compact this mix in 75 mm layers in deep potholes.
Performance in India: This generic cold patching mix was produced on a limited scale in
Rajasthan during the 2008 monsoons. Potholes on NH 11 (Jaipur-Agra road) and some main
streets of Jaipur were patched with this mix.The gradation of the produced mix was: 100%
passing 9.5 mm; 73% passing 4.75 mm; 12% passing 2.36 mm; 3% passing 1.18 mm; and
1% passing 0.075 mm sieves. MC-800 cutback bitumen was obtained from an approved
supplier. Since the quartzite aggregate used in the mix is susceptible to stripping, it was
necessary to use 2% liquid anti-stripping agent by weight of MC-800 to meet the
requirements of wet coating test and static immersion test. The residual bitumen content in
the patching mix was 4.5%.
Figure 4.38 shows the repair of a pothole on NH 11 (Jaipur-Agra road). Figure 4.38 (a)
shows the mix being placed in a pothole; Figure 4.38 (b) shows patching mix being
compacted with a hand rammer; Figure 4.38 (c) shows completed patch; Figure 4.38 (d)
shows the same patch after subjected to traffic on NH 11 and after rains; and Figure 4.38 (e)
shows the close up of the same patch in service.
This pothole patching mix was then introduced to Indian highway engineers by publishing
IRC paper titled, “A Simple and Effective Method of Repairing Potholes in India” in 2008
[41].
Faced with severe pothole problem during 2010 monsoon, the Jaipur Development Authority
(JDA) experimented with this mix in October 2010. The JDA has to maintain some 6000 km
lane of roads and streets in Jaipur. Satisfied with its excellent performance even in very
adverse circumstances, JDA has been inviting tenders for this so-called “Kandhal Readymade
Pothole Patching Mix” since 2011 (about one crore rupees worth per year). This generic mix
is supplied by the local contractors in a 50 kg plastic lined bag (Figure 4.39) to the JDA store
premises. It has a shelf life of at least 6 months and therefore, it is used throughout the year.
This readymade pothole patching mix does not require any preparation of the pothole such as
squaring and applying tack coat; the mix is simply taken out of the 50 kg bag, levelled, hit
with a hand rammer by ordinary labourer (no roller), some light sand or grass/leaves is
sprinkled on surface to prevent pick up by vehicle tyres, and opened to traffic right away.
If there is water in the pothole simply sweep off the extra water. The patch will outlast the
adjacent road area.
This readymade patching mix can be made in a portable or stationary drum or batch asphalt
mixing plants by any contractor using local materials. However, since the MC-800 cutback
bitumen is used which has some kerosene in it, stringent safety measures as given in the
specifications need to be followed. Portable asphalt mixing plant as shown in Figure 4.40
has been used in Rajasthan. Cost of producing this mix can be reduced significantly if a high
capacity conventional batch or drum plant is used. All these plants are used primarily to dry
and warm the aggregate, which is then processed again through the plant to mix with MC-
800 cutback. Under no circumstances, drying/heating and mixing should be done in one
operation because MC-800 cutback has kerosene which can cause explosion when exposed
to flame. Figure 4.41 shows a typical patch made in Jaipur with this readymade patching
mix. Figures 4.42 (a) and 4.42 (b) show as to how a pothole on Raj Bhawan Road in Civil
Lines, Jaipur was simply cleaned, filled with this readymade patching mix, and hit with
hand rammer. Photograph in Figure 4.42 (c) taken after several months of rain and traffic
dramatically shows the patch was still there but the SDBC hot mix asphalt road surrounding
the patch had eroded and was gone.
Rajasthan PWD followed JDA and used this generic patching mix successfully in 2012
on state roads and national highways. Finally, the Jaipur Development Authority’s so-
called “Readymade Kandhal Pothole Patching Mix” was adopted as Indian Roads
Congress standard specification, IRC: 116–2014 for “Readymade Bituminous Pothole
Patching Mix Using CutBack Bitumen” [42].
Cost Analyses
Cost analyses performed in 2014 have shown the cost of this unpatented, generic pothole
patching mix is about one-third the cost of many patented ready-made mixes available in
India.
Cost analyses have also shown the cost of repairing potholes with readymade cold mix is
less than the cost of repairing with hot mix asphalt because the latter is more labour
intensive (squaring the pothole), material intensive (binder for tack coat), and equipment
intensive (need for roller). Moreover, hot mix cannot be used during rainy season any way.
This mix is also very handy for contractors who are responsible for maintaining national
highways, state highways or rural roads during the concession or warranty or defect liability
period. If there are a few potholes there is no need to arrange hot mix; take some bags of this
readymade cold mix and a labourer (with a hand rammer) in a car or pickup and get the
potholes repaired. It is also handy for filling test/survey pits made on the road for testing and
also for filling utility cuts in city streets.
4.8.4 Slurry Seal and Microsurfacing
The slurry seal consists of a mixture of mineral aggregate (mostly fine aggregate), slow setting
cationic bitumen emulsion, water and additives (if needed) proportioned, mixed and uniformly
spread over a prepared surface. The mixture is free flowing like freshly made cement concrete
and is applied with a self-propelled slurry seal machine (Figure 4.43). The IRC:SP: 81– 2008
“Specifications for Slurry Seal and Microsurfacing” [43] gives three types of slurry seal based
on thickness of application and the corresponding gradations of aggregate and residual binder
contents. Thicknesses of application are 2 mm to 3 mm for Type I; 4 mm to 6 mm for Type II;
and 6 mm to 8 mm for Type III.
Slurry seal is primarily used for preventive maintenance as substitute for surface
dressing, open graded premix carpet (PMC) and mixed seal surfacing for low traffic
roads.
Microsurfacing is similar to slurry seal, the primary difference being the former uses a
modified (polymer or rubber latex) bitumen emulsion. Again, two types of microsurfacing
are specified in the IRC code with corresponding aggregate gradations and residual binder
contents. Thicknesses of application are 2 mm to 3 mm for Type II and 6 mm to 8 mm for
Type III.There is no Type I.
Both slurry seal and microsurfacing have the following application limitations:
1. Should be used on existing bituminous surfaces
2.Existing pavement should be structurally sound and should have good riding quality
3. Existing bituminous surface should not have any severe distress except hairline cracks,
oxidised (aged) road surface or polished surface
4. Should be applied to roads carrying low to medium traffic only. On heavy traffic roads
both wear off prematurely especially in the wheel tracks
Both slurry seal and microsurfacing are good preventive maintenance tools and are
especially suited for surface renewal of city streets because they do not significantly reduce
the height of curbs, medians and footpaths and thus maintain the road safety standards.
4.8.5 Porous Asphalt Pavement for Rainwater Harvesting
Multi-storied commercial and residential buildings, which significantly increase the demand
for water supply, are increasingly being constructed in urban India.However, additional
water supply is hardly available. The Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) has identified
about 800 regions in India in which ground water level is plunging at an alarming rate. These
regions are located in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat, Bihar, Delhi
and Tamil Nadu [44, 45].
According to the 2004 data of CGWB, for every 125 units of ground water being taken out
in Jaipur, only 100 units are replenished by rain. It is estimated that the ground water level
in Jaipur is falling at the rate of about one metre every year.
There is an urgent need to act now to recharge the ground water in over-exploited/critical
areas of India. The Ground Water Advisory Council on Artificial Recharge of the Ministry of
Water Resources has suggested that there is a need to develop separate technologies for
recharge specifically for urban areas. Porous asphalt pavement addresses that very need.
The ground water problem was also felt in the US in urban areas, where rainwater simply runs
off without charging ground water. The Franklin Institute of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania was
tasked in early 1970s to develop technologies to address the problem of plunging water table
in urban areas. The Franklin Institute researchers developed the concept of porous asphalt
parking lot for urban areas [46]5. This concept was tried in some pilot projects and was very
successful. The concept was later fully developed in the 1980s. It was also successfully tried
on a road in Chandler, Arizona. At the present time it is being used in many states of the US
primarily for storm water management [47]. The State of California has built over 150
projects since 1980.
5 Kandhal who served as Chief Asphalt Engineer of the Pennsylvania Department of
Transportation, served as technical advisor to the Franklin Institute for developing the
porous asphalt technology.
About 95% of rainwater falling on a porous asphalt parking lot goes to recharge ground
water. Even in case of open ground with vegetation in rural areas, only about 33% of
rainwater goes to recharge ground water primarily due to evapotranspiration losses. This
percentage is believed to be significantly lower in hot climate of Rajasthan.
This proven concept of building porous asphalt pavements was declared outstanding
engineering project in 2000 by the American Society of Civil Engineers.
Responsible town planners, architects and civil engineers must be proactive and integrate
rainwater harvesting techniques in the design of all types of buildings, parking lots and low-
trafficked roads/streets.
Concept of Porous Asphalt Pavement Technology
This technology is based on building porous asphalt pavements which can be used for parking
lots, recreational areas, or low-trafficked streets and roads. The porous asphalt pavement works
like this (Figure 4.44): the top 50 mm to 100 mm thick asphalt layer is specially designed to
make it porous exactly like OGFC described earlier. Rainwater goes through it rapidly without
any ponding at the surface. The water is then stored in an underlying open graded stone bed
also called stone reservoir. From there, water percolates slowly into the underlying natural soil
(subgrade). There is hardly any evaporation loss. Porous parking lots or streets can be
integrated with roof rainwater harvesting systems in the buildings adjacent to it as explained
later. There is no need to bore deep wells or construct deep pits for diverting the roof
rainwater. A typical cross-section of the porous asphalt pavement system is shown in Figure
4.45. The pavement consists of the following components from top downwards:
1. Open graded, porous asphalt course 50 mm to 100 mm (typically 75 mm) thick
2. 12.5 mm nominal size aggregate choking layer 25 mm to 50 mm thick (this is placed over
the stone bed so as to stabilise it and facilitate asphalt paving over it)
3. Clean, uniformly graded 40 mm to 75 mm size crushed aggregate compacted layer to act as
a water reservoir (typically it is 225 mm thick and contains more than 40% voids to
accommodate rainwater)
4. Non-woven geotextile to separate the soil subgrade and water reservoir course so that soil
particles do not migrate from the subgrade into the stone water reservoir course thus choking it.
Alternately, a 75 mm thick stone filter course consisting of 10 mm to 25 mm size aggregate can
be provided if good aggregate gradation control can be maintained.
5.Uncompacted natural soil subgrade (bed)
As mentioned earlier, rooftop rainwater harvesting systems of the buildings adjacent to porous
parking lots or streets can be integrated into the porous asphalt pavement. A typical rooftop
rainwater harvesting system for buildings consists of the following elements:
1. Vertical down pipes for carrying the water from the roof to ground level and a horizontal
pipe system for connecting all down pipes.
2. A silting pit fitted with a steel screen.
3. A soaking well with cement ring and shaft filled with filter media consisting of large stone,
medium size stone and coarse sand.
If the rooftop rainwater harvesting is integrated with the porous asphalt pavement, item
3 above is not required. The water from the rooftop is carried directly to the stone water
reservoir and dispersed there through a series of perforated water pipes. (Figure 4.46).
This way, the stone reservoir does not experience any localised flooding. This system
also means no soaking well or bore hole which involves considerable cost. In case of
streets, water from the roof top of the buildings on the street can all be diverted to the
stone water reservoir course. Another major advantage of this technology is that the
water recharging the underground water is pure and free of contaminants.
Design, Construction and Maintenance Guidelines for Porous
Asphalt Pavements
Detailed guidelines for constructing porous asphalt pavement for parking lots and low
trafficked roads or streets for rainwater harvesting in India were prepared based on practical
experience gained in the US [47, 48]. Those guidelines were used in constructing the first ever
porous asphalt parking lot in India (in Jaipur) which is described later. Some brief highlights
of the guidelines are as follows.
It is recommended that the in situ soil permeability infiltration rate is 12.5 mm/h. However,
2.5 mm/h is acceptable by suitably increasing the thickness of the stone reservoir course.
In Jaipur, the infiltration rate of the local soil is significantly higher than 12.5 mm/h. Soil
investigations should be carried out by boring and/or test pit to test for permeability,
determining the depth of high water table, and determining depth to bedrock. Porous asphalt
pavement is not suitable if (a) local soil is clayey; (b) bedrock is close to pavement; and (c)
location has high water table. Also, porous asphalt pavement should not be constructed at a
location subjected to blowing sand. That is, the adjacent ground should either be paved or
covered with grass.
Compacted stone reservoir layer should be placed directly on natural soil subgrade (bed)
because fill is not recommended. Although a flat soil bed is preferred, slope of natural soil
bed should be limited to 5%. This would ensure that water at the bottom of stone reservoir
layer does not flow; rather it percolates downwards. If the slope is steeper, a terraced parking
lot can be considered.
The thickness of compacted stone course (containing about 40% voids) should be designed to
accommodate intensity and amount of rainfall prevailing in the region. Typical designs are
made for 6-month/24-hour rain storms. Conservative designs are based on 20-year/24-hour
rain storms, which can range from 35 mm to 400 mm in 24 h. Typically, stone reservoir is
about 225 mm (9 inches) thick, which can store 40% of 225 mm = 90 mm (3.7 inches) of
rainfall temporarily. Obviously, the thickness is increased if additional water (from rooftop or
adjacent dense road surface) needs to be accommodated.
The structural design of the pavement including the compacted stone reservoir course and
porous asphalt wearing course should be based on traffic using the facility. Normally,
porous asphalt pavements are recommended for parking lots, recreational areas, and low-
trafficked roads (with limited truck use). Both the porous asphalt course and the stone bed
are structurally strong to withstand car and occasional truck traffic. This is because both
derive their strength from stone-on-stone contact.
Work site should be protected from heavy equipment so that the natural soil subgrade (bed) is
not compacted, otherwise, its permeability may be reduced. Before placing the stone reservoir
layer, place a filter fabric over the soil bed so that soil particles do not migrate upwards and
clog the stone reservoir layer. As an alternate, a stone filter course consisting of 12.5 mm
stone particles has been found quite suitable. Place the porous asphalt course last on the entire
project so that it is protected from construction debris. It should also be protected from soil
laden runoff.
Before placing the 50 mm to 100 mm thick porous asphalt course, place 25 to 50 mm thick
layer of 12.5 mm size stone to stabilise the surface of the stone reservoir course and facilitate
paving operation.The porous asphalt course at the top should be designed as per established
guidelines contained in the US national manual on design, construction and maintenance of
open graded friction course (OGFC) [13]. As mentioned earlier, OGFC is used in the US as a
wearing course on interstate highways, ranging in thickness from 20 mm to 25 mm. The
objective of laying OGFC on dense graded asphalt course is to provide a skid resistant
pavement during rains. Rainwater quickly penetrates the OGFC surface, flows at its bottom and
emerges from its edge on to shoulders. The design and construction of OGFC was described in
detail earlier in this chapter and should be followed in constructing the porous asphalt course
which is usually 75 mm thick.
The dramatic performance of porous asphalt pavements in the US is clearly visible in Figure
4.47 which shows two parking lots just after rain. The one in the background is conventional
dense asphalt parking lot whereas the one in the foreground is a porous asphalt parking lot.
Their relative appearance after rain is so very clear.
Figure 4.48 shows view of a highway in Chandler, Arizona in the US during rain. The left
lanes were constructed with porous asphalt and the right lanes were constructed with
conventional dense asphalt. After 20 years in service, the porous asphalt on this highway is
still functional. This highway is in semi-arid region of Arizona with very low rainfall similar
to Rajasthan.
It is absolutely clear that the porous asphalt technology works. Ninety-five percent of the
rainwater falling on porous asphalt pavement goes to recharge the ground water. Therefore, its
effectiveness in capturing rainwater is very close to paved catchment areas.
Design, Construction and Performance of Porous Asphalt
Parking Lot in Jaipur
The Jaipur Development Authority (JDA) had planned to construct a conventional dense
graded asphalt parking lot at the Gandhi Nagar Railway Station in Jaipur. It was decided to
include an experimental porous asphalt area (about 85 m by 4 m) as part of the large parking
lot. The design, construction and performance of this parking lot have been described in
detail, which can be used as an example to design such porous asphalt pavements in India
[48].
The parking lot was completed in October 2012. In absence of rain at that time, a water
tanker was brought in to check the relative permeability of the porous asphalt and the
adjacent conventional dense graded asphalt pavements. As expected, water from the hose
pipe was rapidly penetrating the porous asphalt surface and was just flowing on the dense
asphalt surface. Later, the porous asphalt parking lot was observed during the monsoons of
2013, 2014 and 2015. As it rained, the rainwater almost disappeared on the porous asphalt
surface whereas it flowed on the conventional dense asphalt. This relative stark difference
can be seen in Figure 4.49. Therefore, it has been verified in the field that porous asphalt is
performing really well in India as expected.
It is hoped public and private agencies in India would construct porous asphalt parking lots/low-
trafficked streets and roads in areas where the groundwater level is depleting.
4.8.6 Recycled Asphalt Mix
Asphalt pavement is 100% recyclable. Existing asphalt pavements can be recycled hot or cold,
in-place or in a central plant. Recycled asphalt mixes will be discussed in another chapter on
recycling and rehabilitation of asphalt roads.
4.8.7 Asphalt Mixes Containing Waste Materials
Numerous waste materials result from manufacturing operations; service industries; municipal
and domestic activities; and mining. There is a tendency to use some of these wastes in asphalt
mixes. Waste materials have included: bottom ash; fly ash; incinerator residue; scrap rubber,
waste glass; roofing shingles; coal mine refuse; steel slag; blast furnace slag; polyethylene; and
surplus sulphur. Extensive technical literature is available on the potential use of different types
of waste materials in asphalt mixes [49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54].
Summary
Bituminous mixes used within flexible pavement system serve three important functions: (a)
provide structural strength; (b) facilitate subsurface drainage; and (c) provide surface friction
especially when pavement is wet. Mixes are generally selected based on these three primary
functions.
Generally, dense graded asphalt mixes are typically used in bituminous pavements. However,
there are some special asphalt mixes which serve a specific function within the flexible
pavement system due to their different gradations/features. These special mixes may include but
not limited to: highly rut resistant mix for slow moving or stopped vehicles (mastic asphalt);
highly rut resistance mixes for heavy duty highway pavements (stone matrix asphalt); mixes
which can be produced and compacted at cooler temperatures compared to hot mix asphalt
(warm mix asphalt); mixes which provide improve wet pavement frictional resistance (OGFC);
readymade cold mixes which can be used to repair potholes without any preparation of the
pothole during rainy weather and cold weather; mixes for preventive maintenance of
bituminous surfaces (slurry seal and microsurfacing); and porous asphalt for rainwater
harvesting.
The preceding special mixes have been described in terms of their function; mix design;
construction; and performance.
QUESTIONS
1. List and briefly describe three important functions of bituminous mixes in a flexible
pavement.
2. Draw a sketch showing permeable asphalt treated base (PATB) within a flexible
pavement and describe its functions.
3. Differentiate between bituminous macadam (BM) and dense bituminous macadam (DBM).
Which one is preferred in the flexible pavement and why?
4. Draw a sketch and describe how surface dressing is constructed.
5. List the advantages of surface dressing in comparison to premix carpet (PMC).
6. Briefly describe mastic asphalt.
7. Describe stone matrix asphalt (SMA) briefly in terms of its function, gradation,
constituents and volumetrics.
13.Why the binder drain down test is conducted when designing SMA?
14. List and describe at least three advantages of using warm mix asphalt (WMA) in
comparison to hot mix asphalt (HMA).
15. Briefly describe open graded friction course (OGFC) in terms of its function and
mix design.
16. Which characteristics are desirable in an effective readymade pothole patching mix
and why?
17. Describe microsurfacing in terms of its function, composition and construction.
18. Draw a sketch showing how porous asphalt is used within flexible pavement for
rainwater harvesting.
References
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Mixes Used in India”, Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, Vol. 69 (2), July-
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Asphalt Materials, Mixture Design and Construction, 2nd ed., NAPA Education
Foundation, Lanham, Maryland, 1996.
3. Ministry of Road Transport & Highways, “Specifications for Road and Bridge Works”,
Fifth Revision, Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi, 2013
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Designed Pavements”, National Centre for Asphalt Technology, Report 03–02, June 2003.
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54. Kandhal, P.S., “Role of Permeable Pavement in Groundwater Recharge”,

Presentation at the Rajasthan State Workshop on Water Conservation: Issues and
Challenges, Held in Jaipur by the Centre for Science and Environment (CSE), 7
February 2013.
55. Thelen, E. and L.F. Howe, “Porous Pavement”, The Franklin Institute Research
Laboratories, 1978.
56. Jackson, N., “Design, Construction and Maintenance Guide for Porous Parking Lots”,
National Asphalt Pavement Association, Information Series IS-131, October 2003.
57. Kandhal, P.S. and Sapan Mishra, “Design, Construction and Performance of Porous
Pavement for Rainwater Harvesting”, Indian Roads Congress, Indian Highways, March
2014.
58. Kandhal, P.S., “Waste Materials in Hot Mix Asphalt: An Overview”, ASTM Special
Technical Publication STP 1193, 1993.
59. ASTM, “Use of Waste Materials in Hot-Mix Asphalt”, ASTM Special Technical
Publication STP 1193, 1993.
60. Ciesielski, S.K. and R.J. Collins, “Current Nationwide Status of the Use of Waste
Materials in Hot-Mixtures and Pavements”, ASTM Special Technical Publication STP 1193,
1993.
61. Page, G.C. and K.H. Murphy, “Evaluation of Crushed Glass in Asphalt Paving
Mixtures”, ASTM Special Technical Publication STP 1193, 1993.
62. Kandhal, P.S. and G.L. Hoffman, “Evaluation of Steel Slag Fine Aggregate in Hot
Mix Asphalt Mixtures”, Transportation Research Board, Transportation Research Record
1583, 1997.
63. Kandhal, P.S., “Evaluation of Sulphur Extended Asphalt in Bituminous Mixtures”,

Proceedings, Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists, Vol. 51, 1982.
Annexure
Life cycle cost analysis (LCCA) of premix carpet (PMC) and bituminous concrete (BC)
grading 2
Analysis period = 6 years
Assumptions:
1. Average life of 20 mm PMC with sand seal coat = 3 years (real 2 years)
2.Average life of 40 mm BC grading 2 = 6 years (real 7 to 8 years)
3. This means 20 mm PMC will be required for rehabilitation of the pavement after 3
years.
4.Cost of 20 mm PMC per km lane = 7.88 lacs
5.Cost of 40 mm BC grading 2 per km lane = 12.00 lacs
6.Real discount rate = 4%
7.Net present value (NPV) = Initial cost + Rehab cost [1/(1+ r) n]
8. Salvage value considered equal after the 6 years analysis period (although BC would
have a significantly higher structural strength whereas PMC strength is almost zero)
9. Remaining service life after analysis period of 6 years considered equal (although
BC
would have more service life because it is dense graded)
64. No maintenance activity considered during 6 years period (although PMC is likely to
require some activity)
65. User operating costs considered equal (although BC would provide a smoother
ride and less operating costs)
Deterministic approach was used for LCCA, which is easy and is used traditionally. The net
present value (NPV) was calculated for PMC and BC for the 6-year period as follows: NPV
of PMC = 14.89 lacs
NPV of BC grading 2 = 12.00 lacs
This means, PMC is 24.1% more expensive than BC grading 2.
If the remaining service life, salvage value, maintenance costs, and user operating costs are
considered (which all are in favour of BC), PMC would be much more expensive than
24.1%, which was calculated with very conservative assumptions listed above.
Practices for Structural Design of Flexible
Pavements
5.1 INTRODUCTION
A desirable highway pavement should have the following properties:

1. Smooth surface for comfortable ride
2. Safe ride by providing a skid resistant surface
3.Durable by using good paving materials and mixes and by ensuring the pavement is
protected from moisture and rain
4. Capable of bearing repetitive traffic loads: (a) by distributing the load from the tyres
through various pavement layers over a wide area on the subgrade, and (b) by providing
adequate pavement thickness to sustain the pavement over its design service life.
The first three properties have already been discussed in terms of appropriate asphalt materials
and mixes in previous chapters. This chapter discusses the practices of structural design of
flexible pavements to address the fourth property.
There are two broad types of pavements: flexible pavement and rigid pavement. Only
flexible pavements will be discussed in this chapter. Rigid pavements which consist of
cement concrete are out of scope for this book. There are also composite pavements
(combination of these two types) but those will not be discussed.
Conventional flexible pavements are layered systems usually with better material on top
where the stress intensity is high and relatively inferior materials at the bottom where the
intensity is low. Starting from the subgrade, the following courses are typically placed over
it: (a) Granular Subbase (GSB); (b) crushed stone base course; and (c) asphalt course (may
consist of base course, binder course and wearing course).
The traffic load applied on the surface of flexible pavement gets distributed over
consecutively larger areas as the load is being transmitted downward. The objective is that
the stresses at the subgrade level be less than the subgrade strength.
Structural design of pavements has evolved during the last several decades. First, it was based
on experience only. Then it was based on empirical methods which were related to
performance. Initial empirical methods were developed on American Association of State
Highway Officials (AASHO) road test conducted in 1956–1962. Further continued
modifications resulted in 1993 American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials (AASHTO) pavement design, which is still used at the present time in the US and
many other countries. It is largely based on empirical methods. In recent years, Mechanistic-
Empirical Pavement Design (MEPD) has been developed and is being implemented in the US.
This chapter will discuss AASHO road test; 1993 AASHTO pavement design;
AASHTO mechanistic-empirical pavement design; other pavement design practices
such as Asphalt Institute and Shell; and development of pavement design guidelines by
the Indian Roads Congress (IRC) in India. The AASHTO pavement design practices
have been discussed in detail because they generally have formed the basis for
pavement designs in most countries of the world. To understand the detailed
fundamentals involved in structural design of both flexible and rigid pavements, the
reader is referred to two classic textbooks on this subject by Yoder and Witczak [1]
and Huang [2].
5.2 AASHO ROAD TEST
The AASHO road test was conducted in Ottawa, Illinois, USA during 1956– 1962. It was one
of the most important road tests in the US to develop pavement design methodology. Its
objective was to perform evaluations of different pavement types and determine relationships
between traffic and performance for designing highways in future.
Different cross-sections for flexible and rigid pavements were used. Flexible pavements had
asphalt thickness of about 5 inches (127 mm).
The principal outcome of the AASHO road test was a simplified empirical thickness design
procedure which became the basis for most of the pavement designs since the 1960s [3].
Some of the new concepts developed during the AASHO road test were:
1. Present Serviceability Index (PSI) as a measure of pavement performance and defining
functional serviceability
2. Equivalent Single Axle Load (ESAL) as a means of quantifying the effect of different load
and axle configuration on pavement damage
3. Structural Number (SN) as a measure of pavement layer structural equivalency
5.2.1 Present Serviceability Index (PSI)
The average Present Serviceability Rating (PSR) results obtained by the project panel
engineers were later correlated with observed distresses for a given level of applied traffic
loading at various intervals and equations were developed to predict the present serviceability
from the distress measurements of the test section.
The following predictive equation was developed for PSI: PSI = 5.03 – 1.91 log (1 + SV) –
1.38 ( RD)2 – 0.01 ( C + P)1/2 (5.1)
Where,
SV = Mean of the slope variance in the two wheel paths (measured with profilometer) C =
Total linear feet of cracks per 1000 sq ft of pavement area P = Expressed in terms of sq ft per
1000 sq ft of pavement patching RD = Rut Depth in inches measured with a 4 ft straight edge
The basic idea of the drop in serviceability ( PSI) with time is shown in Figure 5.1.
The difference between initial serviceability p 0 and terminal serviceability pt gives the
change in serviceability PSI ( p 0 – pt).
Initial p 0 is function of pavement type and construction quality. Its average value for flexible
pavements is 4.2. The terminal pt value is the lowest that can be tolerated before pavement
rehabilitation or reconstruction. The value for pt was 1.5 at the AASHO road test. However,
higher terminal values are used in current pavement designs.
5.2.2 Equivalent Single Axle Load (ESAL)
Load quantification in AASHO road test was carried out by converting wheel loads of
various magnitudes and repetitions (mixed traffic) to an equivalent number of
“standard” load.
Conversion was based on the amount of damage they do to the pavement. Commonly used
standard load is 18000 lb (18 kip or 80 kN) equivalent single load. The following
generalised fourth power law is an approximate equation for Equivalent Axle Load Factor
(EALF):
Note that Load Equivalency Factor (LEF) is also referred to this factor. The LEF values can
be calculated for different vehicle types such as car, delivery pickup vehicles, buses and
trucks. The passenger car’s LEF is insignificant. Passage of 7000 cars is equivalent to passage
of one 18000 lb axle load.
EXAMPLE 5.1: Calculate the relative damage factor for an axle load of 120 kN assuming the
standard axle load is 80 kN.
Solution
………………………………
5.2.3 Original AASHO Equation
The following equation was developed for flexible sections in AASHO road test. This
equation is site specific and is good for the conditions experienced in Ottawa, Illinois, USA.
As it can be seen from the equation, there are no parameters to represent the soil conditions
and environmental conditions.
Where,
W 18 = Number of 18 kip equivalent single axle loads (ESALs) pt = Terminal

serviceability at end of design life SN = Structural Number
SN = a 1 D 1 + a 2 D 2 + a 3 D 3
Where, a’s and D’s are layer coefficients and thicknesses (in inches), respectively
5.2.4 Limitations of AASHO Original Model
The following were the limitations of the AASHO original model:
1. Loss of serviceability based on traffic only (no long-term climatic effects)
2. Site specific conditions
3. No long term pavement performance data
4. Thicker sections did not fail
5. Limited road construction materials
6. Only one subgrade type
Revisions were made over the years to generalise the original AASHO equation based on
project specific climate; roadbed soils; materials; and construction. Major revisions were
made in 1986 when reliability factor was introduced; resilient modulus ( MR) replaced soil
support value; and effect of environmental factors on serviceability loss was incorporated.
The last design guide based largely on empirical methods was issued in 1993, which is
discussed next.
1993 AASHTO PAVEMENT DESIGN GUIDE
The following pavement design parameters are considered in the 1993 AASHTO
pavement design guide. Some of the features of the AASHO design guide are still there
but have been supplemented with additional parameters developed from research and
experience over the years [4].
1. Time constraints
2. Traffic loading
3. Design reliability
4. Pavement serviceability loss
5. Material properties
6. Structural Number (SN)
The discussion of the preceding pavement design parameters are as follows:
5.3.1 Time Constraints
Two time periods which affect (constraint) pavement designs are considered: performance
period and analysis period (design period). Time constraints permit the designer to select
different strategies in terms of performance and economy. Performance period is the period of
time between the initial construction and the next rehabilitation or between two consecutive
rehabilitations.
Analysis period (also called design period) is the period of time in which two or several
design alternatives are compared in terms of their life cycle costs analysis. This period may
cover one or more performance periods. Therefore, the analysis period should be equal or
greater than the performance period.
To achieve the best use of available funds, the AASHTO design guide encourages larger
analysis periods for high-traffic roads including at least one rehabilitation period
compared to low-traffic roads. For example, analysis period for high-traffic rural road may
be between 20 to 50 years whereas the same for low-traffic rural road may be 10 to 20
years.
5.3.2 Traffic Loading
Traffic has a pronounced effect on pavement performance and therefore is a highly important
input parameter for pavement design. In fact, AASHTO design guide provides the number of
traffic loading that a pavement structure constructed on a given subgrade and environmental
conditions can undergo before it reaches the minimum specified terminal serviceability. In
other words, number of traffic repetitions can be converted to the performance period of that
pavement.
Combinations of different axle configurations can take many shapes for different
applications. That is why some type of converting different configurations into a more
manageable measure is needed. The concept of Equivalent Axle Load Factor (EALF)
which is also known as Load Equivalency Factor (LEF), is used to convert different
combinations of axle load configurations to their equal number of standard axle loads.
As discussed earlier, the generalised fourth power law is used for such conversions. The
final product is the number of Equivalent Single Axle Load (ESAL) commonly called
18 kip or 18000 lb (80 kN) load.
Truck Factor (Tf)
Truck factor ( Tf) is another term used for evaluation of the total damage caused by a particle
category of vehicles. The Tf is the number of 18 kip (80 kN) single axle load per truck. For
example, an empty bus may have Tf of 0.822 and the fully seated bus may have Tf of 2.690.
Traffic Analysis
Pavement structural design requires quantification of all expected loads a pavement will
encounter over its design life. It is done in one of the two ways:
1. Equivalent Single Axle Loads (ESALs): It converts all wheel loads of various magnitudes
to an equal number of “standard” loads as discussed earlier.
2. Load spectra: It characterises loads directly by number of axles, configuration and weight.
It does not involve conversion to equivalent values. It is more complex than using the ESALs.
Load spectra is used in the AASHTO mechanistic-empirical pavement design guide which
will be discussed later.
Predicting Future Traffic Volumes
Future traffic volumes need to be predicted for pavement design purposes. The minimum
traffic information requited for pavement design is the Average Daily Truck Traffic (ADTT)
at the start of the design period. The ADTT may be expressed as a percentage of Average
Daily Traffic (ADT) or as an actual value. This information can be obtained from actual
traffic counts on the existing roadway where the pavement is to be constructed or on nearby
highways with similar travel patterns.
The traffic counts must be adjusted for daily (weekday versus weekend) and seasonal
(summer versus winter) variations to obtain the annual average daily traffic.
The annual growth rate of traffic should be estimated based on historical traffic growth (for
example, 4%). An appropriate model for traffic growth (for example, linear or exponential)
will need to be selected. The base traffic and growth rate is used to estimate future traffic
volumes.
Equivalent Single Axle Loads
As mentioned earlier, pavement design is based on total number of passes of the standard 18
kip (80 kN) axle load during the design period. The ESAL is calculated as follows:
ESAL = (ADT0)( T)( Tf)( G)( D)( L)(365)( Y) (5.4) Where,
ADT0 = Average Daily Traffic at the start of the design period T = Percentage of
trucks in the ADT
Tf = Truck factor, or number of 80 kN single axle load application per truck 208 Bituminous
Road Construction in India G = Growth factor for traffic
D = Directional distribution factor
L = Lane distribution factor
Y = Design period in years
…………………………………………….
Where,
g = Traffic growth per year
Directional distribution factor D is usually assumed to be 0.5 unless the traffic in two
directions is different. Lane distribution factor L varies with the volume of traffic and number
of lanes. It is given in a table within the 1993 AASHTO design guide.
5.3.3 Design Reliability
The reliability is the level of certainty that pavement will last for the design period without
failure. The level of reliability to be used in design should increase as the volume of traffic
increases and/or public expectations of the road increases.
Reliability terms were introduced in the following AASHTO design equation by

adding ZR × S 0:
…………………………………..
Where,
W 18 = Base 10 logarithm of the predicted number of ESALs over the lifetime of the
pavement ZR = Standard normal deviate
S 0 = Combined standard error (traffic and performance prediction) generally 0.40

to 0.50 for flexible pavements
SN = Structural Number
PSI = Pavement Serviceability Index loss due to traffic MR = Resilient modulus of
subgrade soil
For a required traffic life, increasing the reliability level will increase the required Structural
Number (SN) for the flexible pavement, i.e., increasing layer thicknesses.
Reliability factor is needed because of potential variations in material properties;

construction; traffic estimations; and pavement performance models.
The level of reliability to be used for design should increase as the volume of traffic and
difficulty of traffic diversion increase. For example, recommended levels of reliability are 80–
99.9 for national highways compared to 75–95 for state highways.
5.3.4 Pavement Serviceability Loss ( PSI)
Another factor which is considered in pavement design is the serviceability loss, which can
occur both from traffic loading as well as environmental effects.
The serviceability loss due to application of traffic loading was represented by Function G
that normalises the change in performance to those experienced in AASHO road test in
which the test sections were trafficked until the terminal serviceability reached 1.5.
Function G = [(4.2 – pt)/(4.2 – 1.5)]………………………………………………(5.7)
Where pt is the lowest terminal serviceability level which can be tolerated before
rehabilitation or reconstruction of the pavement. Typical values are
2.5 and 2.0 for high-traffic highways and low-traffic highways, respectively.
Research has shown that raising the minimum level of serviceability is more cost effective
using life cycle cost analysis. It should be recalled that the terminal serviceability used in
AASHO was 1.5.
Since the AASHO road test was trafficked over a two-year period only, long-term effects of
temperature and moisture on the reduction of serviceability was not included. The loss of
serviceability over the analysis period due to such environmental effect should be estimated
and added to that due to cumulative traffic loads. For example, soils sensitive to swelling can
cause serious loss of serviceability in wet or wet-freeze regions.
5.3.5 Material Properties
The properties of the different materials used in the following components need to
considered:
1. Subgrade
2.Granular subbase and base layer
3.Treated base layer
4.Asphalt layer
Subgrade
In the past, subgrade strength was considered by using its California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
which measures shearing resistance of the soil. Typical values of CBR ranged from 0%–20%
(of standard crushed stone). However, CBR was replaced with the resilient modulus of the soil
in the 1993 AASHTO design guide. Resilient modulus is more rational because it measures
stress-strain relationship of the material.
The resilient modulus is the elastic modulus to be used with the elastic theory. It is
recognised that most paving materials are not elastic but experience some permanent
deformation after each load application. However, if the load is small compared to the
strength of the material and is repeated for a large number of times, the deformation under
each load repetition (and proportional to the load) and can be considered elastic for all
practical purposes.
Typical values of resilient modulus ( MR) range from 20 MPa to 275 MPa (3000 to 40000 psi)
for subgrade. The resilient modulus is determined using the triaxial test. The test applies a
repeated axial cyclical stress of fixed magnitude, load duration, and cycle duration to a
cylindrical test specimen. Because the applied load is usually small, the resilient modulus test
is a non- destructive test, and the same sample can be used for many tests using different
loading and environmental conditions.
Typical values for subgrade resilient modulus and corresponding CBR are given in Table
5.1. These values can be used if measured values are not available.
Table 5.1 Typical resilient modulus and CBR values of subgrade soils (1993 AASHTO
pavement design guide)
For determining a representative MR value, numerous samples (at least 6–8) of subgrade
material within 60 cm (2 ft) of the planned subgrade elevation should be obtained and tested. If
soil types are significantly different and each soil covers a significantly large area, consideration
should be given to subdividing the project for separate designs.
The MR values are subject to seasonal variations. When the subgrade (especially
frost susceptible soils) is freezing its modulus is gradually increased until it is
completely frozen.
The modulus is reduced during the thaw period and reaches a minimum value. During the
recovery period, the molten water gets gradually drained and the subgrade regains its
normal strength. Therefore, the effective subgrade MR is used, which is an equivalent
modulus that would result in the same damage if seasonal modulus values are actually used.
Granular Subbase and Base Layers
Structural coefficients for granular subbase and base layers are determined by direct
measurements or by correlation with other properties. As mentioned earlier, structural
number (SN) is the sum of load bearing contribution of each pavement layer in the flexible
pavement. This is achieved by multiplying each layer thickness by the corresponding layer
structural coefficient for each layer and its drainage coefficient. This is shown in the
following equation:
………………………………………………….
Where
ai = Layer structural coefficient
Di = Layer thickness in inches
mi = Layer drainage coefficient
The AASHTO recommends direct measurement of the resilient modulus and then estimating
ai’s accordingly. AASHTO T 274 can be used for subbase and unbound granular materials.
The 1993 AASHTO design guide gives graphical correlation of resilient modulus; R-value;
and CBR of subbase layer with its structural coefficient. Similar correlations are also given
for granular base layer. Drainage coefficients are also given in the guide based on the quality
of drainage ranging from very poor to excellent.
EXAMPLE 5.2: A flexible pavement consisting of two layers: granular base course and
asphalt surface course, is to be designed with a total Structural Number (SN) of 5.1. The
minimum thickness of asphalt course with a structural coefficient of 0.44 should be 3 inches
(75 mm). Assume the structural coefficient and drainage coefficient of the granular base
course to be 0.13 and 0.9, respectively.
Solution Considering the asphalt course to be 3 inches (75 mm) thick, SN = a 1 D 1 + a 2 D

2m2
Where,
a = Layer structural coefficient
D = Layer depth, inches
m = Layer drainage coefficient

SNrequired = 5.1 = (0.44)(3) + (0.13) D 2 (0.9) = 1.32 + 0.117 D 2
D 2 = (5.1 – 1.32)/0.117 = 32.3 inches. Say 32.5 inches (826 mm) If 5 inches (127 mm) thick
asphalt layer is considered, the thickness of the granular base course works out to be about 25
inches (635 mm). Economics of such solutions should be ascertained and compared. The
solution which is most economical as well as practical in application must be selected.
Treated Base Layer
Both cement-treated and bituminous-treated base layers have been used in the flexible
pavement system. The 1993 AASHTO design guide provides structural coefficients for
cement-treated base layer either from its elastic modulus or the 7-day unconfined
compressive strength (ASTM D 1633). The structural coefficient for the bituminous-
treated base layer can be obtained either from its elastic modulus or its Marshall stability.
Asphalt Layer
Structural layer coefficients of asphalt courses can be obtained from their MR values at 21
oC
or Marshall stability at 60 oC using graphically charts given in the guide.
Typical Values of Structural Coefficients
Typical average values of structural coefficient are as follows: hot mix
asphalt: 0.44; stabilised base course: 0.30; crushed stone base course: 0.14;
and crushed stone subbase: 0.11. Values
212 Bituminous Road Construction in India of drainage coefficient ( m) can range from 0.4
(slow-draining, mostly saturated) to 1.4 (fast draining, do not get saturated). The drainage
coefficient can be neglected by using m = 1.
5.3.6 Structural Number (SN)
Structural number can be determined by the equation given in the design guide (Eq. 5.6).
The design cannot be solved directly for SN and it should be solved by trial and error. It
can also be solved by commercially available equation solver software.
Alternatively, SN can be determined by the nomograph given in Figure 5.2.
The answers from equation solver are more accurate than the nomograph because there is an
error associated with matching the juncture points on the tilting lines and reading the small
scales in the nomograph.
Once the design SN is determined for the pavement, solution of the layer thickness can be
a trial and error procedure to come up with the proper combination of layers that could
provide SN equal to or greater than the required design SN. It should be noted that SN
equation does not have a simple unique solution. Many combinations of layer thicknesses are
acceptable. However, the design should be practical in terms of construction and minimum
required thickness for each layer or course. The 1993 design guide recommends minimum
thickness of aggregate base and asphalt course based on traffic in ESALs which is helpful in
trial and error procedure.
Using the minimum course thicknesses, the trial and error procedure is started from the top
(asphalt course) downwards. This is continued until the obtained SN is equal or more than
the design SN for the flexible pavement.
5.4 AASHTO MECHANISTIC-EMPIRICAL PAVEMENT DESIGN
The AASHTO Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide (MEPDG) was largely

developed in the 2000s although the project was launched in 1990s; the final manual was
published in 2008 [5].
The MEPDG is a uniform and comprehensive set of procedures for the design and analysis
of new and rehabilitated flexible, rigid, and composite pavements both mechanistically and
empirically.
Mechanistically
It calculates pavement responses (stresses, strains, and deflections) due to loading and
environment and uses those responses to compute incremental damage to the pavement
overtime.
Empirically
It relates the cumulative damage to the pavement to observed pavement distresses (i.e.,
calibrate the models to in-service performance.
The MEPDG has been developed in lieu of the 1993 AASHTO pavement design guide
because the latter has the following shortcomings:
1. It is primarily based on AASHO road test of the late 1950s (one test location; one
environment and one set of materials).
2. Completely empirical and based on performance equations.
3. No pavement rehabilitation is included.
4. No composite (both flexible and rigid) pavement is included.
5. Limited span of 2 years (no aging considered) loading on AASHO road test.
6. Limited traffic of 2 million ESALs with axle configurations and tyre types representing late
1950s. These days traffic can be over 100 million ESALs.
Obviously, pavement thicknesses have been determined by making projections of ESALs

versus pavement thickness curve beyond 2 million ESALs. Extrapolation can lead to
overly conservative designs.
The MEPDG has the following attributes:
1. It addresses the disadvantages of empirical system.
2. It relies on mechanistic and empirical observations as basis for pavement design.
3. It has less reliance on road tests.
4. It has better characterization of road materials, traffic and pavement performance.
Since it is a very complex and comprehensive method, today’s high computing power
has made it possible. At the present time attempts are being made to implement it across
the US. Various states are calibrating it to suit local conditions. It will take some years
before most states in the US adopt it fully.
5.4.1 General Design Process
The general process of executing Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design (MEPD) is as

follows: 1. Start with initial pavement design with all layers; their thicknesses and
properties.
1. Select one or more pavement distress failure criteria.
2. Make necessary inputs such as climate; traffic; material properties; and reliability
levels.
3. The MEPDG will show outputs in terms of cumulative distresses over the design life of
the pavement. Compare the selected failure criteria to the output distresses.
4. Begin iterative process to reach an adequate design if the initial design did not satisfy the
failure criteria.
5. Always use past experience in the iterative process.
The preceding general process of executing the MEPD is shown in the flow diagram (Figure
5.3).
There is need to understand the stress distribution within pavements, which is considered
rationally in the MEPDG. Using mechanistic analyses, strain and stresses are calculated at
critical locations within the pavement. For example, tensile stress/strain at the bottom of the
asphalt layer is critical.
Flexible pavement consists of many layers. Using physical principles, it is possible to

calculate stresses and strains within the pavement directly below loads. Although many
constitutive models are available, the linear elastic model is most commonly used. It has the
following assumptions about the road paving materials and layers:
a. Homogeneity
b. Finite thickness
c. Infinite in horizontal direction
d. Isotropic
e. Full friction between layers (courses)
MEPDG uses models which consider changing conditions during the design life of the
pavements due to aging and environmental effects.
Typical outputs from MEDPG software in case of flexible pavements are: extent of fatigue
cracking (both bottom up and surface down); rut depth; and International Roughness Index
(IRI).
These are then compared with the failure criteria established by the highway agency.
Table 5.2 shows recommended threshold values for different types of distresses for flexible
pavements. Table 5.3 gives recommended reliability levels to be used for different
classifications of roadways.
The 1993 AASHTO design guide applies reliability to traffic which results in increased
pavement thickness with increased reliability levels. In case of MEPDG, each distress type
requires reliability level.
5.4.2 Hierarchical Levels
MEPDG has three hierarchical input levels. Level 1 is used for high level projects which
require project specific data which must be obtained through detailed testing. Level 2 is used
for routinely significant projects which may use data obtained from correlations rather than
direct testing. Level 3 is used for routine projects which may use default data given in the
MEPDG software.
5.4.3 Climate
Site specific climatic data needs to be input in the MEPDG. In the 1993 AASHTO Design
Guide climatic data was sort of extrapolated from AASHO Test Road. Over 800 weather
stations are available in the US which has extensive climatic data. Data from the weather
station nearest to the project site is used in MEPDG.
5.4.4 Traffic
Traffic characterization is very important in MEPDG for pavement design because traffic is
the primary design input in MEPDG. Its characterization is very complex because there are
many axle configuration parameters which combinedly affect loading of pavements. For
example, axle width; wheel base width; axle spacing; dual tyre spacing; and tyre pressure. All
these are considered in determining load spectra which is used in MEPDG. The concept of
ESALs has been eliminated from MEPDG; load spectra are used instead which are better
representative of actual traffic.
There are also traffic hierarchical input levels depending on the importance of the project.
For Level 1, Average Annual Daily Truck Traffic (AADTT) with site specific Weigh In
Motion (WIM) data is used. For Level 2, AADTT with region or statewide data may be
used. For Level 3, average annual daily traffic with percentage of trucks may be used.
5.4.5 Material Properties
It is necessary to make input of asphalt binder properties. For Level 3, the Superpave PG
grade such as 64–22 or the conventional viscosity grade such as AC-30 (VG-30 in India)
or the conventional penetration grade such as 60/70 needs to be entered. For Level 1 and
Level 2, actual binder test data as per these grades need to be input.
The following asphalt mix general properties need to be input:

1. Reference temperature (a temperature at which a master curve is constructed)
2. Volumetric properties (such as effective binder content (% by volume); air void; and total
unit weight in lb per cu ft)
3.Thermal properties (such as thermal conductivity and heat capacity)
4. Poisson’s ratio
Asphalt mix properties need to be input as follows:
Level 1: Extensive characterization is needed as will be discussed next

Level 2: Some mechanical tests may be required
Level 3: Volumetric properties may be sufficient
For Level 1, dynamic modulus and phase angle of the asphalt mix is required. Dynamic
modulus master curve needs to be obtained so that this property can be used for varying
pavement temperatures and varying speed of traffic loading. If dynamic modulus of asphalt
mix cannot be measured directly, the following 1999 Witczak’s predictive dynamic modulus
equation can be used for Level 2 and Level 3. Although this equation has been revised but the
1999 version has been used widely because it requires simple, routine eight inputs [6]. This
equation is based on testing 205 asphalt mixes and 2750 data points.
…………………………..
Where,
E* = Dynamic modulus of mix, 105 psi
h = Bitumen viscosity, 106 poise
f = Loading frequency (Hz)
Va = Air void content, %
V beff = Effective bitumen content, %
p 34 = Cumulative % retained on ¾ inch (19 mm) sieve p 38 = Cumulative
66.retained on 3/8 inch (9.5 mm) sieve p 4 = Cumulative % retained on no. 4
(4.75 mm) sieve p 200 = Percent passing no. 200 (0.075 mm) sieve
To assess thermal cracking, indirect tensile strength needs to be determined at –14 ºF (–20 ºC).
Level 1 would require actual testing whereas for Level 2 and Level 3, default values are
already available in the system based on binder grade. Creep compliance and coefficient of
thermal contraction are also needed to assess thermal cracking.
For Level 1, asphalt mix characterization should include the following:

1. Complex modulus
2. Indirect creep (for thermal cracking analyses)
3. Permanent deformation
4. Fatigue cracking (flexure beam)
5.4.6 M-E Iterative Design Process
The M-E design procedure involving iterative process is as follows:
• Designer enters a trial design with all pavement courses (layers).

67. Damage and key distresses and smoothness are estimated by the program over the
selected pavement design life.
68. Design is continually modified until the performance and reliability

requirements are met.
Figure 5.4 gives an overview of the MEPDG design process.

The following inputs and outputs are involved in MEPDG:
Inputs
1.General (description of the project)Traffic
2. Climate
3. Structure
4. Materials
Outputs
1. Terminal international roughness index (IRI)
2. Fatigue cracking
3. Longitudinal cracking (top down)
4. Alligator cracking (bottom up)
5. Thermal transverse cracking
6. Permanent deformations
5.4.7 Local Calibration
Since every state or country has different climatic and traffic conditions, it would be
desirable to calibrate the MEPD to suit local conditions [7]. This would result in the
following benefits:
1. Increased accuracy of the predictive models
2. Smaller standard deviation of observed performance
3. Account for local materials, design, traffic, climate, etc.
4. Increased reliability
5. Increased comfort level in using MEPDG procedure

For this to accomplish, it would be helpful to build some test sections.
5.4.8 Limitations of MEPDG
The following can be considered as limitations of MEPDG:

1. Very sophisticated to use, with many detailed inputs
2. Large number of computations of damage required
3. Calibration database limitations—one has to calibrate to local conditions
4. Inadequate consideration/understanding of several effects
5.5 OTHER FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN METHODS
Some principal flexible pavement design methods other than AASHTO which have been
used are: (a) Asphalt Institute Method, and (b) Shell Method. In both methods, the flexible
pavement is analysed as a multi-layered structure in which stresses and strains resulting from
traffic load are determined. The pavement performance is ensured by limiting the strains at
critical points within the flexible pavement.
The salient features of these two methods are given as follows:
5.5.1 Asphalt Institute Method
As mentioned earlier, the Asphalt Institute Method considers the flexible pavement as a
multilayered elastic system. Modulus of elasticity and Poisson’s ratio are used to
characterise the materials in each layer [8].
Similar to AASHTO design method, traffic is expressed in terms of repetitions of an

80 kN (18000 lb) equivalent single axle load (ESAL) applied to the flexible pavement
by two sets of dual tyres.
This method can be used to design flexible pavement with various combinations of
asphalt courses, emulsified asphalt course, untreated aggregate base and subbase.
The design criteria consist of two critical strains induced by traffic load, which should be
maintained within permissible limits. These are: (a) horizontal tensile strain on the
underside (bottom) of the lowest asphalt layer, and (b) the vertical compressive strain at the
surface of the subgrade. Figure 5.5 shows the critical locations for these strains.
If the horizontal tensile strain is excessive, bottom-up fatigue cracks would result under
repeated traffic loading. If the vertical compressive strain is excessive, permanent deformation
(rutting) would result at the surface of the pavement due to overloading of the subgrade.
Asphalt mixes are characterised by modulus of elasticity (also called dynamic modulus) and
Poisson’s ratio. Untreated granular materials and soils are characterised by resilient modulus
and Poisson’s ratio. Specific values for these characteristics were selected based on experience
and actual test data.
Since the dynamic modulus of asphalt is affected by temperature, its appropriate values
were selected based on extensive modulus-temperature data obtained across the US.
Computer programs were used to develop a comprehensive pavement design procedure. The
procedure was then simplified for use without computer or complex test procedures. Simple
design charts were developed to determine asphalt layer thickness with inputs of design
ESALs; subgrade resilient modulus; and thickness of untreated aggregate base.
5.5.2 Shell Pavement Design Method
The Shell pavement design method is largely a mechanistic pavement design. Again,
the flexible pavement is considered as a linear elastic multilayered system consisting
of layers which are assumed to be homogenous, isotropic, and infinite in horizontal
directions.
Similar to the Asphalt Institute method, the concept is to limit the horizontal tensile strain at
the bottom of the asphalt layer and the compressive strain at the top of subgrade to control
bottom-up fatigue cracking and rutting resulting from the subgrade, respectively.
Thickness design curves were developed in 1978 for the Shell pavement design manual
for various subgrade moduli; asphalt mix type; traffic; and temperatures [9]. The design
curves give thickness of unbound base layer and asphalt surfacing layer. Bitumen Stress
Analysis in Roads (BISAR) computer program was used in developing the thickness
design curves.
Laboratory triaxial test is recommended by Shell to determine the dynamic (resilient

modulus) of the subgrade soil. However, if it is not possible then dynamic modulus of the
subgrade soil can be estimated from the CBR value using the chart given in the Shell design
manual.
The resilient modulus MR of the unbound granular subbase can be computed from the MR
of the subgrade soil using the following equation:
………………………………………………..
Two asphalt mix types are used for input. Mix S 1 represents dense graded mix and Mix S 2
represents open graded mix.
Design traffic is expressed in ESALs with single axle load equal to 80 kN. Mean annual air
temperature at the project site is used as input. That is why it has been claimed that Shell
design method can be used in all countries with different climate.
Since 1992, Shell analytical software is available for personal computers [10].
5.6 INDIAN ROADS CONGRESS METHOD
The Indian Roads Congress (IRC) adopted an empirical method in 1970 for designing
thickness of flexible pavements [11]. Thickness was based on the California Bearing Ratio
(CBR) of the subgrade similar to what was used by the US Corps of Engineers in 1940s.
Later, IRC revised the guidelines in 1984 by expressing traffic in terms of cumulative
ESALS but still used CBR of the subgrade as input [12].
5.6.1 2001 IRC Guidelines
The design procedure was revised completely in 2001 based on mechanistic pavement design
principles similar to the Asphalt Institute and Shell design methods discussed earlier [13]. The
design criteria for rutting and fatigue were based on the vertical compressive strain on the
subgrade and horizontal tensile strain at bottom of the asphalt layer, respectively.
However, the design incorporated pavement materials used in India based on the experience
from laboratory and pavement performance research projects sponsored by the Indian Ministry
of Road Transport and Highways (MORTH). Whereas, the 1984 guide was applicable for
design traffic up to 30 million ESALs (30 million single axles or msa), the 2001 guidelines
included design traffic up to 150 msa considering increasing traffic and incidence of
overloading.
Elastic modulus of Dense Bituminous Macadam (DBM) layer with 60/70 penetration
bitumen was used to calculate tensile strain at the bottom of the asphalt layer. Its value was
1695 MPa at 35 oC with a Poisson’s ratio of 0.50.
The design traffic was determined in terms of the cumulative number of standard axles (8160
kg) to be carried by the pavement during the proposed design life. For estimating the design
traffic, the following information is needed:
1. Initial traffic after construction in terms of the number of Commercial Vehicles
Per Day (CVPD).
2. Estimated traffic growth rate during the design life in percentage. If adequate data is not
available, an annual growth rate of 7.5% may be used.
3. Design life in years. It was recommended to design national highways and state highways
for a life of 15 years. For other categories, a design life of 10 to 15 years may be used.
4. Vehicle Damage Factor (VDF): The VDF is a multiplier to convert the number of
commercial vehicles of different axle loads and configuration to the number of standard
axles per commercial vehicle. The axle load equivalency factors recommended in the
AASHTO guide were used.
5. Lane Distribution Factor (LDF): A realistic assessment of distribution of commercial

traffic by direction and by lane is necessary because it affects the total ESALs used in the
design. Recommended values of LDF for single and dual carriageway roads were provided in
the IRC guidelines.
The following equation was used to compute the design traffic in terms of cumulative
standard axles:
………………………………..Where,
N = Design traffic
A = Initial traffic in terms of number of commercial vehicles per day r =
Annual growth rate of commercial vehicles (for 7.5%, r = 0.075) n =
Pavement design life in years
VDF = Vehicle Damage Factor
LDF = Lane Distribution Factor
Subgrade strength was based on its CBR value measured at moisture content as close as
possible to the weakest condition likely to occur in the pavement (usually just after monsoon).
Design plates (charts and tables) were developed for easy implementation of 2001 IRC
guidelines. These were developed for CBR values ranging from 2% to 10% and traffic
ranging from 1 to 150 million single axles (msa). These charts and tables not only showed the
total pavement thickness but also its composition in terms of thickness of Granular Subbase
(GSB); granular bases (such as Wet Mix Macadam or WMM); and asphalt binder course and
wearing course.
Only dense graded asphalt mixes such as Dense Bituminous Macadam (DBM) and
Bituminous Concrete (BC) (see Chapter 4 on asphalt mixes used in India) were proposed for
high-traffic roads (msa more than 10). Unfortunately, open graded, water-trapping asphalt
mixes such as Bituminous Macadam (BM), Semi-Dense Bituminous Concrete (SDBC), and
premix carpet (PMC) were proposed for low to medium traffic roads (msa less than 10). Such
asphalt mixes are not durable regardless of lower traffic.
Table 5.4 shows typical recommended designs for CBR of 4% and traffic range of 10 msa
to 150 msa.
EXAMPLE 5.3: Design the flexible pavement for a 4-lane divided carriageway to be
constructed on a subgrade with a CBR of 4%. Consider the following for the design:
69. Design life = 20 years
70. Traffic (both directions) in the year project will be completed = 4000
commercial vehicles (CV) per day
71. Annual growth rate of commercial vehicles = 6.0%
72. Vehicle damage factor (based on axle load survey) = 5.1

Solution Lane Distribution Factor (LDF) from the IRC code = 0.75 for a 4-lane highway:
Initial traffic = 2,000 CV/day assuming 50% in each direction Calculate the cumulative
number of standard axle load for the design using the following equation:
……………………………………
Refer to the appropriate table in the IRC code for CBR of 4% and design traffic between
10 msa and 150 msa (in this case, Table 5.4 of this chapter can be used). Based on the table
the following flexible pavement design is recommended: Total pavement thickness = 800
mm
Subbase = 330 mm
Granular base = 250 mm
DBM = 170 mm
BC = 50 mm
5.6.2 2012 IRC Guidelines
The Indian Roads Congress revised its guidelines for flexible pavement design again in 2012
[14]. Cementitious bases/subbases were incorporated in the flexible pavement system if so
desired by the designer. New paving materials such as modified bitumen; Reclaimed Asphalt
Pavement (RAP); Stone Matrix Asphalt (SMA); Warm Mix Asphalt (WMA); and cold
emulsion mixes were introduced.
The mechanistic-empirical approach of pavement design used in 2001 guidelines were

kept the same. However, a modified version of FPAVE software called IITPAVE was
used. In the 2002 guidelines, the pavement design life was to last till the fatigue cracking
and rutting in asphalt surface course extended to 20% of the pavement area. This was
reduced to 10% of the pavement surface area for design traffic exceeding 30 msa.
As mentioned earlier, elastic modulus of DBM with 60/70 penetration bitumen was used for
calculating tensile strain at bottom of asphalt layer in the 2001 IRC guidelines. Its value at
35 oC was 1695 MPa. However, the 2012 IRC guidelines categorised the resilient modulus (
MR) of asphalt mixes based on VG grades used in the mix and required the pavement
thickness to be based on MR values. For example, MR values at pavement design
temperature of 35 oC
were recommended to be 1700 MPa and 3000 MPa for VG-30 and VG-40 bitumen grades,
respectively. This meant that pavement thickness could be reduced significantly by using
VG-40
bitumen in lieu of VG-30 bitumen. This stipulation in the 2012 guidelines has the
following shortcomings:
1. No detailed MR test data is available to support the recommended values.
2. VG-30 bitumen and VG-40 bitumen are very close to each other. Their
viscosity values at 60 oC overlap in such a way that it would not be unusual if in some cases
VG-30 bitumen may be stiffer (stronger) than VG-40 bitumen if both were refined from
different crude sources.
3. The MR of the asphalt mix is not only dependent on the bitumen viscosity (grade) but
also on other factors such as the mix gradation (especially the percentage material
passing 0.075 mm sieve); mix volumetrics (such as air voids); and bitumen
content.Therefore, MR values cannot be categorised based on viscosity grades. Similar to
the AASHTO Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide (MEPDG) used in the US,
MR (analogous to dynamic modulus used by AASHTO) should either be determined by
actual measurement of the designed asphalt mix or determined using predictive equations
such as Witczak equation which considers all factors listed above.
Summary
Structural design of flexible pavements has evolved during the last several decades.
Initially, it was based on experience only. Then empirical design methods were developed
based on AASHO road test (1956–1962). Important new concepts such as present
serviceability index, equivalent single axle load, and structural number were developed in
this road test.
1993 AASHTO pavement design guide was developed by supplementing AASHO design
with new, rational design parameters such as pavement design period; reliability factor;
environmental impact; drainage; and better material characterization.
Later, AASHTO developed a Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide (MEPDG)

which calculates pavement responses (stresses and strains) due to traffic loading and
environment and uses those responses to compute incremental damage to the pavement over
time. The MEPDG is highly sophisticated to use with many detailed inputs. It is being
implemented in the US at the present time.
Two largely mechanistic pavement design methods were also developed in the meantime:
Shell method in 1978 and Asphalt Institute method in 1981. Indian Roads Congress also
adopted mechanistic pavement design in 1984, which has been revised over the years.
QUESTIONS
1. Draw a sketch of a typical flexible pavement to show the two locations where tensile
and compressive strains are critical.
2. Briefly describe what is meant by Equivalent Single Axle Load (ESAL).
3. Define present serviceability index (PSI). What pavement distresses are considered in
PSI?
4. Which tests have been used to evaluate subgrade strength? Briefly describe and
compare the tests.
5. Briefly describe the Structural Number (SN) including how it is determined.
6. Broadly compare the features of the 1993 AASHTO pavement design and the AASHTO
mechanistic-empirical pavement design.
7. What is the significance of the Witczak’s predictive equation? List 5 mix parameters
which are used in this equation.
8. Briefly describe the Shell pavement design method.
9. What is meant by vehicle damage factor which is used in the Indian Roads Congress
guidelines for pavement design?
10. Draw a sketch of a typical flexible pavement in India identifying each layer with the
nomenclature used by the Indian Roads Congress.
References
1. Yoder, E.J. and M.W. Witczak, Principles of Pavement Design, 2nd ed., John Wiley,
New York, 1975.
2. Huang, Y.H., Pavement Analysis and Design, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ,
USA, 1993.
3. Highway Research Board, “Special Report 61 A: The AASHO Road Test”, History
and Description of Project, HRB, Washington, DC, 1961.
4. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, “AASHTO

Guide for Design of Pavement Structures”, Washington, DC, 1993.
5. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, “M-E Pavement

Design Guide—A Manual of Practice (MEPDG)”, AASHTO, Washington, DC, 2008.
6. Bari, Javed and M. Witczak, “Development of a New Revised Version of the Witczak E*
Predictive Model for Hot Mix Asphalt Mixes”, Journal of the Association of Asphalt Paving
7. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, “Guide for the
Local Calibration of the M-E Pavement Design Guide”, AASHTO, Washington, DC,
2010.
8. The Asphalt Institute, “Thickness Design—Asphalt Pavemnts for Highways and

Streets”, Manual Series No. 1 (MS-1), September 1981.
9. Shell Pavement Design Manual, “Asphalt Pavements and Overlays for Road Traffic”,
Shell International Petroleum Co., London, 1978.
10. Robert, N. Hunter, Andy Self, and John Read, The Shell Bitumen Handbook,
6th ed., Shell International Petroleum Co. London, 2015.
11. Indian Roads Congress, “Guidelines for the Design of Flexible Pavements”,
IRC: 37–1970, New Delhi, 1970.
IRC: 37–1984, New Delhi, 1984.
IRC: 37–2001, New Delhi, 2001.
IRC: 37–2012, New Delhi, 2012.
Hot Mix Asphalt Production and
Construction
6.1 INTRODUCTION
One can have good quality paving materials (such paving bitumen and aggregates) and
good asphalt mix design but unless the Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) is produced well and
constructed well, the whole purpose of obtaining good quality, durable asphalt pavements
would be defeated. This requires adequate knowledge of asphalt mix production and
construction.
This chapter on hot mix asphalt production and construction has been divided into four
sections: (a) asphalt mix production; (b) asphalt mix transportation and laydown; (c)
asphalt mix compaction; and (d) Quality Control/Quality Assurance (QC/QA) of hot mix
asphalt construction.
6.2 ASPHALT MIX PRODUCTION
Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) plant has to perform the following functions which will be discussed
in detail:
73. Proportioning of aggregates
74. Drying and heating aggregates
75. Adding asphalt binder
76. Mixing
77. Storage and dispatching
Asphalt mix can be produced in a batch plant or in a drum plant. Batch plant produces one
batch of asphalt mix at a time whereas drum plant is essentially a continuous operation. In
batch plant, dryer drum is used only for drying and heating and a pugmill is used for mixing.
In drum plant, both drying/heating and mixing takes place in drum itself.
6.2.1 Batch Plant
Batch plants produce asphalt mix in separate batches rather than continuously as in a drum
mix plant. The size of the batch is controlled by the capacity of the pugmill. Typical batch
quantities range from 3000–10000 pounds (1363–4545 kg). Until the 1970s, the batch plant
was the primary type used to produce HMA in the USA. However, now as batch plants are
retired, most are being replaced by drum plants there [1]. This is because drum plants are
sophisticated and produce asphalt mixes of the same quality as batch plants. Batch plants are
preferred in India at the present time. However, this is likely to change in future similar to the
US.
Photograph of a typical batch plant is shown in Figure 6.1. The schematic lay out of a batch
plant is given in Figure 6.2. It shows the various components of the plant such as cold feed
bins (simply called cold bins); conveyer belt taking combined aggregate to a dryer drum for
drying/heating; baghouse for air pollution control; plant tower (containing screen deck, hot
bins, weigh hopper, and pugmill); storage silos; heated binder tanks; and control room. Plant
may also have bins for Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP) material which is used in hot mix
recycling [2].
Figure 6.1 Typical batch plant.
Figure 6.2 Schematic of typical batch plant (Courtesy: US Transportation Research

Board).
Raw aggregates of different sizes are stored at plant in stockpiles. These need to be
proportioned and combined to meet the asphalt job mix formula. These different aggregates
are fed into the cold aggregate bins with a front-end loader. Most plants have 4 to 5 cold
bins. Care should be taken to keep aggregates in different bins separate from each other.
Mixing would cause problem in controlling gradation of the combined aggregate. The metal
cold bins have slanted sides with a vibrator attached, if needed [1].
Figure 6.3 gives the view of cold bins from the side where a conveyor belt runs under them to
collect the aggregate feed from each bin, which is then carried to the dryer drum. The rate of
aggregate dropping from cold bin can be calibrated by adjusting the opening of the strike-off
gate and the speed of the oblong belt right below the gate (Figure 6.4).
Figure 6.3 View of cold bins towards the conveyor belt.
Figure 6.4 Schematic of aggregate dropping from cold bin to conveyor belt (Courtesy: US
Transportation Research Board).
The photograph in Figure 6.5 shows the combined aggregate on the conveyor belt entering
the dryer drum. Figure 6.6 gives a cross-sectional view of the inside of dryer drum, which
shows numerous flights used for picking and dropping aggregate in front of the dryer flame
and through hot air. Flame inside the dryer drum can be seen in Figure 6.7. The dryer in a
batch plant is typically of counter flow design in which the aggregates flow in the drum in
opposition to (counter to) the flow of exhaust gases. The dryer has a burner which provides
the heat energy for evaporating the moisture in the aggregate and then heating the aggregate
up to a discharge temperature of typically 140 ºC to 150 ºC (285 oF to 300 oF).
Figure 6.8 shows typical baghouse from outside. The hot, dust-laden exhaust gases from the
dryer is drawn in to the baghouse to collect the dust in numerous bags rather than releasing
into atmosphere, which would cause air pollution. These bags function like bag in house
vacuum cleaner. Part or all of the collected fines in the baghouse can be metered back into the
asphalt mix as mineral filler either at the bottom of the hot elevator or to a separate dust silo at
the top of the tower [1].
Figure 6.5 Combined aggregate moving into dryer.
Figure 6.6 Split section of aggregate dryer (Courtesy: Asphalt Institute).

Figure 6.7 Flame inside aggregate dryer.
Figure 6.8 Baghouse (view from outside).
The schematic of the tower of a typical modern asphalt batch plant is shown in Figure 6.9.
The hot elevator (so called because it elevates hot aggregate from the dryer to the top of this
tower) can be seen discharging aggregate at the top. The following can be seen starting from
the top to bottom: aggregate screens; hot aggregate bins (simply called hot bins); aggregate
weigh hopper; asphalt binder weigh bucket; pugmill; and truck.
Figure 6.10 shows a sectional view of the screen deck containing vibrating screens used to
separate hot aggregate into 3 or 4 fractions which are fed into different hot bins below. Each
hot bin has a bottom discharge gate. Aggregate of different size is discharged sequentially by
the plant control system from the hot bins to the weigh hopper below which is mounted on
a set of scale. Mineral filler is also discharged from the filler silo. Although aggregate was
proportioned through cold bins, hot bins give added capability to fine tune the proportioning
again.
Figure 6.9 Schematic of hot elevator, screens and pugmill (batch plant) (Courtesy: US
Transportation Research Board).
Figure 6.10 Schematic of screen decks (batch plant).
Once all aggregates from the hot bins are weighed, batched, and are on the weigh hopper,
these are dropped into the pugmill for dry mixing for a few seconds and then wet mixing with
asphalt binder. Specified amount of asphalt binder is weighed in weigh bucket and then
introduced into the pugmill for each batch of asphalt mix. The pugmill is typically a twin-
shaft, counter-rotating mixer designed to coat the aggregates quickly with bitumen binder [2].
Figure 6.11 shows the position of the pugmill where both dry mixing and wet mixing will
take place and then the mixed batch will be discharged to the truck below or carried up to
storage silo if no trucks are available at the time.
Overfilling (top) and under filling (bottom) of the pugmill are illustrated in Figure 6.12.
Both are not desirable and result in poor mixing. When overfilling happens, aggregate
particles in the top portion discharged from the weigh hopper do not get coated fully [3].
Figure 6.13 shows the inside view of the control cabin from where all plant operations are
controlled through a computer.
Figure 6.11 Schematic of pugmill atop truck (batch plant).

Figure 6.12 Overfilling and under filling of pugmill (Courtesy: US Transportation
Research Board).
Figure 6.13 Control room of typical asphalt plant.
Discussion of the various components of batch plant are as follows:

Aggregate Dryer
Typical aggregate dryers in a batch plant are of the counter flow design, that is, the aggregate
from the cold feed enters the dryer at the opposite end from the burner and flows in opposition
to (counter to) the direction of the exhaust gases. Since the cold, wet aggregate enters just
before the exhaust gases exit the dryer, the exhaust gas temperature on the dryer is generally
lower than that exiting a typical drum mix plant.
The dryer is equipped with longitudinal flights which lift the aggregates and cascade them
through the hot burner gases. The temperature of the aggregates exiting the dryer is the
primary factor that determines the temperature of the final asphalt mix. If the aggregates are
too hot, mixing causes the bitumen binder to oxidise excessively, inducing premature
hardening and potentially premature cracking of the asphalt pavement. If the aggregates are
not hot enough, coating the aggregates with bitumen binder is difficult [1].
Once the aggregates leave the dryer, they are transported by bucket elevator to the top of the
tower unit containing the screening unit, hot bins, and pugmill.
Screens and Hot Bins
The hot aggregates are fed into the hot, vibrating screens (Figure 6.10). On the first screen,
the oversized material is scalped and moved out over a slanted vibrating screen from where it
is dropped through a discharge chute to the ground below. The coarse aggregate is retained
between the top and second screen and moves into bin number 4 on the far right. The material
retained between screen numbers 2 and 3 is the medium coarse aggregate which vibrates
through the screen into bin number 3. Bin number 2 contains the intermediate fine material
that is retained between screen numbers 3 and Bin number 1 contains the finest aggregate
particles. The material in these four bins must be combined in proportions that will produce
the Job Mix Formula (JMF) gradation developed by asphalt mix design. In addition to the
aggregates in these bins, two additional aggregate components that may be added to produce
the JMF are mineral filler and RAP material, which are introduced from separate bins [1].
The partitions between the bins must be designed to prevent intermingling of aggregates from
adjacent bins. Each bin is provided with an overflow pipe to help eliminate the accumulation
of excess material which could overflow into an adjacent bin or interfere with the screen above
the bin, resulting in carryover and screen damage. Each bin should also have detectors to alert
the operator when the aggregate level is running below or above a preset level.
Weigh Hopper and Binder Weigh Bucket
The desired amount of hot aggregate from each bin is weighed into the weigh hopper. At the
same time the aggregate is weighed, bitumen binder is pumped into a weigh bucket prior to
being sprayed into the pugmill.
The weigh hopper and bitumen binder bucket are suspended from scales. Once the total
charges are weighed out, the aggregate is dumped first into the pugmill and is then
followed by the bitumen binder. Both the weigh hopper and the bitumen binder bucket
should be checked periodically for calibration using certified test weights.
Pugmill
As mentioned earlier, the pugmill is a twin shaft mixer designed to mix the material
sufficiently to coat the aggregate with bitumen binder. Since the pugmill is the limiting unit in
a batch plant, the mixing time should be as short as possible to obtain uniform bitumen coating
on all aggregate particles. Excess mixing time tends to degrade (break down) the aggregate
and oxidise the bitumen binder unnecessarily. After the aggregates are introduced into the
pugmill, a short period of dry mixing occurs, followed by wet mixing as the binder is sprayed
into the pugmill. The length of the mixing time can be established using AASHTO T 195 or
ASTM D 2489, “Standard Practice for Estimating Degree of Particle Coating of Bituminous
Aggregate Mixtures”. In this procedure a sample of asphalt mix is secured and the material
retained on the 9.5 mm sieve is removed. Each of these larger particles is visually evaluated
and is classified as either completely coated or partially coated. The mixing time is established
as the time required to provide at least 95% coated particles retained on the 9.5 mm sieve. If
less than 95% of the particles are coated, the mixing time is increased, additional material is
mixed, and another count is made [1]. It should be noted that the fine aggregate (sand)
particles grab the bitumen binder and get coated first before the coarse aggregate particles.
The pugmill consists of a mixing chamber and twin, counter-rotating shafts with paddles at
the end of each of several paddle shanks. The paddles are configured to produce maximum
efficiency in mixing and must be positioned so that the clearance between the tip of the
paddle and the walls of the mixing chamber is less than one-half the maximum aggregate
size.Otherwise, dead zones can develop where the material is not mixed and coated with
bitumen binder.
The batch size should be consistent with the batch rating of the pugmill to ensure that all
material is within the live zone of the mixer. Live zone is covered by the movement of
pugmill paddles. Batches which are too light (about less than half of the pugmill capacity)
should be avoided since inadequate material movement occurs when insufficient material
is in the mixing chamber. After mixing, the HMA is dropped into a truck or temporarily
stored in a surge or storage silo.
Air Pollution Control System
Since hot exhaust gases from the aggregate dryer are laden with fine dust, pollution control
equipment must be present to capture this dust before it is discharged into the atmosphere.
These emissions must not exceed the various state and national air pollution limits. The air
pollution control system in most asphalt plants includes one or more of the following types of
dust collectors: (a) primary dry collectors, (b) wet collectors, or (c) fabric filters (baghouses).
Each type of collector is described as follows: Primary Dry Collectors: Two types of
primary collectors are used predominantly in batch plants: the knockout box and the
centrifugal collector. Dry collectors are located immediately at the rear of the dryer where the
hot exhaust gases enter the ductwork between the dryer and the stack.
The knockout box is simply an expansion chamber where the cross-sectional area increases
significantly thereby reducing the velocity of the exhaust gases. With the reduced velocity, the
larger dust particles fall out of the air stream and accumulate at the bottom of the collector.
This material can then either be wasted or fed back into the asphalt mix [1]. The centrifugal
collector has a tangential inlet which forces the heavier dust to the outside wall where it slows
down and falls to the bottom and is either wasted or fed back into the asphalt mix. The cleaned
exhaust air goes up through the inner cylinder enroute to the remaining pollution control
equipment.
Wet Collectors/Scrubbers: The principle on which the wet collectors operate is that
airborne dust can be forced to drop out of the air stream by increasing the particle weight by
spraying it with small droplets of water. Settling ponds are then used to settle (separate) the
dust from the water and reduce the total volume of water required for the operation by
recirculation.Typically, these settling ponds are divided into sections with the water
becoming cleaner as it moves from one section to another. Then, the water from the last
section of the pond is drawn off and circulated back to the scrubber unit. The collected fines
must be removed from the ponds and disposed of to maintain the capacity of the ponds [1, 2].
When using a scrubber unit, the dust particles are lost to the sludge. If the aggregates from a
quarry are so low in fines that mineral filler is required to meet the JMF, the use of a wet dust
collection is not recommended since the dust lost to water cannot be fed back to the plant [1].
Fabric Filters/Baghouse: Baghouses made from filter fabric are very efficient and can
remove over 99% of the dust from the exhaust gases. The operational principle for the fabric
filters is very simple: the dust-laden exhaust gases are pulled through a filter cloth that traps
the dust on one side but allows the clean air to pass through the filter cloth. The size (total
cloth area) of a baghouse is determined by the volume of air it must filter. Typically a
baghouse contains between 300 and 800 separate bags. They are constructed from a felted,
nylon fabric that can withstand temperatures up to 232 ºC (450 oF) and repeated flexing
cycles during the cleaning process [1].
The dust-laden exhaust gases from the primary collector are brought through duct to filter
bags. As the dirty exhaust gases encounter the filter fabric, the dust particles are trapped on the
outside, and the clean air continues to the exhaust fan and out the stack to the atmosphere. The
dust falls off the outside of the bags and falls to the bottom of the baghouse and is either fed
back into the asphalt mix or wasted.
6.2.2 Drum Plant
Figure 6.14 shows the schematic of a drum mix plant. Recycled asphalt pavement (RAP) bin
and conveyor is optional. Similar to a batch plant, the aggregates are typically moved from
the stockpile area to the cold feed bins via a front end loader which charges the cold feed
bins.
The minimum required number of bins depends on the number of different aggregates to be
used in the asphalt mix. Most facilities have 4 to 5 cold feed bins. Typically an adjustable gate
and a variable speed feeder are located at the bottom of each cold feed bin to proportion the
material from each bin to meet the Job Mix Formula (JMF) gradation. A gathering conveyor
brings the combined aggregate material to the drum mixer. An automatic weighing system
continuously weighs the amount of aggregate plus moisture going into the drum mixer. In the
control room, a correction to the total weight is made for the moisture content of the
aggregates so the asphalt proportioning system can pump the proper amount of bitumen
binder into the drum mixer. The moisture correction is made by physically determining the
moisture content of the aggregate stockpile or aggregate from the gathering conveyor and
providing this information to the computer frequently as needed [1].
Figure 6.14 Schematic of drum mix plant (Courtesy: US Transportation Research

Board).
A typical drum mixer is of a parallel flow design in which the aggregates move in the same
direction as (parallel to) the exhaust gases. Therefore, the aggregate is fed into the drum at the
burner end and then it is dried and heated as it moves down the drum toward the discharge
end. The bitumen binder is pumped from the bitumen binder storage tank and enters the drum
at a point about 1/3 the drum length from the discharge end. Therefore, essentially the drum
has a drying zone and a mixing zone with different designs of flights to facilitate drying of
aggregate and mixing with binder, respectively. The aggregate enters the drum and begins to
move down the inclined drum by gravity action. The time the aggregates spend in the drum
(dwell time) depends on: the length of the drum, rotational speed of the drum, angle of the
drum, design and number of flights, and the aggregate size. Typical dwell times vary from 3
to 4 minutes. Some plants use a coater which is similar to a pugmill. The bitumen binder is
added to the aggregate in the coater after the aggregate exits the drum. When the bitumen
binder is added into the drum, it is pumped into the bottom of the drum at about the same
location that the mineral filler and/or baghouse fines are reintroduced. Bitumen binder must be
introduced in close proximity of mineral filler before they are picked up by the high velocity
exhaust gas stream. The exhaust gases are passed through a dust collectionsystem where
enough of the dust is trapped and removed to meet emission requirements as discussed in case
of batch plants [3].
The bitumen binder coats the aggregates as the materials move down the lower 1/3 of the
drum. The asphalt mix exits the drum through a discharge chute into a conveyor system
which transports the mix into a surge silo (or other type of storage bin) from which it is
discharged into the trucks via an automatic scale system. It is then transported to the lay
down site. All material movements from the cold feed to the surge silo are monitored from
the control room of the asphalt plant. Sensors at various locations in the plant monitor
conveyor speeds, aggregate weights, temperature, and other critical functions which affect
efficient operation [1].
If hot mix recycling is to be conducted in a drum plant, a central opening is provided in the
drum for introducing the Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP) material as shown in Figure
6.15.Other additives can also be introduced through this opening.During the late 1980s, a
double barrel counter flow drum mix plant as shown in Figure 6.16 was developed [4]. The
inner barrel is used to dry and heat the aggregate only. The heated aggregate then enters the
annular space (outer barrel). The shell of the drum is used as the shaft of the coater. Since
the outer shell does not rotate, easy access is available to introduce an additive besides
bitumen binder and RAP. In this method, the bitumen binder and RAP are not exposed to
flame and hot gases. Also, it is energy efficient because the heat of the inner barrel is
transferred through the rotating shell to mixing in the annular space.
The mix from the drum plant is carried to a storage silo from where trucks can be loaded
(Figure 6.17).
Figure 6.15 Schematic of drum with central opening for RAP.

Figure 6.16 Schematic of double barrel drum plant.
Figure 6.17 Storage silo with truck underneath.

6.3 ASPHALT MIX TRANSPORTATION AND LAYDOWN
The following topics will be discussed in this section.
78. Surface preparation

79. Asphalt mix delivery
80. Paving equipment and paving procedures
81. Mix and mat inspection
82. Constructing joints
6.3.1 Surface Preparation
Before paving, existing pavement which may consist of granular base course or black-topped
surface has to be prepared. If the existing granular base course is uneven, it may have to be
scarified and re-laid to make it even and smooth.
If the existing pavement consists of black-topped surface, it has to be prepared, if needed, by

(a) sealing cracks (preferably with a rubberized bitumen binder); (b) patching potholes; and (c)
removing high spots with a milling machine. The surface must be cleaned of all loose and
extraneous matter by means of a mechanical broom. A high-pressure air jet from a compressor
should be used to remove dust and loose material from the surface.
Existing granular base course needs to be primed before paving and existing bituminous
pavement needs to be tack coated before paving. A detailed discussion of prime coat and tack
coat are as follows:
Prime Coat
Prime coat consisting of low-viscosity bituminous binder is applied to an unbound, granular
base course to prepare it for overlaying with the first bituminous course. Typically, the
unbound base course in India consists of Wet Mix Macadam (WMM), also called crushed
stone base course in some developed countries such as the United States. Pavement engineers
have mentioned the following functions of a prime coat in a flexible (bituminous) pavement
system:
1. To coat and stabilise loose particles on the surface of the unbound base.
2. To harden or toughen the base surface so as to avoid potential damage from

construction equipment.
3. To protect the base course surface from wet weather by providing a temporary
waterproofing layer.
For the prime coat to function properly, it should generally meet the following requirements:
1. The prime coat material should penetrate at least 8 mm to 10 mm into the unbound base
course.
2. The material should normally be absorbed within 48 h.

3. Excess prime coat should be blotted by applying sand. (Asphalt paving technologists have
reported that no prime coat is better than excessive prime coat because the latter can be
detrimental to the flexible pavement.)
In the past, medium curing cutback bitumen such as MC-30 and MC-70 were used effectively
for prime coat. Many state highway agencies have now changed over from cutback bitumen
(cutbacks) to emulsified bitumen (emulsions) due to environmental considerations as
mentioned earlier in Chapter 1 on paving bitumen. However, it has been found that generally
emulsions do not penetrate the unbound surface as much as cutbacks. Since the bitumen
residue from the emulsion simply lays on the surface with minimal penetration, its
effectiveness as a prime coat is questionable. Sometimes emulsions need to be diluted heavily
with water (such as 2 or 3 parts water and 1 part emulsion) and then several applications are
made to obtain reasonable penetration and the minimum desired bitumen residue. This
becomes too cumbersome.
Special inverted emulsions are slightly more effective. They are made by introducing water in
cutback bitumen, thus cutback bitumen is the continuous medium unlike normal emulsions in
which water is the continuous medium. However, from the environment point of view, it is
still cutback bitumen to some extent.
Due to the preceding practical problems, many states in the US make an exception and allow
the use of MC-30 and MC-70 cutbacks in prime coat. The Indian Roads Congress (IRC) is
now also allowing these cutbacks for prime coat in the revised IRC: 16–2008 “Standard
Specifications for Prime and Tack Coat”. Therefore, it is recommended to use MC cutbacks
as prime coat in India.
Besides the preceding problems associated with the use of emulsions in prime coat, many
pavement engineers have even questioned the very utility (need) of prime coat in the flexible
pavement structural system. It is especially so when the total thickness of overlying
bituminous courses exceeds 100 mm (4 inches) or so. The US Asphalt Institute has recently
stated, “At one time it was thought that a prime coat was an essential element of good
pavement construction.
However, in recent years some engineers have eliminated the use of a prime, especially when
asphalt layer(s) (surface and/or base) is 4 inches or more in thickness. In many instances,
prime coats have not been used even when surface thickness has been as thin as 2 inches (50
mm). Over the past 20 years, few, if any, pavement failures can be attributed to the lack of
prime coat”.
Tack Coat
Tack coat is applied with bitumen distributor equipped with a spray bar on the existing
bituminous pavement before paving (Figure 6.18). Tack coat is used to bind together different
bituminous courses such as base course, binder course, and surface course so all combined
function as a monolith. Typically, flexible pavement thickness design for the bituminous
component is based on this assumption. If there is a lack of bond (due to no tack coat or
excessive tack coat) between say 40 mm thick surface course and the underlying binder
course, the pavement largely functions as though the bituminous pavement is only 40 mm
thick, resulting in fatigue cracks and/or slippage cracks. Therefore, a good tack coat between
bituminous courses is so vital for the bituminous component to function as desired.
Figure 6.18 Application of tack coat.
Rapid Setting (RS) such as RS-1 grade emulsion is used in India for tack coat ahead of asphalt
paving operation. Viscosity Grade (VG) straight paving bitumen VG-10 grade can also be
used. Normal tack coat application rates are usually on the lighter side, which are difficult to
control through the nozzles of a typical bitumen distributor. Therefore, emulsion diluted 50:50
with water can be applied at a higher rate still obtaining the desired application rate of
bitumen residue. Generally, it is not possible to dilute a RS emulsion with water (it tends to
break).That is why it is common in the US to use a diluted Slow Setting (SS) emulsion for
tack coat.
Uniform application of tack coat is a must to be effective. Figure 6.19 shows an example of
non-uniform application of tack coat; only streaks can be seen. Figure 6.20 shows an example
of uniform tack coat.
Figure 6.19 Non-uniform application of tack coat.

Figure 6.20 Uniform application of tack coat.
Normal emulsion is brownish in colour. There is an old school of thought that before paving,
the sprayed emulsion should be allowed to turn black from brown. That is really not
necessary. As soon as hot asphalt mix is placed on brown emulsion, the water in emulsion
flashes off instantly leaving behind neat bitumen residue. The proof that it works is in the
design of new generation pavers in use today. These pavers have a built-in emulsion sprayer
which applies tack coat just a few seconds before the mix is placed and paved. No pavement
problems have been reported with such paving operations.
Tack Coat Over Prime Coat
At the present time, Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MORTH) specifications and
IRC codes require application of tack coat over prime coat, after the latter is applied on
unbound granular base. It is fundamentally not necessary and wasteful because of the
following:
1. In flexible pavement structural design, it is assumed that the total bituminous component
acts like a flexing beam under traffic loads. The objective is to provide enough thickness to
this beam so that its bending action (deflection) is minimal (it cannot be eliminated altogether)
and the resulting tensile strain at the bottom is also minimal and does not initiate cracks at the
bottom easily. It is not expected that the unbound base under the beam would also bend as a
monolith with the beam. The unbound base hardly has any tensile strength. Therefore, it
would be futile to bind (tack) the interface between the underlying unbound base course and
the beam.
2. Tack coat over prime coat acts as excessive prime coat, which as mentioned
earlier is detrimental to the flexible pavement system.
3. Tack coat is not applied over prime coat in other countries of the world such the US,
Canada and Australia. As mentioned earlier, even prime coat is not applied when the proposed
total asphalt overlay is 100 mm or more in thickness.
Therefore, the practice of applying tack coat over prime coat needs to be stopped not only
because it is detrimental to the flexible pavement but also to save valuable resources.
6.3.2 Asphalt Mix Delivery
Before loading the trucks with asphalt mix, a release agent needs to be applied to truck
bed so that mix does not stick to truck bed. Diesel should not be used at all as a release
agent because it is not desirable on environmental considerations. Moreover, it can soften
the asphalt mix.Therefore, non-petroleum based and environment friendly release agents
should be used such as soap or lime water or suitable commercially available materials.
Excessive release agent should be drained by raising the body of the truck [2].
Segregation of asphalt mix is a problem in asphalt paving. One of the contributors to

segregation is improper loading of truck at the asphalt plant. Single drop as shown in Figure
6.21 is incorrect and leads to segregation because coarser particles roll down to the bottom of
the pile. Three drops of asphalt mix as shown minimise segregation problem. This means truck
has to be moved back and forth while being loaded at the plant. Segregated areas from
improper loading of trucks become visible at scattered locations across the entire paving lane.
To maintain the desired mix temperature while transporting the mix from plant to paving
site, it is necessary to tarp the loads, that is, cover the top of the truck with a tarpaulin which
is tied down to prevent air from getting between the cover and the mix. Temperature of the
mix in the truck can be checked with a thermometer through a hole especially provided for
this purpose in truck’s side wall. Trucks insulated on sides and bottoms are recommended
when paving in very cold weather or when long hauls are involved.
Figure 6.21 Single and triple dump loading.
Truck carrying the mix should move in reverse slowly and make a contact with the paver and
then tip over to unload the mix in the paver hopper (Figure 6.22). Truck should not bump the
paver while moving in reverse. While unloading, mix should be allowed to build against the
tailgate of the truck before opening the tailgate. Mix should not be dribbled from the truck to
hopper of the paver; that would cause segregation.
To maintain uniformity and minimise segregation, ideally the paver should not stop. A slight
depression may also develop at the point of stopping. This means trucks should be available
at all times one after another. Material Transfer Vehicle (MTV) is used in the US to achieve
the same purpose (Figure 6.23). The MTV is like a moving storage bin of 35 ton capacity.
Trucks keep on feeding the asphalt mix into MTV which in turn feeds the paver continuously
as shown in the figure. The MTV has a built-in mixer which remixes all hot mix asphalt to
minimise segregation before it is loaded into the paver. Many state highway departments in
the US require the use of MTV on important highways.
When the paver hopper is empty between trucks, many paver operators lift the wings and
dump the mix into the paver hopper. This mix is usually coarse and it creates segregation
(usually V-shaped) at the end of each truck load. It is recommended not to do it and discard
the mix in the wings at the end of the day.
Figure 6.22 Truck unloading mix onto paver.

Figure 6.23 Material Transfer Vehicle (MTV).
6.3.3 Paving Equipment and Paving Procedures
Schematic of a typical paver is shown in Figure 6.24 with all components such as tractor
unit; hopper; tow point; augers; and levelling screed. The paver is comprised of two basic
machines:
(a) The first unit is the tractor, which can be mounted on rubber tyres or tracks that propel
the paver and provide power for running the mechanical systems.
(b) The second unit is the screed unit at the rear of the paver with its pivot arms that are
mounted on the tractor. The screed unit is free to rise and fall since no torque is exerted at
the pinned connection point on the tractor.
Figure 6.25 shows the schematic of material flow in a paver. Truck dumps asphalt mix in the
paver hopper which has slat conveyors to carry the mix towards the back through hopper gates.
Height of hopper gates can be changed to regulate the amount of mix. From the hopper gate,
the mix is conveyed to augers which spread the mix across the road. Finally, free-floating
screed plate levels off the mix to desired thickness. Screed also provides some initial
compaction to the mix besides a smooth surface texture [1].
Figure 6.26 shows the paver hopper with slat conveyors in the middle. Figure 6.27
shows close up of augers which disperse the mix across the pavement.
Figure 6.28 shows the concept of free-floating screed attached at the tow (pivot) point to the
paver; head of material in front of the screed; and resulting thickness of the mat. It also
illustrates what happens when the volume of material in front of screed changes. There is
need to maintain a constant head of material in front of screed to maintain correct depth of
mat. If the head of the material is too high, screed rises and excess material is forced under
screed resulting in increased mat thickness. On the other hand, if the head of the material is
too less, screed settles due to inadequate supporting material resulting in decrease in mat
thickness.
Figure 6.24 Schematic of typical paver.
Figure 6.25 Schematic of flow within paver.

Figure 6.26 Paver hopper, wings and flow gate.
Figure 6.27 Paver auger.
Figure 6.28 Material in front of paver screed (3 conditions).
In order to make adjustments in the thickness of the material, there is a screed depth crank at
the rear of the screed which is adjusted to lower or raise the rear pivot point. Lowering this
pivot (tow) point increases the angle of attack of the bottom of the screed on the asphalt mix.
As the screed rises, the material extruded behind the screed is thicker. It should be realised
that the response of the screed to this change in angle is not immediate. Actually, it takes a
distance that corresponds to at least four times the length of the towing (levelling) arm to
reach a new equilibrium. Therefore, it is critically important that thickness adjustments be
made only as a result of unusual conditions at the paver and not as a normal procedure by the
screed operator. Repeated adjustment of the screed depth crank does not help in achieving a
smooth riding surface [1].
Sometimes when it is not possible to keep the paver moving continuously; the paver should be
stopped quickly but smoothly, loaded as quickly as possible with asphalt mix, and accelerated
to paving speed again quickly and smoothly. Again, if a smooth pavement is desired, it is
important that the paver maintain a constant speed to avoid the screed undulations caused by
speed changes.
Control of the head of material in front of the screed is maintained by the proper setting of the
flow gates and augers on the paver. An adjustable flow gate is located above each of the slat
conveyors immediately in front of the augers. The purpose of the flow gates is to control the
amount of material that is supplied by the slat conveyor to the augers. It is important that the
flow gates be set at a height that delivers sufficient material to the auger chamber to have only
about half of the auger sticking out of the mix and to cause the augers to turn when the paver
is moving forward. There are two augers which operate independently and distribute the mix
transversely across the paving lane. There is an auger gear box at the junction of the two
augers, that is, in the centre of the paver. In order to force mix under the gear box, there is
typically a reverse auger adjacent to the gear box, to ensure that sufficient material is forced
into that central location [1, 2].
In the past, screeds applied compaction by the action of a tamping bar which was mounted in
front of the screed plate. This tamper bar compaction system had a large number of moving
parts, required substantial regular maintenance for efficient operation, and was very heavy.
Later, a more efficient vibratory screed was introduced. It produced a very smooth surface
because it brought up sand and bitumen to the surface by the low amplitude, high frequency
vibratory action of the screed. This smooth surface was significantly different from the
relatively open texture produced by the tamping bar compactor. Tamping or combination
screeds are still popular in some countries [1].
Paver screeds have other adjustments and controls to facilitate the proper placement of the
asphalt mat. Screed heaters are provided to increase the temperature of the screed plate before
paving begins each day. Heating the screed plate to approximately 150 ºC (300 oF) ensures
that the first asphalt material placed does not stick to the screed plate and tear the mat. After
paving a short distance, the asphalt mix keeps the screed temperature hot and the heater can be
turned off [1].
Another adjustment on the screed is the crown control. Some pavement lanes are crowned to
assist in draining rainwater off the road surface. The crown can be adjusted to meet the
geometric requirements of the roadway by adjusting a turnbuckle device to flex the bottom of
the screed to produce the desired crown [1].
Quite often, the width of paving exceeds the basic width of the paver, which is 8 ft (2.44 m)
for small pavers and 10 ft (3.05 m) for larger pavers. For such situations, the paving width can
be extended using either rigid screed extensions or hydraulically-operated screed extensions.
The rigid extensions are bolted to the paver screed in typical increments of 0.5 ft, 1 ft, 2 ft, or
3 ft (0.15 m, 0.30 m, 0.61 m, or 0.91 m) lengths [1].
Automatic Paver Screed Controls
When the paver is operated on a level grade, the floating screed lays a level and uniform
mat.However, since the existing surface being paved is seldom level, and paver
manufacturers have developed grade controls to modify the elevation of the tow or pull point
to adjust for variations in the grade or elevation over which the paver passes.
In order to smooth out the vertical movements of the tow point of the paver, automatic paver
screed control systems have been developed. These control systems ensure keeping the
elevation of the tow point constant, despite the tractor unit moving vertically in response to
the changes in profile of the surface being paved. Thus, by maintaining the constant elevation
of the tow point, the angle of attack of the screed is also maintained at a constant level. Thus,
allows the screed to do a better job of reducing the amount of material placed on high spots,
increasing the amount of material placed in low spots, and producing a smoother mat surface
[1].
Types of Grade Reference Systems
Three basic types of grade reference systems that have been developed include the erected
stringline, the mobile reference, and the joint matching shoe. These reference systems
typically use a combination of longitudinal grade sensors to establish position in the direction
of traffic and may include a slope control device to control transverse cross slope of the
paving lane. It is possible to use either erected stringlines on both sides of the paver or
longitudinal grade sensors on both sides of the paver. Theoretically an erected stringline
provides the smoothest possible asphalt mat behind the paver. However, this is often not the
case in practice. There are significant difficulties in maintaining the correct elevation of the
stringline. High tensile strength line is needed to keep the line taut without appreciable sags,
and supports are typically required every 25 ft (7.63 m) on tangents and every 10 ft (3.05 m)
on horizontal curves. Since the elevations must be set by a survey crew, the process is time
consuming and expensive. In addition, any errors in the stringline grade are reproduced by the
paver [1].
Another disadvantage of the erected stringline is that all equipment and personnel must be kept
away from the line so that the line is not disturbed. Truck drivers must be very careful when
entering and leaving the area in front of the paver. Unless grade is an important criterion on a
paving project, the added cost and care associated with the use of an erected stringline is
seldom warranted. However, the use of stringlines is essential for many airfield paving
projects where the final pavement must tie in with taxiways, concrete slabs, and other existing
structures, and where close controls are specified for grade changes. On these large paved
surfaces, such as airfields and parking areas, the use of stringlines also prevents bird baths
(depressions at joints) [1].
Laser technology has recently been applied to the paving operation, offering an alternative to
the stringline grade control system. A helium-neon laser transmitter is used to establish a
horizontal reference plane over the job site. These systems can be integrated with existing
paver controls for automatic or manual operations. The laser method is difficult to use
when the pavement surface is designed to have frequent grade changes [1].
The objective of the mobile reference is to average the effect of deviations in the existing
pavement surface over a distance greater than the wheelbase of the tractor unit. Therefore, the
mobile reference system expands the base length of the paver in an attempt to smooth out the
profile of the surface on which the paver is moving. Several types of mobile reference systems
have been used such as (a) tubular skis ranging in length from 20 ft, 30 ft or 40 ft (6.56 m,
9.84 m, or 13.12 m) in length; (b) tubular skis with wheels at each end; and (c) floating beams
with shoes [1].
This third type of reference system includes a short shoe, or ski, which slides on an adjacent
pavement or curbs to which the mat being placed is to be matched. Because of its short length,
this reference system does not remove any variations occurring in the adjacent pavement
surface but rather duplicates that grade in the mat being placed [1].
To ensure paver moving without stopping, it is necessary to have a balanced production

system. That is, asphalt plant should have adequate capacity to produce mix at the desired
rate; sufficient number of trucks should be available to transport that amount of mix to the
paving site; and adequate number of rollers should be available to keep up with the paver
speed.
6.3.4 Mix and Mat Inspection
During the paving operation, there is need to examine the asphalt mix for possible
deficiencies.
The following mix deficiency indications should be noted; their potential cause(s) is also
given:
1. Blue smoke: Overheating of mix
2. Stiffness: Low binder content, low temperature
3. Slumping: High moisture or high binder content
4. Bleeding: High binder content
5. Lean, dull look: Low binder content, excessive fines, burnt mix
6. Steam: High moisture content
Temperature of the mat behind the paver must be checked at all times.
The following items should be inspected during placing of asphalt mix:

1. Uniformity of surface (no segregation is desirable)
2. Temperature (should be at the desired compaction level)
3. Surface appearance of mat in terms of surface texture and smoothness
4. Pavement geometrics (cross slope, superelevation, etc.)
Segregation is a big problem in asphalt paving especially with mixes containing large
aggregate size. The following are the causes/sources where segregation can occur:
1. Production and storage (segregation can take place in storage silo when it is charged with
mix)
2. Loading and transportation (segregation can occur due to improper loading of trucks)
3. Material transfer and laydown (segregation can also occur by improperly feeding the
paver hopper)
4.Non-uniformity of mix temperature within the asphalt mix can also cause segregation,
which is called temperature segregation
Compacted asphalt mat should be examined for the following potential deficiencies:
1. Texture deficiencies
83. Tearing and scuffing
84. Cracking (fine cracks)
2. Smoothness deficiencies
85. Dips (these may occur if paver stood at one place for long time)
86. Ripples
87. Indentations
Pavement geometrics in terms of thickness, grade, alignment and crown should be

maintained while paving. The thickness of the loose asphalt mat behind the paver should be
checked with a dipstick at all times.
6.3.5 Constructing Joints
A discussion on how the joints are constructed while paving is given. Compaction of the joints
will be discussed later under compaction. There are two types of joints in asphalt construction:
transverse and longitudinal joints.
Transverse Joints
Transverse joint occurs when paving of the lane is stopped normally at the end of day and it
resumes on the following day. There are two ways to construct transverse joints. Figure
6.29 shows the bulkhead method. In this method, a timber is placed against the rolled mat
and proper ramp is constructed for smooth passage of traffic. Next day, timber is removed
which leaves a vertical edge of the rolled mat. Placing of the new mat is resumed starting at
the vertical edge. Figure 6.30 shows the papered transverse joint construction technique.
On the slope of the rolled mat, a paper is laid and ramp is also constructed. On the
following day, the paper is removed along with ramp and placing of the new mat is
resumed starting at the sloped edge.
After the construction of the transverse joint, the longitudinal profile should be checked with
a straight edge to ensure there is no bump at the joint.
Figure 6.29 Bulk head transverse joint (Courtesy: Asphalt Institute).
Figure 6.30 Papered transverse joint (Courtesy: Asphalt Institute)
Longitudinal Joints
Longitudinal joints occur when a fresh asphalt lane is placed along a lane already
constructed. These can be of two types based on temperature of the lane already
constructed:
(a) Hot longitudinal joint occurs when the first lane against which the new lane is being
constructed is still hot.
(b)Cold or warm longitudinal joint occurs when the first lane against which the new lane is
being constructed is cold or warm.
Figure 6.31 shows the example of hot longitudinal joint. This is possible with echelon
paving with two pavers. While one paver is moving ahead paving one lane, another one is
following close behind paving the adjacent lane. Obviously, mix in both lanes is hot and
therefore a hot, good longitudinal joint will be obtained.
Figure 6.31 Asphalt paving in echelon.
Figure 6.32 shows construction of warm or cold longitudinal joint. The left lane was
constructed either on the same day earlier (warm mix) or was constructed on previous day
(cold mix). The adjacent lane on the right side is being paved resulting in either warm or cold
longitudinal joint. The right technique(s) to construct warm or cold longitudinal joint is as
follows.
While laying the mix in the new lane, the paver screed should partially overlap on the
existing lane by 25 mm to 40 mm. Figure 6.33 shows schematic of the desired overlap. The
overlapped loose mix should be “bumped back” with a rake to be just on the joint between
two lanes and then compacted (Figure 6.34). This extra mix is needed at the joint because
the edge of the previously compacted lane has low density because it was unconfined when
compacted. This would result in good density of the asphalt mix at the joint. Higher density
results in better performance of joint.
Figure 6.32 Construction of longitudinal joint.
Figure 6.33 Schematic of mix overlap for constructing longitudinal joints.
Figure 6.34 Schematic of mix bumped back at longitudinal joint.
Various longitudinal joint construction techniques have been studied in the US [5, 6, 7, 8,
9]1. In case of wide airfield runways where many longitudinal joints are involved, some
agencies (1 The most comprehensive US study ever on longitudinal joint construction techniques was led by
Kandhal as principal investigator.) require cutting and discarding about 75 mm to 100 mm wide
strip of the unconfined, low density edge of the cold lane (first lane) and then lay the
adjacent lane. Figure 6.35 shows the edge cutting operation. The cut and vertical edge is
also tack coated.
Another good technique to obtain good longitudinal joint is to provide notched wedge joint
with a taper (1:12) on the first paved lane. This configuration is obtained by attaching a steel
plate of this shape to the paver screed. The adjacent lane provides an overlapping wedge.
Figure 6.36 shows the notched wedge joint at the edge of the first paved lane on the left.
Adjacent lane will be placed later on the right.
Good, durable longitudinal joints are also obtained when the vertical edge of the first paved lane
is tack coated with rubberized bitumen binder which is often used for crack sealing [10].
Figure 6.35 Asphalt pavement edge cutting with cutting wheel mounted on grader.
Figure 6.36 Notched wedge tapered longitudinal joint.

6.4 ASPHALT MIX COMPACTION
The following topics will be presented in this section:
88. Purpose of compaction

89. Roller types and compaction procedures
90. Factors affecting compaction
91. Rolling joints
92. Inspection of compacted mat
93. Segregation
94. Measurement of density
95. Density specifications
6.4.1 Purpose of Compaction
Compaction is the process by which the volume of air in asphalt mix is reduced
through the application of external mechanical forces. The expulsion of air enables the
mix to occupy a smaller space thereby increasing the density of the asphalt mix [1].
The following are the purposes or objectives of compaction:

1. Increases density (thus increasing pavement structural strength)
2. Reduces air voids (thus increasing durability)
3. Increases stability (resistance to rutting)
4. Smoother surface (comfort to motorist)
The compacted asphalt mix should have sufficient voids to allow the bitumen binder to
expand and contract as temperature changes without filling the voids resulting in
flushing/bleeding. The voids should also be high enough to allow for some subsequent
traffic-induced densification during the first few years of service without the void
content falling below about 3% to 4% for dense graded mixtures. If the void content in
a dense graded asphalt mix drops below about 3%, significant permanent deformation
(rutting) can occur. According to a study [11] for dense graded mixtures, the pavement
life is reduced about 10% for each percent increase in voids above 7%.
6.4.2 Roller Types and Compaction Procedures
Self-propelled rollers are used to provide the compaction energy required to reduce the
volume of freshly laid asphalt mix sufficiently to produce the specified density. The
compaction train usually consists of two or more rollers whose objectives are: (a) to achieve
the required density to meet the specifications; and (b) to provide a smooth surface.
These two objectives are accomplished through the use of breakdown and intermediate
rollers to achieve the desired density, and a finish roller to remove roller marks and provide
a smooth surface. The breakdown and intermediate rollers may be one or more rollers,
depending on the speed of the paver and the productivity of the breakdown roller. If the
breakdown roller can achieve the required density, an intermediate roller may not be
necessary. A finish roller is usually required.
The breakdown roller is the first compactor to roll the freshly laid asphalt mix and is usually a
steel wheeled roller but can be a Pneumatic Tyred Roller (PTR). The steel wheeled roller can
be static or vibratory but in either case the first compaction drum to encounter (meet) the mix
should be the one which is propelling the roller. This arrangement facilitates the loose asphalt
mix to be tucked under the drive drum. If a non-driven drum encounters freshly laid asphalt
mix, there is a tendency for the asphalt mix to shove horizontally and produce a ridge of
material immediately in front of the drum which remains after the roller reverses directions
and produces a bump. Hairline cracks (called checking in the US) also develop when an
asphalt mix is rolled in this way. A PTR can also be used as a breakdown roller but it can be
difficult to remove roller depressions with the finish rollers. The hot asphalt mix also tends to
stick to the rubber tyres causing surface deficiencies. Therefore, a PTR is most often used as
an intermediate roller. Finish rollers are static steel wheeled rollers [1].
Rollers operate behind the paver in a stretch whose length is determined primarily by the
number of compaction passes required to achieve density. The number of passes is in turn
determined by the effectiveness of the roller in producing the required density, the
compactability of the asphalt mix being placed, the width of the roller, the width of the paving
lane, the speed of the roller, and the cooling rate of the mat. Compaction must be
accomplished before the mat cools to a temperature below approximately 80 ºC (175 oF),
called the cessation temperature. The cooling rate of the mat is affected by the mat thickness,
the temperature of the mat when placed, the ambient temperature, the temperature of the base
on which the asphalt mix is placed, and the wind conditions.
Compaction always results from the application of pressure over a contact area. As the
temperature of the mix drops, there is an increased resistance from the mix to further
compaction which reduces the contact area of the drum or tyre and increases the contact
pressure. This process continues until no additional densification occurs. At this, so-called
refusal density point, the internal resistance of the mix equals or exceeds the compaction
contact pressure. If the refusal density does not equal or exceed the specification density, the
operator must increase the compaction pressure. Modification (sometimes by increasing
bitumen content) of the mix design to improve in-place density is a common mistake made on
many paving projects. As a general rule, the mix design should not be modified for the
purpose of increasing in-place density [1].
The ability of the roller operator to change the contact pressure improves the operator’s
chances of achieving the specification density. The options available to the operator for
increasing the contact pressure include: (a) increasing the ballast load (steel wheeled or rubber
tyred rollers); (b) increasing the tyre pressure (rubber tyred rollers); and (c) increasing the
magnitude of the dynamic force component (vibratory rollers).
The three types of rollers used in asphalt construction: (a) static steel wheel; (b) pneumatic
tyred; and (c) vibratory are described in detail as follows:
Static Steel Wheeled Rollers
These rollers typically are of the tandem and three wheel types and come in a variety of
weights and configurations. The three wheeled rollers typically weigh between 8 tons and 14
tons. These rollers are not widely used anymore. Tandem static steel wheeled rollers are two
axle rollers with both drums the same width. They typically weigh from 5 tons to 14 tons
These rollers can be ballasted with water or sand for extra weight. Typically, the drums vary
from 48 inches to 60 inches (121.9 cm to 152.4 cm) in diameter and are 42 inches to 54 inches
(106.7 cm to 137.2 cm) wide. Many of these rollers have a single drive drum to propel the
machine. Figure 6.37 shows the photograph of a two wheeled (tandem) steel wheel static
roller. Normally, the front wheel is powered and the rear wheel is non-powered.
Figure 6.37 Typical tandem steel wheel roller.
Since hot asphalt mix has a tendency to stick to the steel drums, all rollers have a series of
mats, mounted on a transverse bar, which are kept wet and in contact with the drum surface.
Wet mats help to minimise sticking, especially when the drum is cold. The roller also has a
scraper across the steel wheel to remove any asphalt mix that sticks to the wheel. The water
system for wetting the mat in tandem steel roller is used during breakdown rolling but is not
used for finish rolling.
The actual compactive effort supplied by static steel wheeled rollers is determined by the
contact pressure between the steel drum and the asphalt mix material being compacted. The
vertical load is determined by the gross weight of the roller and ballast. The contact area is
determined by the diameter of the drum and the depth of penetration of the drum into the
asphalt mix, the latter being a function of the compaction characteristics of the asphalt mix
[1].
Pneumatic Tyred Rollers
The rubber tyred rollers are also known as Pneumatic Tyred Rollers (PTR). Their name is
derived from the pneumatic (air filled) rubber tyres used to compact the asphalt mix. Figure
6.38 shows the photograph of a typical Pneumatic Tyred Roller (PTR). The inflation
pressure in the tyres can be varied to produce the desired contact pressure on the mat. The
pneumatic tyred rollers are designed to provide kneading action by the tyres, which are
individually mounted to the roller frame. Typical configurations of pneumatic tyred rollers
provide 4, 5, 6 or 7 tyres on the front of the roller and 3, 4, 5 or 6 tyres on the rear. The rear
tyres are aligned to provide compaction for the mix passing between the front tyres. These
rollers typically vary in wheel weights from 1500 lbs to 10000 lbs (680 kg to 4536 kg). The
tyres do not have any tread, that is, they are smooth. Tyres must be able to withstand high
inflation pressures for long periods of time. The size and ply rating of the tyres can vary
significantly. Inflation pressure is controlled by tyre ply rating but the combination of
contact pressure (controlled by tyre inflation pressure) and area (controlled by weight of
roller) are important in producing densification of the asphalt mix. If a PTR is to be used for
compaction purposes, then the tyre inflation pressures should be as high as the behaviour of
the asphalt mix will permit without severe rutting which may be difficult to remove by the
finish roller [1].
Figure 6.38 Typical Pneumatic Tyred Roller (PTR).

The PTRs can be used in the breakdown or intermediate roller positions. In the breakdown
mode, PTRs may cause deformation that may or may not be removed with finish rolling.
Therefore, the mix behaviour determines whether a PTR can be effectively used as a
breakdown roller. Traditionally, PTRs have been used in the intermediate roller position.
Ground contact pressures between 75 psi and 90 psi (517 kPa and 621 kPa) have been
recommended for PTRs [12]. In addition to producing densification, the PTR in the
intermediate position can help to remove roller checking produced by a steel wheeled
breakdown roller. Checking is the term used to describe fine, hairline, transverse cracks
which occur in the surface of asphalt mix mat under a steel wheeled roller. Checking is
normally caused by horizontal movement of the mixture during compaction with the steel
wheeled rollers. This can be caused by mixture problems (tender mixture) and/or improper
rolling techniques [1].
Since bitumen binder has a tendency to stick to cold rubber tyres, wetting mats, like those
described for steel wheeled rollers, are used with individual mat contacting each tyre. Once
the tyres become warm, the bitumen binder will not stick to the tyres and the water is no
longer needed. Rollers should not be allowed to park on the hot mat since this will cause
depressions that can not be removed with additional rolling. If the tyres cool, they have to be
brought back to operating temperature in the same way as for initial cold starts.
Pneumatic tyred rollers offer several advantages when compacting dense graded asphalt mix
such as: (a) providing a more uniform degree of compaction than steel wheeled rollers; (b)
providing a tighter, more dense surface, thus decreasing the permeability of the layer; (c)
providing increased density that many times can not be obtained with steel wheeled rollers;
and (d) compacting the mixture without causing checking and helping to remove any
checking that is caused by steel wheeled rollers [13].
Vibratory Steel Wheeled Rollers
The significant development in rollers for compacting asphalt mix is the vibratory steel
wheeled roller or vibratory roller [14]. Vibratory rollers are the only type of asphalt mix
compactor that have a dynamic load component and are typically lighter than static steel
wheel rollers in terms of dead weight because the total, compactive effort is the sum of the
static and dynamic loads.
Typical drum widths for vibratory rollers are 58 inches to 84 inches (147.3 cm to 213.4 cm)
with typical drum diameters of 40 inches to 60 inches (101.6 cm to 152.4 cm). The dynamic
load applied by the vibratory roller is the major force component producing densification of
the asphalt mix [1]. Figure 6.39 shows a photograph of a typical vibratory roller.
The dynamic load is produced by an eccentric weight attached to a rotating shaft in the centre
of the drum. When the eccentric weight is rotating toward the surface being compacted, the
total applied load is the sum of the static and centrifugal loads (Figure 6.40). The vibration is
especially effective on harsh mixtures which have high volume concentrations of coarse
aggregate for example, stone matrix asphalt (SMA).
Vibratory rollers have two adjustable features: frequency and amplitude of vibrations.
Frequency of impacts indicates how close these impacts are to each other on the road when
vibratory roller is moving (Figure 6.41). Higher the frequency, closer are these impacts and
therefore it results in higher compactive effort. Amplitude of impacts (Figure 6.42)
indicates the vertical displacement of impact. Therefore, thick asphalt lift requires high
amplitude so that compactive effort is effective all through its depth.
Figure 6.39 Typical vibratory roller.
Figure 6.40 Vibratory roller dead weight plus rotating weight (Courtesy:Asphalt Institute).
Figure 6.41 Frequency of impacts (Courtesy: Asphalt Institute).

Figure 6.42 Amplitude of impacts (Courtesy: Asphalt Institute).
For compacting a particular asphalt mix layer effectively, the frequency and amplitude must
be selected to satisfy the conditions on the job so that the total force applied is adequate to
produce the specified density but not so large that decompaction occurs because of the large
vibrating force. Generally thicker lifts require higher amplitude. Monitoring changes in field
density with each roller pass using a nuclear density gauge is probably the simplest way to
establish the proper settings for amplitude and vibration for a specific job. To obtain smooth
ride on surface mixes, the impact spacing should be short enough (that is, high frequency) so
that no vibration marks are observed in the finished surface.
Generally, high frequency and low amplitude are used for thin asphalt lifts and high
frequency and high amplitude are used for thick asphalt lifts.
Compaction Procedures
As mentioned earlier, three rolling stages occur during compaction of asphalt pavements.
Breakdown rolling with the first roller is usually done with a vibratory roller. Other types of
roller may also be used in special circumstances. Intermediate rolling is usually done with a
pneumatic tyred roller. Finish rolling is done with a tandem static steel roller. Mat must be
rolled hot. Normal compaction temperature for all three stages of rolling ranges from 150 ºC to
80 ºC. Once the mat cools down below 80 ºC, rolling is not effective and may even damage the
mat. If the loose asphalt mat behind the paver allows, the first pass of the breakdown vibratory
roller should be in the vibratory mode (and not in static mode) because vibrations are highly
effective in case of loose mix in orienting the aggregate particles to pack closely and in
obtaining high density. This is generally the practice in the US. Figure 6.43 shows the
schematic of rolling pattern showing how the entire lane width is covered by the roller.
Different rolling patterns are used on mats with constant cross slope as compared to those with
crowns or superelevation. In rolling unsupported mats with constant cross slope, the first pass
of the roller should be on the outside (low) edge of the mat with each successive forward pass
moving toward the high edge of the mat as shown in Figure 6.43. The next forward pass
should overlap the first forward pass by at least 150 mm (6 inches). The roller passes should
end at different points to prevent the development of a bump across the entire lane.
The last forward pass of the roller, at the high edge, should overlap the upper edge by at least
150 mm (6 inches).
Figure 6.43 Schematic of rolling pattern to cover the entire lane (Courtesy: Asphalt Institute).
Once rolling is started, the question is how many passes are required. A nuclear density gauge
is used to monitor mat density after every pass so that optimum number of passes can be
established as shown in Figure 6.44. It shows a plot of number of passes versus density
obtained by nuclear density gauge on a control strip built at the start of the paving job.
Density first increases and then decreases after peak (because of the “decompaction
phenomenon”). This plot is used to establish optimum number of passes for every paving
project and every asphalt course.
Figure 6.44 Compaction curve: Roller passes versus density.
Intelligent Compaction
The Asphalt Institute has defined the intelligent compaction as “the compaction of
road materials such as soils, aggregate bases, or asphalt pavement materials using
modern vibratory rollers equipped with an integrated measuring system, an onboard
computer reporting system, Global Positioning System (GPS) based mapping, and
optional feedback control”. Intelligent compaction rollers facilitate real-time
compaction monitoring and timely adjustment to compaction process to optimise the
compaction process. This technology is being considered by many highway agencies
in the US at the present time. Obviously, the roller operators have to be trained in this
technology because human intervention is still required to some extent.
6.4.3 Factors Affecting Compaction

The following are the factors that affect compaction of asphalt mix by a particular set of
rollers:
1. Firmness of the layer on which asphalt mix is placed
2. Asphalt mix characteristics (some mixes can be compacted readily; other may be too stiff)
3.Layer or mat thickness (thicker lifts retain heat longer)
4. Air and base temperature
5.Mix lay down temperature
6.Wind velocity
7.Solar flux (energy)
Most of the preceding factors directly affect the cooling rate of the asphalt mix mat and the
length of time the material is hot enough to be compacted. Information on cooling rates and
time available for compaction is typically presented in either tabular or figure form.
Figure 6.45 shows approximate time available for compaction (before the mat cools down
to 80 oC) given the base temperature, air temperature, and lift thickness. When paving at
low temperatures, the available time for compaction may be too short. The roller speeds
cannot be increased significantly without adversely affecting density. Therefore, additional
rollers may be required. Also in such cases, use of warm mix asphalt (WMA) should be
considered. The WMA was discussed in the chapter on bituminous mixes. As mentioned
earlier, the last stage of rolling, i.e., finish rolling must be completed before mat cools down
to 80 ºC.
Figure 6.45 Time available for compaction.
6.4.4 Rolling Joints
Laydown of asphalt mix with paver to construct both transverse and longitudinal joints
(including overlap) was discussed in detail in the earlier section. This section will address
rolling or compaction of these joints. Rolling of transverse joints is important to ensure that
a smooth dense joint is obtained. Ideally a transverse joint should be rolled with roller in
static mode in the transverse direction using run-off boards on either side of the road to
support roller’s back and forth movement. However, it may not always be possible [1].
Longitudinal joints are important because of their extent on most asphalt mix paving projects
especially airfield runways. It is important that longitudinal joints be compacted properly to
ensure a smooth joint, that is, barely noticeable or felt when crossed. If longitudinal joints are
not compacted properly, (a) the joint may be rough and noisy when crossed; (b) crack may
develop at the joint allowing ingress of water into the pavement; (c) raveling may develop
along the joint due to lack of density; and (d) water may collect in the so-called “bird baths”
if one side of the joint is higher than the other or depression has been created at the joint.
Crack usually develops at the longitudinal joint because of the density gradient across the joint.
Density is relatively lower on the side which was paved first because that lane was not
confined during rolling compared to the side which was paved later and had the first lane to
confine the mix during rolling [5].
Several methods have been developed for constructing longitudinal joints which were
discussed earlier in the section on asphalt mix laydown [5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]. These include
echelon paving; use of cutting wheel; notched wedge joint; applying rubberized asphalt binder
tack coat on the vertical edge of the first paved lane; etc. Heating of the edge of the previously
laid lane with infrared heaters just prior to laying the adjacent lane has also been attempted
sometimes with mixed success. No matter which method of laydown is used, the longitudinal
joint should be compacted with vibratory roller mostly on the hot mat and about 150 mm
overlap on the cold mat. This method gives high density at the joint which results in its good
performance. Figure 6.46 has a photograph showing the correct procedure of rolling
longitudinal joint.
Figure 6.46 Rolling longitudinal joint from hot side (left lane is hot and right lane is
cold).
6.4.5 Inspection of Compacted Mat
The following items are of importance: surface texture; smoothness; and density. Surface
texture should be uniform with no segregation. Smoothness of the finished pavement should
be tested with a plain straight edge or a rolling straight edge to ensure it is within
specification. Other methods such as profilometer may also be used if specified.
6.4.6 Segregation
Segregation is another significant mat deficiency problem which can cause performance
problems. Segregation occurs when the asphalt mix material behind the laydown machine does
not have a uniform gradation across the mat, usually as a result of the coarse aggregate
separating from the fine aggregate. The surface texture of a segregated mixture is very coarse
when compared to a normal mat surface. Segregation can be caused at any point in the
construction operation right from the stockpiles to the laydown operation. Because there are so
many potential sources of segregation, it is often very difficult to identify the cause or causes
of a particular case of segregation. Some examples of segregation associated with loading of
trucks and paver hopper were described in the section on asphalt mix laydown. Based on the
type and location of the segregation, the potential causes can be identified and checked to
determine how to correct the problem. Different patterns of segregation have been observed on
asphalt paving projects including the following: (a) random segregation; (b) each side
segregation, which is evenly spaced between trucks; (c) centre line segregation; (d) each side
continuous segregation; and (e) one side segregation evenly spaced between trucks [15]. When
segregation occurs on a project, the cause must be determined and the problem corrected.
Otherwise, poor performance is likely to result. Segregated areas are rough, tend to ravel, and
are permeable to water. Potholes are likely to occur at those spots [1]. Some large stone asphalt
mixes such as DBM grading 1 tend to segregate excessively and should not be used [16].
6.4.7 Measurement of Density
The following two methods of measuring the density of the compacted asphalt pavement are
used: (a) core method, and (b) nuclear or non-nuclear density gauge method as shown in
Figure 6.47. Non-nuclear density gauges are preferred considering radiation issues associated
Figure 6.47 Density measurement with density gauge and cores.
with nuclear density gauges. Unfortunately, sand replacement method is used by some
highway agencies in India which should be discontinued because it is highly inaccurate for
such application.
Core Method
The core method of measuring density is considered the referee procedure, which is the
standard to which the density gauge is compared. The requirement that density be measured
with cores does impose a delay between the completion of compaction and a determination
of the density results. This is because cores cannot be taken before the mat cools to ambient
temperature in its entire depth and also the cores must be dried to obtain dry weight.
Therefore, in most cases, the density results using the core method are obtained, the
day after construction is completed.
It is recommended to take 150 mm diameter cores rather than 100 mm diameter cores to
obtain better representative density results. Cores must be taken at random locations from
one day’s production.
After cutting the core from the pavement layer, the freshly placed material must be
separated from the underlying material attached to the core for testing. Sometimes, sawing
may be required.
Density Gauge Method
Density gauges have been used for several decades to measure the bulk density of compacted
asphalt pavement. Unlike cores, this method provides results quickly and non-destructively.
Density gauge is placed on the selected spot on top of the pavement and a reading is made.
The density determined from the reading represents the average density for the top several
inches of the pavement. For instance, the average density may be representative of the top 150
mm of the pavement whereas the thickness of the layer of interest may only be 50 mm. This
depth which is being measured may also vary from gauge to gauge. The effect of the
underlying layers can be eliminated by calibrating the density gauge to produce the same
density as that obtained from cores cut at the same spot. This calibration should correct for the
density of the underlying material. Some highway agencies require 5–10 locations on the
control strip where both core and nuclear gauge measurements are made and the average
difference is used for calibration. This calibration has to be established for every paving
project. Even with this calibration, errors may still exist due to variations in layer thickness
and variations in density of the underlying layers along the length of the project [1].
Field density gauge is extremely useful in the development of rolling patterns by quickly
monitoring changes in density after every pass of the roller. Some density gauges have also
been attached to rollers to continually measure density during the rolling operation. The
density gauge is a valuable quality control tool for paving contractors to monitor the mat
density on the project. Some cores should routinely be taken to verify the accuracy of the
density gauge and to ensure that an acceptable density is obtained. Many highway agencies use
core density only for acceptance purposes.
6.4.8 Density Specifications

The voids in compacted asphalt mix are directly related to density; thus, density must be
closely controlled to ensure that the initial in-place voids are within an acceptable range. There
is considerable evidence to show that the initial in-place voids for dense graded mixtures
should be no higher than approximately 8% and never fall below approximately 3% during the
life of the pavement [17]. High voids allow water and air to penetrate into the compacted
asphalt pavement causing water damage and premature oxidation which may induce raveling
and cracking. Relationship between the in-place air voids and extent of raveling has been
established as shown in Figure 6.48 [18, 19]. According to this relationship, in-place air voids
of newly constructed asphalt pavements should not exceed 8% in order to prevent premature
raveling.
Figure 6.48 In-place voids versus extent of raveling (after Kandhal).

Many studies have shown dense graded asphalt pavements become highly permeable to water
when air voids exceed 8% [17, 20].
Low voids lead to rutting and shoving of asphalt mix. This recommended range of in-
place voids applies only to dense graded asphalt mixes. Other mixtures, which are
specifically designed to contain higher or lower air voids, can perform properly when
designed using proper techniques.
From these studies, it can be concluded that dense graded asphalt mixes should be constructed
with an initial air void content below approximately 8% and that the final air void content after
traffic should be above approximately 3%. Good performance should occur if these limits are
observed and suitable aggregates and bitumen binder are used. Many density specifications
used by highway agencies including Indian Roads Congress IRC: 111–2009 are based on
these considerations of in-place air voids.
The following three different ways of specifying density are used by highway agencies:
Percent of control strip density: Before the project is started, a control strip is constructed
on which different rolling patterns are tried to get maximum density. That maximum density
becomes the target reference density for the entire project.
Percent of laboratory density: Samples of asphalt mix are compacted every day in
laboratory during construction and that becomes the reference density for that day’s
compaction in the field.
Percent of Theoretical Maximum Density or TMD: TMD is measured every day

during construction and that becomes the reference density for mat density. Indirectly this
specification controls percentage voids in the compacted mat.
Discussion of these three methods of specifying paving project’s density are as follows:
Density Specified as Percent of Control Strip
At the start of the paving project, a control strip is constructed to obtain optimum density by
trying different rolling patterns. Then the remaining project must meet minimum specified
density as a percentage of the control strip density. Any significant changes in the mixture
during construction require that a new control strip be constructed and evaluated. This
method of density control allows the compactibility of a mixture to be evaluated and
included as part of the specification requirements. Monitoring the change in density with
increasing roller passes using a nuclear gauge provides the information necessary to know
when optimum or maximum density for the rollers being used has been obtained.
Several factors affect density and a change in any one of these factors can make the test strip
invalid. Common factors affecting density include aggregate gradation (especially percent
passing the 0.075 mm sieve), bitumen content, moisture content, mixture temperature, air
temperature, layer thickness, firmness of the underlying layer, roller weight, roller pattern,
roller speed, etc. [1].
Density Specified as a Percent of Laboratory Density
This method requires that the in-place field density of the compacted mat should be equal
or exceed a specified percentage of the laboratory density obtained daily. Usually, the
Marshall
Hot Mix Asphalt Production and Construction 269
method specifies that laboratory specimens be compacted with 75 blows of the Marshall
hammer. Typically, density specifications require that field density be at least 95% of
laboratory density and in some cases, at least 98%. Some specifications prohibit the in-place
density being greater than 100% of the laboratory density because premature rutting is likely to
occur as a result of low air voids. It should be noted that the density produced during mixture
design (that is, the design density in the JMF) should never be used as the reference density for
the field compaction because the laboratory produced material is usually somewhat different
from the material produced in the asphalt plant.
Obviously, with this method of specifying field density, the reference density based on daily
compacted Marshall specimens changes every day especially if the mix composition changes
or laboratory specimens are not compacted at the right temperature.
The repercussion of this method on the required field density is as follows.
For example, a mix is designed to have 4% voids but the daily compacted
Marshall specimens have 5%
air voids, which is acceptable. Now the field compaction is required to be at least 95% of
laboratory density. This specification results up to 10% voids (5% at 100% laboratory density
plus 5% more at 95% of laboratory density) in the mat immediately after compaction. This air
void content (10%) is too high and will cause high water permeability and premature
oxidation of bitumen binder resulting in raveling and cracking. Because of the reference
density changing every day, in-place air void content also changes which is not acceptable to
many highway agencies. That is why they prefer the requirement that the field density be a
percentage of the theoretical maximum density, which is discussed next.
Density Specified as Percent of Theoretical Maximum Density
This method of compaction control for field density requires that the paving contractor achieve
some minimum percentage of the Theoretical Maximum Density (TMD). Actually, this
compaction requirement provides a direct method of specifying maximum permissible in-place
air voids in the mat. This method involves taking a loose sample of the asphalt mix during
production and measuring its TMD (ASTM D 2041). The bulk density of the compacted
asphalt mix in the field is measured and compared to the TMD. This method is specified in
IRC: 111–2009 which requires that the field density be at least 92% of the TMD, that is, no
more than 8% air voids in the compacted mat.
This type of compaction specification requires that the TMD, which is the reference
density, be measured daily during construction. Some highway agencies use a running
average of TMD
obtained over a period of 3 days to normalise sampling and testing errors. That value is also
used for evaluating the daily compacted Marshall specimens to ensure all void parameters (air
voids, VMA and VFA) meet the specifications. Figure 6.49 shows approximate comparison of
different specifications for mat density to give 7% in-place air voids. This is approximately
equivalent to 93% of TMD; 97% of laboratory density; and 100% of control strip density.
Note that the mix design air voids are 4% which cannot be achieved normally at the time of
construction and are expected to be achieved from traffic densification during first one or two
summers. In other words, the mat is expected to densify from 7% to 4% air voids under traffic.
Figure 6.49 Comparison of different methods of accepting compaction.
6.5 QUALITY CONTROL/QUALITY ASSURANCE (QC/QA) OF HOT MIX

ASPHALT CONSTRUCTION
6.5.1 Concept of Quality Control/Quality Assurance A very good general definition of

quality is: “Quality meets or exceeds the expectations or needs of the customer”. So, what
specifically is asphalt mix quality? In general terms, the following are the attributes of asphalt
mix quality:
1. Constructible
2. Conforms to specifications
3. Satisfies functional requirements
Quality assurance is, “making sure the quality of a product is what it should be”. Quality
assurance is like a stool which rests on three legs: quality control; independent assurance; and
acceptance. Responsibilities for the three elements of quality assurance are as follows:
1. Quality control (responsibility of contractor)
2. Independent assurance (responsibility of an agency independent of contractor and
owner)
3. Acceptance (responsibility of owner)
Since Quality Control (QC) is the responsibility of the contractor, he should develop and
implement a QC plan for inspection and testing to ensure asphalt mix meets the specification.
The QC plan should include frequency of sampling and testing. It should also include the
following steps:
1. To keep the process under control
2. To quickly determine when process has gone out of control
3. To respond adequately to bring the process back into control Here is just an example of
frequency of testing which should be included in the QC plan.
The frequency can be more than that specified by the owner.
1. Asphalt binder: 1 test per 1500 tons of binder
2. Binder content and gradation: 1 test per 1000 tons of asphalt mix
3. Mix volumetrics, stability and flow: 1 test per 1000 tons of asphalt mix
Control Charts
Control chart as shown in Figure 6.50 is recommended to be included in the QC plan for
process control. As measurements are made, values are plotted on this chart along with upper
and lower specification tolerance limits. Control charts give a good visual of how the process
is going.
The following are the benefits of control charts:
1. Early detection of trouble or problem (when there is a trend that the plot is going out of the
tolerance limit).
2. Decreases variability because one can keep a watch on the test results.
3. Establish process capability (whenever a change is made in process, its capability can
be judged).
4. Reduce price adjustment costs. Many specifications have provision to make payment
adjustments if the job is outside specification limits. Control charts help in avoiding such
adjustments by monitoring the test data.
5. Inspection frequency can be decreased if control charts are showing everything is

continuing to be well within specified tolerances.
Figure 6.50 Typical control chart for quality control.
Figure 6.51 is an example of control chart for air voids in laboratory compacted asphalt mix
specimens. It shows the specification limits, warning limits and action limits both on lower
and upper sides.
Independent assurance element of quality assurance means independent assessment of a

product.
The following are the attributes of independent assurance:

1. It is performed by personnel NOT responsible for process control or acceptance.
2. It provides an independent check on the reliability of the test results for acceptance.
3. It is NOT to find things being performed incorrectly, BUT to verify that procedures are
proper.
4. All variations from specified procedures and significant differences between acceptance
and Independent Assurance (IA) tests must be reported.
The following are attributes of “acceptance”:
1. It is performed by the owner.

2. Acceptance testing has to be conducted.
3. Testing conducted by the contractor should be monitored.
4. Process control by the contractor should also be monitored.
5. Contractor’s work should be inspected often.
Figure 6.51 Control chart for air voids.
When QC and QA test data are available, they need to be compared to find the answer to the
question: Are they not significantly different? In other words: Do they come from the same
population? To answer such questions, statistics can be used as a tool. They may have
different means and normal distributions. Also, it is quite possible that there is significant
difference statistically between the two sets of test data. This can be determined by means of
t-test or other statistical parameters. Such statistical tools would help to make informed
decisions and resolve disputes.
6.5.2 Properties of Asphalt Mix
To discuss quality assurance, the properties of asphalt mix and associated tests need to be
discussed, which are part of quality assurance. There is need to test individual mix
components (aggregate and asphalt binder); test mix composition (binder content and
gradation) as per mix design; determine mix volumetric properties (such as air voids, VMA
and VFA); and test mechanical properties of asphalt mix such as stability.
Aggregates
Aggregates should be sampled from the stockpiles at the asphalt plant and tested for all
specified properties such as Los Angeles (LA) abrasion, soundness and sand equivalent
value. Gradation of each stockpile should also be tested, it should be reasonably close to
that used in the development of the mix design. All these tests need not be repeated until
new aggregate is added to the stockpile.
Besides stockpiles, aggregate gradation should also be checked at other locations in the
asphalt plant. First, sample can be obtained from the cold feeder belt which contains the
combined aggregate being fed into the dryer drum or mixing drum. Any variability at
this point are caused by variations in stockpile gradation; segregation of aggregate;
improper loading of cold feed bins; improper setting of individual cold feed bins; and
sampling and testing errors.
Second, in case of batch plant aggregate from individual hot bins should be sampled and
tested for gradation. Any variability at this point is caused by improper gradation fed from
cold feeder; erratic feed from dust collector system; blinding screens; holes in screens or bin
walls; sampling and testing errors. Hot bins, if operated properly, provide the opportunity to
correct fluctuations in the gradation coming into the plant.
Third, the gradation of aggregate in the plant produced asphalt mix can be tested after solvent
extraction or ignition oven test. Asphalt sample can be taken from loaded truck or behind the
paver. This is the gradation of interest to the user. It should be in conformance with the JMF
gradation with specified tolerances for different sieve sizes. However, the gradations obtained
at other locations allow the engineer to troubleshoot the gradation problem rather quickly and
make necessary modifications [1].
Bitumen Binder
Whenever bitumen binder is received from supplier, contractor should sample and test whether
it is the right Viscosity Grade (VG) by measuring its viscosity at 60 ºC using a vacuum
viscometer. Having done that, other properties such as penetration, softening point, ductility
and flash point should also be determined to ensure specification compliance. Solubility should
also be tested to rule out any adulteration with material like marble dust. Polymer Modified
Bitumen (PMB) should also be tested for elastic recovery.
Asphalt Mix Composition

The final asphalt mix sampled from truck or behind the paver should be tested for binder
content. Either the centrifuge extraction method or ignition oven can be used. The centrifuge
extraction test equipment is shown in Figure 6.52, which is used to dissolve asphalt binder in
a solvent and then removed with a centrifugal force. There is need for ash correction, which
accounts for fines which pass through the filter and are present in the extract solvent.
Figure 6.53 shows a typical NCAT ignition oven for conducting ignition test for determining
asphalt binder content without any use of solvent. The asphalt mix is ignited at a temperature
of 578 oC to burn off the asphalt binder. After ignition, aggregate is weighed automatically to
determine the binder content. The oven prints out the binder content. Test time is about 30
min to 40 min.
Proper binder content is very important for durability of asphalt pavements. Proper gradation
of the extracted aggregate is also important because it also affects pavement performance in
terms of rutting and fatigue cracking.
Figure 6.52 Centrifuge extractor for determining binder content (Courtesy:InstroTek).
Figure 6.53 NCAT ignition oven for determining binder content (Courtesy:InstroTek).
Volumetric and Strength Properties of Compacted Asphalt Mix

Mix sampled from the truck is compacted at least once daily using Marshall compactor. Void
parameters of the compacted specimens are very important to ensure satisfactory performance
of the asphalt pavement. The air voids are especially important and should be within 3% to 5%
range. Higher air voids indicate asphalt pavement may oxidise prematurely and develop
cracks. Lower air voids indicate asphalt pavement may experience bleeding and/or rutting
during service. Marshall stability and flow should also satisfy the specification requirements.
Lower stability and/or high flow values indicate asphalt pavement may rut prematurely.
The Theoretical Maximum Density (TMD) of the loose asphalt mix sampled from the truck
should also be determined at least once daily because it is used to calculate the void
parameters and also as a reference for accepting pavement density just after construction. The
pavement density should be at least 92% to 93% of the TMD. That means no more than 7%
or 8% air voids in the mat. The constructed pavement density should not exceed 96% or
7% of the TMD (that is, no less than 3% or 4% air voids) because that would indicate
pavement is likely to develop rutting after subjected to traffic.
The moisture sensitivity of produced asphalt mix should be tested during production using
AASHTO T 283 described in the chapter on mix design in accordance with IRC: 111–2009
“Specifications for Dense Graded Bituminous Mixes”. However, this test takes about 3 days,
so results are not available on the day mix is produced. Therefore, it is recommended to use
ASTM D 3625 “Boiling Water Test for Detecting Presence of Anti-Stripping Agent in
Bituminous Mixes” at least twice a day to ensure the presence of liquid anti-stripping agent
or hydrated lime, if needed for moisture sensitivity. Mix samples should also be taken at the
plant or paving site. Briefly, this simple boiling test is conducted as follows:
1. Boil distilled water in a glass beaker of 1000 ml to 2000 ml capacity filled about half.
2. Place about 250 g of fresh bituminous mix into the boiling water.
3. After the water resumes boiling, continue boiling for 10 min.
4. Cool water to room temperature, decant (drain off) water, and spread the bituminous mix
on a white paper towel.
5. Examine the mix for bituminous coating. At least 95% of aggregate surface should
retain bituminous coating. Any thin, brownish, and translucent areas are considered
coated.
6. Reject the mix if bitumen coating is found to be less than 95%.
The preceding test is very important for quality control because numerous asphalt
pavements constructed in India are exhibiting stripping of bitumen from aggregate, which
is causing premature pavement deterioration.
Core density and/or nuclear gauge density of the compacted asphalt pavement should be
measured daily at several random locations to ensure it meets the specification requirements.
Although all properties of the produced asphalt mix and compacted asphalt pavements are
important for pavement performance, many asphalt paving technologists rank them
generally as follows in terms of decreasing significance:
1. Density of compacted asphalt mat

2. Binder content
3. Gradation especially material passing 0.075 mm sieve
4. Air voids in compacted Marshall specimens
5. VMA and VFA in compacted Marshall specimens
6. Stability and flow of compacted Marshall specimens
The ranking may be different based on individual engineer’s opinion. However, the first two
properties are considered to be highly important for durability of asphalt pavement.
6.5.3 Statistically Based End-Result Specifications
In the past, the concept of single samples (the so-called representative samples) and tests to
indicate the quality of asphalt mix or asphalt pavement was in vogue in the US. If the results
were not within some arbitrary limits, it was common to obtain additional samples called
check or confirmation samples whether to accept or reject the material. That system generally
appears to be in-place in India at the present time. The confusion from that single sample
system led many highway agencies in the US to develop statistically based end-result
specifications, which determine the overall quality of constructed asphalt pavement and
payment to the paving contractor is adjusted rationally based on that quality.
The completed asphalt pavement is divided into lots and sublots. Lot is usually one day’s
production. There are usually 5 sublots in a lot. Samples are taken at random in each sublot
for determining mix composition and pavement density. The quality of each lot is
determined statistically by analysing the 5 test values obtained on each sublot. For
example, each lot has 5 binder content test values. Based on the mean and standard
deviation of these 5 binder content values, one can determine the Percent Within Limits
(PWL) of the lot using normal distribution curve and the upper and lower tolerance
specification limits for binder content [21].
For example, the design binder content is 5.5% and during production +/– 0.3% variation is
permitted in the agency’s specifications. That means, ideally all sublot samples should have
binder content within 5.2 – 5.8% to be 100% within limits (PWL = 100%). But that may not
always be the case. The percentage of samples actually within this specified range is the PWL.
Payment to the contractor for that lot is based on the PWL. There can be penalty for low PWL
and bonus for 100% PWL. In case of very low PWL, the engineer may require the lot to be
removed and replaced.
Statistically based end-result specifications have been implemented in many states of the US
including the state of Pennsylvania [22]. In the Pennsylvania specifications, 50% weight is
given to mat density, 25% weight to binder content, and 25% weight to the amount of material
passing 0.075 mm sieve while calculating the payment to the contractor for each lot.After
implementation of the preceding specification, the quality of hot mix asphalt improved
significantly within Pennsylvania. Such a rational system needs to be implemented in India as
soon as possible.Figure 6.54 shows a historical photograph taken in early 1900s. It shows
workers laying/spreading asphalt mix by hand with rakes while the steam roller is waiting,
Asphalt construction technology has come a long way.
Figure 6.54 Asphalt paving in early 1900s in the US.
Summary
Production of quality Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) conforming to the approved asphalt mix
design and ensuring quality construction are keys to ensuring functional and durable asphalt
pavements.
This chapter gives description of how HMA is produced in batch and drum plants together
with the functions of various components involved in these plants.
Details of paving such as surface preparation; HMA delivery; paving equipment and
procedures; and constructing joints have been given.
Asphalt mix compaction in the field in terms of its purpose; roller types and their functions;
segregation problem; and rolling construction joints have been described.
Finally, quality control/quality assurance (QC/QA) of HMA production and construction has
been explained which includes QC/QA concept; maintenance of quality control charts; and
testing asphalt mix for its composition and potential for moisture induced damage.
QUESTIONS
1. Differentiate between the batch plant and the drum plant for producing asphalt mix.
2. Briefly describe the surface preparations needed prior to laying hot mix asphalt with a
paver.
3. Draw a sketch of a typical asphalt paver labelling its main components.
4. List the items which need to be inspected in the mat behind the asphalt paver.
5. Describe the three roller types used in compaction of asphalt pavements.
6. What are the causes of segregation in the asphalt mix during construction?
7. Which are the primary factors which affect compaction of asphalt pavements?
8. Use a sketch to describe how a longitudinal joint is constructed including its compaction.
9. Discuss the various asphalt density specifications used by highway agencies citing
their advantages and disadvantages.
10. Describe the two primary test methods used for determining the density of compacted
asphalt mat. Which one is preferred for acceptance by most highway agencies?
11. Briefly describe the concept of Quality Control/Quality Assurance (QC/QA) in

terms of bituminous construction.
12. Which properties of asphalt mix are tested routinely during construction and how?
13. Describe the concept of quality control charts used during bituminous construction.
References
2. Transportation Research Board (TRB), “Hot-mix Asphalt Paving Handbook 2000”,

Federal Highway Administration, Washington, DC, 2000.
3. Asphalt Institute, “Principles of Construction of Hot Mix Asphalt Pavements”,

Manual Series No. 22. (MS-22), Second Edition, 1998.
4. Kandhal, P.S. and R.B. Mallick, “Pavement Recycling Guidelines for State and Local
Governments”, Federal Highway Administration Publication No. FHWA-SA-98–042,
December, 1997.
5. Kandhal, P.S. and S.S. Rao, “Evaluation of Longitudinal Joint Construction Techniques
for Asphalt Pavements”, Transportation Research Board, Transportation Research
Record 1469, 1994.
6. Kandhal, P.S. and R.B. Mallick, “Study of Longitudinal Joint Construction

Techniques in HMA Pavements”, Transportation Research Board, Transportation
7. Kandhal, P.S., T. Ramirez, and P.M. Ingram, “Evaluation of Eight Longitudinal

Joint Construction Techniques for Asphalt Pavements in Pennsylvania”, Transportation
Research Board, Transportation Research Record 1813, 2002.
8. Kandhal, P.S., “Longitudinal Joint Construction Techniques for Asphalt Pavements”,

Proceedings of Eighth International Conference on Asphalt Pavements, Vol. 1, University
of Washington, Seattle, Washington, August 10–14, 1997.
9. Kandhal, P.S., “Evaluation of Various Longitudinal Joint Construction Techniques”,

Proceedings, 6th Conference on Asphalt Pavements for South Africa, Cape Town, October,
1994.
10. Kandhal, P.S. and R.B. Mallick, “Evaluation of Various Longitudinal Joint
Construction Techniques for Asphalt Airfield Pavements”, Proceedings, Worldwide Airport
Technology Transfer Conference, Atlantic City, NJ, April 2007.
11. Linden, et al., “Effect of Compaction on Asphalt Concrete Performance”,

12. Geller, Myron, “Compaction Equipment for Asphalt Mixes”, Placement and Compaction of
Asphalt Mixtures, American Society for Testing and Materials, Special Technical
13. Brown, E.R., “Experiences of Corps of Engineers in Compaction of Hot Asphalt

Mixtures”, Placement and Compaction of Asphalt Mixtures, American Society for Testing and
Materials, Special Technical Publication 829, 1984.
14. Transportation Research Board, “State of the Art: Vibratory Compaction of Asphalt
Pavements”, Transportation Research Circular No. 242, April 1982.
15. Brock, J.D., “Hot Mix Asphalt Segregation: Causes and Cures”, National
Asphalt Pavement Association, Quality Improvement Series-110/86, 1986.
16. Kandhal, P.S., V.K. Sinha, and A. Veeraragavan, “A Critical Review of Bituminous
Mixes Used in India”, Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, Vol. 69 (2), July-September
2008.
17. Zube, E., “Compaction Studies of Asphalt Concrete Pavement as Related to the
Water Permeability Test”, Paper presented at 41st Annual Meeting of the Highway
Research Board, Washington, DC, 1962.
18. Kandhal, P.S., “Specifications for Compaction of Asphalt Pavements”, Proceedings

19. Kandhal, P.S., “Pennsylvania’s Experience in Compaction of Asphalt Pavements”,

American Society for Testing and Materials, Special Technical Publication No. 829, 1984.
20. Brown, E.R., R. Collins, and J.R. Brownfield, “Investigation of Segregation of

Asphalt Mixtures in State of Georgia”, Paper presented at 68th Annual Meeting of the
Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC, 1989.
21. Burati, J.L. and C.S. Hughes, “Highway Materials Engineering, Module
I: Material Control and Acceptance — Quality Assurance”, Report FHWA-HI-90–004,

Federal Highway Administration, US Department of Transportation, February 1990.
22. Kandhal, P.S., R.J. Cominsky, D. Maurer, and J.B. Motter, “Development and
Implementation of Statistically-Based End Result Specifications for Hot Mix
Asphalt in Pennsylvania”, Transportation Research Board, Transportation Research
Record 1389, 1993.
Suggested Readings
Burati, J.L. Jr. and G.B. Elzoghbi, “Correlation of Nuclear Density Results with Core
Densities”, Transportation Research Board, Transportation Research Record 1126, 1987.
Brock, J.D., “Segregation of Asphalt Mixtures”, Proceeding Association of Asphalt Paving

Cominsky, et al., “Quality Control and Acceptance of Superpave-Designed Hot Mix

Asphalt”, Transportation Research Board, NCHRP Report 409, 1998.
Crawford, C., “Tender Mixes”, National Asphalt Pavement Association, QIP 108, 1986.
280 Bituminous Road Construction in India Foster, C.R., “Study of Cessation

Requirements for Constructing HMA Pavements”, Highway Research Board, Highway
Geller, M., “Compaction Equipment for Asphalt Mixtures”, American Society of Testing
and Materials, Special Technical Publication 829, 1984.
Hughes, C.S., “A Density Specification with Pay Factors”, Proceeding Association of

Asphalt Paving Technologists, Vol. 52, 1983.
Hughes, C.S., “Compaction of Asphalt Pavements”, Transportation Research Board, Synthesis
of Highway Practice 152, 1989.
Kandhal, P.S., “Detecting and Quantifying Segregation”, US Roads and Bridges

Magazine, Vol.38, January 2000.
Kennedy, et al., “Asphalt Mixture Segregation, Diagnostics and Remedies”, Proceeding

Kopac, P.A., “Current Practices in Acceptance of Bituminous Concrete Compaction”,

Marker, V., “Technology of Thick Lift Construction: Construction Methods”, Proceeding

Nittinger, R.J., “Vibratory Compaction of Asphalt Concrete”, Transportation Research Board,

Parker, F., E.R. Brown, and R.L. Vecellio, “Development of New Criteria for Control of Hot-
mix Asphalt Construction”, Transportation Research Board, Transportation Research Record
1389, 1993.
“Paver Operations for Quality”, National Asphalt Pavement Association, Information

Series 125, 1996.
Scherocman, J.A. and E.D. Martenson, “Placement and Compaction of Asphalt Concrete
Mixtures”, American Society of Testing and Materials, Special Technical Publication
829, 1984.
Seaman, D.J., “Dynamic Testing: Density on the Run”, Transportation Research

Board, Transportation Research Record 1178, 1988.
“State of the Art: Vibratory Compaction of Asphalt Pavements”, Transportation Research

Board, Transportation Circular 242, April 1982.
Tegeler, P.A. and B.J. Dempsey, “A Method of Predicting Compaction Time for Hot Mix
Bituminous Concrete”, Proceeding Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists, Vol. 42,
1973.
Asphalt Pavement Distresses
Identification, Causes and Treatments
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Distresses develop in asphalt (bituminous) pavements with time during service; sometimes
also prematurely. The following are the general causes of asphalt pavement distresses:
1. Poor quality of materials and/or construction
2. Inadequate asphalt mix design
3. Inadequate pavement structural thickness
4. Amount of traffic more than that anticipated in pavement design and rate of loading
different than that anticipated in pavement design
5. Aging of asphalt binders which does happen at slow rates except in cases where high air
voids in asphalt pavement may accelerate aging
6. Effect of climate in terms of high and low temperatures and rainfall 7. Lack of
preventive maintenance
Asphalt pavement distresses can be minimised if the following basic requirements

for flexible pavements are met:
1. It has been said that three things important for the success of flexible pavements are:
drainage, drainage, and drainage. That means drainage is very important.
2. Pavement must be designed properly so that it has sufficient thickness and internal strength
to carry expected traffic loads.
3. Pavement should be adequately dense to prevent penetration of moisture from

underneath, sides, and surface.
4. Top surface of the pavement should be smooth, waterproof, skid resistant, resistant to
wear, distortion, and deterioration by weather.
Typical distresses in asphalt pavements can be categorised based on distress modes such as
fracture, distortion, disintegration, and other miscellaneous modes. Table 7.1 gives the
distress modes and associated distress manifestations.
Table 7.1 Typical distresses in asphalt pavements

The various distress manifestations are discussed in the following sections.
7.2 CRACKING OF ASPHALT PAVEMENTS
As mentioned in Table 7.1 cracking can be of different types, each type will be discussed
along with photographs.
7.2.1 Load Associated (Fatigue) Cracking
The load associated (fatigue) cracking, which is also called alligator or map cracking, can be
caused by the following factors:
1. Too heavy loads for the pavement structure
2. Too many repetitions of load
3. Inadequate support (either from pavement layers and/or subgrade)
4. Poor drainage
5. Very stiff asphalt binder in surface course
Fatigue cracking initiates in the wheel path first, more secondary cracks develop, and then
the cracking looks like alligator skin. Potholes develop in advanced stage. Figure 7.1 shows
initiation of fatigue cracking in the wheel paths of a major highway in the US. Figure 7.2
shows fatigue cracking in advanced stage covering all wheel tracks of a highway.
Figure 7.3shows close up of the fatigue cracking which appears like chicken wire or
alligator skin.
Figure 7.1 Initiation of longitudinal fatigue cracking in wheel tracks of interstate

highway in the US.
Figure 7.2 Longitudinal fatigue cracks in all wheel tracks.
Figure 7.3 Close up of fatigue cracks (chicken wire/alligator).
The preceding description of fatigue cracking is related to the so-called “bottom up”
cracking which is typical on most highways. This is because the cracks initiate at the
bottom of the asphalt pavement within the flexible system due to tensile strains. The
asphalt pavement bends like a beam under traffic loads with tensile stresses and strains
at the bottom. With repeated traffic loadings, the cracks initiated at bottom [for
example, bottom of the Dense Bituminous Macadam (DBM) course] propagate
upwards to the road surface through DBM and then Bituminous Concrete (BC) courses.
By the time, these cracks are visible on the road surface, all layers of the asphalt
pavement have been traversed by the cracks.
Typically the “bottom up” fatigue cracking takes place due to inadequate thickness of the
pavement structure. The remedial action usually includes providing a bituminous concrete
structural overlay. If the extent of cracks is moderate, it is beneficial to place a non-woven
Geotextile (GT) paving fabric which is continuous and has fibre glass and polyester fibres.
This paving fabric should be applied over the cracked lane(s) after application of tack coat as
per requirements of the GT manufacturer. For better results, a composite combination of
continuous fabric reinforced with geo-grid can be considered. Use VG-30 bitumen rather
than rapid setting emulsion for tack coat because it would be more effective in water-
proofing the road surface. Apply tack coat again and place BC grading 2 bituminous course
using PMB-40 in lieu of VG-30 bitumen. Both the tack coat and GT would make the existing
bituminous pavement waterproof to stop further deterioration of the underlying bituminous
pavement from water or moisture ingress. The GT would also provide reasonable tensile
strength at the bottom of the BC grading 2 bituminous course overlay thereby increasing its
fatigue life. In summary, GT helps to: (a) waterproof the pavement, (b) arrests cracking, and
(c) increases fatigue life.
In case of severe fatigue cracking covering the entire lane, it is recommended to remove and
replace the existing bituminous courses or resort to cold in-place recycling preferably with
foamed bitumen. In the latter case, the structural strength of the cold recycled layer is
considered equivalent to that of Wet Mix Macadam (WMM) and a bituminous course is
required to protect the recycled course. Details of cold recycling are given in the chapter of
asphalt pavement recycling.
In recent years, “top down” fatigue cracking has been observed on many highways. The
cracks initiate at the surface of the asphalt pavement (for example, on the surface of BC) and
propagate downwards with repeated traffic loadings. These cracks usually appear at the edge
of the wheel tracks. According to some asphalt paving technologists, this has resulted from
new tyre designs and high inflation pressures being used. The contact pressure is higher at the
edge of the tyre compared to that across the tyre, which causes a sort of punching (shear)
action on the surface of the asphalt pavement.
Fortunately, the top down cracks propagate slowly. By the time (say 10–15 years) they
reach the bottom of the wearing course (for example, BC), it is time for its renewal.
7.2.2 Nonload Associated (Thermal) Cracking
Nonload associated (thermal) cracking occurs as transverse cracks at regular intervals on the
asphalt road. Such cracking occurs due to the following reasons:
1. Asphalt binder too stiff at low service temperatures
2. Rapid chilling of the road surface from a sudden cold front. The pavement shrinks from
chilling without allowing the asphalt binder time to relax or stretch
3. Use of highly temperature-susceptible asphalt binder can also cause this cracking
4. Subgrade type (more thermal cracks occur on asphalt roads with sandy subgrade
compared to clayey subgrade)
5. Age of the pavement (as asphalt ages it hardens; becomes more stiff and therefore
becomes more susceptible to thermal cracking)
Figure 7.4 shows typical low temperature transverse cracks on asphalt pavement in
the northern US.
Figure 7.4 Nonload associated low temperature cracking.
As mentioned in the chapter on bitumen binder, a lot of research has been conducted in the US
on low temperature shrinkage cracking of asphalt pavements [1, 2, 3, 4]. Stiffness of the
bitumen binder is the primary factor affecting low temperature cracking of asphalt pavement in
cold climate. Low temperature cracking is not really a problem in most of India and therefore
the current Viscosity Grades (VG) as per IS: 73–2013 and Polymer Modified Binders (PMB)
as per IS: 15462 are adequate. However, in some regions of northern India such as Leh and
Ladakh, which are at very high altitude and have ambient temperatures below –20 oC, these
VG and PMB grades may not be adequate to resist the development of low temperature
cracking. There, the Superpave Performance Grades (PG) based on the prevailing highest and
lowest pavement temperatures are recommended. For example, in Leh-Ladakh region with
altitude more than 3000 m and low temperatures of –40 oC, PG 64–40 has to be used to ensure
low temperature cracking does not take place there (Refer to the chapter on bitumen to
understand PG grades). Specifying the Fraass breaking point in lieu of PG grades is not the
solution because the former is too empirical.
Low temperature induced cracks initiate at the surface of the asphalt wearing course and
propagate downwards. Such cracks can develop overnight when the asphalt surface is chilled
by very low temperatures. Stiffer the binder at the prevailing low temperature, the shorter is
the interval (distance) between the transverse cracks [2, 3]. As the bitumen binder ages and
becomes stiffer with time, more low temperature cracks develop between those developed
earlier. Also, the cracks get wider and deeper with time. These cracks should be sealed with
rubberised asphalt crack sealer to prevent ingress of water into the pavement. If the cracks are
less than 50 mm deep, hot in-place recycling can be used with rejuvenating binder to eliminate
the cracks. (Refer to the chapter on recycling.)
7.2.3 Longitudinal Cracking
As the name implies longitudinal cracks occur parallel to the centre line of roadway. Both
joint cracks and edge cracks are longitudinal cracks.
Longitudinal Joint Cracking
Longitudinal cracks occur at improperly constructed longitudinal joint between adjacent

lanes (Figure 7.5). The reason being presence of density gradient across the joint; the lane
constructed first has low density at the edge because there is no confinement at the time of
compaction.
The lane constructed next has high density at the edge because there is confinement during
compaction. Low mat density also has low tensile strength. If good longitudinal joints are
constructed as described in detail in the chapter on hot mix asphalt construction, longitudinal
joint cracking can be avoided.
Figure 7.5 Longitudinal joint cracking.
Edge Cracking
Edge crack (Figure 7.6) develops parallel to the edge of the asphalt road which may have
been widened and is now settling especially if widening was done with dissimilar
materials. It also occurs if there is lack of lateral (shoulder) support to the edge of the
asphalt pavement. Poor drainage and accumulation of water in the ditches may also cause
this type of edge cracking.
It should be ensured that edge cracks always remain sealed, otherwise, ingress of water
will deteriorate the pavement on both sides of the crack.
Figure 7.6 Asphalt pavement edge cracking.
Block Cracking
Block cracking really consists of both transverse and longitudinal cracks. Most often, block
cracking occurs on low traffic volume roads or parking lots. Bitumen binder develops
thixotropic hardening (structuring) due to lack of traffic and heat, thus increasing its apparent
stiffness which causes such cracking. Figure 7.7 shows an example of block cracking on a
residential driveway which hardly has any traffic. It should be ensured that block cracks
always remain sealed, otherwise, ingress of water will deteriorate the pavement.
Figure 7.7 Block cracking.
7.2.5 Reflection Cracking
Reflection cracks are caused by discontinuities in the underlying layers, which propagate
through the asphalt surface due to movement of cracks. Discontinuities may consist of: (a)
cracks or joints in underlying concrete pavement; (b) cracks in soil-cement base course; and
(c) all types of cracks in the existing asphalt pavement. Cracks initiate because movement of
joints/cracks takes place due to thermal expansion/contraction and/or loads.
Figure 7.8 shows a typical reflection crack in the asphalt pavement located directly above
the joint of underlying cement concrete pavement.
Figure 7.8 Reflection cracking.
When overlaying an existing concrete road with asphalt mix for the first time, the best
solution to avoid reflection cracks is as follows. Mark the locations of all transverse joints in
concrete on both sides of the road. After the asphalt overlay, make a saw cut in it exactly over
the concrete transverse joint and fill it with rubberised asphalt crack or joint sealer. Any
expansion/contraction movement in the underlying transverse joint will be absorbed by the
pre-sealed, sawed joint. The bottom of the sawed joint should be within 25 mm of the
underlying concrete joint to prevent secondary cracks [5].
If cracks in the concrete road are not well defined and/or are numerous, consideration
should be given to use geotextile fabric to retard reflection cracks, which was discussed
earlier in case of fatigue cracking.
Reflection cracks should be sealed as soon as possible so that there is no water penetration in
the pavement, which may cause further damage. Rubberised asphalt binder is considered the
best material for sealing cracks.
7.3 SPALLING
Spalling is another case of fracture. Spalling is essentially loss of a small pavement chunk
usually between two close cracks. Spalled areas should be patched promptly to avoid
discomfort to motoring public.
7.4 PERMANENT DEFORMATION
Permanent deformation of asphalt pavement can result from (a) rutting due to densification of
layers under traffic; (b) rutting from creep failure of the asphalt mix; (c) corrugations from
unstable asphalt mix usually near intersections; and (d) swelling and frost heave due to poor
soil and presence of frost.
7.4.1 Rutting due to Densification of Asphalt Pavement As mentioned earlier, most

specifications allow as much as 8% air voids in the compacted asphalt mat when constructed.
Then, it is expected that the mat would achieve about 4% mix design air voids during the first
1 to 3 years of densification by traffic. That is a reduction of volume (and also thickness) of
4%. If 40 mm BC is laid with 8% air voids, the reduction in its thickness at least in the wheel
track area would be 4% of 40 mm, that is, 1.6 mm. If this densification is only in the wheel
track (which generally is not the case because traffic also plies away from the wheel tracks),
1.6 mm rut results which is hardly discernible. However, if the compacted mat has very high
air voids say 12% when constructed, 3.2 mm rut may develop which is undesirable.
7.4.2 Rutting due to Creep Failure of the Asphalt Mix Rutting results when the
asphalt mix fails in creep. This means when the pavement is loaded, it does not rebound
fully after unloading and permanent deformations accumulate resulting in creep
behaviour. Rutting usually occurs from unstable (plastic) asphalt course(s) due to poor
asphalt mix design (especially use of rounded aggregate, improper gradation, and
excessive bitumen binder).
Figure 7.9 shows rutting resulting within the asphalt courses. Often it is accompanied by
pushing and shoving. Figure 7.10 shows a cross-section of an asphalt road where the binder
course and not the wearing course had rutted. The binder course had rounded aggregate.
Figure 7.9 Rutting within asphalt courses.
Figure 7.10 Rutting has taken place in binder course and not in wearing course.
Rutting can also occur if there is lack of adequate subgrade support which causes the whole
pavement to settle in the wheel tracks where loads are applied. Such a case is shown in
Figure 7.11. Note that this area is on an approach to bridge; most likely the subgrade was
not compacted well after the bridge was finished and backfilled.
Figure 7.11 Rutting resulting from subgrade.
Rutting also occurs from stripping (peeling away of bitumen binder from aggregate surface
in presence of water) in underlying asphalt courses which no longer provide support to the
upper course.
The schematic in Figure 7.12 shows how the rutting looks like at the surface depending on
where it is originating. At the top, rutting has occurred due to plastic movement within asphalt
course(s); in the middle, rutting has occurred due to consolidation/densification of
inadequately compacted asphalt course(s); and at the bottom, rutting has occurred due to
subsidence of untreated base or subgrade.
Figure 7.12 Pattern of rutting due to three main causes.

Treatment for Rutting
First determine the cause(s) and location of rutting. Any layer exhibiting rutting must be
removed (milled) completely and replaced with more stable mix course. For example, it is
evident in Figure 7.10 that the binder course (and not the wearing course) is the culprit and
has to be removed, otherwise, rutting will be a permanent nuisance no matter how many
overlays are placed.
Treatment for Bleeding
Sometimes (but not always) bleeding of asphalt road precedes rutting. Bleeding can be seen
in the wheel tracks in Figure 7.13. Bleeding means excess bitumen binder from the mix
migrates to the road surface and is deposited in thin, and shiny film. This makes the road
slippery. Bleeding is caused by: (a) excessive binder in the mix design or due to poor
quality control; (b) low air voids in the compacted mat; (c) use of low viscosity bitumen
binder (for example, VG-10 in lieu of VG-30); (d) too heavy tack coat; and (e) excessive
binder application and/or loss of cover aggregate in case of surface dressing.
Figure 7.13 Bleeding of asphalt pavement.
Apply hot sand and roll it during hot weather to blot out extra asphalt binder at the surface.
Hot sand can be obtained from hot bin of asphalt plant. If this does not work, then place
surface dressing on the bleeding asphalt surface. Slurry seal can also be placed on the
bleeding asphalt surface.
7.4.3 Corrugations
Corrugations occur on asphalt road due to lack of bond between asphalt courses and/or
unstable surface course mix. Braking and accelerating action near intersections also causes
corrugations.
Steep slopes especially near intersections with traffic lights create the potential for causing
corrugations. Corrugations become worse with time as motor vehicles bounce on them. Areas
with corrugations have to be milled off and replaced with highly stable asphalt mix.
7.4.4 Swelling and Frost Heave

Asphalt pavement can also be deformed permanently by swell and frost heave. Highly clayey
soils such as black cotton soils in the subgrade absorb excessive water, swell, become soft, and
lose strength. Swell causes heave in the asphalt pavement. During summer such soils shrink,
become hard and develop cracks, and during post monsoon season they swell and when the
heaves collapse, potholes are formed. To avoid damage from such soils, a blanket of at least
225 mm thick composed of coarse/medium sand or non-plastic moorum with PI less than 6%
needs to be provided for full width of the roadway subgrade. Also, adequate surface and
subsurface drainage need to be provided.
Similarly, the frost heave is an upward movement of the subgrade soil resulting from the
expansion of accumulated soil moisture as it freezes. Ice lens are formed which increase in
size as more water is drawn from the capillary action. As the ice lens grows, the overlying
soil and pavement will heave up potentially resulting in a cracked, and rough pavement. The
problem is due to the use of “frost susceptible” soils which are very fine in pavement
construction. These heaves collapse when ice melts (thaws). Frost heaves can be eliminated if
frost susceptible materials such as fine soils are not used within the expected frost depth
(zone) in the region.
If the damage from soil swell and frost heave on asphalt pavements is in scattered areas,
the entire pavement in those areas including part of the subgrade should be removed and
replaced with suitable materials.
7.5 SLIPPAGE CRACKING
Slippage cracking is associated with slippage mechanism when there is poor bond between
the surface layer and underlying layer. That can happen if there is too much or too little tack
coat.
Slippage cracking especially occurs on steep grades and/or intersections where

acceleration/
braking action of the traffic exerts surface traction forces. Slippage cracks are U-shaped or
crescent shaped. Figure 7.14 shows slippage crack on asphalt road. Treatment is to do
patch repairs after removal of the affected area.
Figure 7.14 Slippage cracking.
7.6 RAVELING
Raveling can be defined as progressive disintegration of asphalt surface which is the result of
dislodgment of aggregate particles in the mix at the surface. Raveling occurs due to lack of
sufficient cohesion within the asphalt mix due to low in-place density or inadequate binder
content. Lack of fines in the asphalt mix matrix, especially in coarse, segregated areas also
cause premature raveling. Aging of asphalt binder can also cause raveling but it takes place
after many years of service.
Figure 7.15 shows close up of raveling on the surface wherein most of the fine aggregate
(sand) has been lost. Figure 7.16 shows asphalt road with high severity raveling wherein even
the coarse aggregate particle have been lost from the surface.
Figure 7.15 Moderate raveling on asphalt pavement.
Figure 7.16 High severity raveling on asphalt pavement.
Treatment for Raveling
The following treatments are suggested in order of severity of raveling from slight to severe:
1. Apply fog seal with diluted emulsified asphalt binder
2. Apply slurry seal
3. Overlay with dense graded asphalt mix
7.7 SCALING
Scaling is another manifestation of pavement disintegration. Figure 4.12 in the chapter on

bituminous mixes showed scaling wherein a thin wearing course (semi-dense bituminous
concrete) is separating from the underlying asphalt course BM at many places causing very
shallow potholes. This can occur from lack of bond between the two courses due to moisture
intrusion or inadequate compaction of the thin asphalt course. The combination of
Bituminous Macadam (BM) and Semi-Dense Bituminous Concrete (SDBC) which is widely
used in India at the present time, potentially results in scaling of SDBC because the BM being
highly permeable acts like a bath tub and the bond between the two courses is lost. This issue
was discussed in detail in the chapter on bituminous mixes. If scaling is isolated, it can be
repaired with thin patches.
7.8 STRIPPING
Stripping is another form of pavement disintegration. Stripping can be defined as

breaking of adhesive bond between the aggregate surface and asphalt binder usually in
presence of moisture.
Kandhal investigated numerous premature failures of asphalt pavements resulting from

stripping in the US and other countries and prepared the US national manual on “Moisture
Susceptibility of Hot Mix Asphalt— Identification of Problems and Recommended
Solutions” [6]. Some of the salient features from that manual are discussed as follows.
Numerous research studies have shown that the physico-chemical surface properties of
mineral aggregate are more important for moisture induced stripping compared to the
properties of bitumen binder. Some mineral aggregates are inherently very susceptible to
stripping as discussed in the chapter on aggregates. However, in many cases external factors
and/or in-place properties of Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) pavements induce premature stripping.
A proper knowledge of these factors is essential in identifying and solving the stripping
problem. The several factors contributing to stripping which will be discussed in detail are as
follows:
1. Inadequate pavement drainage
2. Inadequate compaction
3. Excessive dust coating on aggregate
4. Use of Open Graded Friction Course (OGFC)
5. Inadequate drying of aggregates
6. Weak and friable aggregate
7. Overlays on deteriorated concrete pavements
8. Waterproofing membranes and seal coats
Inadequate Pavement Drainage
Inadequate surface and/or subsurface drainage provides water or moisture vapour which is the
necessary ingredient for inducing stripping. If excessive water or moisture is present in the
pavement system, the HMA pavement can strip prematurely. Case histories have been reported
where the stripping was not a general phenomenon occurring on the entire project but rather a
localised phenomenon in areas of the project over-saturated with water and/or water vapour
due to inadequate subsurface drainage conditions [7].
Water can enter the asphalt pavement layers in different ways. It can enter as run-off through
the road surface, primarily through surface cracks. It can enter from the sides and bottom as
seepage from ditches and high water table in the cut areas. The most common water movement
is upward by capillarity under a pavement. Above the capillary fringe water moves as a
vapour. Many subbases or subgrades in the existing highway system lack the desired
permeability, and therefore, are saturated with the capillary moisture. The construction of
multilane highways (or widening) to greater widths, gentler slopes and milder curves in all
kinds of terrain has compounded the subsurface drainage problem. Doubling the road width,
for example, makes drainage about four times as difficult as before [8].
Telltale signs of water damage to asphalt overlays have been documented by researchers [9].
First, wet spots on the asphalt overlay surface are observed scattered throughout the project.
Usually at these wet spots, water oozed out during hot afternoons. Some of the wet spots
contained fines suspended in the water which were tracked on the pavement by the traffic and
appeared as white spots. White fines coating the aggregate were released when the bitumen
film peeled away. Most white spots turned into fatty areas (resulting from bitumen binder
stripping and migrating to the surface) which usually preceded the formation of potholes.
Figure 7.17 shows stripping failure on a main highway in the US. Figure 7.18 shows all three
stages: white spots, fatty areas, and potholes on a four-lane highway. Figure 7.19 shows
severely stripped aggregate particles from the binder course.
Figure 7.17 Stripping failure of a major highway in the US (after Kandhal).
Figure 7.18 Classic signs of stripping: white spots followed by bleeding and then pothole
(after Kandhal).
Figure 7.19 Bottom of binder course showing stripped aggregate (after Kandhal).
Small and large blisters have also been observed on asphalt pavements due to entrapped
moisture. However, blisters can occur without any bitumen binder globules at the surface.
Usually stripping in a four-lane highway facility occurs first in the slow traffic lane, because
it carries more and heavier traffic compared to the passing lane. This is quite evident from
the potholes on Hume Highway west of Sydney (Figure 7.20)1. Typically, stripping starts at
the bottom of asphalt layer (usually in the base course or binder course) and progresses
upwards.
Figure 7.20 Potholes due to stripping on Hume Highway west of Sydney in Australia (after
Kandhal).
Inadequate Compaction
As mentioned earlier, most highway agencies allow a maximum air void content of 8%
(at least 92% of the theoretical maximum density) during construction. However, if there
is poor compaction quality control, the compacted mat may have very high air voids as
much as 16% which will make it highly pervious to water. This is likely to cause
stripping from the hydraulic pore pressure induced by the traffic. (1 Hume Highway, west of
Sydney, Australia was investigated by Kandhal.)
Excessive Dust Coating on Aggregate
The presence of dust and clay coatings on the aggregate can inhibit an intimate contact
between the bitumen binder and aggregate and provide channels for penetrating water
[10]. The binder coats the dust coating and is not in contact with the aggregate surface.
It has also been hypothesised that some very fine clayey material may cause stripping
by emulsifying the bitumen binder in presence of water, but this appears to be an
insignificant and uncommon factor.
On rare occasions, stripping occurs by the mechanism of hydraulic scouring, which is

applicable only to surface courses. Unlike typical stripping, such a stripping starts at the
surface and progresses downward. Hydraulic scouring results from the action of vehicle tyres
on a saturated pavement surface. The water gets pressed down into the pavement in front of
the tyre and immediately sucked away from the pavement behind the tyre. This compression-
tension cycle contributes to the stripping of the asphalt film from the aggregate [11].
Normally, an aggregate with excessive amounts of a very fine dust coating causes such
stripping. When the aggregate is washed in the quarry and used again, the problem usually
goes away.
Use of Open Graded Asphalt Friction Course
Several states in the south eastern United States experienced stripping in the HMA course
underlying Open Graded Friction Course (OGFC) during the late 1970s. It has been
hypothesised that the OGFC retains moisture for a longer time and does not dry out after rain
as fast as a conventional dense graded HMA surface. The water in OGFC is also pressed into
the underlying course by the truck tyres initiating the stripping action which can cause
flushing, rutting or shoving at the surface. Some studies have also shown that the stripping in
the layers underlying OGFC resulted from their high air void content (lack of adequate
compaction). Evidently, it is all the more desirable to have an impervious HMA course below
the OGFC to minimise stripping. Similar phenomenon is likely to occur in case of bituminous
courses below Premix Carpet (PMC) which is more pervious than the OGFC and can get
flooded across with water when sand seal is lost even in some scattered spots.
Inadequate Drying of Aggregates
High residual moisture content in the mineral aggregate prior to mixing with bitumen binder
increases the potential for stripping. Undoubtedly, a dry aggregate surface will have increased
adhesion with the bitumen binder compared to a moist or wet surface.
Weak and Friable Aggregate
If weak and friable aggregates are used in the HMA mix, degradation takes place during
rolling and subsequently under heavy traffic. Degradation or delamination exposes new
uncoated aggregate surfaces which can readily absorb water and initiate the stripping
phenomenon in the mix. Also, if not observed carefully, these uncoated aggregate surfaces
can mistakenly be deemed as stripped aggregate particles. Obviously, use of sound and
durable aggregate in the HMA is recommended.
Overlays on Deteriorated Concrete Pavements
Many concrete pavements of interstate and primary highways in the US are deteriorating
before the design life. Recent years have seen increased HMA overlays over these existing
concrete pavements some of which have faulted, spalled, cracked, and water-pumping slabs.
Dense graded subbase material under concrete pavements can hold considerable amounts of
water which escape through cracks, longitudinal and transverse joints. Once the concrete
pavement is overlaid with an impervious HMA course, the water is trapped underneath.
Excessive pore pressure is built under the traffic initiating stripping and subsequently
potholing at worst spots.
Whenever a concrete pavement is due to be overlaid for the first time, it is necessary to
evaluate the existing drainage conditions. If necessary, the project must include installation
of a positive drainage system especially in the worst spots. Unless this is done, the problem
of stripping and potholing will persist forever. If the existing concrete pavement is badly
deteriorated, cracked and pumping water due to inadequate subsurface drainage, it is
recommended to provide a 4-inch (100-mm) drainage layer of open graded Permeable
Asphalt Treated Base (PATB) directly above it prior to placing the dense graded HMA
overlay. This drainage layer should be connected to the edge drain(s). The design of PATB
was discussed in the chapter on bituminous mixes. The PATB will not only drain the water
very efficiently, but it will also prevent any moisture vapour build-up in the pavement
system. The PATB has been used successfully in such applications. It will also help to
minimise reflection cracking emanating from the concrete pavement. If required, the PATB
can also be placed over concrete pavements which have been subjected to crack and seat,
break and seat, and rubblising operations.
Waterproofing Membranes and Seal Coats
If the source of moisture is substantially from beneath the pavement, which is usually the
case, then sealing of the road surface can be detrimental. Use of some waterproofing
membranes (such as stress absorbing membranes to minimise reflection cracking) and seal
coats (surface dressing) between the pavement courses or at the surface mat act like a vapour
seal or a vapour barrier. Many asphalt paving technologists have experienced the preceding
phenomenon which induced stripping in the pavement layers underlying waterproofing
membranes and seal coats [12]. The potential for stripping should, therefore, be considered
whenever such systems are used.
7.8.1 Methodology for Investigating Stripping
An investigative methodology based on forensic experience with asphalt pavements is needed

to establish if stripping is a problem on a specific project or state wide [6]. Mere visual
observations of the road surface is often misleading because the asphalt surface distresses
such as raveling, flushing and rutting can be caused by factors other than stripping. The
following methodology is suggested specifically for stripping. Methodology for general
forensic investigation of premature failure of asphalt pavements is given in Chapter 10.
Sampling
Inspect the whole project and select a 500 ft (152 m) long section which represents the
“distressed area”. Most projects will also have relatively better areas with minimal or no
distress. Select another 500 ft (152 m) long section from the same project which can be
termed relatively “good area”. Document the observed distress (such as raveling,
flushing, rutting and potholing) in both areas.
Obtain at least seven 4-inch (100 mm) diameter cores at random locations in each area. A
minimum sample size of seven for each area is necessary for reasonable statistical analysis of
the data and to represent the sampled population with an acceptable degree of confidence. If it
is a 4-lane highway, obtain all cores in the inside wheel track of the slow traffic (outside) lane.
If it is a 2-lane highway, obtain all cores from the outside wheel track of the lane. According to
author’s experience, stripping usually occurs first at these locations across the roadway
pavement. A 4-inch (100-mm) diameter core has been suggested so that the indirect tensile test
can be conducted if so desired. An additional eighth core can also be obtained if the aged
bitumen binder is to be recovered and tested for viscosity at 60 oC.
It is necessary to drill these cores without using water as a coolant so that the in situ moisture
contents can be determined in each layer. Compressed air and carbon dioxide are introduced
under pressure to cool the inside of the core drill. If dry coring cannot be done then additional
pavement layer samples should be obtained adjacent to the wet coring sites using a jack
hammer. The HMA chunk samples loosened by the jack hammer from each layer should also
be sealed in air-tight containers so that the in situ moisture content can be determined in the
laboratory later. Jack hammer has been used extensively by researchers for investigating
stripped pavements [7].
Testing
Measure the thickness of all layers in the core. Observe the condition of the core especially
any evidence of stripping in the layer(s) or at the interface between the layers. It is not
always possible to see the stripping on the outside of cores. Saw the cores to separate the
HMA layers so that the individual layer(s) can be tested. Measure the average thickness of
each layer specimen after sawing. Determine the bulk specific gravity of all specimens
(AASHTO T 166). Determine the indirect tensile strength of the dry specimens at 25 oC
using AASHTO T 283.
Examine the split exposed surfaces of the tested core specimens for stripping. Disregard the
fractured and crushed aggregate particles. Heat the specimen just enough to push it apart by
hand and observe the extent (percentage) of stripping on both coarse and fine aggregates
separately.
Stripping of the fine aggregate matrix is considered to be more critical than a comparable
percentage of stripping in the coarse aggregate fraction. This is because the former affects the
cohesion within the mix significantly. The procedure, however, does require some training for
consistent interpretation of observations.
After all seven cores from an area have been rated for stripping, determine the theoretical
maximum density of the loose mix so as to calculate air voids.
Conduct extraction test (AASHTO T 164) and gradation of extracted aggregate

(AASHTO T 30) on all seven cores determine the mix composition (asphalt content
and gradation).
Calculations and Tabulation

Calculate the air void content in each core from its bulk specific gravity and its maximum
theoretical specific gravity. Tabulate all calculated and observed data separately for “good”
and “distressed” areas such as actual moisture content in each layer; bulk specific gravity;
percent air voids; percent stripping in coarse and fine aggregate; indirect tensile strength, if
measured; binder content and gradation. Calculate the mean, standard deviation, and 95%
confidence limits for each parameter. A high standard deviation would indicate lack of
uniformity (or consistency) for that test parameter. Compare the mean and standard deviation
of each test parameter obtained in “good” and “distressed” areas to identify the differences, if
any. In a majority of cases, the deficiencies in the “distressed” area will stand out by this
comparison and will help to determine the cause(s) of stripping.
7.8.2 Current Practices for Minimising Stripping
Test Methods
Numerous test methods have been developed and used in the past to predict the moisture
susceptibility of HMA mixes. However, no test has any wide acceptance. This is due to their
low reliability and lack of satisfactory relationship between laboratory and field conditions.
Qualitative or subjective tests: Two primary qualitative or subjective tests which have been
used are: (a) the static-immersion test (AASHTO T 182), and (b) the boiling water test
(ASTM D 3625 or equivalent). Both of these tests do not involve any strength test.
In the static-immersion test, sample of hot mix asphalt is immersed in distilled water at 25 ºC
for 16 h to 18 h. The sample is then observed through water to estimate the percentage of total
visible area of the aggregate which remains coated as above or below 95%. In the boiling
water test, which was also discussed in the chapter on hot mix asphalt construction under
QC/QA, sample of hot mix asphalt is placed in boiling water for 10 min. After water is drained
off, the sample is spread on white paper. The percentage of the total visible area of the
aggregate that retains its original coating after boiling is estimated as above or below 95%.
This test can be used for initial screening of HMA mixes. Some agencies use it for quality
control during production to determine the presence of anti-stripping agent.
Quantitative strength tests: Immersion-compression test (AASHTO T 165) and percent

retained Marshall stability test were widely used in the US in the past. However,
comprehensive research was undertaken there during the late 1970s and early 1980s under the
National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP). These produced two test
methods: Lottman test [13] and Tunnicliff-Root test [14]. Both use control and conditioned
test specimens
which are tested for indirect tensile strength to determine the Tensile Strength Ratio
(TSR). Accelerated conditioning is done in the laboratory to simulate the initiation
of stripping in the field. Lottman developed the primary test method whereas
Tunnicliff and Root just revised the conditioning procedure to some extent.
To avoid the confusion, AASHTO T 283, “Resistance of Compacted Asphalt Mixtures to

Moisture-Induced Damage” (also called modified Lottman test) was proposed by Kandhal and
was adopted by AASHTO in 1985. It combines the good features of Lottman test and
Tunnicliff-Root test. Six specimens are compacted to 6% to 8% air void content. Group 1 of 3
specimens is used as a control. Group 2 specimens are vacuum saturated (55 to 80%
saturation) with water, and then subjected to one freeze and one thaw cycle as proposed by
Lottman. All specimens are tested for indirect tensile strength at 25 oC using a loading rate of
2 inches/min (50 mm/min), and the TSR is determined. A minimum TSR of 0.7 is usually
specified. Later, AASHTO T 283 was incorporated in the Superpave mix design method. It
was also adopted in IRC: 111–2009 “Specifications for Dense Graded Bituminous Mixes”,
wherein this test procedure is given in the annexure of this code.
Anti-stripping Agents
Anti-stripping agents might be needed if it has been established that a HMA mix is inherently
prone to stripping based on the results of the methodological investigations and moisture
susceptibility tests discussed earlier. Both liquid anti-stripping additives and lime additives
have been used in hot mix asphalt.
Liquid anti-stripping additives: Most of the liquid Anti-Stripping (AS) agents are
surface active agents which when mixed with bitumen binder reduce surface tension and
therefore, promote increased adhesion to aggregate. The chemical composition of most
commercially produced AS agents is proprietary. However, the majority of AS agents
currently in use are chemical compounds that contain amines [15].
These AS agents must be “heat stable”, that is, they should not lose their effectiveness when
the AS treated bitumen binder is stored at high temperatures for a prolonged period of time.
The simplest and most economical way is to mix the AS agent with the bitumen binder in a
liquid state prior to mixing the bitumen binder with the aggregate. The amount of AS agent
to be used is important. The dosage varies from supplier to supplier. Too little may not be
effective and too much may be detrimental to the HMA mix. The long range effectiveness
of liquid AS agents during the service life of the HMA pavements has not been established.
Lime additives: Unlike liquid AS agents which are usually added to the bitumen binder,
lime is added to the aggregate prior to mixing with binder. Many studies indicate that lime
is a very effective anti-stripping agent. However, its anti-stripping mechanism is not well
understood. Various mechanisms which have been postulated are:
a. lime interacts with acids in the bitumen that are readily adsorbed on the aggregate
surface,
b. lime provides calcium ions which can replace hydrogen, sodium, potassium and
other cations on the aggregate surface, and
c. lime reacts with most silicate aggregates to form a calcium silicate crust which has a
strong bond to the aggregate. It is also believed that lime retards the oxidation of bitumen
binder to some extent. Because of these good qualities, lime should be preferred over Portland
cement.
7.9 POTHOLES
Severe cases of stripping and fatigue cracking culminate in formation of potholes (Figure 7.21)
on the asphalt road. Potholes also develop when there is lack of support from the unbound
courses due to their plastic nature and/or excessive moisture. Potholes should be patched
promptly with readymade cold mix (discussed in detail in the chapter on bituminous mixes) or
hot mix asphalt.
Figure 7.21 Pothole on asphalt road.
7.10 REDUCED SKID RESISTANCE
The friction between the tyre and road surface which provides the skid resistance to the
road surface can be quantified by Friction Number (FN). Skid resistance is critical when
road surface is wet, which makes it very slippery. The causes for low FNs are as follows:
1. Bleeding of asphalt surface.
2. Inadequate microtexture (aggregate property) which means aggregate is prone to

polishing by traffic.
3. Inadequate macrotexture (mix property) which means the road surface is almost
closed due to use of very densely graded mix; has no drainage channels for the
rainwater to be squeezed out from under the tyres. This can result in hydroplaning and
loss of vehicle control. Macrotexture is very important to provide skid resistance at
high vehicular speeds.
Skid Number (SN) of road surface is measured with ASTM E 274 “Test Method for
Skid Resistance of Paved Surface Using a Full-Scale Tyre”. Whereas, SN of 60 or
higher is desirable, SN of 40 or lower needs intervention to improve it.
Treatment for Asphalt Pavement with Polished Aggregate
All treatments recommended below should use polish-resistant aggregate only:

1. Apply slurry seal
2. Apply surface dressing
3. Overlay with new asphalt mix
7.11 ROUGH RIDING QUALITY
The riding quality of road can become rough from many asphalt pavement distresses
described in this chapter. These include but not limited to cracking; spalling; rutting;
corrugations; swelling and frost heave; raveling; scaling; and potholes. Uneven settlement of
subgrade is also a major cause. The subject of improving the riding quality of asphalt roads
is discussed in Chapter 8 on maintenance and rehabilitation of asphalt pavements.
Summary
There are various causes for asphalt pavement distresses which can develop prematurely or
with aging in service. These causes include but not limited to aging of bitumen binder; poor
quality materials and construction; inadequate mix design; inadequate pavement structure
design considering the traffic; and lack of preventive maintenance.
Distresses in asphalt pavements can be categorised in different distress modes which are as
follows, some manifestations of these modes are given in the parenthesis: fracture (cracking
and spalling); distortion (permanent deformation and slippage); and disintegration (raveling,
scaling, stripping and potholes). Some asphalt pavements can also develop (a) reduced skid
resistance, and (b) rough riding quality. This chapter describes how these different
pavement distresses can be identified in the field; the cause(s) for their development; and
their proper treatment.
QUESTIONS
1. Describe one distress manifestation each for fracture, distortion and disintegration
modes of asphalt pavements.
2. What is the difference between load associated and nonload associated cracking of
asphalt pavements? Elaborate.
3. List the factors responsible for load associated (fatigue) cracking.
4. Draw a sketch and explain block cracking of asphalt pavement.

5. List and describe the factors responsible for permanent deformation of asphalt
pavements.
6. Define raveling of asphalt pavements and how it can be treated.
7. What is stripping? What are the factors which may induce stripping in asphalt
pavements?
8. Briefly describe the methodology used in establishing stripping as the problem in the
asphalt courses within existing flexible pavement.
9. Which types of anti-stripping agents are used in asphalt mixes? Describe their advantages
and disadvantages.
10. Which are the factors responsible for reduced skid resistance of asphalt wearing
courses?
References
1. Kandhal, P.S., “Low Temperature Properties of Paving Asphalt Cements”,
Transportation Research Board, State of the Art Report 7, 1988.
2. Kandhal, P.S., “Low Temperature Shrinkage Cracking of Pavements in Pennsylvania”,

3. Kandhal, P.S., “Evaluation of Low Temperature Pavement Cracking on Elk County

Research Project”, Transportation Research Board, Transportation Research Record No.
777, 1980.
4. Kandhal, P.S., R. Dongre, and M.S. Malone, “Prediction of Low-Temperature

Cracking of Pennsylvania Project Using Superpave Binder Specifications”, Asphalt
Paving Technology, Vol. 65, 1996.
5. Kilarreski, W.P. and R.A. Biona, “Sawing and Sealing of Joints in Asphalt Concrete
Overlays”, Transportation Research Board, Transportation Research Record No. 1268,
1990.
6. Kandhal, P.S., “Moisture Susceptibility of HMA Mixes: Identification of Problem and

7. Kandhal, P.S., C.W. Lubold, and F.L. Roberts, “Water Damage to Asphalt Overlays: Case
Histories”, Proceedings Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists, Vol. 58, 1989.
8. Cedergren, H.R. and W.R. Lovering, “The Economics and Practicality of Layered Drains
for Road Beds”, Highway Research Record 215, 1968.
9. Kandhal, P.S. and I. Rickards, “Premature Failure of Asphalt Overlays from Stripping:
Case Histories”, Asphalt Paving Technology, Vol. 70, 2001.
10. Stuart, K.D., “Moisture Damage in Asphalt Mixtures: State-of-the-Art Report”,

FHWA, Report FHWA-RD-90–019, August 1990.
11. Taylor, M.A. and N.P. Khosla, “Stripping of Asphalt Pavements: State-of-the-Art”,
12. McKesson, C.L., “Slippery Pavements: Causes and Treatments”, Proceedings

13. Lottman, R.P., “Predicting Moisture-Induced Damage to Asphaltic Concrete—

Field Evaluation”, Transportation Research Board, NCHRP Report 246, 1982.
14. Tunnicliff, D.G. and R.E. Root, “Use of Anti-stripping Additives in Asphalt concrete
mixtures”, Transportation Research Board, NCHRP Report 274, 1984.
15. Tunnicliff, D.G. and R.E. Root, “Anti-stripping Additives in Asphaltic Concrete:
State-of-the-Art Report”, Proceedings Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists, Vol. 51,
1982.
Maintenance and Rehabilitation
of Asphalt Pavements
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Pavement serviceability concept should be understood by highway agencies so that the

comfort and safety of motoring public is ensured; and cost effective and timely maintenance
and rehabilitation activities are undertaken. Control of pavement surface evenness and surface
roughness during construction and later in service ensures smooth and safe road for the users.
Pavements also need to be designed and evaluated for structural strength before
construction and subsequently to provide necessary rehabilitation interventions.
Maintenance activities can be categorised into routine maintenance such as pothole patching;
preventive maintenance such as fog seals and slurry seal/microsurfacing; and periodic
maintenance such as surface dressing and thin asphalt overlays.
Rehabilitation of asphalt pavements includes Periodical Renewal (PR) and Improving Ride
Quality Programme (IRQP). Various options currently in use for PR and IRQP need to be
examined critically to ensure their cost effectiveness and durability. Asphalt pavement
recycling which is presented in Chapter 9 on recycling should always be considered as one of
the rehabilitation strategies.
All of the preceding topics except recycling will be presented in this chapter.
8.2 ASPHALT PAVEMENT SERVICEABILITY
When the American Association of State Highway Officials (AASHO) road test was being
designed in the 1960s, it was recognised that some objective measurement of performance
was required if pavement design equations were to be developed. The following concepts
were considered:
a. Highways are designed and built for the comfort and convenience of the motoring public
which means the highway must be smooth and safe.
b. User’s opinion about how well a highway is serving its function is subjective and
can be disputed.
c. There are objective characteristics of the pavement which, when measured and properly
combined, can be correlated to the average subjective evaluation of the highway.
d. The serviceability of a road can be adequately represented by the arithmetic average of

opinions of a group of highway users, and single rating values should not be used because
differences in opinion may be too divergent to produce a reliable rating.
e. Performance is defined as the area under a serviceability-time curve from the time of
construction to the time performance is being evaluated.
This serviceability/performance concept was first applied at the AASHO road test.
Performance relationships were developed between the average pavement serviceability
rating of a panel of evaluators and roughness measured by the AASHO profilometer and
the US Bureau of Public Roads (BPR) roughometer. These studies showed that about
95% of the information about the serviceability of a pavement is contributed by the
roughness of the surface profile. This means that only 5% of the information explained
by all the objective measurements (such as extent of cracking and patching) contributed
to the serviceability rating. That is why in the original performance equations for
determining the Pavement Serviceability Index (PSI), emphasis was placed on roughness.
Generally, a new pavement will have a PSI between 4 and 5, and repair is usually needed
when the PSI is between 1.5 and 2.5 (also referred to as terminal value). The concept has been
shown in Figure 8.1. The cumulative traffic is plotted on the abscissa (although time could also
be plotted in lieu of traffic) and the PSI is plotted on the ordinate. The serviceability begins at
a high level, typically between 4.0 and 4.5, remains fairly constant for a period of time and
then begins to drop off fairly quickly until it reaches a selected terminal level where some
rehabilitation action is required, typically an asphalt overlay. With the overlay, the
serviceability level is restored to an improved level as shown by the dashed line in Figure 8.1,
and the second performance period begins. The performance for the first period is represented
by the area under the PSI versus cumulative traffic curve [1].
Figure 8.1 Accumulated traffic loads versus pavement serviceability index (Courtesy:
NAPA REF).
The performance area under the curve during a particular period is significantly affected by
the initial PSI for that period. Therefore, many highway agencies including the Indian Roads
Congress have adopted roughness or smoothness specifications that specify the maximum
allowable roughness that a roadway can have at the time of construction and later in service
[2].
8.3 PAVEMENT SURFACE EVENNESS
Pavement surface evenness needs to be considered during initial construction and subsequent
maintenance and/or rehabilitation. This is because it affects vehicle speed, comfort and
safety of motoring public, and vehicle operating costs.
The Indian Roads Congress (IRC) has developed standards for surface evenness for
different categories of roads [2]. These standards help the engineers to exercise
construction quality control to achieve the minimum acceptable evenness targets.
The pavement surface evenness is measured with a 3 m straight edge made of steel or box-type
aluminium alloy bar. Depressions under the straight edge are measured with a graduated
metallic wedge. The wedge is provided with a handle of suitable length so that the
measurements can be made while standing.
The IRC specifies the following maximum permissible surface unevenness in longitudinal
profile when determined with a 3 m straight edge [2]:
Surface dressing : 10 mm
Bituminous Concrete (BC) : 5 mm
The maximum permissible frequency of surface evenness in 300 m length in longitudinal

profile is also specified as follows.
In case of surface dressing, 8 mm to 10 mm unevenness should not occur more than 20 times
on national and state highways and more than 40 times on other roads of lower category. In
case of bituminous concrete, 3 mm to 5 unevenness should not occur more than 15 times on
national and state highways and more than 30 times on other roads of lower category.
8.4 PAVEMENT SURFACE ROUGHNESS
Pavement surface roughness is produced by surface deviations that produce a response in the
suspension system of the motor vehicles travelling over the road. As mentioned earlier,
pavement roughness is important because this is the one pavement property that is most
noticeable to the travelling public.
Although surface evenness affects the surface roughness but the latter is measured over a
long distance at high speeds. The IRC also specifies maximum permissible values of
roughness in mm/km for roads [2]. Either towed fifth wheel bump integrator or car-mounted
bump integrator can be used for measuring the road roughness (Figure 8.2). Both are
response type road roughness measuring systems and are widely used in India.
Figure 8.2 Fifth wheel bump integrator (Courtesy: Landmark testing laboratory).
The towed fifth wheel bump integrator consists of a trailer towed by a vehicle. A simple
pneumatic type wheel is mounted on the trailer’s chassis which has a single leaf spring on
either side. The frame is provided with a counter weight so that the device is essentially free
from the vertical movement of the driving vehicle. A mechanical integrator makes cumulative
measurements of the unidirectional vertical movements of the wheel relative to chassis. The
distance travelled by the vehicle is measured by a distance measuring unit. The test is
conducted at a speed of 32 +/– 1 km/h.
Unevenness/Roughness index is defined as the ratio of the cumulative vertical

displacement to the distance travelled and is expressed in mm/km. Readings are taken on a
length of 1 km [2].
The car-mounted bump integrator works on similar principle as the towed fifth wheel. The
integrating unit is fitted with the rear axle and mounted in the rear portion of the car.
Bump integrators should be calibrated initially and then at regular intervals to provide
accurate and reliable test results. Procedures for calibrating using dipstick; Merlin-machine;
or rod and level are described in the IRC code which also specifies the permissible values of
roughness (mm/km) for road surface as given in Table 8.1 [2].
Table 8.1 Permissible values of roughness (mm/km) (IRC:SP: 16–2004)

Obviously, whenever the road roughness falls into the poor category, some intervention
becomes necessary to improve it.
8.5 PAVEMENT STRUCTURAL STRENGTH
Indian Roads Congress has issued guidelines for the design of new flexible pavements which
takes into consideration the structural strength of each course [3]. However, if the existing
flexible pavement is to be strengthened with an asphalt overlay, its structural strength needs to
be determined first so that the thickness of the overlay can be established.
Pavement surface deflection measurements are the primary means of evaluating a flexible
pavement structure. Although other measurements can be made that reflect (to some degree) a
pavement’s structural condition, surface deflection is an important pavement evaluation
method because the magnitude and shape of pavement deflection is a function of traffic (type
and volume), pavement structural section, temperature affecting the pavement structure and
moisture affecting the pavement structure. Deflection measurements can be used in
backcalculation methods to determine pavement structural layer stiffness and the subgrade
modulus. Thus, many characteristics of a flexible pavement can be determined by measuring
its deflection in response to load. Furthermore, pavement deflection measurements are non-
destructive.
Surface deflection is measured as a pavement surface’s vertical deflected distance as a

result of an applied (either static or dynamic) load. The more advanced measurement
devices record this vertical deflection in multiple locations, which provides a more
complete characterisation of pavement deflection. The area of pavement deflection under
and near the load application is collectively known as the deflection basin.
8.5.1 Deflection Measurement Techniques
There are three broad categories of non-destructive deflection testing equipment:

1. Static deflections
2. Steady state deflections
3. Impact load deflections (Falling weight deflectometer)
The general principle is to apply a load of known magnitude to the pavement surface and
analyse the shape and magnitude of the deflection basin to assess the strength of the pavement
structure.
Static Deflection Equipment
Static deflection equipment measures pavement deflection in response to a static load.

Example is the Benkelman Beam Deflection (BBD) device which was developed at the
Western Association of State Highway Organisations (WASHO) road test in 1952. It is a
simple device that operates on the lever arm principle. The beam is 3.66 m long and is pivoted
at a distance of 2.44 mm from the tip. The Benkelman beam is used with a loaded truck,
typically 80 kN (18000 lb) on a single axle with dual tyres inflated to 480 kPa to 550 kPa (70–
80 psi). Measurement is made by placing the tip of the beam between the dual pneumatic tyres
and measuring the pavement surface rebound as the truck is moved away (Figure 8.3).
Figure 8.3 Benkelman beam deflection device (Courtesy: John Harvey).
The Indian Roads Congress (IRC) has provided guidelines for strengthening of flexible road
pavements using Benkelman beam deflection technique [4]. This IRC publication gives the
description of the BBD device, test procedures and how to use the deflection values to
determine the thickness of asphalt overlay.
Before starting the deflection measurements, the BBD should be calibrated to ensure that
the dial gauge and beam are working correctly. Detailed calibration procedure is also given
in the IRC guidelines [4].
Deflections measured by the BBD device are influenced by the pavement temperature and
seasonal variations in climate. The standard temperature recommended for India is 35 oC.
Therefore, the deflection values should be corrected for temperature if it is different than
35 oC. Also, it should be attempted to measure deflections just after monsoon when the
subgrade is weakest. If not possible, correction needs to be made to deflection values for
seasonal variations.
Deflections are usually measured on segments of at least 1 km each. The IRC guidelines
give overlay thickness design curves which are used with inputs of characteristic
deflection (mm) and the design traffic (cumulative number of standard axle loads during
design life). Characteristic deflection is equal to mean deflection plus 2 standard
deviations for major roads and mean deflection plus 1 standard deviation for all other
roads.
The threshold values for characteristic pavement deflection are usually mentioned in the
operation and maintenance schedule of concession agreements for different projects. In most
of National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) projects, the desirable limit is 0.5 mm and
acceptable limit is 0.8 mm. However, it may vary in different concessions.
The Benkelman beam is low cost but is also slow, labour intensive and does not provide a
deflection basin.
Steady State Deflection Equipment

Steady state deflection equipment measures the dynamic deflection of a pavement
produced by an oscillating load. These devices consist of a dynamic force generator
(that produces the oscillating load), a motion measuring instrument (to measure the
oscillating load), a calibration unit, and several deflection measuring devices
(transducers, accelerometers, seismometers, etc.). The main advantage which the steady
state deflection equipment offers over static deflection equipment is that it can measure
a deflection basin. The most common steady state deflection equipments are the
Dynaflect and the Road Rater.
The steady state deflection equipment is stationary when measurements are taken with force
generator (counter rotating weights) started and deflection sensors (transducers) lowered to
the pavement surface. The equipment is most suitable for use on thinner pavements
including low volume rural highways, county roads, municipal streets, and parking lots.
Impact (Impulse) Load Deflection Equipment
Impact (impulse) loading devices commonly known as Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD)
have been developed during the past few decades. These devices closely simulate the duration
and amplitude of the load pulses produced by moving wheel loads. Also, analytical tools have
been developed to back calculate the elastic moduli of the various constituent layers of the
existing pavement. Using these moduli values, the requirement of pavement strengthening can
be worked out following a mechanistic-empirical design procedure. Recently, the Indian Roads
Congress has developed guidelines for structural evaluation and strengthening of flexible road
pavements using Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD) technique [5].
The FWD is extensively used throughout the world because it simulates the actual loading
condition of the pavement to a large extent. Both trailer mounted or vehicle mounted FWD
are commercially available (Figure 8.4). The FWD is an impulse-loading device in which a
transient load is applied to the pavement and the deflected shape of the pavement surface is
measured. The load is applied by means of a falling mass, which drops vertically on a system
of springs placed over a circular loading plate. Displacement sensors (called geophones) are
placed at different radial distances starting from the centre of the loading. These sensors
measure the peak load and peak vertical deflections in the pavement [5].
Figure 8.4 Falling weight deflectometer (Courtesy: Dynatest).
The falling mass ranging from 50 kg to 350 kg is dropped from a height ranging from
100 mm to 600 mm to produce load pulses of desired peak load and duration. Heavier
FWD models may use falling mass in the range of 200 kg to 700 kg. The target peak load
to be applied on asphalt pavements is 40 kN (+/– 4 kN), which corresponds to the load of
one dual wheel set of a 80 kN standard axle load [5].
Similar to the Benkelman beam, measured deflections have to be corrected for temperature
and seasonal variation. Also, the FWDs must be calibrated from time to time. The back
calculated elastic moduli of pavement layers are used to determine the structural strength of
the existing pavement using the mechanistic-empirical design procedure given in IRC: 37–
2012 [3]. Different overlay thicknesses are assumed over the existing pavement and their
total structural strengths are computed. The one which satisfies the performance criteria laid
in IRC: 37–2012 is selected. The outline of this procedure is given in IRC: 115–2014 [5].
8.6 MAINTENANCE OF ASPHALT PAVEMENTS
The Asphalt Institute has defined the pavement maintenance as: “Pavement maintenance is
routine work performed to keep a pavement, under normal conditions of traffic and forces of
nature, as nearly as possible in its constructed conditions” [6].
According to the Indian Roads Congress code for maintenance of bituminous surfaces,
maintenance activities can be categorised into: (a) routine maintenance (such as pothole
patching); (b) preventive maintenance (such as fog seals, surface dressing, crack sealing and
slurry seals/microsurfacing); and (c) periodic maintenance (such as thin asphalt overlays) [7].
These maintenance activities are discussed as follows:
8.6.1 Routine Maintenance
Routine maintenance is undertaken by road maintenance staff almost around the year, as and
when needed. Routine maintenance primarily involves patching potholes which is one of the
most extensive and expensive pavement maintenance activities undertaken by highway
authorities. Patching can be reactive or planned (routine). Sometimes potholes develop
suddenly during monsoons in India and require reactive patching on an emergency basis. If
potholes are developing gradually it allows the highway agency to plan patch repairs and
perhaps contract it out.
Four types of pothole patching: (a) patching with Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA); (b) patching with
spray injection method; (c) patching using infrared heat; and (d) patching with readymade, cold
patching mix are discussed as follows:
Patching with Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA)
Patching with Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) is usually a preferred method used by highway
agencies. However, it has to be performed in ideal weather, that is, hot and dry. First, the
pothole is squared by cutting back the sides to reasonably sound material and making the
sides vertical. Next, the squared pothole is cleaned off loose debris and dirt and a tack coat
(usually bitumen emulsion) is applied to the bottom and vertical sides. Dense graded HMA
such as BC grading 2 is then placed in the pothole and is compacted immediately with a
roller before the mix cools down to 80 ºC. Patches should not be made with water-trapping
asphalt mixes such as Premix Carpet (PMC) and SDBC. These will not last long. For small
potholes either a small roller or a vibratory plate can be used. The HMA should preferably
be compacted in 75 mm lifts. The compacted patch should be slightly above (3 mm to 5
mm) the adjacent road surface to allow for further densification by traffic. Some agencies
pour bitumen binder around the patch to seal the joint between the patch and surrounding
pavement to prevent ingress of water into the pavement.
If properly done, patches with HMA have reasonably good service life.
However, patching with HMA has the following disadvantages:
1. Patching cannot be done when pothole is moist or wet and when the prevailing
weather is cold. That is, patching cannot be done in adverse weather.
2. While the patching is done, the mix in the truck continues to cool. Colder mix cannot be
compacted well which results in premature failure of patches. This is especially true if
potholes are isolated and spread out on the project.
3. Hot mix patching is highly labour, material (tack coat), and equipment (truck and
roller) intensive. Therefore, it is slow and quite expensive compared to readymade
generic pothole patching mix discussed later.
4. Many highway agencies in India do not repair potholes during the monsoon with
readymade cold mix. This not only causes discomfort and safety hazard to motoring
public, the potholes increase in size and depth requiring much more HMA after the
monsoon; thus it becomes a costly affair.
Patching with Spray Injection Method
Spray injection method uses a specialised trailer or truck mounted equipment which can do the
following functions: blow debris from the pothole; blow dry moist pothole; spray emulsion
tack coat in the pothole; blow aggregate and bitumen binder (usually emulsion) together into
the pothole; and then cover the patch with aggregate.
Because aggregate and emulsion are propelled into the pothole with high pressure air, no
further compaction is usually required. Experience in the US has shown that the success of this
spray injection method depends heavily on the skill of the operator [8]. Since this machine
requires prescribed daily maintenance including thorough cleanout to function properly, it
should not be purchased by government agencies that lack skilled and disciplined operators.
This results in jammed machine which just sits idle despite high capital outlay.
Patching Using Infrared Heat
Specialised trailer or truck mounted equipment is used to do the following functions: heat
the pothole and surrounding area with infrared heat; add extra patching material; and
compact the patch. Whereas, this type of patching does provide a well bonded patch it has
the following disadvantages:
1. Success depends heavily on the skill of the machine operator and his judgment
2. Since the equipment is bulky, adequate traffic control is required during patching operations
3. Depth of heat penetration is not adequate
4. Slow production rate
Again, similar to the reasons given in case of spray injection method, this equipment
should not generally be purchased by government agencies.
Patching with Readymade Cold Mix
The so-called Kandhal readymade pothole patching mix which is an IRC standard, IRC: 116–
2014 “Specification for Readymade Bituminous Pothole Patching Mix Using CutBack
Bitumen” may be used [9]. This unpatented, generic, and readymade pothole patching mix
was adjudged as the best patching mix in a nationwide field study conducted in the US [10,
11] in different climatic regions.
This mix has performed really well in India [12]. It can be used throughout the year from
the hot desert climate of Rajasthan to hot/wet climate of northeastern India to minus 40 ºC
temperatures in Leh-Ladakh area. Its service life is equal or more than that of the hot mix.
Its final in-place cost in the pothole is less than that of the hot mix asphalt. Production rate
in terms of application is also significantly higher than that of patching with HMA, spray
injection method and infrared heat method.
Chapter 4 on bituminous mixes gives the details of this readymade pothole patching mix in
terms of specifications; production method; storage; and application in the field. The
widespread pothole problem in India at the present time can be solved by use of this
readymade pothole mix which has a shelf life of at least 6 months and can be manufactured
anywhere in India using locally available materials.
8.6.2 Preventive Maintenance
Preventive maintenance is performed to improve or extend the functional life of pavement

surface while still in fair to good condition. This may defer the need for periodic maintenance
and rehabilitation [7].
The following activities are generally considered as preventive maintenance:
fog seals; surface dressing; slurry seals/microsurfacing; and crack sealing.
Fog Seals
Fog seal is a preventive maintenance procedure to stabilise the surface of existing oxidised
asphalt surface which is on verge of developing raveling (loss of fines from the matrix). Fog
seal consists of applying diluted Slow Setting (SS) emulsion with a bitumen distributor.
Application rate of fog seal depends on the surface texture of the existing asphalt pavement so
that the applied bitumen residue barely fills the interstices between exposed aggregate
particles. Too much application would result in a slippery pavement which can cause accidents
especially on high speed roads. Therefore, fog seal may have to be applied at lighter rates in 2–
3 repetitive applications to ensure excessive bitumen binder is not used. In case of accidental
application of excessive fog seal, sharp sand should be sprinkled and rolled on a hot day. That
is why fog seals are generally safe for parking lots and streets with slow-speed traffic only.
Surface Dressing
Surface dressing is described in detail in Chapter 4 on bituminous mixes and surface
treatments. According to the Indian Roads Congress specification and code of practice for
design and construction of surface dressing, surface dressing is a common and cost effective
surface treatment used to serve as a renewal coat for both preventive and periodic
maintenance of asphalt wearing surfaces [13].
The surface dressing work involves application by spraying of proper grade of paving
bitumen (usually VG-10) or rapid setting cationic emulsion to a previously prepared surface
followed by application of cover aggregate of appropriate size and gradation and well rolled
in-place.
Single-coat surface dressing consists of spraying a layer of binder and spreading one layer of
cover aggregate and rolling. Two-coat surface dressing consists of a rolled single-coat surface
dressing followed by a second coat of binder and another layer of cover aggregate and rolling
again. The size of aggregate used in the second layer is smaller than that of the first layer
aggregate so that it may interlock in the surface interstices of the first layer.
Precoated cover aggregate can also be used to impart black colour to the surface dressing
and also minimise loss of cover aggregate particles. Precoating is done with 0.75% to
1% bitumen by weight of aggregate. Precoated aggregate should be free flowing so that
it can be spread either manually or by a mechanical spreader without sticking.
Besides significantly lower construction cost, surface dressing offers the following
functional advantages:
1. Excellent sealing of road surface, which does not allow ingress of rainwater into
the lower layers thus resulting in a durable pavement.
2. Minimises oxidation of bitumen because it exists in thick film and stone chips provide
protection from sun rays.
3. Higher resistance to skidding which reduces accident hazards.
4. Environmental friendly because chips need not be heated.
The use of mechanised bitumen distributor and chip spreader, which are already
available in India, should be mandated to ensure the functional success of surface
dressing.
Slurry Seals/Microsurfacing
Both slurry seal and microsurfacing have been described in detail in the chapter of bituminous
mixes and surface treatments. The slurry seal consists of a mixture of mineral aggregate
(mostly fine aggregate), slow setting cationic bitumen emulsion, water and additives (if
needed) proportioned, mixed and uniformly spread over a prepared surface. The mixture is
free flowing like freshly made cement concrete and is applied with a self-propelled slurry seal
machine. The Indian Roads Congress specifications for slurry seal and microsurfacing gives
three types of slurry seal based on thickness of application and the corresponding gradations
of aggregate and residual binder contents. Thicknesses of application are 2 mm to 3 mm for
Type I; 4 mm to 6 mm for Type II; and 6 mm to 8 mm for Type III [14].
Slurry seal is primarily used for preventive maintenance as substitute for surface dressing for
low to medium traffic roads. The latter may be undesirable in case of urban streets due to
potential of loose cover aggregate.
Microsurfacing is similar to slurry seal, the primary difference being the former uses a
modified (polymer or rubber latex) bitumen emulsion. Again, two types of microsurfacing
are specified in the IRC code with corresponding aggregate gradations and residual binder
contents. Thicknesses of application are 2 mm to 3 mm for Type II and 6 mm to 8 mm for
Type III. There is no Type I [14].
Before applying either slurry seal or microsurfacing, it should be ensured that: (a) existing
pavement is structurally sound and has good riding quality; (b) existing asphalt surface does
not have any severe distress except hairline cracks, oxidised (aged) road surface or polished
surface; and (c) roads are carrying low to medium traffic only. On heavy traffic roads both
wear off prematurely especially in the wheel tracks.
Both slurry seal and microsurfacing are good preventive maintenance tools and are
especially suited for surface renewal of city streets because they do not significantly reduce
the height of curbs, medians and footpaths and thus maintain the road safety standards.
Crack Sealing
Cracks need to be sealed for two primary reasons: (a) to prevent intrusion of incompressible
materials such as soil into the crack, and (b) to prevent ingress of water into the underlying
pavement layers which will be detrimental to the performance of the pavement.
All types of cracks such as fatigue cracks; transverse thermal cracks; reflection cracks;
edge cracks; and longitudinal joint cracks need to be sealed promptly. The following
general guidelines can be used for sealing cracks [6]:
Hairline cracks, less than 6 mm in width are too narrow to fill effectively. If there are too many
hairline cracks then slurry seal or surface dressing should be considered. If there are small
cracks, 6 mm to 20 mm wide, they need to be routed, cleaned and sealed. Routing provides a
good sealant reservoir. For medium cracks, 20 mm to 25 mm wide, cleaning and sealing
should be done.
Many types of asphalt crack sealant material are available. Crack sealants should have the
following properties:
a. Good bond/adhesion to the side of the crack
b. Flexibility and elasticity to sustain expansion and contraction of cracks
c. Ease of application
d. Resistant to softening during hot weather
e. Resistance to tracking by traffic
Emulsified bitumen and VG binders are not appropriate sealant materials. Emulsions
shrink after the loss of water. Both have limited flexibility. Modified bitumen binders
(those meeting ASTM D 1190 and D 3405) are suitable. Rubberised bitumen binders
meeting the preceding ASTM specifications have been highly successful in the US for
crack sealing and should be adopted in India to increase the service life and effectiveness
of the crack sealants. In the US such sealant are melted in a small tanker and applied under
pressure through a wand (Figure 8.5).
Figure 8.5 Crack sealing operation (Courtesy: Crafco).
8.6.3 Periodic Maintenance

Periodic maintenance includes maintenance operations which are done periodically at the
specified frequency based on the category of road. These operations are done to defer the
need for pavement rehabilitation.
Periodic maintenance may also include surface dressing, slurry seal and microsurfacing as
periodic renewal coats although they were also recommended for preventive maintenance as
discussed earlier. Periodic maintenance also includes application of thin dense graded asphalt
overlays, which were discussed in Chapter 4 on bituminous mixes and surface treatments.
8.7 REHABILITATION OF ASPHALT PAVEMENTS
Two major components of rehabilitation of asphalt pavements generally practiced across

India are: improving ride quality (sometimes also called strengthening of pavement), and
periodical renewal. The latter can be considered as part of periodic maintenance as well.
The MORTH has issued guidelines for these two activities which will be discussed in
this section [15]. Unfortunately, recycling has not made much headway in India at the
present time as a means for rehabilitating asphalt pavements because the highway
agencies have not mandated it. Asphalt pavement recycling will be discussed in detail in
Chapter 9.
Ride quality of asphalt pavements can deteriorate prematurely due to several factors such as
uneven consolidation of subgrade and/or subbase; substandard Granular Subbase (GSB)
and/or Wet Mix Macadam (WMM); and stripping, rutting and/or fatigue cracking of asphalt
courses.
Periodical renewal of asphalt wearing courses is required because bitumen being exposed to
sun and air gets oxidised with time and becomes brittle resulting in raveling and subsequent
disintegration. Asphalt wearing courses can also develop top down cracking under intense
traffic loads.
It has been observed that asphalt mixes/applications used in the so-called Improving Ride
Quality Programme (IRQP) and Periodical Renewal (PR) do not generally produce durable
asphalt pavements which result in unsatisfactory condition of roads especially during
monsoons.
8.7.1 Current Practices for Improving Ride Quality Programme (IRQP)
and Periodical Renewal (PR)
Table 8.2 gives MORTH guidelines for IRQP in terms of various unbound and bound
pavement courses/applications depending on the thickness of existing pavement.
Table 8.2 Various MORTH options in improving ride quality programme (IRQP)[15].
Primarily, six courses/applications are included in Table 8.2 (a) Wet Mix Macadam
(WMM), (b) Bituminous Macadam (BM), (c) Semi-Dense Bituminous Concrete (SDBC),
(e) Built-Up Spray Grout (BUSG), Mixed Seal Surfacing (MSS), and (f) Premix Carpet
(PMC). The bituminous courses/applications were reviewed in detail in Chapter 4 on
bituminous paving mixes and surface treatments and also in two published IRC papers
[16, 17].
Table 8.3 gives MORTH guidelines for Periodical Renewal (PR) in terms of bituminous
courses/applications depending on daily number of commercial vehicles. Primarily, the
following courses/applications are included in this table: Semi-Dense Bituminous Concrete
(SDBC), Mixed Seal Surfacing (MSS), and Premix Carpet (PMC). Again, the technical merits
of these mixes were also reviewed in detail in Chapter 4 on bituminous paving mixes and
surface treatments.
Table 8.3 MORTH guidelines for periodical renewal (PR)[15]

8.7.2 Recommendations for Improving Ride Quality Programme (IRQP)
Improving Ride Quality Programme (IRQP), also called strengthening of pavement, is

practiced across India for the implied purpose. Table 8.4 gives various options for IRQP along
with costs based on 2013 Rajasthan PWD Basic Schedule of Rates (BSR). The first seven
options have been recommended by MORTH [15]. Options 8 and 9 have been used by some
states. Option 10 is considered most suitable based on technical and economical merits in lieu
of Options 1 through 9 as discussed later.
Based on the detailed technical discussion in Chapter 4 on bituminous mixes and surface
treatments, BM, SDBC, PMC, MSS and BUSG should not be considered because they attract
moisture or water and are not durable. Use of WMM (see Options 1, 2, 3, and 4 in Table 8.4) is
not advised if IRQP is being conducted on an existing road consisting of asphalt course
because that would mean abandoning its structural contribution (in terms of tensile strength) to
the rehabilitated pavement system.
Table 8.4 Comparison of costs for various options in improving ride quality programme
(IRQP) (2013 BSR of Rajasthan PWD)
Therefore, Option 10 consisting of 60 mm BC grading 2 in two applications: 20 mm (average)
scratch or levelling course applied with a paver to fill depressions followed by 40 mm uniform
thick wearing course in recommended. In developed countries, dense graded wearing course
mix is used for levelling for practical purposes and also for ease in feathering of mat
thickness. It also provides a dense wearing course. Both levelling and wearing courses provide
the highest structural strength to the pavement compared to the first nine options.
Cost of Option 10 is very comparable to the other 9 options listed in Table 8.4 even without
considering life-cycle costs. More importantly, Option 10 is also considered the most durable
and would therefore significantly improve the conditions of roads across India. If so warranted
for the ride quality and/or pavement design, the thickness of BC grading 2 scratch or levelling
course may be increased from 20 mm to 30 mm in Option 10.
Option 11 which is not included in the table is to consider Cold In-place Recycling (CIR) of
top 100 mm to 150 mm of the existing pavement and use that as new base course followed by
double surface dressing or 40 mm BC grading 2 as wearing course. The CIR is discussed in
the chapter on recycling.
8.7.3 Recommendations for Periodical Renewal (PR)
Periodical Renewal (PR) is also practiced across India for the implied purpose. Options 1,
2, 3, and 4 in Table 8.5 are listed in the MORTH guidelines circular along with costs
based on 2013 Rajasthan PWD Basic Schedule of Rates (BSR) [15].
Again, based on the detailed technical discussion in Chapter 4 on bituminous mixes and
surface treatments, SDBC, PMC, and MSS should not be considered because these mixes
attract moisture/water and are not durable. Single or double surface dressing with or without
precoated chips (Options 5, 6, 7, and 8 in Table 8.5) should be used for low to medium
trafficked roads (commercial vehicles per day less than 1500). Surface dressing would really
waterproof the pavement structure compared to PMC and MSS. For medium to heavy
trafficked roads (commercial vehicles per day more than 1500), BC grading 2 listed as Option
9 should be used.
Option 10 which is not listed in the table and should be considered is Hot in-place Recycling
(HIPR) if the pavement surface defects are within 50 mm from the road surface. The HIPR is
discussed in the chapter on recycling.
Table 8.5 Comparison of various options for periodical renewal (PR) with costs (2013
Rajasthan PWD BSR)
Summary
Understanding of asphalt pavement serviceability concept is necessary to: (a) provide smooth
and safe roads to the motoring public, and (b) plan timely and cost effective maintenance and
rehabilitation strategies for asphalt pavements.
Maintenance activities can be categorised into routine maintenance such as pothole patching;
preventive maintenance such as fog seals, surface dressing, slurry seal/microsurfacing, crack
sealing; and periodic maintenance such as thin asphalt overlays. These activities have been
discussed in the chapter.
Procedures for evaluating the structural strength of asphalt pavements for planning Periodical
Renewal (PR) and input for strengthening and Improving Ride Quality Programme (IRQP)
have been presented. Various options currently in use for PR and IRQP have been evaluated
for their cost effectiveness and durability, and better options have been recommended based
on sound pavement engineering principles.
QUESTIONS
1. Briefly describe the concept of asphalt pavement serviceability.
2. Differentiate between pavement surface evenness and pavement surface roughness.
How are both measured in the field?
3. Briefly describe the bump integrator for measuring pavement surface roughness.
4. What is the function of the Benkelman beam deflection device? Describe the testing
device and test procedure.
5. Describe the falling weight deflectometer. Why is it considered better than the Benkelman
beam deflection device?
6. List and describe three activities which are considered for preventive maintenance of
existing asphalt wearing courses.
7. What is the difference between surface dressing and microsurfacing?
8. Which methods are used for repairing potholes on the road?
9. Describe the preferred methodologies for improving the riding quality or strengthening of
existing asphalt pavements.
10. Which are the preferred methodologies for periodical renewal of existing asphalt
pavements and why?
References
2. Indian Roads Congress, “Guidelines for Surface Evenness of Highway Pavements”,

IRC:SP: 16–2004, First Revision, 2004.
3. Indian Roads Congress, “Guidelines for Design of Flexible Pavements”, IRC: 37–2012,
Third Revision, July 2012.
4. Indian Roads Congress, “Guidelines for Strengthening of Flexible Pavements Using

Benkelman Beam Deflection Technique”, IRC: 81–1997, First Revision, 1997.
5. Indian Roads Congress, “Guidelines for Structural Evaluation and Strengthening

of Flexible Road Pavements Using Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD)
Technique”, IRC: 115–2014, 2014.
6. Asphalt Institute, “Asphalt in Pavement Maintenance”, MS-16, Third Edition, 1996.
7. Indian Roads Congress, “Code of Practice for Maintenance of Bituminous

Surfaces”, IRC: 82–2015, 2015.
8. McDaniel, R.S., et al., “Pavement Patching Practices”, Transportation Research

Board, Synthesis of Highway Practice 463, 2014.
9. Indian Roads Congress, “Specification for Readymade Asphalt Pothole Parching Mix
Using Cut-Back Bitumen”, IRC: 116–2014, 2014.
10. Kandhal, P.S. and D.B. Mellott, “Rational Approach to Design of Asphalt
Stockpile Patching Mixtures”, Transportation Research Board, Transportation Record
No. 821, 1981.
11. Wilson, T.P., “Strategic Highway Research Programme Pothole Repair Materials and
12. Kandhal, P.S., “A Simple and Effective Method of Repairing Potholes in India”,
Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, Vol. 69 (3), October– December 2008.
13. Indian Roads Congress, “Standard Specifications and Code of Practice for Design and
Construction of Surface Dressing”, IRC: 110–2005, 2005.
14. Indian Roads Congress, “Specification for Slurry Seal and

Microsurfacing”, IRC:SP: 81–2008, 2008.
15. MORTH, “Revised Guidelines for Selection of National Highway Stretches for
Improving Ride Quality Programme (IRQP) and Periodic Renewals (PR)”, Circular No.
RW/NH-33044/10/2000-S&R, 26 September 2002.
16. Kandhal, P.S., V.K. Sinha, and A. Veeraragavan, “A Critical Review of Asphalt Mixes
Used in India”, Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, Vol. 69 (2), July–September 2008.
17. Kandhal, P.S., A. Veeraragavan, and R.K. Jain, “Guidelines for Long Lasting Asphalt
Pavements”, Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, Vol. 71(3), 2010.
Recycling of Asphalt Pavements
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Recycling of asphalt (bituminous) pavements increased significantly in the US since the

mid-1970s when the Arab oil embargo caused inflation of petroleum costs and new
recycling equipment (such as cold milling machines) were developed [1]. Unfortunately,
recycling has not been implemented in India to the extent it is really required because the
highway agencies have not specified or mandated it yet.
9.2 BENEFITS OF RECYCLING PAVEMENT MATERIALS
Recycling of existing asphalt pavement materials to produce new pavement materials results
in considerable savings of material, money, and energy. The specific benefits of recycling are
summarised as follows:
1. When properly used, recycling can result in substantial savings over the use of new
materials. Also, the cost of haulage can be avoided if recycling is performed in-place. The
need for economic consideration is felt now more than ever, because of tightening budgets
and ever increasing cost of materials.
2. Recycling can help in conservation of natural resources by reducing the need for new
materials. This translates to substantial savings in aggregate resources and demand for
bitumen binder. Even though there may be an abundant supply of aggregates, the
distribution of these sources does not always coincide with the location of need.
3. Recycled materials have proven to be equal or even better than new materials in quality.
Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) overlay on recycled base is expected to perform better than an HMA
overlay on the existing surface, even though they have the same thickness, because the former
can substantially reduce the potential of reflective cracking through the surface course [2].
4. Recycling can maintain pavement geometrics as well as pavement thickness. The existing
pavement structure can be strengthened by recycling without adding substantial overlays. In
some cases, the traffic disruption is lesser than that for other rehabilitation techniques.
5. Recycling can save considerable amount of energy compared to conventional

construction techniques. This factor is of significant importance to reduce the
carbon footprint.
Over the years, recycling has become one of the most attractive pavement rehabilitation
alternatives. With the continuous accumulation of performance data, field and laboratory
evaluations of recycled mixes, and with the simultaneous development of realistic
performance-oriented guidelines, it is expected that recycling will continue to be the most
attractive rehabilitation technique [3, 4].
9.3 RECYCLING METHODS

Different recycling methods are now available to address specific pavement distress and
structural needs. A brief description of these recycling methods are given below and details
will be given later.
The Asphalt Recycling and Reclaiming Association define five different types of recycling
methods: (a) Cold planing; (b) Hot recycling; (c) Hot in-place recycling; (d) Cold recycling
(both in-plant and in-place); and (e) Full depth reclamation [5].
Cold planing: It is described as an automatic method of removing asphalt pavement to a

desired depth and restoration of the surface to a desired grade and slope, and free of humps,
ruts and other distresses. This method can be used for roughening or texturing of a pavement
to improve its frictional resistance. Cold planing is performed with a self-propelled rotary
drum cold planing machine with the Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP) transferred to trucks
for removal from the job site. The resulting pavement can be used immediately by regular
traffic and overlaid at some future time or left as a textured surface.
Hot recycling or hot mix recycling: It is the process in which Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement
(RAP) material is combined with new materials, sometimes with softer grade of bitumen or a
recycling agent, to produce Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) mixtures [6]. Both batch and drum type
hot mix plants are used to produce recycled mix. The advantages of hot mix recycling include
significant structural improvement, equal or better performance compared to conventional
HMA, and capability to correct most surface defects, deformation, and cracking.
Hot in-place recycling (HIPR): It consists of a method in which the existing pavement is
heated and softened, and then scarified or hot rotary mixed to a specified depth. New HMA or
recycling agent may be added to the RAP material during the recycling process. The depth of
treatment varies between 20 mm to 50 mm (3/4 inch to 2 inches). The Asphalt Recycling and
Reclaiming Association (ARRA) have identified three HIPR processes; (a) surface recycling,
(b) repaving, and (c) remixing.
In a surface recycling operation, the existing asphalt surface is heated and scarified to a
specified depth. The scarified material is combined with aggregate and/or recycling agent. The
mix is then compacted. A new overlay may or may not be placed on the recycled mix.
In the second type of HIPR method, repaving, the surface recycling method is combined with
a simultaneous overlay of new Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA). Both the hot scarified mix and the
new hot HMA are rolled at the same time to get a very good bond.
In the case of remixing, the scarified RAP material is mixed with virgin HMA in a pugmill,
and the recycled mix is laid down as a single mix. The advantages of hot in-place recycling
are that surface cracks can be eliminated, ruts and shoves and bumps can be corrected, aged
asphalt binder is rejuvenated, aggregate gradation and bitumen content can be modified,
traffic interruption is minimal, and hauling costs are minimised.
Cold recycling: In Cold In-place Recycling (CIR), the existing pavement material is reused
without the application of heat. Except for any recycling agent, no transportation of
materials is usually required, and therefore, haulage cost is very low. Normally, an asphalt
emulsion or foamed bitumen is added as recycling asphalt binder [7]. The process includes
pulverising the existing pavement, sizing of the RAP, application of recycling agent,
placement, and compaction. The depth of treatment is typically from 75 mm to 100 mm (3
inches to 4 inches). Surface dressing or asphalt overlay needs to be provided as a wearing
surface. The advantages of cold in-place recycling include significant structural
improvement, treatment of most pavement distress, improvement of ride quality, minimum
hauling and air quality problems, and capability of pavement widening. Cold recycling can
also be performed in a central plant, which will be discussed also later.
Full depth reclamation (FDR): It has been defined as a recycling method where all of the
asphalt pavement section and a predetermined amount of underlying material are treated to
produce a stabilised base course. It is basically a cold mix recycling process in which different
types of additives such as emulsified bitumen, foamed bitumen and chemical agents such as
Portland cement, fly ash, and lime, are added to obtain an improved base. The four main steps
in this process are pulverisation, introduction of additive, compaction, and application of a
surface or a wearing course. This method of recycling is normally performed to a depth of 100
mm to 305 mm (4 inches to 12 inches). The advantages of full depth reclamation are that most
pavement distresses are treated, unsuitable base or subbase can be upgraded, hauling costs are
minimised, significant structural improvements can be made (especially in base), material
disposal problems are eliminated, and ride quality is improved.
The following are the salient features of the national asphalt pavement recycling guidelines
developed for the US Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) [1].
9.4 SELECTION OF PAVEMENT FOR RECYCLING AND

RECYCLING STRATEGIES
All of the different recycling techniques offer some advantages over conventional
rehabilitation techniques. However, the choice of a particular recycling method should be
primarily on the basis of the type of distress shown by the existing pavement. This is
because all of the recycling methods are not equally suited for treating different types of
distress, and here the choice must
Table 9.1 Guide for selection of recycling method for full depth1 or aggregate base asphalt
pavements (ARRA)
be made for the particular method, which is capable of rectifying the existing distress
conditions.The applicability of a particular recycling technique not only depends on the
pavement defect, but also on the extent and severity of the distress. For this reason, a
comprehensive evaluation of the existing pavement is necessary before attempting any
recycling process. Once the type, extent and diversity of distresses have been identified,
recycling procedures should be evaluated on the basis of their effectiveness and cost. The
Asphalt Recycling and Reclaiming Association have recognised the following primary types of
distresses: (a) surface defects, (b) deformation, (c) cracking, (d) maintenance patching, (e)
base/subgrade problems, and (f) poor ride/roughness [5].
Based on these distresses, the ARRA recommends Table 9.1 as a guideline for selecting a
recycling alternative. This table shows that hot mix recycling (hot recycling) can be used to
treat almost all types of distresses except problem base or subgrade. Hot in-place recycling
takes care of surface defects within the top 50 mm of the road surface only. Cold in-place
recycling and full depth reclamation are capable of treating rutting, cracks, and maintenance
patches. Cold recycling conducted at central plant also achieves the same purpose as cold in-
place recycling. Only full depth reclamation can be used for rectifying problem in base and/
or subgrade. The uses of cold in-place recycling and full depth reclamation are not shown for
treating surface defects. However, for these two methods, a new surfacing is generally
required. The type of surfacing depends on the amount and type of traffic. An asphalt surface
treatment such as surface dressing and slurry seal may be adequate for light traffic, but a
HMA overlay should be used for heavier traffic.
Besides the guide in Table 9.1 based on rectification of pavement defects, other engineering,
economical and energy aspects including availability of qualified contractor and equipment
need to be considered before selection of the appropriate recycling technique.
9.5 REMOVAL OF EXISTING ASPHALT PAVEMENT
The two commonly used methods for removal of existing asphalt pavement are cold milling,
and ripping and crushing. Each of the methods is described as follows:
9.5.1 Cold Milling
Of the two available methods for removing an existing pavement, cold milling is the
most widely used today. The advent of cold milling has revolutionised the recycling of
asphalt pavements.
Cold milling of existing asphalt pavement is required to: (a) improve the rideability and
cross slope of the existing pavement, (b) lower the finished grade adjacent to existing curb
or shoulder prior to resurfacing, and (c) completely or partially remove the existing
bituminous pavement.
The following specification has been developed for cold milling of existing asphalt pavement
to accomplish the preceding objectives in India and also to encourage reuse of milled, and
Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP) material through appropriate recycling processes [8].
Scope of Work
The work of cold milling also includes the transporting, stockpiling, or otherwise disposing
of the removed pavement material. The removed material shall become the property of the
contractor unless otherwise specified. This is because government agencies usually cannot
manage the RAP stockpiles which get solidified in hot weather and may need crushing
before use. On the other hand, contractors can recycle the RAP on the same project or other
paving projects.
Equipment
The equipment for this operation shall be a milling machine capable of maintaining a
depth of cut and cross slope which shall achieve the results specified herein. The varying
depth of cut and variable speed of operation should ensure the desired cut size of the RAP
used for recycling.
The machine shall have a minimum overall length (out to out excluding the conveyor) of 5 m
and minimum cutting width of 2 m. The milling machine shall be self-propelled with suitable
power drive and should be equipped with four wheels with all-wheel drive or equipped with
four independently operated tracks fitted with track pads eliminating any damage to asphalt
surface. The machine should be equipped with loading conveyor belt to load the milled
material on to tippers (trucks).
The milling machine shall be equipped with automatic grade controls which operate by
sensing from one or more skis, wheels, or other type of mechanism moving along the
pavement surface and if required, shall produce a skid resistant surface texture. The sensing
device shall be of sufficient design to significantly improve the longitudinal profile of the
pavement surface.
A smaller milling machine may be used when milling adjacent to existing curb, around
utilities, or other areas where it is not practical to use the larger machine.
The machine shall be equipped with a means such as water spray system to effectively limit
the amount of dust escaping from the removal operations.
Construction
The existing pavement shall be milled to varying depths in a manner which will restore the
pavement surface to a uniform longitudinal profile and cross-section as specified on the
plans or as directed by the engineer.
The required milling depth at the centreline and at the edge of pavement may vary to obtain the
required cross slope. The approximate depths of required milling shall be as shown on the
plans for the appropriate typical sections. In areas where the existing roadway does not have
the required crown and/or
super elevation rate, the milling depths shall vary to provide the desired cross slope and
profile.
If a new bituminous course is to be laid after milling, at least 20 mm of the existing

bituminous course shall be left in-place so that the existing bond between the bituminous
course and the underlying unbound course such as wet mix macadam (WMM) is not
disturbed and the unbound course is protected in case there is rain.
The contractor may elect to make multiple cuts to achieve the required pavement
configuration or depth of cut. The milling machine shall be operated to effectively
minimise the amount of dust being emitted from the machine. Pre-wetting of the
pavement may be required.
On resurfacing projects, the milling operations shall be limited to an area where the milled
area will be covered with a bituminous surface treatment or paving, whichever applicable,
within 24 h after milling has begun, unless otherwise noted on the plans. A positive drainage
of the milled surface and adjacent pavement shall be provided as soon as possible.
Prior to resurfacing or opening a milled area to traffic, where permitted, the milled surface
shall be thoroughly swept with a power broom or other approved equipment to remove the
greatest extent practicable, fine material and dust particles. This operation shall be conducted
in a manner so as to minimise the potential for creation of a traffic hazard and to minimise
air pollution.
Material removed by the milling machine, and material swept from the pavement, shall
be disposed of in locations approved by the engineer.
If the reclaimed material is suitable for use in a recycled asphalt plant mix and the contractor
elects to use the material, then the height of the stockpiles at the asphalt plant should be
limited to prevent moisture build-up or reconsolidation of the material. Conical RAP
stockpiles are preferred to shed off rainwater.
Note: The size of RAP can be controlled by using different cutters; varying the speed of the
milling machine; adjusting the speed to suit the prevailing ambient temperature, etc. Low
speeds provide RAP
of relatively small size, which can be used readily in hot recycling without any significant
processing.
Milling should either stay above an interface or cut into the next layer. Milling to interface
can result in delamination; shallow and flat depressions; and slabby RAP pieces.
Milled Surface
If the milled surface is to be the final surface of the pavement, it shall have either continuous
or intermittent striations or any other pre-approved pattern which will provide an acceptable
level of skid resistance. If the milled surface of the pavement is to be resurfaced or
strengthened with an overlay, it shall have a texture which will provide good bonding.
The finished milled surface shall have a reasonably uniform texture and shall be within 6 mm
of a true profile grade both in transverse and longitudinal directions, when measured with a 3
m long straightedge. Areas varying from a true surface in excess of the above stated tolerance
may be accepted without correction if the engineer determines that these were caused by a
pre-existing condition which could not have reasonably been corrected by the milling
operation. Any unsuitable texture or profile, as determined by the engineer, shall be corrected
by the contractor at no additional compensation.
The engineer may require remilling of any area where a surface delamination
causes a non-uniform texture to occur.
Method of Measurement and Basis for Payment
The area over which milling is completed to the desired depth and accepted shall be measured
in square metres. The milling of pavement ordered and accepted, measured as noted above,
will be paid for at the contract unit price bid which shall be full compensation for the milling
of the pavement, the transporting and stockpiling of the removed surplus material, the
removal and disposal of pavement markers, the removal of grinding residue and the
satisfactory disposal thereof, and the cleaning of the pavement and for all materials,
equipment, tools, labour, and incidentals necessary to complete the work.
Figure 9.1 shows a typical surface resulting from cold milling. Improvements to the design of
the milling teeth have helped in tremendous advancement of cold milling machines since
1970s. Figure 9.2 shows the modern cold milling drum with tungsten carbide teeth. Cold
milling machines are available in various sizes and capacities (horse power). A full line of
milling machines is available to suit different production requirements. The milling width can
be from one metre to a full lane and the milling depth can be from 20 cm to 38 cm (8 inches to
15 inches). Figure 9.3 shows a full lane cold milling machine. Cold milling machines are very
useful in maintaining the curb heights for urban roads and streets as shown in Figure 9.4.
Figure 9.1 Typical road surface resulting from cold milling.

Figure 9.2 Milling drum with tungsten carbide teeth.
Figure 9.3 Full lane cold milling machine.

Figure 9.4 Height of curb on city streets can be maintained by milling.
9.5.2 Ripping and Crushing
The alternative to cold milling is ripping and crushing operations with earthmoving
equipment, scarifiers, grid rollers or rippers (Figure 9.5). The material is loaded into trucks
and hauled for crushing. The type of ripping equipment to be used depends on the
maximum size of the RAP that the crusher can handle. This method is particularly
applicable where an existing roadway is to be upgraded for heavier traffic and is of uniform
material or the work is too small to mobilise the cold milling machine.
Figure 9.5 Dozer with rear-mounted ripper tooth.

9.5.3 Crushing and Stockpiling
The objective of crushing is to reduce the RAP to the maximum acceptable particle size.
One example of such a limit is that at least 95% of the RAP passes the 50 mm (2 inches)
sieve [1]. Cold milling machines can crush the RAP in-place, whereas in the
ripping/crushing operation, front-end loaders are generally used to break up the pavement
material so that it can be loaded into a truck for crushing at a central plant. The amount of
aggregate degradation by cold milling is a function of the aggregate top-size and gradation
of the HMA pavement [4]. For crushing in a central plant, different types of crushers are
available, for example, compression crushers and impact crushers. Impact crushers are most
widely used in recycling. This is because compression crushers, such as jaw crushers
sometimes get plugged up with RAP material. Impact crushers are used both as primary and
secondary crushers. Both jaw and roll crushers can “pancake” the RAP, especially on warm,
humid days. Pancaking is the formation of a flat, dense mass of RAP on crusher surface.
After crushing, if so desired, RAP can be separated into stockpiles of different sizes as
shown in Figure 9.6 for better controlling the gradation of the recycled mix. Figure 9.7
shows the close up of three fractionated RAP sizes. The finest size on the right contains most
of the Figure 9.6 Creating RAP stockpiles of different sizes. bitumen binder which is very
expensive and must be recycled to realise significant savings. The coarse size can be used in
SMA mixes which require higher coarse aggregate content. It should also be realised that the
potential for reuse of all existing aged bitumen binder can be done only with hot mix
recycling and not in case of cold recycling. In the latter case, the RAP particles are like
“black rock” which needs some additional binder to bind them together in the cold recycled
mix.
Figure 9.7 Close up of fractionated RAP with three sizes.

RAP from different sources and containing different bitumen content and aggregates with
different gradations should be stockpiled separately so that recycled mix design can be
developed for each stockpile and uniform recycled mix is obtained during production.
In the past, it was believed that low, horizontal stockpiles are better than high and conical
stockpiles which can result in re-agglomeration of RAP. However, experience has proven
that actually large, and conical stockpiles are better and that RAP does not recompact in
large piles.
Actually, there is a tendency to form a crust on the surface about 20 cm to 25 cm (8 inches to

10 inches) in thickness. This crust can be easily broken by a front end loader. Also, the crust
tends to shed water and prevent the rest of the pile from recompacting.
The stockpile should be built on a solid surface to prevent contamination of the RAP from
the underlying surface. The finer particles in the processed RAP material tend to absorb and
retain moisture. This increases the moisture content of the material and hence the energy
required to drive it off during production of hot recycled asphalt mixes. The heat primarily
comes from the heated uncoated aggregates, and since there is a limit up to which the
aggregates can be heated, either the amount of RAP or the production rate has to be
sacrificed if there is an increase in moisture. Depending on the annual moisture level in the
region, use of protective coverings such as tarps and even sheds should also be considered.
9.6 HOT MIX ASPHALT RECYCLING
When properly designed and constructed, recycled Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) has proved to be
at least equal to conventional HMA mixes. Of the various types of recycling options available,
hot mix recycling is considered as a very useful and proven method. It can be used to correct
mix design problems in existing pavements and make them better, to correct and maintain
horizontal geometrics, or as a rehabilitation alternative where curb and bridge clearances are a
problem. Hot mix recycling can use the same materials repeatedly, needs minor modification
to existing equipment, eliminates disposal problem, and can be done in compliance with
existing air pollution control standards [1].
Hot mix recycling, or hot recycling has been defined as a method by which Reclaimed
Asphalt Pavement (RAP) is combined with new aggregate and bitumen binder or recycling
agent to produce Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA). The RAP may be obtained by pavement milling
with rotary drum cold milling machine or from a ripping/crushing operation described earlier.
Hot mix recycling can be done both in batch plant and drum plant. Both plants were
described in detail in the chapter on asphalt construction. First, the recycling in a batch plant
shall be presented.
9.6.1 Hot Mix Asphalt Recycling in Batch Plant

The most widely used method for batch plant hot-mix recycling is the “Maplewood method”,
because this method of “heat transfer” was first tried in Maplewood, Minnesota, USA. Figure
9.8 shows the schematic of the Maplewood method of recycling in batch plant. In this
method, aggregate is superheated in the aggregate dryer because it has to transfer its heat to
RAP which is at ambient temperature. Schematic shows a RAP bin on the ground; RAP is
being conveyed on a belt from this bin to the weigh hopper of the batch plant, which has
already been charged with superheated aggregate. (It is preferred to have a RAP bin at the top
also besides the hot bins from where the RAP can be discharged onto the weigh hopper.)
When RAP is deposited on the superheated aggregate in the weigh hopper, heat rises and
heats the RAP. More heat transfer takes place when both are mixed dry and then mixed wet
with binder. Figure 9.9 shows a photograph of RAP cold feed bin on the ground being loaded
with RAP. The RAP conveying system can also be seen in this photograph.
Figure 9.8 Schematic of RAP being fed to the weigh hopper.
Figure 9.9 RAP feed bin with steep sides and RAP conveyer system.
The following one-time modification needs to be made to existing batch plant not
already equipped for recycling:
1. RAP cold feed bin on ground (bin should have steep sides and large discharge
opening.While charging the bin RAP should be dribbled in the bin rather than
dumped all at once.)
2. RAP conveying system (needs heavy duty motor to ensure frequent starting and
stopping)
3. RAP bin at the top (optional) (can store the RAP and convey it by a chute to the weigh
hopper as needed)
At the present time, the one-time modification cost for existing batch plant is about 30
lakh rupees in India.
Superheating Aggregates in Dryer
Aggregate needs to be heated much more than normal to transfer its heat to RAP which is at
ambient temperature. Guidance is available to select the super high temperature based on
many factors such as amount of RAP and moisture content in RAP. Table 9.2 provides the
necessary guidance [9]. Aggregate should not be heated more than 315 oC to avoid warping
of dryer drum and also damage to bags in the baghouse. It should be ensured from the
manufacturer that the bags can sustain super high temperatures without any damage.
An adequate veil must be maintained in front of the burner flame. A cooling period at the end
of each production period may be necessary to prevent warping of the drum at very high
temperatures.
The RAP entrance chute from the RAP bin to the weighing hopper should be as steep as
possible and of constant width, and provided with a counterweight draft gate to prevent the
escape of dust when the RAP is introduced. The entrance chute should be capable of
introducing the material at the centre of the weighing hopper.
Table 9.2 Required aggregate temperatures for recycling (Courtesy: NAPA)

The RAP should be discharged on weigh hopper after superheated aggregates from all hot
bins have been discharged. Heat from aggregates will rise to heat the RAP. Dry mix
aggregate and RAP for at least 10 s in the pug mill before adding new bitumen binder.
Storage silos may be used to store the recycled hot mix after it leaves the pugmill, so that it
gets sufficient time to attain temperature equilibrium throughout the mix. This is because the
transfer of heat from the superheated aggregate to the relatively cold RAP may not be
completed in the relatively short mixing time, especially if mixing time is not increased.
The amount of RAP which can be used in recycled mix in a typical batch plant depends
on the following factors:
1. Moisture content of RAP
2. Temperature of superheated aggregate
3. Temperature of RAP
4. Target temperature of recycled mix
5. Percent passing 0.075 mm sieve in the RAP (Since milling process generates lot of
fines, it has to be ensured that the recycled mix does not contain excessive fines. Quite
often this becomes the limiting factor.)
Generally, 30% to 35% RAP is considered to be the practical limit with 10% to 20% RAP
being a typical range for modified batch plants.
9.6.2 Hot Mix Recycling in Drum Mix Plant
As mentioned earlier, hot mix recycling can be done in both batch and drum mix plants.
However, hot mix recycling in a drum mix plant offers some advantages over recycling in a
batch plant as follows:
Portability: Drum mix plants are more portable and require shorter plant setup time
compared to batch plants.
Versatility: A relatively higher percentage of RAP can be used in a drum mix plant
compared to a batch plant.
Production: Plant production rates are relatively unaffected by RAP percentages

(up to a certain limit).
Mixing: A more homogeneous mix is produced in a drum mix plant since the RAP is
heated and mixed with the virgin aggregate and bitumen binder for a longer period of time
compared to the mix in a batch plant.
The RAP cannot be processed in normal drum mix plants since excessive “blue smoke” is
produced when the RAP comes in contact with the burner flame. The condition is further
aggravated by build-up of fine aggregates and bitumen binder on metal flights and end
plates. It was determined that a more effective way to rectify the problem was to modify
the drum mix plant. At the present time, modified drum plants with centre entry for hot
mix recycling are not available commercially in India.
Centre Entry Method
The centre entry method is the most widely used method for hot mix recycling in a drum
mix plant in the US [10]. In this method (Figure 9.10), RAP is introduced into the drum
though a collar downstream of the burner flame to mix with the superheated new
aggregates. The hot virgin aggregates heat up the RAP material by conduction. The RAP is
protected from coming in direct contact with the burner flame by a dense veil of aggregate
added prior to the point where the RAP is added. It is very important to have the veil of
virgin aggregate; otherwise, overheating of RAP can result in “blue smoke,” and it may not
be possible to use the design amount of RAP material [1].
Figure 9.10 Schematic of drum with central entry for RAP.
Figure 9.11 shows a photograph of the drum mix plant with centre entry. The virgin aggregate
is kept in the hot zone of the drum and superheated to about 260 oC. Kicker flights or dams are
included in the middle of the drum to increase the aggregate dwell time in the first half of the
drum. The superheated aggregate is used to heat the RAP materials. The aggregate temperature
drops as the RAP material is heated and its moisture evaporated. The recycled mix is brought
up to discharge temperature in the last portion of the drum.
Figure 9.11 Photograph of drum with central entry for RAP.
Since the late 1980s, new drum designs for more efficient heat transfer to RAP material
during mixing have been developed. One of them is the double barrel drum described
next.
Double Barrel Drum
The double barrel counterflow drum mix plant has more mixing space than a conventional
drum mixer. Figure 9.12 shows the schematic and Figure 9.13 shows photograph of the double
barrel drum. The shell of the drum is used as the shaft of the coater. The virgin aggregate
material is dried in the inner drum and superheated to 315 ºC to 343 ºC temperatures when
recycling 50% RAP. It then drops through the wall of the drum and meets with the RAP in the
annular space. Approximately 1½ min of mixing time occurs in this outer shell. Since the outer
shell does not rotate, easy access is available to add various other recycling additives to the
process as they become necessary and available. The heat of the inside barrel is transferred
through the rotating shell for mixing in the annular space. The outer shell of the double barrel
remains at approximately 49 oC at all times, leading to a very efficient plant. In this method
the virgin and the RAP material are not exposed to the hot gases or to the steam of the drying
process and thus the light oils are not removed from the mix. In the outer section of the double
barrel, due to the moisture removed from the RAP, a steam or inert atmosphere occurs
resulting in a much lower oxidation or short-term aging of the recycled HMA mix in the
mixing chamber.
Figure 9.12 Schematic of double barrel drum.
Figure 9.13 Photograph of double barrel drum.
Another benefit derived from this type of plant is the much longer life occurring with the bags
in the baghouse due to relatively lower temperature of the exhaust gases. The holes through
which the virgin aggregates are directed into the outer shell are also responsible for
channelising any smoke from the inner mixing section to the outer space. The pollutants go
directly to the flame where they are burnt. This results in reduced emission and blue smoke.
The counterflow dryer design also leads to higher production rates with much lower fuel
consumption [1].
At the present time, a few double barrel drum plants have been imported from the US to India
primarily for hot mix recycling.
Amount of RAP Used
The factors controlling the production limit in a drum mix plant are the moisture content and
ambient temperature of the RAP and new aggregate, the desired production rate, and the
temperature and allowable moisture content in the final recycled HMA mix [10]. The
maximum amount of RAP that can be used for recycling in a drum mix plant is about 70%,
although the practical limit is about 50%. The use of 50% RAP would require extremely high
gas temperature and in that case a relatively smaller amount of virgin aggregates would be
available to protect the RAP from the flame. This may lead to “blue smoke” problem in some
drum mix plants.Most drum mix plants in the US recycle 30% to 50% of RAP.
Feeder Systems for Supplying RAP to Drum

A conventional cold feed system can be used to supply crushed RAP to the drum mix plant.
However, to allow easy discharge and avoid stacking problems, the bin should have
relatively low capacity, with steep sides and long and wide bottom. The RAP material
should be supplied to the bin by dribbling it rather than as a single drop because that may
cause compaction of the RAP with resultant bridging, sticking and discharge problems. The
bin should not be vibrated as this may lead to compaction of the RAP [11]. Both belt and
slat type feeders have been used successfully. On warm days, RAP should not be left in the
bin for more than two hours in case of plant shutdown. It is better to keep the bin half full
and feed frequently. Feeders should be fairly wide and should have sufficient horsepower to
be used in a start-stop operation as necessary [1].
9.6.3 Hot Recycling Materials and Mix Design
Hot mix recycling is the process in which reclaimed asphalt pavement materials are
combined with new materials, sometimes along with a recycling agent, to produce hot mix
asphalt mixtures. Just as in the case of conventional HMA, recycled mixtures must be
designed properly to ensure proper performance. When properly designed, recycled mixtures
can have properties similar to those of new conventional hot mix asphalt mixes.
There are four components in hot mix recycling: the Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP), the
virgin aggregate, the virgin bitumen binder and in some cases, a recycling agent. The two
steps in the mix design procedure are material evaluation and mix design. The objective of the
material evaluation process is to determine the important properties of the component
materials to come up with an optimum blend of materials to meet the mix requirements. The
objective of the mix design step is to determine the type and percentage of bitumen binder
with the help of results from compacted test mixes. The specific steps of the material
evaluation and mix design process are as follows [1]:
1. Obtain representative field samples of the RAP
2. Perform laboratory analysis to determine composition and properties of the RAP
3. Determine the proper amounts of virgin aggregates to be added
4. Select the type and amount of the virgin bitumen binder
5. Mix, compact and test trial mixes
6. Select the optimum combination of mix components that meet the mix design criteria
Sampling of RAP
Sampling of RAP can be conducted from existing pavements which are going to be milled;
from trucks hauling RAP from the milling operation to the stockpile site; and from the RAP
stockpiles. Sampling from existing pavement is not very common but can be done for
developing preliminary mix designs or for tendering purposes. The RAP samples can be
obtained from the trucks hauling RAP from the milling site to the HMA plant for stockpiling
again to develop some preliminary mix design during construction. Trucks should be sampled at
random.
Sampling from RAP stockpiles is quite common. At least 5–10 representative samples should
be obtained from a RAP stockpile from different locations in the stockpile. To minimise the
effect of segregation, at least 150 mm (6 inches) of the material from the surface of the
stockpile should be removed before sampling. Samples are scalped off and the material retained
on the 50 mm (2 inches) sieve is discarded. It is recommended that the sample size should be at
least 5 kg (11 lb) after sampling, of which one half should be used for mix composition testing
and the other half used for mix design. Individual samples should be used for extraction for
aggregate gradation and binder content. The AASHTO T 2 “Sampling Aggregates” (pertaining
to the samples from a stockpile) can be used as guidance for sampling RAP from the RAP
stockpiles. Once a RAP stockpile is built at a HMA plant, some highway agencies assign it a
number such as 09–03 (Stockpile no. 3 of year 2009),
which is then referenced in the recycled mix design for that stockpile. No further RAP material
is allowed to be added to that stockpile once the final sampling is made for the mix design [1].
Evaluation of RAP
The RAP material needs to be evaluated before the actual mix design. This is because with
aging and oxidation certain significant changes occur in the HMA. For the binder, this includes
loss of the lighter fractions and a corresponding increase in the proportions of the asphaltenes,
hardening (increase in viscosity), and loss of ductility. The gradation of the aggregate may
change due to degradation caused by traffic loads and the environment. Hence, the composition
of the RAP must be determined at the beginning. Most agencies determine aggregate gradation,
binder content, and viscosity at 60 oC of the bitumen recovered from the RAP. At least 5 RAP
samples should be analysed and means determined. The following guidelines are suggested for
aggregate and binder evaluation [1].
Aggregate evaluation: The AASHTO T 30 “Mechanical Analysis of Extracted Aggregate”, or

AASHTO T 27 “Sieve Analysis of Fine and Coarse Aggregates”, should be used to perform a
sieve analysis of the aggregate extracted from the RAP. Any deficiency can be corrected by
blending appropriate sieve fractions of virgin aggregate with reclaimed asphalt pavement
aggregate. It is also recommended to examine the angularity of both coarse and fine aggregates.
The AASHTO T 164 “Quantitative Extraction of Bitumen from Bituminous Paving Mixtures”
(Centrifuge method) should be used to quantitatively extract the bitumen binder from RAP and
determine aggregate gradation. The National Centre for Asphalt Technology’s (NCAT’s)
ignition oven test can also be used to determine the RAP composition (bitumen content and
aggregate gradation) if the bitumen binder is not intended to be recovered.
Aged bitumen binder evaluation: Bitumen binder should be extracted as per ASTM D
2172 “Quantitative Extraction of Bitumen from Bituminous Paving Mixtures:
Method A— Centrifuge” (Figure 9.14). Since the extraction solvent contains
bitumen and ultra-fines (which passed through the centrifuge filter), the latter
needs to be removed with secondary high-speed centrifuge (Figure 9.15),
otherwise, the recovered bitumen would give erroneous viscosity values. Recovery
of the aged bitumen binder from solvent should then be conducted as per ASTM D
5404 “Recovery of Asphalt from Solution Using the Rotary Evaporator” (Figure
9.16).
The recovered aged bitumen binder should be tested for absolute viscosity at 60 oC as per IS:
1206 (Part 2) using the vacuum capillary viscometer and not the Brookfield viscometer. This
viscosity of the aged binder is required to estimate the amount and grade of virgin bitumen
binder required in the recycled mix. If no more than 30% RAP is used in the recycled mix,
testing of the extracted bitumen binder is not required as explained later.
Figure 9.14 Centrifuge extractor for extracting bitumen.
Figure 9.15 Secondary high-speed centrifuge for removing ultra-fines from extract solvent.
Figure 9.16 Rotovap equipment for recovering bitumen from extract solvent.
Recycling Agents
There are four basic purposes for using recycling agents: (a) to restore the aged bitumen
binder characteristics to a consistency level appropriate for the desired construction; (b) to
restore the recycled HMA mix to its optimum characteristics for durability; (c) to provide
sufficient additional binder to coat the virgin aggregate added to the recycled mix; and (d) to
provide sufficient additional binder to satisfy mix design requirements. In selecting the
recycling agent, the viscosity characteristics of the combined aged bitumen binder and the
recycling agent are the determining factors.
Commercial recycling agents are commercially available in the US meeting the ASTM D 4552
“Classifying Hot Mix Asphalt Recycling Agents” as shown in Table 9.3. These agents should
be used very carefully because if slightly large amount of rejuvenating agent is used by
mistake, the hot mix can become soft easily. That is why most highway agencies use softer
grades of the conventional bitumen binders used in producing virgin hot mix asphalt. For
example in India, bitumen viscosity grades VG-30, VG-20 or VG-10 may be used. The
procedure for selecting the appropriate VG grade is described next.
Table 9.3 Physical properties of hot mix asphalt recycling agents

Selection of VG Grade for Hot Mix Recycling
According to the draft prepared for the Indian Roads Congress specification for hot recycled
mix, the VG grade of the virgin bitumen binder to be used as a recycling agent is established
as follows [12]:
If the amount of RAP in the recycled hot bituminous mix is 20% or less, the viscosity grade of
virgin bitumen shall be same as specified in Table 2 included in the Indian Roads Congress
specification for dense graded bituminous mixes, IRC: 111–2009. If the amount of RAP in the
recycled mix is 21% to 30%, the viscosity grade of the virgin bitumen shall be one grade softer
than that normally specified for 100% virgin mix. For example, if VG-30 is specified for 100%
virgin mix, VG-20 grade shall be used in the recycled mix. If the amount of RAP exceeds
30%, the viscosity grade of the virgin bitumen shall be established by using blending chart
given in ASTM D 4887 “Preparation of Viscosity Blends for Hot Recycled Bituminous
Materials”. This blending chart uses the viscosity of aged bitumen in the RAP and the
proportion of virgin binder in the total binder content of the recycled mix. Under no
circumstances, the selected viscosity grade shall be more than two grades softer than the grade
normally used for the project.
Let us consider an example on selecting the VG grade for hot mix recycling which will have
40% RAP.
Viscosity of aged RAP binder = 46000 poises
Target viscosity = 3000 poises (VG-30 paving bitumen)
Amount of RAP in hot recycled mix = 40%
Extracted average bitumen content in the RAP = 4.0%
Estimated total bitumen content in the recycled mix (same as 100% new mix) = 5.2%
Binder content contributed by RAP = (4.0)(0.40) = 1.6%
New binder to be added for the recycled mix = 5.2 – 1.6 = 3.6% Percent of
new binder in the total binder = (3.6/5.2)100 = 69%
Now, we will use the log viscosity blending chart given in Figure 9.17 with three inputs:
Percentage of new binder in the total binder of 69%; target viscosity of 3000 poises; and
viscosity of aged binder in the RAP of 46000 poises.
Figure 9.17 Selecting grade of virgin binder from viscosity blending chart.
Start vertically from 69% (new binder in total binder) on the X-axis and intersect with the
horizontal line of 3000 poises (target viscosity). That is Point A. Select Point B on the left
Y-axis at 46000 poises. Join Point B to Point A with a straight line and extend it to meet the
right Y-axis. Read 800 poises on the right Y-axis. That is the desired viscosity of the virgin
binder to be used in the recycled mix. This means VG-10 with a viscosity of 1000 +/– 200
poises will be suitable as virgin bitumen binder. The VG-10 bitumen when combined with
aged binder of the RAP, is likely to result in VG-30 bitumen in the hot recycled mix.
If Superpave performance grade (PG) 64–22 is used on a normal paving project, this same
PG grade can be used up to 20% RAP. For 21% to 30% RAP, one grade softer PG 58–28
will be used. For over 30% RAP, a blending chart using G*/sin d rather than viscosity can be
used [13].
The G*/sin d is the rutting parameter for paving binder as explained in Chapter 1 on paving
bitumen. The G* is the complex modulus and d is the phase angle of the paving binder.
Marshall Mix Design Procedures for Hot Mix Recycling
Marshall mix design procedures as given in the Asphalt Institute MS-2 and IRC: 111–2009
“Specification for Dense Graded Bituminous Mixes” should be followed as usual. Only
blending of aggregate from RAP to meet the agency’s specified gradation and heating of
RAP prior to mixing with aggregate in the laboratory would be different as explained next.
It should be noted that hot recycled asphalt mix must meet all mix design criteria specified
for 100% virgin asphalt mix [14].
The aggregate extracted from RAP should be considered as one of the aggregates which
need to be blended to meet agency’s gradation band. For example, if 18% RAP is used in
recycled mix then the proportion of the extracted aggregate in the final blend would be
18%. Rest will be virgin aggregates.
Asphalt binder from RAP should also be accounted for in the mix design process. Here is an
example. Let us assume binder content in RAP = 3.9% and 18% RAP is to be used in
recycled mix. Binder contributed by RAP is equal to (3.9)(0.18) or 0.7%. Therefore, if trial
recycled design mix is to be made with 4.5% total binder content, we need to add 3.8%
(4.5–0.7) new binder only. This means we are considering 100% of the old asphalt binder
present in the RAP to be utilised.
As mentioned earlier, the difference from conventional mix design that is to be understood is
how to incorporate RAP while preparing the mix during laboratory mix design. For this,
loose RAP is placed in a pan (Figure 9.18) and heated in oven (no more than one hour) to
mixing temperature. Virgin aggregate is heated about 10 ºC above mixing temperature. Then
RAP and virgin aggregate are mixed dry before adding new asphalt binder.
Figure 9.18 Loose RAP mix being placed in oven for heating.
9.6.4 Hot Recycled Asphalt Mix Construction
It is not possible to discern recycled mix from the new mix based on visual inspection. Hot
recycled asphalt mix construction is not different from 100% virgin asphalt mix construction.
Hot recycled asphalt mix produced in plant should meet all specification requirements
applicable to 100% virgin mix both in laboratory as well as field including in-place density.
Based on the hot recycling experience in the hot climate of the south-eastern US where VG-30
was used in the past, the following requirement has been included in the Indian Roads
Congress “draft specification for hot recycled asphalt mix” [12]: The engineer may require
during production that bitumen binder in the recycled mix be extracted, recovered, and tested
for viscosity at 60 oC. The viscosity of the recovered bitumen shall be within the range of
5000 –15000 poises. If not, the engineer may change the viscosity grade of the virgin bitumen.
The above requirement of viscosity range for bitumen recovered from recycled mix is based
on practical experience and vast amounts of test data obtained in the hot climate of
south-eastern US (Alabama, Florida and Georgia) where AC-30 (equivalent to India’s VG-30)
was used as conventional bitumen for a long time. This range is still being used although
these states have now adopted PG 67–22 bitumen grade which is approximately equivalent to
VG-30.
During recycled asphalt mix production, it should be ensured that the mix meets all
volumetric requirements such as air voids, VMA and VFA. If not, field management of mix
volumetrics should be implemented [15].
According to published research, hot recycled mix has performed equal or better than 100%
virgin mix in the field [2]. It is probably due to the fact that the binder in the recycled mix
does not age as fast as the binder in the new mix.
9.7 HOT IN-PLACE RECYCLING (HIPR)
Hot In-Place Recycling (HIPR) has been described as an on-site method that rehabilitates
deteriorated asphalt pavements and thereby minimises the use of new materials [1]. Primarily,
this process consists of four steps: (a) softening of the asphalt pavement surface with heat; (b)
scarification and/or mechanical removal of the surface material; (c) mixing of the material
with recycling agent, bitumen binder, or new asphalt mix; and (d) laydown and paving of the
recycled mix on the pavement surface.
The primary purpose of hot in-place recycling is to correct surface distresses not caused by
structural inadequacy, such as raveling, cracks, ruts, shoves, and bumps. In other words, these
pavement distresses must be confined to the top 50 mm of the road surface. It can be
performed as a single-pass operation or a multiple-pass operation. In a single-pass operation,
the virgin materials are mixed with the RAP material, whereas in the multi-step process, a
new wearing course may be added after re-compacting the RAP materials.
Hot in-place recycling has the following advantages: (a) road elevations and overhead
clearances are preserved; (b) process is comparatively economical; aggregate gradation and/or
bitumen content of the existing asphalt surface can be modified; (d) surface frictional
resistance can be improved; and (e) process needs less traffic control than the other
rehabilitation techniques. Hot in-place recycling is usually performed to a depth of 20 mm to
50 mm [1].
The Asphalt Recycling and Reclaiming Association (ARRA) have recognised [5] three basic
types of hot in-place recycling processes: (a) surface recycling, (b) repaving, and (c) remixing.
Recycling agents for rejuvenating the aged bitumen binder may be added in all the three
methods, but virgin aggregate is used only in repaving and remixing operations. The three
processes are described as follows:
9.7.1 Surface Recycling Method and Equipment
The Asphalt Recycling and Reclamation Association (ARRA) defines surface recycling as a
rehabilitation process that restores cracked, brittle, and irregular pavement in preparation for a
final thin wearing course [5].
The equipment for the surface recycling process consists of a preheating unit, a heating and
recycling unit, and a rubber-tired roller. The preheating unit heats up the old asphalt pavement
surface; the heating and recycling unit applies more heat and scarifies the old asphalt pavement
with a set of non-rotating teeth or scarifiers, and sprays the recycling (rejuvenating) agent.
Then, the old pavement and recycling materials are mixed with a standard auger, and levelled
off with a screed. A rubber-tired roller is used for compaction of the recycled mix. No new
aggregate is generally added in the surface recycling process.
Propane is the most commonly used fuel for the indirect heating process. At least two sets of
heaters are normally used for heating. The temperature of the HMA pavement is raised to 110
oC to 150 oC. Multiple rows of spring loaded scarifiers are used to scarify the heated asphalt
pavement. The spring-loaded mounting allows the scarifier to pass over road obstacles such as
manhole covers and concrete patches. Recycling (rejuvenating) agents are added to the
scarified RAP to restore the old, and oxidised bitumen binder to desired viscosity [1].
9.7.2 Repaving Method and Equipment
Repaving is defined as surface recycling method combined with simultaneous overlay of new
Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) to form a thermal (hot) bond between the new and recycled layers.
It is basically the surface recycling process followed by an overlay paving process. This
process is used to correct the pavement deficiencies in the upper 25 mm to 50 mm. Unlike the
remixing process, repaving provides 100% virgin asphalt mix at the road surface. Pavement
problems such as minor rutting (if confined only to the wearing course and not the binder
course), shrinkage cracking, and ravelling can be eliminated by this method. The repaving
process is useful when the surface recycling process is not sufficient to restore the pavement’s
desirable surface requirements, or when a conventional thick asphalt overlay is impractical or
not needed.
Very thin overlays (12 mm) may be used in conjunction with the repaving process to yield
good, and skid resistant pavements at a much less cost when compared to a conventional
HMA overlay process which uses more than 25
96. thick overlays. This is possible because both layers being hot bond together very
well [1].
Figures 9.19 shows the schematic of single-pass repaving process commonly used in the US
[1]. The process consists of preheating, heating and scarifying and/or rotary milling, applying
and mixing a recycling agent, placing the recycled mix as a levelling course, and finally,
simultaneously placing a new hot mix wearing course. In the single-pass repaving process,
two screeds are used—one used to level the scarified mix and the other used to level off the
new HMA layer. Conventional methods immediately after the screed are used to compact the
new mix, to ensure monolithic bond between the new and the recycled layer. Figure 9.20
shows the condition of road prior to repaving process. Figure 9.21 shows the repaving process
in the field and Figure 9.22 shows the road after the repaving process [1].
Figure 9.19 Schematic of hot in-place recycling (repaving) (Courtesy: US FHWA).
Figure 9.20 Road before hot in-place recycling (repaving).
Figure 9.21 Hot in-place recycling (repaving) equipment.

Figure 9.22 Road after hot in-place recycling (repaving).
9.7.3 Remixing Method and Equipment
The Asphalt Recycling and Reclaiming Association (ARRA) defines remixing as a process
which consists of the following steps: heating of the roadway to a depth of 40 mm to 50 mm;
scarification and collection of the softened RAP material into a windrow; mixing of the
material with virgin aggregates and recycling agents (and virgin asphalt mix, if required) in a
pugmill; and laying of the recycled mix as a single, homogeneous mix [5]. This procedure is
especially used when repaving method is not sufficient to restore the pavement to its desirable
properties and additional aggregates and/or virgin asphalt mix are required to provide strength
and stability to the existing pavement. In other words, the existing old asphalt mix can be
modified in terms of gradation and bitumen content. For example, a bleeding pavement can be
rectified by blending virgin mix with low bitumen content. The process can effectively
eliminate rutting, cracking, and oxidation (hardening) in the upper 50 mm of the pavement
surface [16].
Figure 9.23 gives a schematic of the remixing method. The existing pavement is first heated
and softened with a series of infrared heaters in preheating units. The temperature of the
asphalt pavement is raised to 85 oC to 104 oC. The softened material is scarified or milled,
and then collected in a windrow. The pavement is generally scarified to a depth of 25 mm to
40 mm, although about 50 mm can be achieved in the most recent equipment. The material
from the windrow is carried into a pugmill, where it is combined with a recycling agent and
predetermined amount of virgin aggregates or hot mix asphalt, which is dumped from a truck
at the front end of the remixing process and stored in a hopper. In some cases the recycling
agent is added prior to mixing in the pugmill to allow sufficient time for good dispersion and
mixing. The recycled mix is placed in a windrow, from where the material is spread with a set
of augers. A vibrating and tamping screed is then used to place and partially compact the
material [17].
Figure 9.24 shows a photograph of remixing process in the field in the US where relatively
smaller units are common to facilitate working on the urban streets. Figure 9.25 shows a road
before and after the remixing process.
Figure 9.23 Schematic of hot in-place recycling (remixing).
Figure 9.24 Hot in-place recycling (remixing) equipment.
Figure 9.25 Road before and after hot in-place recycling (remixing).
Typically, about 30% virgin asphalt mix is added to the reclaimed old mix and therefore,
fewer haul trucks are required for the virgin mix compared to conventional paving. This
allows shorter lane closures and less disruption to the traffic.
The use of high intensity infrared heaters tends to overheat and damage the bitumen binder,
causing smoke, and other undesirable emissions. New recycling equipment have been
developed which use a combination of hot air and infrared heating system. The application
of high velocity hot air in combination with low-level infrared heat is supposed to produce
uniform heating of the pavement surface. The multi-component recycling train consists of
six pieces of equipment: two preheaters, one heater miller, one heater miller with paver,
rubber tired roller and vibratory roller. A view of the equipment train is shown in Figure
9.26. It may be hard to manoeuvre such a long recycling train on streets in towns and cities.
Figure 9.26 Multi-component HIPR train with hot air/infrared heaters.
9.7.4 HIPR: Materials, Mix Design and Construction
In case of hot in-place recycling (HIPR), reclaiming or rejuvenating asphalt agent may be
required based on the tests conducted on bitumen binder recovered from the existing asphalt
pavement. Such agents are usually selected based on ASTM D 4552, “Classifying Hot Mix
Asphalt Recycling Agents” (see Table 9.3). Viscosity blending charts described in hot mix
recycling are used to establish the grade of the reclaiming agent to rejuvenate the old binder to
the desired grade such as VG-30. In case of repaving and remixing, the bitumen content and
gradation of the existing old asphalt mix must be tested so that these can be adjusted suitably
by adding virgin aggregate, new bitumen binder, or virgin asphalt mix (in case of remixing
only).
Preliminary recycled mixes can be reproduced in the laboratory before construction and
tested using the Marshall mix design procedures to ensure the recycled mix has adequate
strength and volumetric properties. Samples of recycled or rejuvenated mix should also be
obtained during construction to test for these properties. Construction of recycled mixes is
no different than 100% virgin mixes. Compaction of the recycled mix must meet the
specification requirements for example, IRC: 111–2009 “Specifications for Dense
Bituminous Mixes”.
The following quality control measures are required during HIPR operations:
1. Depth of scarifying
2. Temperature of mix behind the recycling train
3. Temperature of new asphalt mix
4. Percent new hot mix added in case of remixing
5. Thickness of recycled asphalt course after compaction 6. Bitumen content and gradation of
recycled asphalt mix (compare it with the bitumen content of the existing asphalt course)
6. Compaction of recycled mix as percentage of the theoretical maximum density (TMD)
The above test properties should be recorded on a daily basis on a quality control chart to see
the fluctuations over a period of time.
9.8 COLD MIX RECYCLING—CENTRAL PLANT
Cold mix asphalt recycling is defined as a process in which Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement
(RAP) materials are combined with new bitumen binder and/or recycling agents and/or virgin
aggregates to produce cold base mixes. It can be done at central plant as well as in-place ( in
situ). The former will be presented here first. Although in-plant cold recycling is usually
costlier than the in-place cold recycling, the former has the following advantages: (a) high
production rate; (b) better control of input materials; (c) better and controlled quality of
mixing; and (e) stockpiling capabilities especially with foamed bitumen treated materials.
Central plant recycling is also done when stockpiles of RAP are already available or when the
existing pavement has to be removed off site for some reason and in-place recycling is not an
option [18].
Cold mix recycling has been used to correct pavement distress that involves both surface and
base courses, although the method has been used mostly for base courses. One of the most
popular methods is stabilisation of cold recycled mixtures with foamed bitumen and
emulsified bitumen. In addition to bitumen materials, other types of additives include lime, fly
ash and Portland cement.
The important surface deficiencies that can be remedied by cold mix recycling are most
types of cracks, rutting and poor ride quality. The advantage of this process is that
significant structural improvements can be made without altering the horizontal or vertical
geometry of the pavement. Roadway geometrics and structure can be improved and all crack
types are fixed. It is normally required that a surface treatment or a hot mix asphalt overlay
be placed as a surface course over the cold recycled course. The surface course protects the
recycled mix from moisture damage and abrasion by traffic. The four steps in cold-mix
recycling in a central plant are: (a) removal of the existing pavement; (b) crushing and
stockpiling (described earlier in Section 9.5.32); (c) mixing; and (d) laydown, aeration, and
compaction (described later in Section 9.9.2). A wearing surface should be applied after the
completion of the cold mix recycling process.
9.8.1 Removal of Existing Pavement
The first step is to rip, scarify, pulverise or mill the existing pavement to a specified depth.
The material is then hauled to a central plant, where it is crushed further, if required, and
stockpiled. Removal of the existing pavement can be done in different ways described
earlier in hot mix recycling. An existing RAP stockpile can also be used for overlaying an
existing pavement which does not have to be removed.
9.8.2 Mixing
Mixing may be done at a batch, drum, or continuous (stabilisation) type of plant. A continuous
type of plant is most often used for mixing [18]. Figure 9.27 shows the continuous type of
mixing plant. Interlocking devices are used to maintain correct proportions of materials
automatically in a continuous mixing plant. A positive displacement bitumen metering pump
is used to control the automatic feeders, which in turn, measure and govern the flow of
materials.Temperature corrections are needed to compensate for the volumetric changes in the
materials.Some of these plants are now equipped with a belt scale to add bitumen emulsion
and mixing water by weight. Also, sometimes the plant has a screening/crushing unit between
the cold feed bins and pugmill to reduce oversized material from the stockpile. The plant may
also have a storage silo or bin for the recycled mix which allows for a more continuous plant
operation and facilitates truck loading [1].
Figure 9.27 Continuous plant for cold mix recycling at central plant.
Emulsified asphalt mixes require shorter mixing time than HMA. There is a tendency to
overmix emulsified asphalt base mixtures, which may result in “uncoating” of the coarse
aggregate particles, and premature breaking of the emulsified bitumen causing very stiff mix
[18]. Under-mixing can cause insufficient coating of the aggregates. The mix should have the
right amount of pre-coating moisture before adding binder and/or additive. The mixing time
can be controlled in a continuous pugmill plant by changing the arrangement of the paddles,
by varying the height of the end gate, or by changing the location of the bitumen spray bar.
It may not be possible to achieve 100% coating of the coarse aggregate in the mixing plant,
nor is it necessary to have full coating at the time of mixing. Further coating takes place during
handling, spreading and rolling of the mix. Difficulty in coating particular types of aggregates
should be evident in the mix design stage, and the mixing procedure should be adjusted to
produce uniform dispersion of the emulsified bitumen with a complete coating of the finer
aggregate fractions [18].
Foamed bitumen is increasingly being used in cold recycling of asphalt pavements. Hot
bitumen at a temperature of 160 oC to 180 oC turns to foam when mixed with a small amount
of cold water, typically 2% by weight [19]. Bitumen in the foamed state has very low viscosity
which facilitates coating of fine aggregate particles at ambient temperatures. Generally,
aggregate larger than 4.75 mm remain uncoated, but the fine aggregate/binder matrix provides
the necessary cohesion to the mix. The foamed bitumen technology has evolved from
mid-1950s when Prof. Ladis Csanyi of Iowa State University produced it with steam. Later,
“Mobil Oil Company” refined it further by using cold water only. The system developed by
Wirtgen in the mid-1990s injects both water and air into the hot bitumen in an expansion
chamber [19].
To be effective, the following two properties of foamed bitumen are important:
Expansion ratio: It is a measure of the volume of foamed bitumen relative to its

original volume.
Half-life: It is a measure of the stability of the foam as to how long it takes to collapse to
half of its maximum volume.
Normally accepted minimum values for the expansion ratio is 10 times, whereas, the
minimum value for half-life is 8 s. These properties can be measured in a laboratory foaming
machine available commercially. Both of these properties are influenced by amount of
water; bitumen type; bitumen source; bitumen temperature; bitumen and water pressure; and
additives [19].
Foamed bitumen has the following advantages compared to emulsified bitumen when
used in cold recycling:
1. There are no manufacturing costs involved since foaming is done at site.

2. Foamed bitumen treated material can be placed, compacted and opened to traffic
immediately unlike emulsified bitumen which may have to be aerated sometimes.
3. Foamed bitumen treated material remains workable for extended periods of time and can
be stockpiled in adverse weather to be used later.
Mix design for cold recycling in a central plant and field construction practices are
discussed next under cold in-place recycling.
9.9 COLD IN-PLACE RECYCLING (CIR)
Cold In-place Recycling (CIR) has been defined as a rehabilitation technique in which the
existing pavement materials are reused in-place [5]. The materials are mixed in-place at
ambient temperatures without the application of heat. The Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement
(RAP) material is obtained by milling, planing, or crushing the existing pavement. Virgin
aggregate or recycling agent or both are added to the RAP material which is then laid and
compacted.
The use of cold in-place recycling can restore old pavement to the desired profile, eliminate
existing wheel ruts, restore the crown and cross slope, and eliminate potholes, unevenness and
rough areas. It can also eliminate transverse, reflective, and longitudinal cracks. Some of the
major reasons for the increased use of cold in-place recycling are: the increased scarcity of
materials, particularly aggregates, the method’s high production rate and potential of cost
savings, minimum traffic disruption, ability to retain original profile, reduction of
environmental concerns, and a growing concern for depleting petroleum reserves. Cold
in-place recycling is more suitable than cold central plant recycling, particularly for secondary
low-volume roads that are located in remote areas at a considerable distance from a central
plant [7]. The CIR does not involve hauling RAP to the central plant and then hauling the cold
recycled mix back to the job site.
India has a lot of asphalt pavements with potholes and rough riding quality (Figure 9.28)
which cannot be restored effectively by placing levelling course and asphalt overlay because
the latter would not prevent all the problems to reflect through again. What is needed is to
pulverise the non-uniform existing pavement, cold recycle it in-place and use it as a uniform
base course to place asphalt overlay. This potential of rehabilitating very bad roads in India
through in-place cold recycling has not been fully realised till now.
Figure 9.28 Badly deteriorated road—good candidate for cold in-place recycling.
Cold in-place recycling can be performed in two ways: full depth and partial depth. In full
depth recycling (reclamation or stabilisation), both bound (asphalt) and portions of unbound
[such as Wet Mix Macadam (WMM) and Granular Sub-Base (GSB)] layers are crushed,
mixed with binder, and placed as a stabilised base course. In partial depth recycling, a portion
of the bound layer (asphalt), normally between 50 mm and 100 mm (2 inches and 4 inches)
and a small portion of unbound course is used to produce a base course for generally
low-to-medium traffic volume highways. With the improvement in cold milling techniques,
full depth recycling can now be used to include a substantial portion of underlying unbound
materials. As a result, the Asphalt Recycling and Reclaiming Association (ARRA) defines
cold in-place recycling as a partial depth recycling (process involving 75 mm to 100 mm or 3
inches to 4 inches) of the existing pavement and defines full depth recycling as Full Depth
Reclamation (FDR) which is considered a separate procedure. This section presents cold
in-place recycling as a partial depth recycling method only. The full depth recycling method is
described in separate section under full depth reclamation [1].
The steps of cold in-place recycling consist of preparation of construction area, milling the
existing pavement, addition of recycling agent and virgin materials, laydown, compaction, and
placement of surface course. It may not be necessary to add new aggregates in some projects.
9.9.1 CIR Construction Methods and Equipment
Three types of cold in-place recycling trains are used in the US: (a) single unit train; (b)
two- unit train; and (c) multi-unit train [16].
Single Unit Train
Figures 9.29 and 9.30, respectively, show the schematic and photograph of a single unit train
which consists of a milling machine with cutting head which removes the asphalt pavement to
the required depth and cross-section; sizes the RAP; and blend the recycling additive such as
emulsified bitumen and foamed bitumen.
Figure 9.29 Schematic of cold in-place recycling.
Figure 9.30 Single unit train for cold in-place recycling.

Most single unit trains are capable of producing uniform RAP with a maximum size of
about 50 mm by operating the cutting head in down cutting mode. The forward speed of
the milling machine should be controlled to produce RAP to a uniform size. Slower speeds
produce finer RAP. Pavements that have excessive alligator cracks make controlling the
RAP particle size difficult.
The cutting chamber has a spray bar(s) which is used to add liquid recycling additive such as
emulsified bitumen or foamed bitumen. These additives are normally provided by a tanker
truck which is either towed or pushed by the single unit train [20].
Dry additives such as Portland cement and lime can be incorporated in the CIR process by
spreading the material on the road ahead of the milling machine prior to milling. New
aggregate can also be spread likewise if it is to be incorporated in the recycled mix. Extra
aggregate can also be spread if the road is to be widened at the time of recycling [21, 22, 23].
Obviously, since the single unit train does not have crushing and screening units, the control
of RAP size is somewhat difficult. Also, the amount of recycling additive is not directly
linked to the volume of RAP to be treated. Therefore, CIR with the single unit has the lowest
degree of process control. However, it has the following advantages: (a) simplicity of
operation; (b) high production; and (c) can be manoeuvred easily in urban areas with
winding, and short radius streets.
Two-Unit Train
Two-unit train generally consist of a full-lane milling machine and a pugmill mixer-paver.
The milling machine removes the RAP and feeds it in the mixer-paver following it.
Obviously, similar to single unit train, maximum RAP size cannot be controlled very well.
However, the pugmill contains a feeder belt with a belt scale and a processing computer which
controls the amount of liquid recycling additive accurately. This provides a high degree of
process control for the amount of additive independent of the treatment volume and forward
speed on the train [16].
Figure 9.31 shows a two-unit train. The advantages of the two-train unit are (a) simplicity of
operation; (b) high production rate; and (c) better suited than the multi-unit train for CIR
on streets in urban areas.
Figure 9.31 Two-unit for cold in-place recycling.

Multi-Unit Train
The multi-unit train used in the US typically consists of a milling machine; a trailer mounted
screening and crushing unit; a trailer mounted pugmill mixer; and a paver. Once the RAP is
deposited into the screening and crushing unit, it is passed over a desired size sieve and
oversize material is diverted to a crushing unit (usually impact crusher). The crushed material
is then returned to the screening unit. Thus, the maximum size of the RAP is controlled
effectively [22].
The screened RAP is then carried to the pugmill on a belt with belt scale. The amount of
liquid recycling additive is controlled by a computerised metering system which is
interlocked with the belt scale [16].
The material leaving the pugmill is deposited directly into the paver hopper following it.
Thus, the multi-unit train provides the highest level of process control and also high
productivity. It is suitable for large highway projects. However, it has not been used in
India as yet.
9.9.2 Laydown, Aeration and Compaction
Aeration of the recycled mix is required to reduce the water and/or volatile content of the
mix. The laydown and spreading equipment used for cold recycled materials is generally the
same as for conventional hot mix asphalt. The material can be placed in a windrow after
mixing, after which it can be levelled to proper cross slope with a motor grader. The motor
grader can also be used to aerate the mix by blading the mix back and forth across the
roadway. This aeration process helps in reducing the fluid content of the mix so that it
becomes stable enough to support the weight of the compaction roller. The rate of volatile
loss is controlled primarily by the type of bitumen modifier, mix water content, gradation of
the aggregate, wind velocity, ambient temperature, and humidity [1].
If the process of aeration can be avoided by accurately controlling the mixing moisture or due
to climatic conditions, the water evaporates without further manipulation of the mix, then
conventional self-propelled pavers can be used to place the recycled cold mix [18]. Sufficient
amount of fluid must be present in the mix to avoid tearing beneath the screed or strike-off
bar. If the mix is too dry, the moisture content should be increased. The mixture should be
placed uniformly over the pavement, beginning at the point farthest from the mixing plant.
Hauling over freshly placed material should not be allowed except when required for
completion of the work.
Dense-graded cold mixes should be placed in compacted thickness of 75 mm or less, if

practical, and with multiple lifts, some curing time should be allowed between successive lifts
(two to five days under good curing conditions). Open-graded cold recycled mixes can be
placed up to thickness of about 100 mm. Construction should not continue during rainfall, or
begin when rain is expected. The emulsified bitumen base should not be placed if the ambient
temperature is below 10 oC [18].
Compaction can be done with static steel-wheel, pneumatic-tired and vibratory rollers, and
combination of two or all three. Very heavy pneumatic-tired rollers of 25 tons or more are
preferred for initial compaction (breakdown rolling) especially for thick lifts of 75 mm or
more. Vibratory rollers are regularly used with the vibration normally at high frequency and
low amplitude. The factors controlling the number of passes required for compaction are
properties of the mix, lift thickness, type and weight of roller, and environmental conditions
[20]. Cold recycled mixes tend to be “fluffy” and therefore uncompacted, loose mix
thicknesses should be increased to achieve desired compacted thickness. The moisture
content in the mix is very critical to its effective compaction. Sufficient moisture lubricates
the particles and helps in compaction, whereas, excess moisture causes low density and
moisture retention in the sealed layers. If it is found after laydown that additional curing is
needed due to excessive moisture, then compaction should be postponed unless traffic
disruption is a major problem.
9.9.3 Field Adjustments to Mix Design
The optimum moisture and emulsion contents from the laboratory-mix design are
recommended as a starting point in the field, subject to necessary adjustments by persons
experienced in cold recycling. First, the coating of the recycled mix is examined after the
surface dries. If the coating is not satisfactory (less than 75%), the moisture content is
adjusted before the emulsion content. If the mix lacks cohesion in spite of an adequate
coating, the emulsion content is increased. A crude test for evaluating cohesion has been
used. A ball of the recycled mix is made by squeezing it in the palm of one’s hand. If the ball
falls apart (friable) after the pressure is released, the mix lacks cohesion. The palm of one’s
hand should also be examined for stains. If specks (spots) of bitumen are present, the
emulsion content is generally adequate. A palm that is almost completely stained by bitumen
indicates excessive emulsion content. Obviously, rational quick test methods are needed to
make field adjustments.
9.9.4 Application of Wearing Course
Usually a wearing course, in the form of HMA overlay or a double surface dressing is
applied over the cold recycled asphalt base. The application of the overlay should be delayed
for sufficient time if the mix needs additional curing to avoid moisture retention and loss of
stability. During this delay, ideally, traffic should not be allowed on the surface. However, it
is not always practical to delay the opening of traffic. Fog seal should be used if raveling
becomes a problem. Some agencies require that the surface be applied at least 7 days after
the recycled base is constructed. Some agencies also require that the moisture content in the
top 25 mm of the recycled base should not exceed 1%. Figure 9.32 shows a road after cold
in-place recycling.
Figure 9.32 Condition of pavement after cold in-place recycling.
9.9.5 Scope of Cold Recycling in India
As mentioned earlier, the potential of cold mix recycling in restoring and upgrading badly
cracked and potholed roads (Figure 9.28) has not been fully realised as yet in India. There are
so many roads in India in poor condition some with many applications of Premix Carpet
(PMC) over Water Bound Macadam (WBM) or Wet Mix Macadam (WMM). These are good
candidates for rehabilitation with cold in-place recycling. The recycled pavement would then
serve as a good, sound and uniform base course resulting in substantial savings. This is much
better and cost effective than simply making extensive patch repairs and placing asphalt
overlay.
9.9.6 Material and Mix Design for Cold Mix Asphalt Recycling
Unlike hot mix asphalt, a standard method such as Marshall and Superpave is not available
for cold recycled asphalt mixes. This is due to difference of opinions on several factors
such as the following:
RAP particles: There are three basic theories about the RAP particles in recycled mix. First,
RAP will act like a black rock (aggregate) which needs to be coated with some additional
binder to bind the particles together. Second, the recycling additive will soften and completely
rejuvenate the existing aged binder in the RAP. Third, some softening of the existing aged
bitumen binder may take place. The third theory is widely accepted although how much
softening takes place is very hard to measure.
Curing of loose mix samples prior to compaction: Recycled mix containing emulsified
bitumen or foamed bitumen contains some water and volatiles which need to be cured partially
before compaction in the laboratory. It is difficult to simulate the field curing in the laboratory;
the former being dependent on prevailing weather conditions such as ambient temperature and
humidity. Therefore, there is difference of opinion as to how curing should be done in the
laboratory. Obviously, curing will be different for different recycling binders. After laboratory
specimens are compacted, they may need further curing before tested for strength.
Volumetric parameters: Unlike HMA there are no well-established criteria for volumteric
parameters of the compacted specimens such as VMA and air voids. Generally, cold recycled
mixes tend to be less dense graded than corresponding HMA mixes and therefore have higher
air voids.
Strength test: There is difference of opinion as to which strength test should be used to
determine the optimum content of the recycling binder. Highway agencies in the US have used
modified Marshall test; Hveem stability test; resilient modulus test; indirect tensile strength;
and unconfined compressive strength. There are no well-established acceptance criteria for all
these tests.
Regardless of the preceding differences, the mix design flow chart as shown in Figure 9.33
is generally followed for developing mix design for cold recycled asphalt mixes. The
following steps are recommended in the flow chart:
Figure 9.33 Flow chart for cold mix recycling mix design.
Sampling Existing Pavement
It would be ideal to obtain milled RAP samples from the project being considered for cold
mix recycling. However, it is generally not possible. Therefore, 150 mm diameter full-depth
cores should be taken at random throughout the project to provide sufficient material for the
mix design. If the top 100 mm is to be recycled then the cores should be sawed off at that
point. A laboratory jaw crusher can be used to crush the cores to obtain RAP samples (usually
not more than 50 mm maximum size). During actual milling operation later, the gradation of
the RAP produced in the field should be compared to that used in the laboratory mix design.
Full depth cores are taken to see the condition of the existing pavement below the course
which will be recycled to see it can support the weight of the recycling train. It is generally
recommended that a minimum of 25 mm to 50 mm asphalt pavement or 150 mm of WMM
or WBM remain in place to support the recycling train [16].
Determination of RAP Properties
First, conduct the sieve analysis of RAP particles generated in the laboratory or from milling
in the field. This gradation is required so that it can be determined whether virgin aggregate is
to be added. If so, how much and what gradation is needed for the recycled base course.
The bitumen content and gradation of the aggregate in the RAP should also be determined by
solvent extraction or NCAT ignition oven (latter if the aged bitumen is not to be recovered and
tested). It is useful information in deciding the type of the recycling binder (for example,
emulsified bitumen and foamed bitumen) and its amount. If the RAP contains excessive
bitumen content, additional binder should not cause the recycled cold mix to bleed after
subjected to traffic.
On large cold recycling projects, some highway agencies require recovery of aged bitumen
from the RAP similar to hot mix recycling discussed earlier. If the recovered binder is too soft,
the emulsion with hard bitumen residue is used and vice versa [7].
Select Amount and Gradation of new Aggregate
Based on the gradation of the RAP as received (not as extracted), it is determined how much
and what gradation of new aggregate is to be used, if any. The combined gradation should
typically be reasonably close to the base course mix used by the highway agency. If foamed
bitumen is used, it would require that the mix has some fines. Most 100% RAP mixes have
insufficient amount of fines for use with foamed bitumen.
Selection of Recycling Additive

Emulsified bitumen, foamed bitumen, rejuvenating agents and other additives such as lime and
Portland cement have been used in cold recycling. Slow setting cationic emulsions are used if
the combined gradation is dense graded whereas medium setting emulsion is used if the
combined gradation is open graded. Foamed bitumen can be used if the mix has sufficient
fines.
Emulsified recycling (rejuvenating) agents are available commercially in the US if it is desired

to rejuvenate the existing aged bitumen in the RAP. However, the process of rejuvenation is
rather complex because it is not only time and temperature dependent but is also influenced by
the properties of the rejuvenating agent and aged binder in the RAP; mechanical effects of
mixing; curing; compaction; traffic; and climatic conditions. Therefore, rather than relying on
viscosity blending charts (used in hot mix recycling), the type and amount of the recycling
agent should be based on mechanical properties of the recycled mix [16].
Coating Test Including Determining Pre-mix Moisture Content
Pre-mix moisture is required to disperse most recycling agents which are used in small
amounts. Moisture or water needed for obtaining good coating is usually more than that
required for compaction. That is why field aeration is usually needed before compaction.
Therefore, coating tests should be conducted in the laboratory to determine how much
pre-mix moisture is needed for coating. Most RAPs have some natural moisture.
However, additional moisture may be needed.
Water is added to the RAP in 0.5% increments by weight of RAP and is mixed for about 30 s
to dampen it. The recycling agent or binder is then added and mixed for additional 60 s
preferably by hand mixing using a bowl and spoon. If the coating is not satisfactory (at least
90%), additional 0.5% water is added and procedure repeated until good coating is obtained.
Preparation of Trial Mixes
Once the pre-mix moisture is established with a fixed, selected amount of the recycling
additive, the amount of the recycling additive is varied usually in increments of 0.5% by
weight of RAP. For example, emulsified bitumen may be varied and used as follows: 1.5%,
2.0%, 2.5% and 3.0%. Thus, several trial batches are made at varying amounts of the
recycling additive or binder.
Curing and Compaction
Once the trial mixes are made, they need to be cured before compaction by following the
agency’s curing procedure in terms of temperature and time. After curing, specimens are
compacted again by using the agency’s compaction procedure. Recent work has shown that
75 blows of Marshall hammer at field mix ambient temperature of 40 oC resulted in
densities comparable to field densities [16].
Strength Testing
Cold recycled mixes increasingly develop strength as the compacted specimens lose their
excess water and cure. The curing period to be used varies from agency to agency. Specimens
are usually cured in the molds, so they do not get damaged if removed too soon. As mentioned
earlier, different strength test methods and acceptance criteria are used by highway agencies in
the US. Strength tests consist of: Marshall stability; Hveem stability; unconfined compressive
strength using AASHTO T 167, “Compressive Strength of Bituminous Mixture”; and resilient
modulus using ASTM D 7369 “Test Method for Resilient Modulus of Bituminous Mixes in
Indirect Tension Test”.
Of the preceding strength tests, the resilient modulus and the unconfined compressive
strength (UCS) are considered reasonably sensitive to changes in recycling binder content
and therefore are recommended to select the optimum recycling binder content [19, 22].
Moisture Susceptibility
In case moisture susceptibility is a problem in the region due to hydrophilic aggregates, it is

recommended to use AASHTO T 283, “Resistance of Compacted Bituminous Mixes to
Moisture Induced Damage” as also specified in IRC: 111–2009, “Specifications for Dense
Graded Bituminous Mixes”. Typical tensile strength ratios (TSR) specified for cold recycled
mixes are greater than 70% to 80% [16].
9.9.7 Job Mix Formula and Field Adjustments
The Job Mix Formula (JMF) developed from the preceding mix design procedure should
specify the gradation of the virgin aggregate (if to be added); type of recycling additive and its
optimum content; pre-mix water content; and laboratory compacted optimum density. The
laboratory JMF should be considered as a starting point for actual construction because field
adjustments would need to be made by qualified and experienced personnel as warranted by
conditions prevailing in the field. Slight adjustments in pre-mix water of 1% to 2% and/or
emulsified bitumen content up to 0.5% or more could be necessary.
These adjustments to water and recycling or binder content are necessary because changes
in the gradation of RAP are quite likely due to prevailing weather (gradation becomes
coarser with colder ambient temperatures) and changes in the speed of cold milling machine
(gradation becomes coarser with higher speeds). Also, the existing pavement may be
non-uniform in some stretches. However, any change to the recycling additive content
should be made with caution to minimise the potential for over asphalted mix which may
cause stability problems.
9.9.8 Cold Recycling Construction Quality Control
The following test procedures are suggested for quality control operations. The depth of
pulverisation can be obtained by completely removing the pulverised material adjacent to an
unpulverised road surface and measuring the depth. The depth of pulverisation can also be
calculated if the density of the existing road is known and the pulverised material is removed
from a known area (a steel frame can be used) and weighed [1].
The amount of pre-mix water can be calculated from the amount of water actually used.
If it is possible to obtain the sample of the pulverised material with water only, the water
content can be determined rapidly by heating the pulverised sample to constant weight in a
microwave oven.
The amount of recycling agent (such as emulsified asphalt) can be determined by extraction
or ignition test on the recycled mix. However, the amount of pre-mix water, if any, must be
determined first and accounted for in the extraction or ignition test. The amount of recycling
agent can also be determined from the actual quantities used on the project.
Density of the compacted mat can be determined using a nuclear density gauge. However, the
water content in the compacted mat must be accounted for calculating dry compacted density.
Usually it is not possible to obtain intact cores because water is used in the coring operation
and it damages the recycled mix which is not completely cured just after compaction.
If a control strip is constructed to establish rolling pattern, its density can be measured by a
nuclear density gauge and this density can be used as a target density for the remaining
project. If the pre-mixed water content is held relatively consistent, there is no need to
determine the dry density of the mat.
9.10 FULL DEPTH RECLAMATION
Full Depth Reclamation (FDR) has been defined as a cold recycling method where all of the
asphalt pavement courses and a predetermined amount of underlying unbound materials are
reclaimed and treated to produce a stabilised base course [1]. Different types of recycling
additives, such as emulsified bitumen, foamed bitumen, Portland cement and hydrated lime,
are added to obtain an improved uniform base. The five main steps involved in this process
are pulverisation; introduction of recycling additive; shaping of the mixed material;
compaction; and application of double surface dressing or asphalt wearing course. If the
in-place material is not sufficient to provide the desired depth of the treated base, new
materials such as aggregate may be imported and included in the processing. This method of
recycling is normally performed to a depth of 100 mm to 300 mm [23].
Full depth reclamation has the following advantages [1, 24, 25]:
1. The structure of the pavement can be improved significantly without changing the
geometry of the pavement and shoulder reconstruction.
2. It can restore old pavement to the desired profile, eliminate existing wheel ruts, restore
crown and slope, and eliminate potholes, irregularities, and rough areas.
3. Pavement widening operations can also be accommodated in the process.
4. A uniform pavement structure is obtained by this process to build upon.
5. It can eliminate alligator, transverse, longitudinal, and reflection cracking. Ride quality can
be improved.
6. Frost susceptibility may be improved by incorporating suitable materials in the

pavement.
7. Production cost is low because haulage is hardly involved, and only a thin asphalt overlay
or surface dressing is required on most projects.
8. Materials and energy are conserved, and air quality problems resulting from dust, fumes,
and smoke are eliminated. The process is environmentally desirable, since disposal problem is
avoided.
Full depth reclamation has been recommended for pavements with deep rutting,
load-associated cracks, reflection cracks, and pavements with all kinds of maintenance
patches. The FDR is particularly recommended for pavements having a base or subgrade
problem such as high plasticity, poor gradation or lack of compaction when constructed.
9.10.1 Equipment and Construction Methods

The development and widespread use of cold milling machines and the ease in which they
removed and sized existing asphalt pavements for recycling led to the production of large,
high horse-powered (for example, 650 HP), and self-propelled reclaimers (Figure 9.34).
These machines can reclaim the existing pavement to a depth of 300 mm or more which may
include asphalt courses and underlying unbound materials.
Figure 9.34 Full depth reclamation (Courtesy: Wirtgen).
These reclaimers have specially designed cutting drums equipped with replaceable tungsten
carbide teeth which can pulverise and mix the asphalt pavement without producing large
chunks. During reclaiming and pulverisation, the cutting or milling drum is in “up-cut”
mode, which tends to cool the cutting tools and minimise excessive wear as they move
through the underlying moist materials (such as WMM and GSB) and attack the asphalt
course from bottom upwards. Incorporating a minimum of 25 mm underlying granular
material is considered a good rule of thumb [16].
How much of the underlying granular base should be mixed with the asphalt layers during the
FDR process depends on the following:
1. Thickness of the asphalt layer relative to granular base (WMM) and subbase (GSB)
2. Gradation and physical properties of the granular materials
3. Which granular layer is unsuitable in terms of high plasticity index and/or gradation and
needs to be improved
4. Whether or not a stabilising agent(s) will be used
The FDR train primarily consists of: (a) self-propelled high horse power reclaimer; (b) motor
grader; and (c) one or more heavy rollers. This train does the following sequential functions
[16]:
1. Pulverisation and sizing of the existing asphalt layers and selected depth of underlying
granular base layers
2. Application of stabilising agent(s), if required
3. Mixing of reclaimed material and stabilising agent
4. Initial rolling
5. Rough grading with a motor grader
6. Intermediate rolling
7. Intermediate shaping
8. Final compaction
Along with the three pieces of FDR equipment mentioned above, additional equipment may
include: (a) dump trucks; (b) aggregate spreader; (c) water tanker with spray bar; (d)
calibrated bulk spreader of dry stabilising agents such as lime and cement; (e) mixer and
tankers for slurry application of stabilising agent; (f) emulsified bitumen tanker trucks; and
(g) computerised liquid or foamed bitumen additive system on the reclaimer [16, 24].
Most reclaimers have an 8 ft (2.4 m) wide cutting drum. In some models, it can be extended to
a width of 12 ft (3.7 m). The reclaimer has a cutting drum which can be rotated at different
speeds and also has manual or automatic depth control capabilities. If additional aggregate is
required to increase the thickness of layer to be processed and/or modify the gradation of the
RAP, it can be spread ahead of the reclaiming train. Similarly, dry recycling agents such as
lime and cement can also be spread ahead on the reclaiming train.
If foamed bitumen is used as a stabiliser additive, the reclaimer is equipped with a

computerised on-board foam generating system. It must have heated bitumen tank and water
tank. The computerised system adjusts the amount of foamed bitumen being added relative
to forward speed of the reclaimer. A tanker full of emulsified bitumen is part of the FDR
train if it is used as a stabilising agent. A water tanker is also used if pre-mix water is to be
injected into the reclaimer.
If the reclaimed material is above the optimum moisture content (OMC) needed for
compaction, the motor grader is used to aerate it before it is compacted. The rollers
typically used for compaction of the reclaimed material are large and heavy. Large
pneumatic and/or vibratory rollers (including vibratory padfoot rollers) are used for
compaction.
Compaction of reclaimed material stabilised with emulsified bitumen should be completed at

or just after the emulsion starts to break, that is, when the reclaimed material starts to change
from brown to blackish colour. The moisture content of the reclaimed material prior to
emulsion breaking is adequate to act as a lubricant for getting good compaction. Also, after
emulsion breaks, its viscosity increases significantly which would require increased effort to
achieve the required compaction [16]. Reclaimed material stabilised with foamed bitumen can
usually be compacted after mixing. Compaction should be completed before the mix starts to
dry out.
Reclaimed materials that have been stabilised by bituminous or chemical stabilising agents
need to be cured adequately to achieve the ultimate strength; to prevent raveling under
vehicular traffic; and to facilitate placement of wearing surface. Time for initial curing is
less than half hour for foamed bitumen and about one hour or more for emulsified bitumen.
However, final curing can take about a week or so before the wearing surface can be placed.
Depending on the traffic, wearing course can consist of double surface dressing or asphalt
overlay [25].
9.10.2 Mix Design for FDR
The mix design for FDR is generally similar to that of cold recycling described earlier in
detail except that sometimes it is difficult to obtain and compact representative samples of
reclaimed mix which consists of both asphalt and granular materials. It may be helpful to
obtain large and integrated samples of the material to be recycled; remove the material
exceeding 25 mm in size; evaluating the remaining material with different types and
amounts of stabilising agent; and develop the optimum mix design.
At the present time, the amount of emulsified bitumen, foamed bitumen, Portland cement or
lime is mostly selected based on past experience. For example, about 2% of these stabilising
agents by weight have been used on most FDR projects in the US. Efforts to design FDR
mixes and relate mix design to field performance have been made and are continuing [26,
27].
Summary
Recycling of existing asphalt pavement materials to produce new pavement materials results
in several benefits such as: (a) substantial cost savings over the use of new materials; (b)
conservation of natural resources by reducing the need for new materials such as aggregate
and bitumen; (c) pavement geometrics as well as pavement thickness can be maintained; and
(d) considerable amount of energy savings compared to conventional construction techniques.
That is why over the years, recycling has become one of the most attractive pavement
rehabilitation alternatives.
The US Asphalt Recycling and Reclaiming Association define five different types of
recycling methods: (a) Cold planing; (b) Hot recycling; (c) Hot in-place recycling; (d) Cold
recycling (both in-plant and in-place); and (e) Full depth reclamation.
Cold planing is described as an automatic method of removing asphalt pavement to a desired

depth and restoration of the surface to a desired grade and slope and free of humps, ruts and
other distresses. Cold planing is usually done with a milling machine.
Hot recycling or hot mix recycling is the process in which Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement
(RAP) material is combined with new materials, sometimes with softer grade of bitumen or a
recycling agent, to produce Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) mixtures. Both batch and drum type hot
mix plants are used to produce recycled mix.
Hot in-place recycling (HIPR) consists of a method in which the existing pavement is heated
and softened, and then scarified or hot rotary mixed to a specified depth. New HMA or
recycling agent may be added to the RAP material during the recycling process. The Asphalt
Recycling and Reclaiming Association (ARRA) have identified three HIPR processes; (a)
surface recycling, (b) repaving, and (c) remixing.
In cold in-place recycling (CIR), the existing pavement material is reused without the
application of heat. The process includes pulverising the existing pavement, sizing of the RAP,
application of recycling agent, placement, and compaction. Normally, emulsified bitumen or
foamed bitumen is added as recycling asphalt binder. Cold recycling can also be performed in
a central plant.
Full depth reclamation has been defined as a recycling method where all of the asphalt
pavement section and a predetermined amount of underlying material are treated to produce
a stabilised base course. This method of recycling is normally performed to a depth of 100
mm to 305 mm (4 inches to 12 inches).
All recycling methods have been described in detail in this chapter in terms of (a) pavement
distresses which are rectified by it; (b) construction methods and equipment; and (c) materials
and mix design.
Although all recycling techniques offer some advantages over conventional rehabilitation
techniques, the choice of a particular recycling method should be primarily on the basis of the
type of distress shown by the existing pavement. This is because all of the recycling methods
are not equally suited for treating different types of distress. Guidelines for selecting the most
suitable recycling method for a project are included in this chapter.
QUESTIONS
1. List and elaborate at least four benefits of recycling of asphalt pavements.
2. Define hot recycling; hot in-place recycling; cold in-place recycling; and full depth
reclamation.
3. Briefly describe the process of cold milling of existing asphalt pavement.
4. Describe briefly how hot mix asphalt recycling is done in a batch plant and in a drum
plant.
5. Draw a sketch to show which primary modifications are needed to an existing batch
plant to facilitate hot recycling of the Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP) material.
6. What are the limitations on the amount of RAP which can be recycled in a typical asphalt
batch plant?
7. How the Viscosity Grade (VG) of new bitumen is selected for hot recycling in a
central HMA plant?
8. Describe the differences between the repaving method and the remixing method used in
hot in-place recycling.
9. Describe briefly the cold in-place recycling in terms of its suitability; construction
methods; and equipment.
10. Briefly describe the full depth reclamation in terms of its suitability; construction
methods; and equipment.
References
1. Kandhal, P.S. and R.B. Mallick, “Pavement Recycling Guidelines for State and Local
December 1997.
2. Kandhal, P.S., S.S. Rao, and B. Young, “Performance of Recycled Mixtures in State of
Georgia”, Federal Highway Administration Report No. FHWA-GA-94–9209, 1994.
3. Kandhal, P.S., “Recycling of Asphalt Pavements: An Overview of Current Practices”,

Proceedings of the Second International Symposium on Maintenance and Rehabilitation of
Pavements, Auburn, Alabama, 29 July— 1 August 2001.
4. Kandhal, P.S., “Recycling of Asphalt Pavements: An Overview”,
Proceedings of the Indian Roads Congress, International Seminar on Innovations in

Construction and Maintenance of Flexible Pavements, Agra, 2–4 September 2006.
5. “An Overview of Recycling and Reclamation Methods for Asphalt Pavement

Rehabilitation”, Asphalt Recycling and Reclaiming Association, Annapolis, MD, 1992.
6. Roberts, F.L., P.S. Kandhal, E.R. Brown, D. Lee, and T.W. Kennedy, Hot Mix Asphalt
Materials, Mix Design and Construction, 2nd ed., NAPA Education Foundation, Lanham,
MD, 1996.
7. Kandhal, P.S., “Asphalt Cold Recycling Technology in Pennsylvania”,
Proceedings of the Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists, Vol. 53, 1984.
8. Kandhal, P.S., “Tentative Guidelines for Cold Milling of Asphalt Pavements”, Draft
prepared for Indian Roads Congress, 26 February 2013.
9. “Recycling HMA Pavements”, National Asphalt Pavement Association, Information

Series IS: 123, 1996.
10. “Asphalt Hot-Mix Recycling”, The Asphalt Institute Manual Series MS-20,
Second Edition, 1986.
11. “Hot Recycling in HMA Batch Plant”, National Asphalt Pavement Association,
Information Series IS: 71, 1985.
12. Kandhal, P.S., “Tentative Guidelines for Hot Recycled Plant-mixed Dense Graded
Bituminous Mixes”, Draft prepared for Indian Roads Congress, 26 February 2013.
13. Kandhal, P.S. and K.Y. Foo, “Hot Mix Recycling Design Using Superpave
Technology”, ASTM, Special Technical Publication 1322, 1997.
14. Kandhal, P.S., E.R. Brown, and S. Cross, “Guidelines for Hot Mix Recycling in
Georgia”, Federal Highway Administration Report No. FHWA-GA-89–8807, 1987.
15. Kandhal, P.S., K.Y. Foo, and J.A. D’Angelo, “Field Management of Hot Mix Asphalt
Volumetric Properties”, ASTM, Special Technical Publication 1299, 1996.
16. Asphalt Recycling and Reclaiming Association, Basic Asphalt Recycling

Manual, 2001.
17. Button, J.W., D.N. Little, and C.K. Estakhri, “Hot In-Place Recycling of Asphalt
Concrete”, Transportation Research Board, Synthesis of Highway Practice 193, 1994.
18. Asphalt Institute, “Cold-Mix Recycling”, Asphalt Institute Manual Series MS-20,
Second Edition, 1986.
19. Wirtgen Cold Recycling Manual, Second Edition, Wirtgen, Germany, 2004.
20. Scherocman, J.A., “Cold In-Place Recycling of Low Volume Roads”, Transportation
Research Board, Transportation Research Record 898, 1983.
21. Kandhal, P.S. and W.C. Koehler, “Cold Recycling of Asphalt Pavements on
Low-Volume Roads”, Fourth International Conference on Low-Volume Roads, Transportation
Research Board, Research Record 1106, 1987.
22. Kandhal, P.S . , “Recycling of Asphalt Pavements: An Overview”,
Proceedings of the Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists, Vol. 66, 1997.
23. Epps, J.A., “Cold-Recycled Bitumionus Concrete Using bituminous Materials”,

Transportation Research Board, NCHRP Synthesis of highway Practice 160, 1990.
24. Huffman. J.E., “Full Depth Reclamation: State of the Practice”, Journal of the
25. Kearney, E. and J. Huffman, “Full Depth Reclamation Process”, Transportation Research
Board, Transportation Research Record 1684, 1999.
26. Mallick, R.B., et al., “Laboratory Study of Full-Depth Reclamation Mixes”,

27. Mallick, R.B., R.L. Bradbury, and P.S. Kandhal, “Evaluation of Performance of
Full-Depth Reclamation Mixes”, Transportation Research Board, Transportation Research
Record 1809, 2002.
Interesting Investigations of Premature Failures of
Asphalt Pavements
10.1 INTRODUCTION
No forensic investigation would be needed if there are roads (actually no road!) as shown
in Figure 10.1. However, asphalt roads have been constructed and are in use now across
the world. Sometimes these roads do fail prematurely and need to be investigated.
Figure 10.1 Roads (actually no road!) in the past.
The author (Prof. Kandhal) had the privilege of investigating many premature failures
of asphalt pavements in the US, India and across the world. For such investigations,
knowledge of pavement materials; mix design; and construction which has been
presented in this book is very helpful. First, author’s general investigational approach
for such assignments will be presented.
This will be followed by 8 examples of actual investigations, their resolutions, and lessons
learnt. It should be noted that these investigations were generally qualitative and subjective
to address a specific problem observed on the project. No thorough, classic forensic
investigations were carried out. Some problems were strange or rare. Some required just
commonsense to resolve. Nonetheless, the problems should be interesting especially for
the practicing highway engineers.
10.2 GENERAL INVESTIGATIONAL APPROACH
Gather and study the project construction records such as pavement structure; materials used;
mix design; and construction quality control test data. If possible, talk to people who
supervised the construction to find out about any problem(s) encountered at that time. Once,
the author investigated a road in Afghanistan which could not be visited due to insurgency
there at that time. Therefore, he visited Turkey to discuss the construction operations with the
Turkish contractor’s personnel.
Inspect the road closely by walking along it. If the project is long, drive slowly and stop at
many places to look at the road closely. Take long, intermediate and close up photographs of
the distressed asphalt pavement for record. The observed distress may be associated with any
project features such as cut/fill; drainage conditions; traffic intensity in terms of
loaded/unloaded trucks; and traffic merging from the side roads. These details are to be noted.
Select a representative “poor” section about 200 m long which shows the major distress
(such as raveling, bleeding, rutting, cracking and potholes) being experienced on the project
which needs to be investigated. On most projects, it is usually possible to locate a small
stretch of the road which is relatively free of the distress. This will be called “good” (or
“fair”) section.
Obtain at lease 7 core samples each from “poor” and “good” sections so that the test data can
reasonably be analysed statistically. It is recommended to obtain 150 mm diameter full-depth
cores at random locations within the 200 m long sections. Sufficient materials cannot be
obtained from 100 mm diameter cores. All cores should be taken in the same lane and in the
same wheel track which is experiencing the distress. Test values such as density do vary
across the pavement. Samples of Wet Mix Macadam (WMM), Granular Sub-Base (GSB), and
subgrade can be obtained as well from pits at these locations.
Test pits should also be made near some of the core locations with a jack hammer (without
adding any water). Samples of each layer should be placed in sealed plastic bags so that their
in situ moisture contents can be determined in the laboratory. These pits would also provide
more amount of mix from each course for further testing.
The following procedures and tests are normally recommended:
1. Measure the thickness of each asphalt course such as Bituminous Concrete (BC) and
Dense Bituminous Macadam (DBM) in the full depth core.
2. Examine each asphalt course carefully for stripping. (Sometimes stripping is not visible
outside.) Too many “poke” marks (holes) generally indicate lack of compaction.
3. Saw off each asphalt course and determine its bulk specific gravity.
4. Warm the sawed off course in an oven (about 100 oC) so that it can be crumbled with
hand easily. Examine if the mix has stripped. If so, estimate the extent of stripping on both
coarse aggregate and fine aggregate. Stripping of fine aggregate (sand) is more critical than
stripping on coarse aggregate because the former kind of works as mortar and binds the larger
particles together.
5. Determine the Theoretical Maximum Density (TMD) of the loose mix (ASTM D
2041).The TMD will be used in conjunction with the bulk specific gravity of the core
to calculate percent air voids in the core.
6. Determine the bitumen content and gradation of the mix in each course using the
centrifuge solvent extraction method or National Centre for Asphalt Technology’s
(NCAT’s) ignition oven. If for any reason the aged bitumen binder is to be recovered
for further testing then only solvent extraction method should be used.
7. Determine in situ density of WMM, GSB and subgrade at the same chainage as the cores.
Determine in situ moisture contents and gradation of WMM, GSB, and subgrade as well.
California Bearing Ratio (CBR) of the subgrade may need to be tested, if necessary.
8. Tabulate the test data obtained for 7 cores from “poor” section and 7 cores from
“good” section. Determine the mean and standard deviations for each property such
as bitumen content, gradation and density.
9. Compare the means from “poor” section with the means from “good” section to see if there
are significant differences which may explain the cause(s) of distress. Usually, one or
more causes become apparent from this comparison. Also, higher standard deviation
values for any property indicate lack of uniformity due to poor quality control.
10. Record and report the findings from the test data and general observations
made in the field.
10.3 INVESTIGATION 1
A “mill and fill” asphalt overlay work was completed in October 1990 on a 4-lane interstate
highway in the US. The work consisted of cold milling the existing asphalt pavement to a
depth of 90 mm and filling with 70 mm thick open graded binder course of 25 mm Nominal
Maximum Aggregate Size (NMAS) and 20 mm thick Open Graded Friction Course (OGFC).
It should be noted that the 70 mm open graded binder course used on this project was similar
to open graded Bituminous Macadam (BM) used in India and was probably used there for the
first time. The OGFC is used in the US as a permeable wearing course so that rainwater can
flow down its 20 mm thickness; flow towards the shoulders; and exit at its exposed edge.
Thus, OGFC does not allow any accumulation of rainwater on the pavement surface and
therefore provides high skid resistance and minimises hydroplaning. Gradation-wise OGFC is
similar to Premix Carpet (PMC) used in India except that the latter is more permeable but is
sealed at the top with a sand seal coat which can sometimes be eroded flooding it with water.
While the OGFC was being placed on the Eastbound (EB) lanes, it was observed that the
underlying 70 mm open graded binder course was taking in water when it rained. (In most
states in the US, rains occur almost throughout the year.) Therefore, the highway agency
placed 25 mm thick dense graded asphalt wearing course on the Westbound (WB) lanes to
avoid the problem. Next year in 1991, potholes started to appear on this interstate highway
primarily on EB lanes. Some potholes also developed on the WB lanes. The road was
inspected by the author in September 1991. Figures 10.2 and 10.3 show the condition of the
highway at that time. The highway agency tried to do patch repais sometimes repeatedly at the
same place. Three conditions could be seen on the pavement surface. First, white stains would
appear on the road surface. Next, surface would show bleeding/flushing. Finally, pothole
would develop.Figure 10.4 shows a close up of all three conditions beside each other.
Figure 10.2 Potholes in the right EB lane.
Figure 10.3 Failed patches in the right EB lane.

Figure 10.4 Close up of white stain; flushing; and pothole.
Questions
1. What led to the development of these three conditions on the road surface within a year?
2. Why these pavement surface distresses developed in the right lane and not in the left lane
(Figures 10.2 and 10.3)?
3. Why most of the potholes occurred in the right wheel track of the right lane?
Note: The US has right hand drive traffic. Therefore, right lane is the slow lane carrying
most traffic; left lane is used for overtaking or passing only.
Resolution
After studying the project construction records, cores were obtained (Figure 10.5) in the
outside wheel track of the Eastbound (EB) right lane (lane carrying most traffic). Some cores
were obtained intact as shown in Figure 10.6. However, these cores showed a very open
structure of the binder course. In most of the cores, only wearing course OGFC was intact but
the binder course which was badly stripped crumbled (Figure 10.7). Trial pits showed
presence of free water in the open graded binder course although it had not rained for 3 to 4
days.
Figure 10.5 Coring in the right EB lane.
Figure 10.6 Open structure of the binder course below OGFC in the core.
Figure 10.7 OGFC intact (left); binder course crumbled (right).
Obviously, water was penetrating the open graded binder course mix through the permeable
OGFC and this water was blocked by the impervious shoulder thus causing a “bath tub” effect.
Unfortunately, this segment of the interstate highway did not have pavement edge drains. Most
potholes were in the outside wheel track area which was continuously being fed with water
from the remaining width of the pavement towards the median. Therefore, the “bath tub” effect
was accentuated near the pavement edge due to cross slope. Heavy trucks had created water
pore pressure in the binder mix and caused stripping of bitumen binder from the aggregate.
All classical three stages of stripping were evident on the road surface (Figure 10.4): (a)
Water/moisture vapour within the pavement transported aggregate fines or dust from
partially stripped aggregate onto the road surface Migration of bitumen binder to road
surface again by moisture/moisture vapour causing bleeding/flushing (c) Development of
potholes in the flushed area Once the asphalt surface is flushed, moisture from the
underlying binder course cannot escape any more and the stripping phenomenon
accelerates causing potholes due to badly stripped aggregate in the binder course.
Visual observations of the Westbound (WB) lanes which had dense graded asphalt wearing
course did not show any major distress at the time of inspection; possibly it was not
allowing the rainwater freely into the open graded binder course similar to OGFC.
However, stripping might have initiated (to a lesser degree) in the open graded binder
course but it would possibly take more time to be apparent on the road surface.
Lessons Learnt
1. Do not use open graded binder course (such as BM) within the flexible pavement
system because it will attract moisture/water which will cause stripping under traffic.
2. Place OGFC only on highly impermeable surface such as BC grading 2.
3. Provide pavement edge drains at least in areas where the pavement is almost level
with the adjacent ground.
A major 4-lane state highway project in India had developed extensive fatigue cracking and
potholes especially in the left slow lane carrying heavy truck traffic. The existing pavement
which was constructed in 2001 consisted of the following courses:
1. 40 mm BC
2. 100 mm DBM in two layers
3. 250–300 mm WMM
4. 250–300 mm GSB
5. Subgrade
Cracking and potholes started to develop gradually on this project. Figure 10.8 shows the
general view of the 4-lane road. Note the raised median with plants and the service road
which has a drop off from the main road.
Figure 10.8 General view of the 4-lane road with raised median.
It was decided to undertake Hot In-Pace Recycling (HIPR) to rectify the cracking and
potholing problem. The HIPR was discussed in detail in Chapter 9 on asphalt pavement
recycling. The HIPR was completed in June 2006. Briefly, the process involves heating
the existing pavement; scarifying it; mixing 30% additional new BC mix with the hot
scarified mix in a travelling pugmill; laydown with a paver screed; and compacting the
blended mix.
After the HIPR, the project had about 52 mm thick recycled BC and looked like a newly paved
highway. Unfortunately, when monsoon rains started in July 2006, potholes started to appear
in the slow, left lanes within a month or so. First, alligator type cracks would appear (Figure
10.9) and then potholes which had to be patched (Figure 10.10).
Figure 10.9 Alligator cracks in the left, slow lane.
Figure 10.10 Patched potholes in the left, slow lane.
By the time the project was investigated in November 2006, the project had developed
extensive cracking and potholes.
Question
How come the newly recycled 52 mm thick BC using the HIPR process started to
develop cracks and potholes within a month or so after rains started?
Resolution
As usual test pits were dug on the recycled road using a jack hammer (Figure 10.11) without
adding water so that individual pavement layers of recycled BC, both layers of DBM, WMM
and GSB could be examined. The recycled BC was found to be dense and intact. However, the
DBM underlying the recycled BC had stripped badly; had no cohesion, and was disintegrated
as shown in Figure 10.12. A step was made within the DBM and water was poured on the
upper step, it came out immediately from the side because the DBM was highly permeable due
to loss of bitumen from stripping (Figure 10.13).
Figure 10.11 Digging test pit with jack hammer.
Figure 10.12 Badly stripped old DBM.
Figure 10.13 Steps made in the old DBM to pour water which came out from side.
The deteriorated DBM was wet and hardly providing any support to the recycled BC.
That is why the recycled BC although intact started to develop clusters of alligator type
cracks which developed into potholes especially in the wheel tracks of the left, slow
lane which carried heavy traffic.
Obviously, when hot in-place recycling of the existing 50 mm BC was performed, the
underlying DBM course was not inspected which led to this situation. It was questioned
during investigations that the recycled BC was allowing infiltration of water into the
underlying DBM. However, it was proven incorrect when a grease ring type field
permeability test was conducted on the surface of the recycled BC; the water within the ring
stood there for hours with no significant infiltration (Figure 10.14).
Figure 10.14 Grease ring test on the surface of the recycled BC.
Lessons Learnt
1. The HIPR can remove surface defects only within 50 mm from the road surface.
2. Before performing HIPR, full depth pavement cores should be obtained from the
existing pavement to ensure all underlying layers are not stripped and are maintaining their
integrity.
3. Anti-stripping agent must be used in the HMA if the designed mix fails the AASHTO T
283, “Resistance of Compacted Hot Mix Asphalt to Moisture Induced Damage” as per IRC:
111–2009 and the current, MORTH specification for dense graded bituminous mixes. This
was probably not done in case of the old DBM mix.
Potholes were observed on a 4-lane national highway in India primarily in the right lane next
to the raised median with shrubs. Although the right lane is supposed to be the passing lane,
it was used as slow travel lane by almost all trucks and buses. Unfortunately, this is the
situation throughout India at the present time due to lack of enforcement of proper lane
driving. Most potholes were observed in the left wheel track of the right lane, which had to
be patched from time to time (Figure 10.15). This lane is next to the raised median with
shrubs. As soon as the raised median ends to allow for cross roads or U-turns, the potholes
were not observed.
Figure 10.15 Patched potholes in the right lane next to raised median.
Question
Why potholes are appearing in the right lane and that too mostly in the left wheel track of
that lane?
Resolution
When it rains, water falling into the raised median with shrubs saturates its soil. Now, the
water does not always have to soak in the ground vertically, it can also move laterally under
hydraulic head and penetrate the road pavement courses especially the GSB and WMM.
Saturated GSBand WMM can induce stripping in the DBM and later in the BC. This
phenomenon has been observed in the US in cut areas. Once the pavement layers get
saturated with water, the pore pressure created by heavy trucks which are plying (wrongfully)
in the right lane can scour the bitumen off the aggregate surface resulting in stripping. Once
the DBM gets stripped, it is unable to provide adequate support to the BC, and cracks and
potholes develop. This hypothesis is proven because as soon as the raised median is not there,
there are no potholes.
The policy of providing raised median should be reexamined in India because it has the
potential of creating such situations where conditions are favourable for lateral movement of
water from the median.
In this case, right lane is not only next to the median from where water is likely to infiltrate,
it is also subjected to heavy traffic. At the present time, there are more potholes in the left
wheel track of the right lane because it is being subjected to relatively higher axle loads
compared to the right wheel track due to camber (cross slope) which leans the vehicles
toward left.
Lessons Learnt
The use of raised median with shrubs has the potential of causing stripping in the asphalt
layers of the adjacent traffic lane. Raised median should be replaced with a swale which would
also help in subsurface drainage. Guard rails or New Jersey barrier can be provided at the edge
of shoulders to prevent vehicles from making U-turns. This is the general practice in the US.
Total reconstruction of an old Soviet era, 21 km, 2-lane state highway was completed in
Azerbaijan, Europe in 2004. The road construction was as follows:
1. Subbase
2. 250 crushed gravel base course
3. 100 mm lower asphalt binder course (22 mm NMAS)
4. 75 mm upper asphalt binder course (22 mm NMAS)
5. 50 mm asphalt wearing course
All asphalt mixes consisted of crushed gravel aggregate. Mixes were designed at 7%
air voids level. The asphalt binder course was coarse graded with about 25% passing
the 2.36 mm sieve. Both binder course and wearing course were paved with two
single-lane pavers working in echelon (one closely following the other) so that a hot
longitudinal joint is obtained between two lanes of each course.
Inspection of this road in early 2007 revealed that two longitudinal cracks had developed at
several places throughout the project. One longitudinal crack was located at the longitudinal
joint between the two lanes despite the fact it was a hot joint. This longitudinal construction
joint is slightly away from the white centre line of the 2-lane road as shown in Figure 10.16.
This was because part of the shoulder was also paved. The other longitudinal crack was almost
at the centre of each paved lane as shown in Figure 10.17. This crack can be seen on the left of
and parallel to the longitudinal construction joint in this figure.
Figure 10.16 Longitudinal crack can be seen on the left side of the white centre line.
Figure 10.17 Longitudinal crack almost in the centre of paved lane (parallel to and left of the
construction longitudinal joint).
Both of these cracks were not continuous but kept on developing with time. Also, both of
these cracks were not just a single crack, but had series of parallel cracks just like fatigue
cracks. Therefore, the highway agency had hard time sealing these cracks continuously.
Often the bitumen sealant that was used did not penetrate the cracks and just smeared the
road surface as seen in the two figures.
Questions
1. Why there is a longitudinal crack at the longitudinal construction joint which usually
is not the case when hot joint is made with two pavers in echelon?
2. What is the cause of the longitudinal crack almost at the centre of each paved lane in
many stretches of the road?
Resolution
This road was inspected in November 2007. Many core samples were obtained (Figure 10.18)
to examine the WMM, two asphalt binder course lifts, and the asphalt wearing course. Cores
were taken at the longitudinal cracks; slightly away from the cracks; in areas without any
cracks; and in the shoulder with no traffic.
Figure 10.18 Cores were taken on the cracks; slightly away from the cracks; and crack-free
areas.
Review of the asphalt mix designs and construction test data revealed the following: 1.
Crushed gravel aggregate was used in all asphalt mixes, which is usually hydrophilic (affinity
to water) and prone to stripping. Unfortunately no anti-stripping agent: liquid or hydrated
lime, was used in the asphalt mixes Asphalt mixes were designed at 7% air voids rather than
usual 4% air voids. This means, in situ air voids at the time of construction could have been
9% to 10%. At this level air voids are usually interconnected. Binder course mix had only
25% fine aggregate (sand) which will make the mix prone to segregation during laydown.
Coarse aggregate particles tend to roll down at the edge of the loose mat behind the paver.
Combination of all of the preceding facts was a recipe for stripping in the binder course and
this is what was experienced on this project.
Although stripping in the lower binder course was observed throughout the project, it was
much worse right below the longitudinal crack at the longitudinal construction joint. As
mentioned earlier, coarse aggregate particles rolled down at the unconfined edge of the first
paved lane and therefore the longitudinal joint although constructed hot, had lots of
honeycombing due to segregation. This accelerated the stripping of the lower binder course
at this point and it was completely disintegrated when examined. This lack of support from
the underlying binder course caused the longitudinal crack (along with some parallel cracks)
at the construction joint. The reason for the longitudinal crack at the centre of the each
paved lane was different.
The pavers which were used on this project did not have reverse augers on both sides of the
paver auger drive box to push the mix below it. It was even more difficult to push the coarse
graded binder mix. This resulted in a lot of honeycombing in the binder course at the centre of
the paving lane where auger drive box is located. Figure 10.19 shows the core taken at that
point; the lower binder course (right side of the core in the photograph) was totally
disintegrated. Again, because of the lack of support to the upper binder course and wearing
course, longitudinal fatigue cracks developed almost at the centre of each paved lane and
showed up at the road surface at numerous places as shown in Figure 10.17 earlier. Obviously,
this was a distress associated with the construction equipment.
Figure 10.19 Binder course (right), directly under the longitudinal crack in the centre of
paved lane, totally disintegrated.
Overloading on this road was also aggravating the situation in terms of increased
development of these two types of longitudinal cracks on this highway.
Lessons Learnt
1. Use anti-stripping agent in asphalt mix which consists of aggregate susceptible to

moisture damage. Conduct AASHTO T 283 to ensure anti-stripping agent is effective.
2. Use continuously dense graded asphalt mixes with adequate amount of fine aggregate
(sand) so that segregation is minimised.
3. Design the asphalt mix within 3% to 5% air voids range to ensure constructed
mat does not have more than 8% air voids.
4. Ensure that the paver has reverse augers on both sides of the auger drive box to push the
mix below it so that there is no honeycombing in the mat at centre.
A two-lane state highway in northern US was provided with 40 mm asphalt overlay

consisting of dense graded wearing course mix (similar to BC grading 2 in India) during
August 1976. An AC-20 bitumen binder was used in the overlay, which is equivalent to VG-
20 grade binder used in India. Paving was done in a 5 km long section of the road. After
laying one lane, the contractor ran out of AC-20 bitumen and had to procure it from another
refinery for laying the adjacent lane. There was no change in the mix design and paving
equipment and the same crew finished the paving project. During January 1977, the first
winter after construction, air temperature plummeted from –15 ºC to –29 ºC one night within
two hours due to a sudden cold wave which came from Canada in north. Next day, the local
engineer saw that one lane had many transverse cracks whereas the other adjacent lane had
almost none. Figure 10.20 shows the lane on the right side has numerous transverse cracks
whereas the lane on the left does not have any significant amount of cracks.
Figure 10.20 Transverse cracks in the right lane only.

Question
Why the right lane in the figure cracked during one night whereas the left lane did not,
although both used the same viscosity grade AC-20 bitumen binder from two sources?
Resolution
The project was inspected in February 1977. It was really an unbelievable sight to observe a
dramatic contrast between the two lanes in terms of transverse cracking. Transverse cracks
in the right lane stopped right at the centre line of the road. Based on research and field
experience, it was obvious that the AC-20 bitumen binder used in the right lane was highly
temperature-susceptible and therefore had higher stiffness at –29 ºC compared to the AC-20
bitumen binder used in the left lane.
Bitumen binder was recovered from both lanes and tested for viscosity at 60 ºC and
penetration at 25 ºC. (These were the test methods readily available at that time.) Although
both binders had similar viscosity of 2000 +/– 400 poises at 60 ºC, bitumen in the right lane
had lower penetration of 45 (that is stiffer) compared to the binder in the left lane with a
penetration of 64 at 25 ºC. Therefore binder in the right lane was likely to be stiffer at –29 ºC
as well. Within the same viscosity grade, bitumen binders with lower penetration at 25 ºC are
likely to be more temperature-susceptible than binders with higher penetration.When the
asphalt pavement surface is chilled suddenly from cold wave, it shrinks. Bitumen binder with
high stiffness does not relax (elongate), it just snaps resulting in a crack.
Lesson Learnt
Do not use highly temperature-susceptible bitumen binder in extremely cold climate such as
in Leh-Ladakh area in India to minimise the development of low temperature transverse
cracks during the winter.
This problem was experienced on a 4-lane state highway in India during construction. The
proposed roadway section consisted of GSB (200 mm); WMM (250 mm in two layers);
DBM grading 1 (90 mm); and BC (40 mm). The DBM grading 1 in the distressed section
was placed during October 2011. Some winter precipitation (rainfall) occurred during
December 2011 when some isolated fatigue cracks became apparent to naked eyes on the
DBM surface primarily in the wheel paths. Figure 10.21 shows the general view of the
four lanes under construction. Figure 10.22 shows close up of the alligator type fatigue
cracks in the wheel track of the DBM which was used by traffic. The DBM had not been
covered with 40 mm bituminous concrete (BC) at that time.
Figure 10.21 General view of the 4-lane highway under construction.
Figure 10.22 Close up of alligator type fatigue cracks on DBM.
Test data obtained prior to inspection showed DBM mix was well within the tolerances of the
job-mix formula (JMF) in terms of bitumen content and gradation.
Question
What is the cause(s) of premature development of fatigue cracks on the surface of the
DBM in some places?
Resolution
During the field inspection in February 2012, it was decided to sample the road from the
cracked area (that is, distressed area) as well as good, and crack-free area (that is, control
area) so that comparison of the quality of pavement layers (DBM and WMM) can be made.
Five core samples each were obtained from both cracked and good areas. The DBM from
these 10 cores was tested for in situ mat density, bitumen content and gradation. All tests
indicated that the DBM met the Job-Mix Formula (JMF) and specification requirements
for density in both areas.
Percent average in situ air voids were 4.4 and 4.0, respectively, in cracked and good areas
which indicated DBM was reasonably impermeable.
Field forensic investigations carried out by the author across the world have shown that
sometimes fatigue cracking in bituminous layers is caused by stripping (moisture induced
peeling of bituminous film from aggregate surface) which generally initiates at the bottom of
the layer and progresses upwards. Therefore, during the field inspection, a small trench was
dug (Figure 10.23) to examine the DBM for stripping. No significant stripping problem was
seen in the DBM and therefore, the DBM course was ruled out as potential cause of cracking.
The GSB under the WMM was also examined for permeability by pouring water and it was
found to be reasonably permeable.
Figure 10.23 Test pits being dug to examine DBM and other pavement courses.
Two pits were also dug in both cracked and good areas to obtain in situ samples of the WMM
to determine its in situ moisture content; liquid limit (LL); plasticity index (PI), aggregate
impact value (AIV); and gradation. The average in situ moisture content of 4.3% in the
cracked area is more than the average in situ moisture content of 3.3% in the good area
probably due to ingress of more rainwater through the cracks in the former during December.
The DBM grading 1 is by nature more permeable than DBM grading 2. As explained in detail
in the chapter on asphalt mixes, DBM grading 1 should never be used anywhere in the
pavement. All four samples of the WMM had liquid limit less than 25 and were non-plastic (PI
= 0), which met the specification. The aggregate impact value (AIV) was less than 15 which is
well below the maximum specification value of 24. Interesting Investigations of Premature
Failures of Asphalt Pavements 389 Table 10.1 gives the WMM test data for moisture content
and gradation. The test data in the table shows there is a significant difference between the
gradation of WMM from cracked area and the gradation of the WMM from the good area. This
appears to be the primary cause of fatigue cracking in the cracked area. The question is: what
are the desirable properties of the WMM within the flexible pavement?
Table 10.1 WMM test data from cracked area and good area
Fails the requirement that percent passing 0.075 mm should be less than 60% of percent
passing 0.6 mm sieve (although not a MORTH requirement, it is very important) In the US
and some other countries, wet mix macadam (WMM) is called crushed stone base course or
soil-aggregate mixture rather than WMM. The fundamental requirement of the WMM is to
provide a stiff and strong base course (high stability/high CBR) so that it can disperse the
traffic load effectively on a wider area on GSB and subsequently on the subgrade. A granular
material like WMM derives its resistance to deformation (strength) from grain-to-grain
contacts, that is, internal friction since the fines (0.075 mm material) are generally non-plastic
and therefore, do not provide any significant cohesion [Figure 10.24 (a)].
To obtain a soil-aggregate mixture or WMM with the desirable physical state as given in
Figure 10.24 (b) suggested by Yoder, it is necessary to possess the following attributes: 1. The
WMM should be well graded from coarse to fine, that is, it must have a continuous dense
grading which is close to the maximum density line to derive the maximum internal particle to
particle internal friction and to achieve maximum density.
1. The plotted gradation should be approximately parallel to the mid range line of the
specification.
2. The material passing 0.075 mm should not exceed 8% [MORTH, 2001].
3. Some states in the US specify that the material passing 0.075 mm sieve (fines) be no more
than 60% of the material passing 0.6 mm sieve to ensure there are no excessive fines which
may bulk (separate) the 0.6 mm material and create undesirable condition (c) of Figure
10.24. This can result even if the material passing 0.075 mm is less than 8%.
It is quite apparent that the WMM in cracked area has the undesirable characteristics of
physical state shown in Figure 10.24 (c). Although the material passing 0.075 mm sieve is
less than 8% in the WMM from the cracked area, it is more than 60% of the material
passing the 0.6 mm sieve. The average material passing 0.6 mm is 8.5% in cracked area.
Therefore, the material passing 0.075 mm should not exceed 60% of 8.5, that is, 5.1%.
However, the actual percent passing 0.075 mm is 7.0% which is excessive and will cause
bulking (separating) of coarser particles in the WMM thereby destroying its grain-to-grain
contact and reducing its strength. The WMM in good area does not have the preceding
negative characteristics as seen in Table 10.1.
Figure 10.24 Physical states of soil-aggregate mixtures or WMM [After Yoder, 1965].
The WMM with the preceding features is also prone to further reduction in the strength
when subjected to adverse water conditions. It is quite possible that the rain in December
may have aggravated the problem.Because of the reduced strength, the WMM in the cracked
area was not providing adequate support to the overlying DBM course. This had resulted in
excessive deflection of the DBM under heavy traffic subsequently resulting in fatigue
cracking in the wheel paths. The DBM grading 1 mix is quite stiff due to its inherent larger
size aggregate and lower bitumen content. Therefore, it is more susceptible to such cracking.
The DBM grading 2 or BC grading 1 would have performed better by providing increased
resistance to cracking resulting from traffic induced deflections. Such bituminous mixes are
used in developed countries.
Interesting Investigations of Premature Failures of Asphalt Pavements 391 Lessons Learnt

Pay attention to the gradation of the WMM to ensure: (a) it is continuously graded from
coarse to fine for increased internal frictional resistance; (b) it does not have excessive fines
(material passing 0.075 mm sieve); and (c) the material passing 0.075 mm sieve (fines) is no
more than 60% of the material passing 0.6 mm sieve to ensure there are no excessive fines
which may bulk (separate) the 0.6 mm material and create undesirable condition; this can
result even if the material passing 0.075 mm is less than 8%. If the underlying WMM course
does not meet the preceding requirements, it would not provide adequate support to the DBM
resulting in its excessive deflection and cracking under traffic. Based on recommendation
from the author, the Indian Roads Congress has incorporated item (c) above in the recently
revised specifications for WMM.
Curved segment of a 4-lane national highway in India had a chronic rutting problem on two
east bound lanes, which caused shoving/heaving on both sides of the rutted wheel tracks.
This necessitated milling off the heaves and providing a long patch of asphalt overlay almost
every other year.
Figure 10.25 shows that segment consisting of two eastbound lanes after rectification and
patching. Due to horizontal curve, there is superelevation in all four lanes (westbound lanes are
not seen in the figure). Therefore, rainwater flows from left to right in the two eastbound lanes
and then crosses over through a raised median to the westbound lanes. The road pavement is
almost on a level grade in this affected segment.
Figure 10.25 Curved segment of eastbound lanes after milling ruts and full width patching.
Question
What is causing the chronic rutting and heaving of the asphalt pavement in the curved
eastbound lanes?
Resolution
The problem site of the national highway was inspected in 2008. The cause of the problem
was simple and became evident by looking at the openings in the raised median, which were
meant for draining the rainwater from superelevated eastbound lanes to the superelevated
westbound lanes across the median. As seen in Figure 10.26, all opening were blocked by
accumulation of soil; obviously these openings were not cleaned for years. This caused the
rainwater to pond especially in the right lane of the two eastbound lanes, whenever it rained.
Rainwater soaked into the subgrade and saturated it causing rutting which was due to poor
subgrade strength/support.
Figure 10.26 Openings in the raised median for cross drainage blocked with soil.
Obviously, this kind of surface drainage of superelevated lanes is completely dependent on the
maintenance of the openings which must be cleaned regularly so as to prevent damage to
pavement structure. There is a need to provide a different system of surface drainage at such
locations in lieu of this antiquated system of openings in the raised median.
Lesson Learnt
In case of superelevated highway lanes keep the openings in the raised median cleared at all
times for proper drainage of surface water. Consider a better system of surface drainage for
such situations.
Asphalt overlay consisting of 40 mm dense graded asphalt mix (similar to BC grading 2 in

India) was placed on a 4-lane interstate highway in the US in 1992. Paving was done in one
lane at a time during night hours on this 10 km paving project.
About three months after the paving was completed, some scattered stretches of this highway
developed about 10 mm to 15 mm deep rutting in the wheel tracks. Each rutted stretch was
about 180 m to 200 m long. These rutted stretches were separated from each other by a long
distance of about 1400 m to 1600 m. The pavement between these rutted stretches was
excellent with no rutting. The highway agency asked the contractor to remove and replace the
entire paving project. The author was called by the contractor to investigate.
Question
What caused premature rutting in these scattered stretches on this paving project?
Resolution
The paving project was inspected in 1992 to investigate the rutting problem. First, the pattern
of these rutted stretches was studied. It was determined that each rutted stretch was potentially
paved with one truckload of asphalt mix. Therefore, the problem had to be associated with
some truck(s). The distances between these rutted stretches mostly indicated about 8–9
truckloads of mix. It was ascertained from the construction personnel that some 10 trucks
were engaged in transporting the mix from asphalt plant to the paving site. It became apparent
that there was problem most likely with one truck which was potentially supplying “softer”
asphalt mix prone to rutting.
Asphalt mix was scooped from the rutted stretches with a knife. It had a faint smell of diesel.
Therefore, it was suspected that it probably came from the diesel sprayed on the truck bed as
asphalt release agent to prevent sticking of hot asphalt mix. Diesel is banned to be used as
asphalt release agent. However, if it is sprayed the truck body should be raised to get rid of
excess diesel especially when the bottom of the truck has deep depressions which will form
puddles of diesel. On further detective work and interrogations, the defaulting truck and its
driver was located. Indeed the truck had deep depressions in the bed and indeed the driver did
not drain the excess diesel by raising the body of the truck during nighttime. Obviously, the
large puddles of diesel at the bottom of the truck softened the asphalt mix which caused
rutting.
To satisfy the highway agency, mix samples from the rutted stretches and good stretches
were tested for potential petroleum fuel contamination by ASTM D 1461, “Moisture or
Volatile Distillates in Bituminous Paving Mixtures”. Trace amounts of diesel were
detected in the asphalt mix from the rutted stretches, whereas, there was no diesel in the
mix from good stretches.
The highway agency agreed that the contractor should mill off and replace the rutted
stretches only and not the entire paving job.
Lessons Learnt
Do not use diesel as asphalt release agent in the trucks transporting hot mix asphalt from mix
plant to paving site.
Use approved asphalt release agent which does not dissolve or adversely affect the asphalt
mix. Drain off the excess release agent by raising the truck body before loading asphalt mix.
Summary
Asphalt pavements which fail prematurely do need to be investigated to determine the
cause(s) so that lessons can be learnt to avoid recurrence of those failures. Reasonable
knowledge of asphalt materials, mix design, and construction (provided in this book) is
helpful in carrying out conclusive forensic investigations. It is a good idea to sample and test
representative section of “distressed” area and representative section of relatively “good”
area (if present) of the project being investigated.
Comparison of test data (mean and standard deviation) from these two representative
sections usually indicates what is wrong with the distressed area. Eight interesting forensic
investigations carried out by the author (Prof. Kandhal) in the US, India, and other
countries are described along with resolutions and lessons learnt. It has been recommended
that one should walk besides the distressed asphalt pavement to look very closely at the
problem(s). Sometimes, one may be amused when unusual things (Figure 10.27) are
encountered on the asphalt pavement.
Figure 10.27 Watch out for unusual things on the pavement being investigated!
I love asphalt! Do you?
QUESTIONS
97. Briefly describe the purpose of selecting representative “poor” and relatively
“good”sections for investigating a distressed asphalt pavement.
98. What are the three classical stages of stripping occurring on asphalt pavements?
99. What potential damage may be caused to a section of asphalt pavement subjected to
repeated water ponding during monsoon?
100. What are the potential causes if only a small section (say 200 m long) of recently
paved asphalt road develops severe rutting within a few days?
Suggested Readings
Asphalt Institute, “Mix Design Methods for Asphalt Concrete”, Manual Series (MS)-2,
6th ed., 1995.
Asphalt Institute. “Principles of Construction of Hot Mix Asphalt Pavements”,

Manual Series No. 22. (MS-22), 2nd ed., 1998.
Hot-mix Asphalt Paving Handbook, Federal Highway Administration, Washington,

DC, 2000.
Kandhal, P.S., “Design, Construction, and Maintenance of Open-Graded Asphalt

Friction Courses”, National Asphalt Pavement Association Information Series 115, May
2002.
Kandhal, P.S., “Moisture Susceptibility of HMA Mixes: Identification of Problem and

Recommended Solutions”, National Asphalt Pavement Association, Quality
Improvement Publication 119, December 1992.
Kandhal, P.S., “Field and Laboratory Evaluation of Stripping in Asphalt Pavements:

State of the Art Report”, Transportation Research Board, Transportation Research
Record 1454, 1994.
Kandhal, P.S., CW. Lubold, and F.L. Roberts, “Water Damage to Asphalt Overlays: Case
Histories”, Proceedings Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists, Vol. 58, 1989.
Kandhal, P.S. and I. Rickards, “Premature Failure of Asphalt Overlays from Stripping: Case
Histories”, Asphalt Paving Technology, Vol. 70, 2001.
Kandhal, P.S. and R.B. Mallick, “Pavement Recycling Guidelines for State and Local
December 1997.
Roberts, F.L., P.S. Kandhal, E.R. Brown, D.Y. Lee, and T.W. Kennedy, Hot Mix Asphalt
Materials, Mix Design, and Construction, 2nd ed., NAPA Education Foundation USA,
1996.

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BITUMINOUS ROAD-final

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BITUMINOUS ROAD

PRITHVI SINGH KANDHAL

PHI Learning Private Limited

Prithvi Singh Kandhal

Second Printing (Revised Edition) September, 2017

Ummed Kumari Kandhal

1. Paving Bitumen ............................................................................... 1–38

5. Practices for Structural Design of Flexible Pavements ...... 202–226

6. Hot Mix Asphalt Production and Construction .................... 227–280

6.1 Introduction 227

7. Asphalt Pavement Distresses—Identification,

8. Maintenance and Rehabilitation of Asphalt Pavements .....305–322

9. Recycling of Asphalt Pavements ........................................... 323–370

Appendix A Superpave Asphalt Binder

Index .................................................................................................. 413–416

Prithvi Singh Kandhal

Prithvi Singh Kandhal

1.2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

1.3 BITUMEN REFINING

Figure 1.1 Schematic of crude distillation in refinery (Courtesy: NAPA REF).

1.4 PAVING BITUMEN PHYSICAL TESTS

Physical testing of paving bitumen can be categorised as follows [1]:

Consistency describes the degree of fluidity of bitumen at any particular temperature.

Figure 1.2 Cannon-Manning vacuum viscometer tube (Courtesy: NAPA REF).

The viscometer is mounted in a thermostatically controlled, constant temperature water or

Kinematic viscosity at 135 °C

Figure 1.8 Complete set up of penetration test (Courtesy: NCAT).

Figure 1.9 Softening point test (Courtesy: NAPA REF).

Thin film oven test

Figure 1.10 Thin film oven test (Courtesy: NAPA REF).

Rolling thin film oven test

Figure 1.11 Rolling thin film oven test (Courtesy: NCAT).

1.4.3 Purity Tests

1.4.4 Safety Tests

1.4.5 Other Tests

Many asphalt paving technologists consider ductility as an important property of bitumen

Figure 1.13 Ductility test (Courtesy NCAT).

1.5 BITUMEN GRADING SYSTEM

1.5.1 History of Grading Bitumen

Figure 1.14 Temperature versus stiffness relationships of different bitumen binders.

Stiffness at 60 oC: The temperature of 60 oC is near the maximum bituminous pavement

Figure 1.15 Rutting occurs at maximum pavement temperatures during summer.

Stiffness at 25 oC: The temperature of 25 oC is near the average annual temperature of an

1. It is based on an empirical test and not on a fundamental test.

Grade Viscosity at 60 °C, poises

Figure 1.18 Graphical representation of viscosity-graded AC-30 (VG-30) bitumen.

Superpave performance grading

1.6 SELECTION OF BITUMEN FOR INDIA

IS: 73–2006 “Paving Bitumen Specification (Third revision)” was subsequently

For example, VG-30 is similar to AC-30 and so forth.

1.7 MODIFIED BITUMEN BINDERS

5888 1. Stiffen binders and mixes at high temperatures to minimise rutting.

5891 4. Improve aggregate-bitumen bonding to reduce (not necessarily eliminate) stripping.

1.7.1 Types of Polymers

1.7.2 Compatibility of Polymers with Bitumen

1.7.3 Storage Stability

1.7.4 Crumb Rubber Modified Bitumen (CRMB)

CRMB Use in the US

1.7.5 Field Performance of Pavements with Polymer Modified Bitumen

1.7.6 Properties of Modified Bitumen Binders Used in India

1.7.7 Recommendations for Use of Modified Binders in India

1.8 CUTBACK BITUMEN

Cutback bitumen is commercially available in different viscosity grades as shown in Table