PROCESS DYNAMICS AND

CONTROL
NARRATIVE REPORTS
COMPILATION
(CHE 3102)
 PRESSURE
(GROUPS 5 and 6)
Process Control Sensors, Gauges, and Devices for Measuring and Controlling Pressure

1. Liquid Column Manometer

1.1. Overview on Liquid Column Manometer
Liquid column manometers consist of a column of liquid in a tube whose ends are
exposed to different pressures. The column will rise or fall until its weight (a force applied
due to gravity) is in equilibrium with the pressure differential between the two ends of the
tube (a force applied due to fluid pressure).
Two types of liquid column manometer are commonly used, which is U-tube
manometer and the inclined manometer.

1.2. U-Tube Liquid Column Manometer

This type of pressure gauge measurement is a common one, the u-tube is filled with
mercury (for high pressure) or water (for low pressure) and a measurement for length
(depending on the unit) was between the manometer legs.

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 Fig. 1 Fig. 2
From the first illustration (Fig. 1), the manometer is used by exposing both ends at
atmospheric pressure which shows equal height for each liquid column. Figure 2 shows
that unequal pressure for both ends shows the length or height difference by the liquid in
the liquid column, which it is the pressure difference. The illustration for the liquid column
is expressed as:
Δ𝑃 = 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ
It is where:
Δ𝑃 = Differential Pressure
𝑃1 = Pressure at Low-Pressure Connection
𝑃2 = Pressure at High-Pressure Connection
𝜌 = Density of Indicating Liquid (at Specific Temperature)
𝑔 = Acceleration due to Gravity
ℎ = Difference in Column Heights
The resulting pressure is the difference between forces exerted per unit of surface
area of the liquid columns, with pounds per square inch (psi) or newtons per square meter
(pascals) as the units. The manometer is so often used to measure pressure that the
difference in column heights is also a common unit. This is expressed in inches or
centimeters of water or mercury at a specific temperature, which can be changed to
standard units of pressure with a conversion table.
All pressure measurements are differential. The reference can be zero absolute
pressure (a total vacuum), atmospheric pressure (the barometric pressure), or another
pressure. With one leg of a manometer open to the atmosphere (see Figure 3A), the
measured pressure is that which exceeds atmospheric pressure, which at sea level is 14.7
psi, 101325 Pa, or 76 cmHg.

Fig. 3
𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒
𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 [may have positive or negative values]
Gauge pressure is measured in Fig. 3 and it considered in the solution for both
positive and negative pressure.

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 1.3. Inclined Liquid Column Manometer

It is slightly curved tube with a liquid inside, typically a form of oil mixture. Along
the tube's middle portion are graduations. The graduations are commonly hundredths of
an inch, depending on the manometer's manufacturer.

Fig. 4
From Fig. 4, the user places the manometer in a gas draft flow. The pressure exerted
by the flow presses against the internal liquid. The amount of liquid displacement is
viewed and measured through the tube's graduations, producing a pressure value. This
type of manometer is recommended for low pressure gauges, where 1 in. of vertical liquid
height can be stretched to 12 in. of scale length, which means it has high accuracy pressure
measurement, and it is advantageous for other manometers.

2. Bourdon Tube Manometers

2.1. Introduction to Pressure Gauges with Elastic Elements

Indicating pressure gauges with elastic measuring elements are used very
extensively to measure pressures in technical applications because they are both robust
and easy to handle. These gauges incorporate measuring elements which deform
elastically under the influence of pressure. Mechanical pressure gauges are produced with
bourdon tube, diaphragm and bellow and spring elements and are accordingly different.
The measuring elements are made of copper alloys, alloyed steels or produced in special
materials for specific measuring applications.
Pressures are only measurable in conjunction with a reference pressure. The
atmospheric pressure alone serves as reference pressure and the pressure gauge shows how
much the measured pressure is higher or lower in relation to the given atmospheric
pressure (i.e., an overpressure measuring instrument).

2.2. Bourdon Tube Gauge

“A Bourdon tube is the working mechanism of analogue pressure measurement devices

and is based on the principle of elasticity.”

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2.3. What is a Bourdon Tube?

Analogue pressure measurement gauges employ Bourdon tubes

(Photo Credit: Ensuper/Shutterstock)
The working mechanism for any analogue pressure measurement device is called a
Bourdon tube. It is named after Eugene Bourdon, its inventor, who developed the concept
and patented it. Even in the present day and age, the phenomenon of elasticity on which it
is based provides fairly reliable results, despite very little development in the underlying
technology.
It includes an elastic tube which, when subjected to pressure, flexes. By attaching
the tube to a gearing device that in turn connects to a scale / gauge pointer, this movement
is harnessed.

2.4. How does a Bourdon Tube Work?

A party horn is the simplest demonstration of a Bourdon tube gauge

(Photo Credit: Anatoliy Karlyuk/Shutterstock)
The perfect example of how a Bourdon tube works is a party horn. The air causes
the flattened paper / plastic coil to unfurl as one blows through the mouthpiece, making a
noisy sound in the process. The amount of uncoiling and the intensity of the sound
generated is directly proportional to the force applied at the mouthpiece.

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 Bourdon gauge tube disassembled (Photo Credit: ekipaj/Shutterstock)
This movement can be leveraged for measuring pressure or other associated
parameters by attaching a pointer and a dial at the coiled end of the tube.

2.5. Construction of a Bourdon Tube Gauge

A Bourdon tube can be made from many materials, but it is essential for them to
have spring-tempering properties. Spring tempering strengthens the metal while
enhancing elastic properties, thereby making repeated coiling and uncoiling possible.

Making a Bourdon Tube Gauge

The tube is made by drilling a round or elliptical cross-section into a stock of the
desired material. It is then passed through a series of rollers that bend it into the required
shape and flatten it to coil it. The hollow created by drilling expands and contracts based
on the movement of the working fluid, resulting in coiling and uncoiling of the Bourdon
tube.
Some commonly used materials include steel alloys, beryllium copper and
phosphor bronze. The inlet pressure can be exerted by any medium, including air, water
and oil. While stainless steel is suitable for heavy oils, beryllium copper is suited for
extremely high-pressure applications and phosphor bronze is used for general applications
that employ air, water and even some light oils.

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2.6. Types of Bourdon Tubes
2.6.1. C-Type

C-Type Bourdon Tubes

This is the most commonly found tube. It can withstand pressures of up to
10,000 kilopascals. It consists of a tube bent into a C shape and is used for low-
pressure applications.

2.6.2. Spiral Type

Spiral Bourdon Tube

This type of Bourdon tube is spiral in shape and suitable for pressures up to
28,000 kilopascals.

2.6.3. Helical Type

Helical Bourdon Tube

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 This type of Bourdon tube is helical in shape and suitable for pressures of up to
500,000 kilopascals.
While C-type Bourdon tubes are inexpensive to manufacture and easier to find,
their pressure sensitivity is limited. Spiral and helical tubes are therefore used for high-
pressure applications or those where more precision is required.

2.7. Advantages and Disadvantages of Bourdon Tubes

Bourdon tubes have many advantages, which result in their wide employment:
• Bourdon tubes have many advantages, which result in their wide employment:
• They give reasonably accurate results.
• They are simple in construction and inexpensive to produce.
• They can be safely used for the accurate measurement of high pressures.
• They can be modified to generate electrical outputs.
• Bourdon tube gauges have high repeatability, i.e., they can accurately record
the same pressures multiple times.
Despite being almost omnipresent in pressure measurement devices, Bourdon tubes
have certain inherent disadvantages:
• A Bourdon tube responds slowly to changes in pressure.
• An amplification mechanism is needed to generate readings, as the movement
of the free end of the Bourdon tube is quite low.
• While Bourdon tube gauges can produce accurate results, they cannot be used
for precision applications.
• Bourdon tubes suffer from hysteresis, a condition that causes the tube to retract
slower when moving from a high scale reading to a low scale reading. This
results in the scale showing a slightly “higher than actual” reading.
• Bourdon tubes are medium-sensitive, i.e., they are usually calibrated to only
work with a particular medium. Using another medium can affect the reading
owing to its own density and weight, and thus result in an error. This must be
accounted for before changing the medium.

2.8. Applications and Future Scopes of Bourdon Tubes

Any type of Bourdon tube can measure pressure proportional to the arc it subtends,
i.e., the more curved the arc, the greater is the pressure sensitivity of the device. Thus,
spiral and helical tubes are more sensitive to pressure changes than a C-type tube. This,
however, increases the complexity, and consequently, the cost of manufacturing.
1. Direct pressure measurement – Measuring the absolute pressure of any system.
2. Differential pressure measurement – Measuring the difference in pressure of
two pressurized systems.

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 Bourdon tube gauges are often dependent on electronic systems in modern applications
(Photo Credit: florin oprea/Shutterstock)
With the improvement in semiconductor technology, Bourdon tubes are either
dependent on or being completely replaced by electronic systems that can be used in high-
risk environments.
However, Bourdon tube gauges will continue to dominate the pressure
measurement industry until their electronic counterparts become economically viable for
a wider range of applications.

3. Bellows
3.1. Overview on Bellows
Bellows is a thin-walled, one-piece metallic pressure containing element appearing
as a stack of round edged discs that is used to measure pressure. When the pressure inside
the bellows increases, these discs thicken and the length of the bellows increases. This
increase in length is the sum of the expansion of all the discs and is a measure of the
pressure inside the bellows.

3.2. Working Principle of Bellows

Bellows work on the principle of elasticity

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 3.3. Functions and Uses of Bellows
The bellows are used in two forms. In one arrangement, pressure is applied to one
side of the bellows and the resulting deflection is counter balanced by a spring. This
arrangement indicates the gauge pressure. In the second arrangement, the differential
pressure is also indicated. In this device, one pressure is applied to the inside of one sealed
bellow while the other pressure is applied to the inside of another sealed bellow. By
suitable linkage and calibration of the scale, the pressure difference is indicated by a
pointer on the scale.

3.4. Advantages of Bellows

• It is used to measure absolute & differential pressure.
• It is used to measure low or medium pressure rang.

3.5. Disadvantages of Bellows

• It is not useful to measure high value pressure
• Bellows joints can fail catastrophically.
• No in place maintenance or repair can be performed – they must be replaced if
damaged.

4. Elastic Diaphragm Gauges

4.1. Overview on Elastic Diaphragm Gauges
Diaphragm elements in pressure gauges are circular-shaped and thin. They are
either clamped around the rim between two flanges or welded and subjected to the pressure
of media acting on one side. The deflection caused in this way is used as a measurement
for the pressure and is indicated by a pointer.
Diaphragm elements may be classified into two types including those that utilize
the elastic characteristics of the diaphragm and those that are opposed by a spring or other
separate elastic element. The first type of diaphragm can be flat or corrugated metal disks
which commonly made up of brass, phosphor bronze, beryllium copper, and stainless
steel. This is used for the measurement of high pressure. Another type of diaphragm is
used for containing the pressure and exerting a force on the opposing elastic element. This
diaphragm is a flexible or slack diaphragm of rubber, leather, impregnated fabric, or

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 plastic. The non-elastic nature of the material requires external springs to oppose the
diaphragm, to enable calibration and ensure precise operation. This type of diaphragm is
used for the measurement of extremely low pressure, vacuum, or differential pressure.
The diaphragm pressure gauge is mechanically connected to the transmission
mechanism which will amplify the small deflections of the diaphragm and transfer them
to pointer. These diaphragm sensors are very sensitive to rapid pressure changes.

Diaphragm gauge is well suited for applications in chemical and petrochemical,

textile, food, and any other process industries, as well as water and sewage treatment plants
and electric power plants.

4.2. Properties of Diaphragm Gauge

• Relatively high actuating force
• Reduced sensitivity to shock and vibration
• Higher overload capacity
• Can be protected against extremely corrosive media
• Highly viscous, impure or crystallizing process media
Pressure ranges in a diaphragm type pressure gauge are between 0 to 16 mbar and
0 to 40 bar in accuracy class from 0.6 to 2.5 %.

4.3. Principles of Elastic Diaphragm Gauges

When an elastic diaphragm transducer is subjected to a pressure, the diaphragm
membrane deflects. This deflection is proportional to the applied pressure when calibrated.

4.4. Functions of Elastic Diaphragm Gauges

The bottom side of the diaphragm is exposed to the pressure which is to be
measured. Due to the applied pressure, the diaphragm deforms and the amount of
movement depends upon the magnitude of the applied pressure. The greater the pressure,
the greater the movement. When the applied pressure increases, the diaphragm flexes

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 upwards, lifting the ball point and link, thus causing the quadrant to rotate anti-clockwise
around the pivot. The anti-clockwise movement of the quadrant moves the pinion and
hence, the pointer clockwise, indicating an increase of pressure on the scale. Overload
protection is provided by the underside of the top flange against which the diaphragm will
seat if the gauges are over pressured.

For the arrangement with the parallel plate capacitor, the movable plate moves
upwards, thus decreasing the gap between the plates. This makes the capacitance of the
capacitor becomes a measure of the applied pressure. As the top side of the diaphragm is
usually subjected to the atmospheric pressure (generally less than the applied pressure),
elastic diaphragm gauges usually read gauge pressure.

4.5. Advantages of Elastic Diaphragm Gauges

• They have a linear scale for a wide range.
• They can withstand over pressure and hence they are safe to be used.
• No permanent zero shift.
• They can measure both absolute and gauge pressure, that is, differential pressure.

4.6. Disadvantages of Elastic Diaphragm Gauges

• Shocks and vibrations affect their performance and hence they are to be protected.

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 • When used for relatively high or over-pressure measurement, the diaphragm gets
damaged easily.
• These gauges are difficult to be repaired.
• More expensive than other pressure sensors.

4.7. Applications of Elastic Diaphragm Gauges

1. They are used to measure medium pressure.
2. They can also be used to measure low pressures including vacuum.
3. They are used to measure draft in chimneys of boilers.

5. Strain Gauge Pressure Transducers

5.1. Overview of Strain Gauges
Strain gauges refer to the electrical devices that are used to obtain the measurement
of strain on an object. Recall that the deformation occurs in the shape of the object due to
the applied external forces. This deformation in the shape is both compressive or tensile
is called strain, and it is measured by the strain gauge. When an object deforms within the
limit of elasticity, either it becomes narrower and longer or it become shorter and
broadens. As a result of it, there is a change in resistance end-to-end.

The change in resistance normally has very small value, and to sense that small
change, strain gauge has a long thin metallic strip arrange in a zigzag pattern on a non-
conducting material called the carrier, as shown below, so that it can enlarge the small
amount of stress in the group of parallel lines and could be measured with high accuracy.
The gauge is literally glued onto the device by an adhesive.
Strain gauge bridge circuit shows the measured stress by the degree of discrepancy,
and uses a voltmeter in the center of the bridge to provide an accurate measurement of that
imbalance:

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 In this circuit, R1 and R3 are the ratio arms equal to each other, and R2 is the rheostat
arm has a value equal to the strain gage resistance. When the gauge is unstrained, the
bridge is balanced, and voltmeter shows zero value. As there is a change in resistance of
strain gauge, the bridge gets unbalanced and producing an indication at the voltmeter. The
output voltage from the bridge can be amplified further by a differential amplifier.

5.2. Principles and Purposes of Strain-Gauge-Based Pressure Transducers

Strain-gauge-based pressure transducers convert a pressure into a measurable
electrical signal. The ability of the strain gauges to change their resistance value in
response to the physical deformation of a material caused by pressure is primarily due to
piezoresistive effect. By wiring the strain gauges in a Wheatstone bridge arrangement,
these small changes in resistance can be exploited to give rise to a precise electrical signal
proportional to the applied pressure.
When a closed container is subjected to the applied pressure, it is strained where its
dimension changes. Measurement of this strain with a secondary transducer like a strain
gauge as metallic conductor becomes a measure of the applied pressure. If strain gauges
are attached to the container subjected to the applied pressure, the strain gauges also will
change in dimension depending on the expansion or contraction of the container. The
change in dimension of the strain gauge will make its resistance to change. This change in
resistance of the strain gauge becomes a measure of pressure applied to the container.

Electrical resistance of any conductor is proportional to the ratio of length over

cross-sectional area (R ∝ l/A), which means that tensile deformation will increase
electrical resistance by simultaneously increasing length and decreasing cross-sectional
area while compressive deformation (squishing) will decrease electrical resistance by
simultaneously decreasing length and increasing cross-sectional area.

5.3. Parts and Construction of Pressure Transducers

The figure below shows the arrangement of strain gauges that are mounted on a
cantilever spring which is operated by a pair of opposing bellow elements. The cantilever
is properly chosen in dimension for compensation in the change in the Young’s modulus
due to temperature changes.

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 The figure below shows an arrangement if strain gauges on to a flat diaphragm.
Usually four gauges are mounted as shown and they are connected in a bridge circuit as
shown in the figure. Radial and tangential stresses are developed in the diaphragm gauges
complicating the measurement of true pressure.

One or more strain gauge sensors made from a length of wire can be attached to the
surface of a diaphragm. Pressure on the diaphragm will stretch the wires and change the
resistance. The sensor elements can be bonded on to the surface with adhesive or the
conductor can be directly deposited on the diaphragm by sputtering. The latter method
removes potential problems with adhesives failing at high temperatures and also makes it
easier to construct small devices. A metal wire sensor can also be made by wrapping a
wire between posts that are displaced by changing pressure. This construction can also
work at higher temperatures because no adhesive is needed to attach the wire to the posts.

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5.4. Functions, Operations and Measurement
If a strip of conductive metal is stretched, it will become skinnier and longer, both
changes resulting in an increase of electrical resistance end-to-end. Conversely, if a strip
of conductive metal is placed under compressive force (without buckling), it will broaden
and shorten. If these stresses are kept within the elastic limit of the metal strip, the strip
can be used as a measuring element for physical force, the amount of applied force inferred
from measuring its resistance.
The change in resistance in the sensor is usually measured using a Wheatstone
bridge circuit. This allows small changes in the resistance of the sensor to be converted to
an output voltage. Piezoresistive strain gauge measurements are made using a Wheatstone
bridge circuit
An excitation voltage needs to be provided to the bridge. When there is no strain
and all the resistors in the bridge are balanced then the output will be zero volts. A change
in pressure will cause a change in resistances in the bridge resulting in a corresponding
output voltage or current.

5.5. Applications of Strain Gauge Pressure Sensors

Strain gauges are fixed to the structural load-bearing components to measure
stresses along load paths for wing deflection or deformation in an airplane. The strain
gauges are wired into the Wheatstone Bridge circuits and, its application areas include
onboard signal conditioning units, excitation power supplies, and the telemetry necessary
to read in site measurements.
Instrumentation of bridges is done to verify design parameters, evaluate the
performance of new technologies used in the construction of bridges, to verify and control
the construction process and for subsequent performance monitoring. Well-instrumented
bridges can alert responsible authorities about approaching failure so as to initiate
preventive measures. Choosing proper sensor types, technology, a measurement range and
their location on the bridge is very important to optimize costs and to extract full benefits
of instrumentation. It becomes necessary to monitor the bridges regularly for any kind of
deformation as it might lead to fatal accidents. Strain gauge technology is used in the real-
time monitoring of huge bridges, making the inspections precise.
Strain gauges have a long history in the safety of rails. It is used to measure stress
and strain on rails. Strain gauges measure axial tension or compression with no impact on

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 the rails. In case of an emergency, the strain gauges can generate a warning so maintenance
can be done early to minimize the impact on rail traffic.

5.6. Advantages and Disadvantages

Piezoresistive strain gauge pressure sensors have the advantage of being robust.
Their performance and calibration are also stable over time. One disadvantage of these
sensors is that they consume more power than some other types of pressure sensor. This
may mean they are not suitable for battery powered or portable systems. Metal film
sensing elements have the advantage of simple construction and durability. They also have
a higher maximum operating temperature (up to about 200°C) than silicon strain gauges,
which are limited to below 100°C. Silicon strain gauges provide a much larger output
signal, making them well-suited to low-pressure applications, down to around 2 kPa.
MEMS or microelectromechanical pressure sensors can be made much smaller than metal
wire sensors and can be integrated with electronics for signal processing, which can
control for non-linearity and temperature dependence.
Strain gauge pressure sensors has no moving parts and it can measure wide-range
pressures from 7.5 kPa up to 1400 MPa. They are small in size but it offers small
inaccuracies of at most 0.1%. The simple construction means low cost and durability. The
sensors are robust with good resistance to shock, vibration, and dynamic pressure changes.
The output is linear with pressure and the response time is typically below one
millisecond. The main disadvantage is that the sensor has to be powered. This makes them
unsuitable for low power or battery-operated systems. Scaling down the size reduces the
resistance and increases the power consumption. There are also limitations on scaling
because strain averaging reduces the sensitivity of the sensor. However, very small sensors
can be fabricated as MEMS devices. The sensor output is temperature dependent. This can
be a big disadvantage for applications such as tire pressure measurement where there are
large temperature changes over the operating cycle.

6. Piezoresistive Transducers
6.1. Definition and Overview of Piezoresistive Effect
The piezoresistive effect also involves pressure or stress. However, changes in
resistance across the piezo material are the product, not a charge or voltage. It is a change
in electrical resistance of a semiconductor material due to mechanical stress.
Probably the most basic piezoresistive devices are, obviously, piezo resistors. Form
factors include integrated resistor networks, potentiometers, and accelerometers. Made
from semiconductor materials, piezoresistive devices most commonly are used in pressure
measurement.
When pressure is applied to a piezo resistor, depending on the material, its
resistance increases. The most common components that rely on the piezoelectric and
piezoresistive effects include, but are not restricted to, transducers and sensors.

6.2. Overview of Piezoresistive Transducers

Transducers convert energy from one form to another. Stated earlier, piezoelectric
transducers work both ways. They can convert mechanical energy such as pressure and
vibration to electrical energy like voltage or current. They also can operate in reverse,
converting electrical energy into mechanical energy such as sound or vibration.

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 Piezoresistive transducers convert mechanical energy into proportionate levels of
resistance. They do not convert any form of stimulus to a voltage or current, nor are they
reverse active like their piezoelectric cousins, meaning they cannot convert resistance
levels to some other form of energy. Both piezoelectric and piezoresistive transducers
come in a wide variety of shapes and packages.
Piezoresistive transducers tend to be somewhat larger due to their use of
semiconductor materials. However, depending on the application, many housings, sizes,
and shapes are available to accommodate compact or larger designs. Since these resistive
components only work one way, converting mechanical stimuli into resistance, they find
regular employment in pressure-measurement applications.

6.3. Parts and Construction of Piezoresistive Transducers

6.3.1. Piezoresistive Sensor
A piezoresistive sensor is an electromechanical system: it contains electrical and
mechanical subsystems that respond to a mechanical input (force, pressure, or
acceleration) to produce an electrical output (a voltage signal proportional to the
mechanical input).

6.3.2. Wheatstone Bridge

The electrical resistance of the piezoresistor is usually not sensed directly. Rather,
the resistors are wired together in an electrical circuit configuration called a
Wheatstone bridge. The bridge has a constant input voltage and produces a
measurable output voltage that is proportional to the electrical resistance.

6.3.3. Sensor Housing

The sensor housing is stainless steel, about 80 mm long, with a pressure fitting at
one end and an electrical connection for input and output voltage at the other end.
Sensors of this type can typically be ordered to measure pressure ranges from 0–6.9
kPa (1 psi) to 0–34.5 MPa (5000 psi). The DC excitation voltage is usually between
5–10 V. When selecting a particular sensor make and model, one usually has a choice
of electrical output signals: 0–100 mV, 0–5 V or 4–20 mA.

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 6.3.4. Overall Components of a Piezoresistive Sensor

6.4. System Inputs and Outputs for Piezoresistive Transducer

If the transducer mechanical input is zero, then the mechanical structure sees zero
strain, resulting in the resistors also experiencing zero strain. The bridge output voltage is
therefore zero and the bridge is said to be balanced. When the transducer does have an
applied input, however, then the mechanical structure and the resistors undergo strain,
changing the electrical resistance of the piezoresistors. This in turn changes the currents
in the bridge circuit such that the bridge now produces an output voltage. This bridge
output voltage is proportional to the magnitude of the mechanical input. The primary
physical phenomenon that makes this possible is piezoresistance: the material property

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 that the electrical resistance of the material changes when the material is subjected to
mechanical deformation or strain.

6.5. Applications of Piezoresistive Transducers

1. Measuring the level of water in a tank
2. Isolating a water pipe leak
3. Identifying a gas leak
4. Monitoring gas pressure
5. Maintaining pressure in food and beverage lines

6.6. Advantages of Piezoresistive Transducers

• Transform vibrations and pressure into correlative rates of resistance
• Installation costs of measurement systems dedicated to piezoresistive pressure
transducers are generally lower than systems designed for piezoelectric pressure
transducers
• Have the ability to operate reliably in harsh environments

6.7. Disadvantages of Piezoresistive Transducers

• Can generate electrical currents and volts from mechanical energy but not the
other way around
• Its material design is sophisticated, therefore it can be costly

7. Piezoelectric Transducers
7.1. What are Piezoelectric Transducers?
A device that uses the piezoelectric effect to measure changes in acceleration,
pressure, strain, temperature or force by converting this energy into an electrical charge is
called piezoelectric transducers. The word "piezoelectric" literally means electricity
caused by pressure.

7.2. Transducer Parts & Functions

While many materials can show the piezoelectric effect, the best ones must also
possess at least a few of the most desirable qualities. Such characteristics include
consistent stability, high output, malleability and resistance to extreme temperatures and
humidity. That said, no known material exhibits all of those qualities simultaneously.
Originally, crystals made from quartz took hold as the primary material for
piezoelectric crystal transducers. Quartz offers superior stability and slow measuring at
varying parameters due to low leakage rates, which means it can provide excellent
accuracy — hence why watches most often use them. While they're still in widespread
use, quartz also yields a rather low output, meaning it can't keep up adequately with
demands of more sophisticated technology.
In the early 1950s, quartz crystals began to give way to piezoelectric ceramic as the
primary transducer material. The advantages offered by a ceramic transducer when
compared to other materials include ceramic’s ability to be manufactured in a wide variety
of shapes and sizes, its capability of operating efficiently at low voltage, and its ability to
function at temperatures up to 300 degrees Celsius.

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7.3. How Does Piezoelectric Transducers Measure Pressure?
When a force is applied to a piezoelectric material, an electric charge is generated
across the faces of the crystal. This can be measured as a voltage proportional to the
pressure (see diagram to the right). There is also an inverse piezoelectric effect where
applying a voltage to the material will cause it to change shape. A given static force results
in a corresponding charge across the sensor. However, this will leak away over time due
to imperfect insulation, the internal sensor resistance, the attached electronics, etc.

As a result, piezoelectric sensors are not normally suitable for measuring static
pressure. The output signal will gradually drop to zero, even in the presence of constant
pressure. They are, however, sensitive to dynamic changes in pressure across a wide range
of frequencies and pressures.
This dynamic sensitivity means they are good at measuring small changes in
pressure, even in a very high-pressure environment.

7.4. Piezoelectric Transducer Applications

1. As piezoelectric materials cannot measure static values these are primarily used
for measuring surface roughness, in accelerometers and as a vibration pickup.
2. They are used in seismographs to measure vibrations in rockets.
3. In strain gauges to measure force, stress, vibrations etc…
4. Used by automotive industries to measure detonations in engines.
5. These are used in ultrasonic imaging in medical applications.

7.5. Advantages of Piezoelectric Transducers

• High Frequency Response – They offer high frequency response that means the
parameter changing at very high speed can be sent easily without any delay of
time.
• High Transient Response – It means that it can detect the events in microseconds
and also give the linear output.
• Ruggedness – Piezoelectric transducers are small in size and have rugged
construction.

7.6. Disadvantages of Piezoelectric Transducers

• Output is low – Since it is low, external electric circuit has to be connected.

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 • High Impedance - It needed to be connected on an amplifier and an auxiliary
which has can cause potential error in measurements.
• Design

8. Optical Fiber Pressure Sensors

8.1. Overview on Optical Fiber Pressure Sensors
Optical pressure sensors detect a change in pressure through an effect on light. In
the simplest case this can be a mechanical system that blocks the light as the pressure
increases. In more advanced sensors, the measurement of phase difference allows very
accurate measurement of small pressure changes.
Optical fiber sensor is a sensor that measures a physical quantity based on its
modulation on the intensity, spectrum, phase, or polarization of light traveling through an
optical fiber.
They are still not well known, but below are some milestones of fiber optics
evolution:
• It was invented by the Indian physicist Narinder Singh Kanpany.
• 1970: Corning Glass produced a few optical fiber meters with losses of 20
db/km.
• 1973: An optical fiber circuit was installed in the United States.
• 1976: Bell Laboratories installed a telephone link of 1 km in Atlanta, GA,
and proved to be practically feasible its use for telephone communication.
• 1978: The production of optical fibers began in several world locations with
losses below 1,5 dB/km.
• 1988: The first optical fiber submarine cable immersed in the ocean and
gave birth to the information super highway.
• 2004: Optical fibers account for 40 billion dollars annually.
• 2007: Brazilian optical fiber turned 30 years and the all-American optical
fiber market billed 237 million dollars.
• 2014: The American market of optical fiber sensors has an estimate of 237
million-dollar billings.
The sensitivity of fiber sensors, namely, the less intense measurable disturbance,
may depend on Infinitesimal variations on some parameter of characterizing the used
fiber, when the fiber is the very sensor element;

8.2. Working Principle of Optical Fiber Pressure Sensors

There are three main components that comprise a standard optical fiber: the core
that holds the light; the cladding that surrounds the core with a lower refractive index and
contains the light; and the coating that protects the fragile fiber inside.

22
 Different characteristics or properties of the transmitted light may be transformed
in the fiber optic sensor to bring information about the measured component. Depending
on the properties of the light signal being modulated, fiber optic sensor designs can be
divided into four main categories. These include sensors modulated by intensity, spectrum,
phase, and time and frequency.
1. Intensity-modulated sensor. In intensity-type sensors, the light emitted from an
optical source is carried along a fiber, its intensity is modified at the transducer
and the light is returned to an optical detector. These sensors are analog in nature,
as the light intensity detected is proportional to the measured variable. Intensity-
modulated sensors can be classified as using one of three general modulation
mechanisms: transmission, reflection, and microbending.
2. Phase-modulated sensor. Phase modulated sensors use interferometric methods
to sense the measured variable. Interferometry is the use of interference
phenomena, based on the wave properties of light, to perform measurements. In
phase-modulated sensors, changes in the measurand result in a phase difference
between the modulated light and a reference light beam.
3. Phase-modulated sensors use interferometric methods to sense the measured
variable. In phase-modulated sensors, changes in the measurand result in a phase
difference between the modulated light and a reference light beam. Since the
phase-modulated fiber optic sensors use interferometric measurement
techniques, they are also referred to as interferometers.
4. Time and Frequency-modulated sensor. Sensors which fall into this category
either use a frequency signal generated by a quartz crystal resonator or a
fluorescent decay rate to transmit the measured pressure.
Fiber optic sensors test their environmental characteristics. They can calculate
anything that changes the way light passes through the fiber, or changes the properties of
light. Fiber optic sensors usually relay light through an optical fiber to a sensor from a
light source, which only senses the change of a desired environmental parameter. The
sensor modulates the light 's characteristics (intensity, length of wave, amplitude, phase).
The modulated light is transmitted from the sensor to the signal processor and converted
into a signal that is processed in the control system. The properties of light involved in
fiber optic censors: reflection, refraction, and interference.

23
 Illustration of the basic Components of a Fiber Optic Sensing System
In an optical pressure sensor based on intensity, an increase in pressure will cause
the light source to be gradually blocked. Then the sensor tests the shift in light that is
obtained. For instance, the pressure moves a diaphragm in the simple mechanism shown
and the attached opaque vane blocks more of the light from the LED. The light intensity
decrease is measured by the photodiode and gives a direct pressure measurement.

A simple optical pressure sensor like this requires a reference photodiode that is
never blocked by the vane (as seen below). This helps the sensor to adjust for changes in
the output of light due to other causes, such as light source ageing, supply voltage
variations, etc.

Such mechanical systems are comparatively large. With a reflective membrane and
two optical fibers, much smaller models can be made, one as a source of light and the
other to receive the reflected light. The membrane is bent by pressure and the amount of
light reflected back to the detector varies.
Interferometry is used by other fiber-optic sensors to measure changes in the path
length and phase of light caused by pressure changes.

8.3. Functions of Optical Fiber Pressure Sensors

Fiber optic pressure sensors may be categorized as either extrinsic, where the fiber
carries light from the source to the detector, but modulation occurs beyond the fiber, or

24
 intrinsic, where, in response to pressure, the fiber itself changes. By exploiting
interferometry, very sensitive optical measurements can be made. This can detect distance
changes corresponding to a fraction of the wavelength of light. There are two common
types of pressure sensor that use interferometry. These are the Fabry-Pérot interferometer
(FPI) and fiber Bragg grating (FBG).
8.3.1. The FPI is an extrinsic sensor that uses interference from two surfaces in a cavity
between multiple light rays reflected back and forth. As the spacing between them
alters, the amount of light emitted at a given wavelength can be affected by
interference. This is one of the best technologies for optical sensors. For various sizes
and pressure ranges, it is easy, accurate and easily scalable.

8.3.2. An FBG is an intrinsic sensor that has a regular series of reflective structures in the
fiber that are affected by stretching or squashing the fiber. This causes the
wavelengths of the reflected light to change.

8.4. Construction of Optical Fiber Pressure Sensors

A Fabry-Pérot cavity with two parallel reflecting surfaces can be constructed on the
tip of an optical fiber (as shown below).

25
 A semi-reflecting surface is attached to the fiber (M1) and a reflective membrane is
created at the opposite end of the cavity (M2). This membrane forms a diaphragm that is
moved by pressure.
The change in spacing between the mirrors causes a difference in the path travelled
by each ray of light (E1 and E2) and hence a relative phase shift between them. The
resulting interference will reinforce or reduce particular wavelengths of light. The multiple
reflections and the large number of interfering rays result in a very high-resolution
measurement.
A Bragg grating can be created within a fiber using a series of periodic changes in
the refractive index of the fiber. This causes particular wavelengths of light to be reflected
or transmitted, based on the ratio between the wavelength and the spacing. As a result, the
spectrum of the reflected light changes as the fiber, and the spacing, is stretched. The fiber
can be attached to a diaphragm that stretches the fiber when pressure is applied.
Compressing the fiber also changes the effects of the grating, creating two peaks in the
spectrum.

It is possible to calculate the output from any kind of sensor in two ways. If a
monochromatic or narrow-band source is used, the amplitude of the output signal will
change as the cavity length (or grating spacing) changes how much of that wavelength is
reflected.
It is also possible to use a broad-band light source, such as white light. The
frequencies at which positive or destructive interference takes place will change with
pressure in this situation. These structures, in particular Fabry-Pérot cavities, are also
suitable for silicon fabrication techniques allowing even smaller optical sensors to be made
as micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) devices.
On the micrometer scale, waveguides (equivalent to optical fibres) and mechanical
components such as cantilevers and membranes can be designed. Due to their small size,
these sensors can respond very rapidly to pressure changes. It is possible to integrate light-
emitting diodes, solid state lasers, photodiode detectors and electronics into the same
device.

8.5. Applications of Optical Fiber Pressure Sensors

Fiber-optic sensors are very useful due to their independence from electromagnetic
interference, since they are designed to provide precise pressure measurements in harsh
environments and for laboratory applications. Physical parameters including strain,
temperature, pressure, velocity, and acceleration can be measured.
One example is the oil and gas industry. Conditions in a well can easily reach 20
kpsi and 185ºC. Optical sensors continue to perform well under these extremes. Their
small size, flexibility, the absence of any potentially hazardous voltages, and the fact that
the sensors are made of non-toxic materials makes them very well suited to medical

26
 applications. There are many places in the body where measuring pressure can be
important for diagnosis, long-term monitoring or during treatment.
As well as more obvious measurements such as pressure in blood vessels and the
lungs, it is often useful to measure pressure in the digestive tract, bladder, brain, bones
and joints. Fiber-optic sensors allow this to be done in a minimally invasive way.

8.6. Advantages and Disadvantages of Optical Fiber Pressure Sensors

Optical fiber sensors are lightweight and have a sensitivity comparable to
traditional detectors that are similar. Using a moving membrane on one of the fiber ends,
pressure sensors are constructed.
The advantages of these sensors are:
• Electromagnetic and radio frequency immunity
• Eliminates shock hazards, signal isolation, electrical hazard
• Chemically inert, intrinsically safe
• Ideal to operate
• High Resolution and Dynamic Range
• Small and lightweight
• Flexibility and resistance
• High sensitivity
• Can withstand harsh environment
• Multiplexing capability, i.e., a single fiber can have dozens of sensors to
measure vibration, pressure, temperature, multiphase flow, deformation, etc.
The disadvantages of these sensors are:
• Fragility of sensing element and fiber optic cable
• Poor compatibility
• Increased attenuation
• Complex and Expensive
• Poor performance in static pressure (in some cases)

27
 TEMPERATURE
(GROUPS 7 and 8)
TEMPERATURE

The physical quantity which can be described as hotness or coldness of any object or
substance is called temperature. It can be measured in different units and scales according to the
requirement. The temperature of any material can be measured by using different methods and
devices. Temperature measuring devices are used to measure the energy level of the physical
property or any substance. The SI unit of temperature is Kelvin (k), other than this; it can be
measured in Celsius scales(C) and Fahrenheit scale (F).
Temperature instrumentation includes a wide range of field instruments and sensors used
to measure temperature in commercial and industrial systems. These temperature control systems
include manual and automatic processes for monitoring and controlling the temperature to
maintain an ideal operating range to optimize production and prevent equipment damage or failure.
Temperature measurement in today’s industrial environment encompasses a wide variety
of needs and applications. To meet this wide array of needs the process controls industry has
developed a large number of sensors and devices to handle this demand. Temperature is a very
critical and widely measured variable. Many processes must have either a monitored or controlled
temperature. This can range from the simple monitoring of the water temperature of an engine or
load device, or as complex as the temperature of a weld in a laser welding application. More
difficult measurements such as the temperature of smoke stack gas from a power generating station
or blast furnace or the exhaust gas of a rocket may be need to be monitored. Much more common
are the temperatures of fluids in processes or process support applications, or the temperature of
solid objects such as metal plates, bearings and shafts in a piece of machinery.

Temperature-Measuring Devices
1. Thermometers
One of the most common devices for measuring temperature is the glass
thermometer. This consists of a glass tube filled with mercury or some other liquid, which acts as
the working fluid. Temperature increase causes the fluid to expand, so the temperature can be
determined by measuring the volume of the fluid.

2. Non-contact
The non-contact temperature sensor category includes a wide variety of primarily
optical devices. These all operate on some form of radiative heat transfer measurement. In general,
all things radiate heat. This heat can be detected as a radiation from the device. By measuring this
radiation, you can determine the temperature of the device, not only from a distance of a few
millimeters, but also from millions of light years distant.

28
 3. Probes
Temperature probes are devices used to measure temperature using contact-style
sensing methods. These methods infer temperature by using probes to measure changes in a
temperature-sensitive characteristic (such as voltage difference or resistance). This fall into three
general categories: Resistance elements, thermopiles and semiconductor.

THERMOCOUPLE
Definition
A thermocouple is a sensor for measuring temperature and is commonly found being used
in a broad range of scientific, industrial and engineering environments. Their small size and rapid
response times mean they can be put to work in all manner of hazardous or challenging settings,
while still providing the ability to swiftly and accurately measure extreme temperatures (anywhere
in the range of 270 to 2,500 degrees Celsius, depending on their specific configuration).
This sensor consists of two dissimilar metal wires, joined at one end, and connected to a
thermocouple thermometer or other thermocouple-capable device at the other end. Due to their
wide range of models and technical specifications, it is extremely important to understand its basic
structure, how it works, its ranges as to better determine what is the right type and material of
thermocouple for your application.
Despite this impressive ability, they’re actually relatively simple tools that are both highly
robust and extremely cost-effective. Thermocouples are available in different combinations of
metals or calibrations. The most common are the “Base Metal” thermocouples known as N, T, J
and K Types. There are also high temperature calibrations - also known as Noble Metal
thermocouples - Types R, S, C and GB.
They offer different extremes of these key characteristics - some are designed using particular
materials to withstand the highest temperatures and most challenging environments, while others
are less rugged, cheaper to manufacture, and intended for use in less extreme environments.

• K-Type Thermocouples - The most commonly used type in

numerous industries and sectors. Type-K units are made from a
combination of nickel-based wires (typically chromel/alumel),
which results in an especially cost-effective thermocouple that
tends to be accurate and reliable across a wide range of operating
temperatures. K-type thermocouples are generally used within
ranges of -200 to +1260 celsius and are considered temperature
accurate to a standard deviation of ±0.75%. Type-K thermocouples have a wide range of
potential applications due to being nickel-based, which means their wires are able to
operate at a particularly wide range of temperatures and generally exhibit solid resistance
to corrosion and oxidation.

29
 • J-Type Thermocouples - These are another widely used variety,
although they will generally have a narrower temperature range (-40
to +750 Celsius) than K-types, and exhibit a shorter overall lifespan
if regularly exposed to more excessive heat. The positive leg of a
type-J unit is made from iron wire, and th e negative leg will be
composed of a copper-nickel (constantan) alloy.
It’s one of the least expensive thermocouple varieties, and is considered versatile,
being especially well-suited to use in reducing (non-oxidizing) atmospheres and vacuums,
and is ideal for taking readings from many older types of equipment as well as inert
materials. However, the iron components in J-type units are highly susceptible to oxidation,
and should not be used in situations where they’re likely to be at risk of exposure to
moisture of any kind.

• N-Type Thermocouples - Consist of wires made from nicrosil-

nisil alloys (nickel, chromium and silicon), and display many
similar properties to those found in K-type thermocouples, with
operating temperatures in the range of -270 to +1300 celsius.
However, they’re slightly more expensive than K varieties, owing
to their more recent development in order to overcome certain
issues with K-types in specific environments - in particular, the type-N offers better all-
round stability in nuclear applications, and exhibits lower susceptibility to oxidation than
K varieties under more extreme heat demands.

• T-Type Thermocouples - Temperature ranges run between −200

to +350 celsius, and it’s noted for being an especially stable
thermocouple configuration, composed of copper-constantan
alloy wires. This makes it ideally suited to a variety of cryogenic
and other extreme low-temperature applications, including a
wide range of laboratory and similar deep-freeze conditions. It
functions well in oxidising atmospheres too, and is frequently
used for differential measurement due to the fact that only
copper wires make direct contact with the probes.
Function
A thermocouple is a sensor tool that’s principally designed to measure the unknown
temperatures of various physical bodies, components or substances.
Crucially, a thermocouple is made up of at least two wires of different metals that, when
joined together to form a circuit, create two separate electrical junctions. One junction is located
where an unknown temperature needs to be measured (the ‘hot’ or measuring junction), and one
connected to a body of known and stable temperature (the ‘cold’ or reference junction).

30
 The temperature differentials between these two junctions at any given time create voltage
within the circuit, and the subsequent current flow can be used to measure the temperature at the
unknown or ‘hot’ point of contact.
How Does It Measure Temperature?
A basic thermocouple circuit consists of
two wires of dissimilar metals or metal alloys
that are joined at one end and left open at the
other end. When the junction is heated, an
electromotive force is generated that results in
a voltage differential between the open ends.
This is referred to as the Seebeck effect. Then
the thermocouple uses an attached voltmeter to measure that current. Provided it already knew the
stable start temperature at the cold end, the thermocouple can use these voltage readings to
calculate a precise temperature reading at the hot junction.

Purpose

1. Thermocouples for thermostats

Thermostats in a plethora of settings very often include thermocouples as key components
in their proper and efficient functioning. There is often some confusion about the exact differences
between one and the other, due to their frequent proximity, closely related (but distinct) functions,
and similar names.

2. Thermocouples for medical thermometers

Hospital grade thermometers and other forms of medical detection, diagnosis and treatment
equipment often use a thermocouple. These are frequently configured in specialist or miniaturized
versions, intended to help with faster and more accurate temperature readings of both patients and
heat-critical machinery and processes. Many types of medical thermometers rely on thermocouple
technologies for extremely precise measurement using very fine-gauge wires.

3. Thermocouples for vehicle diagnostics

Data read by engine thermocouples and other vehicular sensors can be used to monitor and
adjust factors such as exhaust gas readings, cylinder head and spark plug function, disc brake
performance, battery health and changes to external environments.

4. Thermocouples for boilers, heating sensors and ovens

Thermocouples for boilers, hot water systems, heating sensors and ovens work in much the
same way as they would for a thermostat, as outlined above. Gas varieties of these appliances in

31
particular often incorporate thermocouples as safety features, preventing gas valves from opening
if the heat from a lit pilot light isn’t generating the required voltage across a thermocouple circuit.

5. Thermocouples for food thermometers, industrial probes and sensors

Food thermometers very often incorporate thermocouple technology to provide a very swift
and accurate temperature reading, both at the manufacture and preparation stages of food
ingredients and whole meals. Unlike a traditional catering thermometer, thermocouples aren’t
intended to be left in the food during cooking.
The rapid response time of a thermocouple in, say, a digital food thermometer means it can
be used to quickly and accurately relay precise temperatures at multiple locations on larger items,
such as meat and poultry, without having to wait for the thermometer itself to register the correct
heat reading in each spot.
Many of these thermocouples intended for a factory, mechanical or laboratory applications
will also include features such as magnetic probes and more robust thermo sensors in order to
perform well in far more demanding environments than are typically required for most domestic
uses.

RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTOR (RTD)

A Resistance Temperature Detector (also known as a Resistance Thermometer or
RTD) is an electronic device used to determine the temperature by measuring the resistance of an
electrical wire. This wire is referred to as a temperature sensor.
The traditional RTD element is constructed of a small coil of platinum, copper, or nickel
wire wound to a precise resistance value around a ceramic or glass bobbin. The winding is
generally of helix style for industrial use. These three metals are having different resistance
variations with respective to the temperature variations. That is called resistance-temperature
characteristics.

RTDs are either a metal film deposited

on a form or are wire-wound resistors, which are then sealed in a glass-ceramic composite material.
The coil is wound to be non-inductive. The space between the element and the case is filled with
a ceramic powder for good thermal conduction. The element has three leads, so that correction can
be made for voltage drops in the lead wires.
Function/Purpose

32
 Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD) is temperature measuring transducers used in
industrial applications. If we want to measure temperature with high accuracy, an RTD is the ideal
solution, as it has good linear characteristics over a wide range of temperatures.
RTDs are used in the following conditions:

• A wide temperature range (approximately -200 to 850°C)

• Good accuracy (better than thermocouples)
• Good interchange ability
• Long-term stability
With a temperature range up to 850°C, RTDs can be used in all but the highest-temperature
industrial processes. When made using metals such as platinum, they are very stable and are not
affected by corrosion or oxidation. Other materials such as nickel, copper, and nickel-iron alloy
have also been used for RTDs. However, these materials are not commonly used since they have
lower temperature capabilities and are not as stable or repeatable as platinum.
How Does It Measure Temperature?
RTDs work on a basic correlation between metals and temperature. As the temperature of
a metal increases, the metal's resistance to the flow of electricity increases. Similarly, as the
temperature of the RTD resistance element increases, the electrical resistance, measured in ohms
(Ω), increases.
In practice, an electrical current is transmitted through a piece of metal (the RTD element
or resistor) located in proximity to the area where temperature is to be measured. The resistance
value of the RTD element is then measured by an instrument. This resistance value is then
correlated to temperature based upon the known resistance characteristics of the RTD element.
An RTD is a passive measurement device; therefore, you must supply it with an excitation
current and then read the voltage across its terminals. The RTD value is measured by using a bridge
circuit. By supplying the constant electric current to the bridge circuit and measuring the resulting
voltage drop across the resistor, the RTD resistance can be calculated. Thereby, the temperature
can be also determined. This temperature is determined by converting the RTD resistance value
using a calibration expression. The different modules of RTD are shown in below figures. There
are essentially three different methods to measure temperature using RTDs: Two-Wire – RTD
Signal Connection, Three-Wire – RTD Signal Connection, Four-Wire – RTD Signal Connection.

33
 • Two-Wire – RTD Signal Connection - the simplest among RTD circuit designs. In this
serial configuration, a single lead wire connects each end of the RTD element to the
monitoring device. Because the resistance calculated for the circuit includes the resistance
in the lead wires and connectors as well as the resistance in the RTD element, the result
will always contain some degree of error. 2-wire RTD’s are mostly used with short lead
wires or where close accuracy is not required.
• Three-Wire – RTD Signal Connection - the most commonly used RTD circuit design and
can be seen in industrial process and monitoring applications. In this configuration, two
wires link the sensing element to the monitoring device on one side of the sensing element,
and one links it on its other side.
• Four-Wire – RTD Signal Connection - In a 4-wire RTD configuration, two wires link the
sensing element to the monitoring devise on both sides of the sensing element. One set of
wires delivers the current used for measurement, and the other set measures the voltage
drop over the resistor. It produces the most accurate results.

FILLED-SYSTEM THERMOMETER
A thermometer which has a bourdon tube connected by a capillary tube to a hollow bulb;
the deformation of the bourdon tube depends on the pressure of a gas (usually nitrogen or helium)
or on the volume of a liquid filling the system. Also known as filled thermometer. The operation
of a filled-system thermometer is based on one of three principles: the thermal expansion of a
liquid, the temperature dependence of the pressure of a gas, or the temperature dependence of the
saturated vapor pressure of a liquid. A distinction is made between gas-filled, liquid-filled, and
vapor-filled, or vapor-pressure, thermometers. (The substances that are used as fills in the three
types are nitrogen, mercury, and ethyl chloride, respectively.)
A filled-system thermometer is a hermetically sealed system consisting of a bulb connected
by a capillary to a readout or recording spring manometer. Thermometers of this type are
commonly used in industry in the temperature range from –60° to 550°C. With long capillaries of
up to 60 m such thermometers may be used for remote temperature measurement.The scale of the
manometer that measures the pressure in the bulb of a filled-system manometer is calibrated in
degrees Celsius.
Filled System Temperature Measurement and Specifications
Filled system temperature measurement systems have been mostly replaced in new
facilities with electronic measurements based on thermocouples or RTD’s.
Filled-system temperature measurement methods depend upon three well-known physical
phenomena:
• A liquid will expand or contract in proportion to its temperature and in accordance to the
liquid’s coefficient of thermal/volumetric expansion.
• An enclosed liquid will create a definite vapor pressure in proportion to its temperature if
the liquid only partially occupies the enclosed space.

34
 • The pressure of a gas is directly proportional to its temperature in accordance with the basic
principle of the universal/perfect gas law: PV = nRT where P = absolute pressure, V =
volume, T = absolute temperature, R = universal gas constant and n = number of gas
particles (moles).
All filled-system temperature measurement instruments consist of a bulb, connecting
tubing known as “capillary,” and a pressure sensing element, usually a bourdon tube. All
commercially available filled system thermometers have been classified by ASME B40.200
(ASME B40.4). The standard classifies filled-system thermometers by the type of fill fluid used
(liquid, vapor, gas) and further subdivided by the type of temperature compensation. The different
types of filled systems are identified by “Class Numbers”, ranging from 1 through 5, refer ASME
B40.200 for more details.

A. Bulb Design
The bulb volume varies over a range of 100 to 1 depending on the fill fluid, the temperature
span, and the capillary length. Long bulbs give an average temperature and are sometimes used
in stretched-out form for gas ducts. Different bulb materials are available. However, when used
with a Thermo well, standard material such as copper, bronze, or stainless steel can be used. In
case atmospheric corrosion, Stainless steel is preferred. If a well is not used (not recommended),
the bulb must suitable for process fluid.

B. Capillary Tubing & Armoring

Capillary tubing is small-diameter tubing, usually of stainless steel. Armor should always
be specified not to provide only mechanical strength but also distinguish with other tubing. Armor
material shall be stainless steel. However, in a corrosive atmosphere, the armor should be plastic
coated. The length of capillary shall be carefully selected and specified so that instrument can be
installed as per requirement, since it cannot be stretched or spliced.

C. Mounting the Bulb

Of the many mounting styles available for installing a bulb, the one generally
recommended has a bulb with an adjustable union and bendable extension. The bendable
extension is usually of smaller diameter than the bulb, thus reducing conduction error. The
extension with adjustable union permits sliding the bulb against the bottom of its well to make
solid contact and give improved thermal performance.

D. Temperature Compensation
Since the thermal sensing fluid extends from the bulb to the pressure element, it is affected
by the temperatures existing everywhere in the system – bulb, capillary, and pressure element.
The temperature sensitivity of the fluid in the bulb is the essence of the measuring system; in other

35
parts of the system, the sensitivity is a characteristic that may or may not cause significant error.
Vapor-pressure systems, Class 2, are not subject to errors from this cause because the system
pressure depends only on the temperature of the liquid/vapor interface, which is in the bulb; the
volume of the bulb chamber is temperature-sensitive but to a negligible extent.
For Class 1, 3, and 5 systems, errors of varying extent can be caused by ambient
temperature. The need for compensation is a function of ratio of bulb volume to total system
volume, length of capillary, ambient temperature, measuring range, and need for accuracy. Case
compensation corrects only for variations of case temperature. Full compensation corrects for
variations of the temperature of the capillary and case. Case compensation is usually achieved by
installing a bimetallic strip into the instrument case and attaching it to the pressure sensing element.
Full compensation is accomplished by installing an auxiliary capillary without bulb parallel to the
primary/main capillary and connecting it to the measuring mechanism.
The decisions as to whether to specify compensation and which type to use may be handled in
either of the following ways:
• The preferred and most reliable way is to order Class 1 or 3 instruments with full
compensation, that is, as Classes 1A or 3A. Class 2 instruments do not require
compensation
• For economy: In addition to the usual information included in an instrument specification,
state (1) the ambient temperature ranges for the capillary and the case, and (2) the required
accuracy. The Manufacturer can then select the proper compensation, if any is required

E. Hydrostatic/Head Errors
In as much as a filled-system instrument works through the medium of a fluid, it is subject
to pressure variations, therefore zero-shift errors, plus or minus; occur merely by changing the
relative elevations of the bulb and pressure element. The magnitude of the error is a function of
the filling pressure, the type of filling fluid, the phase of the filling fluid, and the elevation offset,
and it may vary from zero, for Class 2B, to large for some other classes. Reference should be
made to Table 1 and manufacturer’s literature so that the specification for an instrument may
include information about elevations, if needed, so that proper compensation may be incorporated
in the instrument. It is best to avoid the need for head compensation, everything else being equal.

F. External / Atmosphere Pressure Errors

External pressure may cause measuring errors because the pressure element measures the
gage pressure of the filling fluid. Barometric pressure change has negligible effect on the liquid-
filled systems, Classes 1 and 5, which are at relatively high internal pressure. Vapor and gas
systems, Classes 2, 3 and 4, are affected by barometric pressure change but the resulting error
usually does not exceed 0.4 percent of span.
Filled-bulb Temperature Sensors

36
 Filled-bulb systems exploit the principle of fluid expansion to measure temperature. If a
fluid is enclosed in a sealed system and then heated, the molecules in that fluid will exert a greater
pressure on the walls of the enclosing vessel. By measuring this pressure, and/or by allowing the
fluid to expand under constant pressure, we may infer the temperature of the fluid.
Four types of filled bulb temperature sensors
1. Liquid Filled (Class I A,B)
2. Vapor filled (Class II A,B,C,D)
3. Gas Filled (Class III A,B)
4. Mercury Filled (Class V A,B)

Class I and Class V systems use a liquid fill fluid (class V is mercury). Here, the
volumetric expansion of the liquid drives an indicating mechanism to show temperature:

Class III systems use a gas fill fluid instead of liquid. Here, the change in pressure with
temperature (as described by the Ideal Gas Law) allows us to sense the bulb’s temperature:

These systems, it is quite critical that the tube connecting the sensing bulb to the indicating
element be of minimal volume, so the fluid expansion is primarily due to changes in temperature

37
at the bulb rather than changes in temperature along the length of the tube. It is also important to
realize that the fluid volume contained by the bellows (or bourdon tube or diaphragm . . .) is also
subject to expansion and contraction due to temperature changes at the indicator.
This means the temperature indication varies somewhat as the indicator temperature
changes, which is not desirable, since we intend the device to measure temperature (exclusively)
at the bulb.
Various methods of compensation exist for this effect (for example, a bi-metal spring inside
the indicator mechanism to automatically offset the indication as ambient temperature changes),
but it may be permanently offset through a simple “zero” adjustment provided that the ambient
temperature at the indicator does not change much. A fundamentally different class of filled-bulb
system is the Class II, which uses a volatile liquid/vapor combination to generate a temperature-
dependent fluid expansion:

Given that the liquid and vapor are in direct contact with each other, the pressure in the
system will be precisely equal to the saturated vapor pressure at the vapor/liquid interface.
This makes the Class II system sensitive to temperature only at the bulb and nowhere else
along the system’s volume. Because of this phenomenon, a Class II filled-bulb system requires no
compensation for temperature changes at the indicator.
Class II systems do have one notable idiosyncrasy, though: they have a tendency to switch
from Class IIA to Class IIB when the temperature of the sensing bulb crosses the ambient
temperature at the indicator.
Simply put, the liquid tends to seek the colder portion of a Class II system while the vapor
tends to seek the warmer portion. This causes problems when the indicator and sensing bulb
exchange identities as warmer/colder.
The rush of liquid up (or down) the capillary tubing as the system tries to reach a new
equilibrium causes intermittent measurement errors. Class II filled-bulb systems designed to
operate in either IIA or IIB mode are classified as IIC.
One calibration problem common to all systems with liquid-filled capillary tubes is an
offset in temperature measurement due to hydrostatic pressure (or suction) resulting from a
different in height between the measurement bulb and the indicator.

38
 This represents a “zero” shift in calibration, which may be permanently offset by a “zero”
adjustment at the time of installation. Class III (gas-filled) and Class IIB (vapor-filled) systems, of
course, suffer no such problem because there is no liquid in the capillary tube to generate a pressure
due to height.
Generalization
In general, filled system thermometers are designed for use in locations where the
indicating part of the instrument must be placed some distance away from the point where the
temperature is to be measured. For these reasons they are often called distant reading
thermometers. However, this is not true of all filled system thermometers. In few designs, the
capillary tubing is extremely short and in few, it is non-existent. In general, however, filled-system
thermometers are designed to be distant reading thermometers. Some distant reading thermometers
may have capillaries as along as 125 feet.
There are 2 basic types of filled-system thermometers. One as a Bourdon tube that responds
primarily to changes in volume of the filling fluid; the other one in which the Burdon tube responds
primarily to changes in the pressure of the filling fluid. Clearly, some pressure effect will exist in
volumetric thermometers and some volumetric effect will exist in pressure thermometers.
A distant reading thermometer consists of a hollow metal sensing bulb at one end of a
small-bore capillary tube, which is connected at the other end to a Bourdon tube or other device
that responds to volume changes or to pressure changes. The system is partially or completely
filled with a fluid that expands when heated and contracts when cooled. The fluid may be a gas,
an organic liquid, or a combination of liquids and vapor.
The device usually used to indicate temperature changes by its response to volume changes
or pressure changes is called as bourdon tube. A bourdon tube is a curved or twisted tube which is
open at one end and sealed on the other.

BIMETAL THERMOMETERS
Bimetal Thermometers also called thermostatic
bimetal is a temperature gauge that makes use of the
mechanical displacement of metals in reaction to a change
in temperature. It uses bimetallic strip with two different
expansion rates and as the metals expands/contacts, a
mechanical arrangement (Figure 1) displays the
temperature change that the bimetal strip in helical
arrangement experiences.
Two fundamental properties of metal are Figure 1:. Bimetal Temperature gauge
responsible for why bimetal thermometer works: (a) Metals expand and contracts when subjected
to temperature change (thermal expansion coefficient); (b) The thermal expansion coefficient of
all metals are different from one another, meaning they expand/contract at different rates at the
same temperature.
Two (2) different metal strips are welded together in a way that there is no relative motion
between the two. Since the metal strips expands/contracts to different lengths at the same

39
temperature, the metal with high thermal expansion coefficient expands the bimetal strip, moving
the temperature gauge, and as the temperature cools down, the metal with low thermal expansion
coefficient is responsible for reverting the gauge back to its position.
With one end of a straight strip fixed (fixed
end), the other end deflects (free end) as the
temperature changes (Figure 2). There are two main
mechanical arrangements for bimetal thermometer:

(a) Spiral type arrangement

(b) Helical type arrangement

Figure 2. Deflection of Bimetallic strain

Spiral type bimetallic thermometer

The bimetal strip is arranged in a spiral-
shaped form with a fixed end at the center of
the spiral. As the ambient temperature
changes, the strip expands in a circular
manner and with the pointer attached on the
free end, the temperature can then be read off
a calibrated scale.

This is the simplest design of a bimetal

thermometer which is not only space-saving, but also cost-effective. However, the design shows
that the metal strip which senses the temperature change, and the pointer which delivers the
reading, should be within the range of each other. This means that the temperature to be measured
must be directly in the location of the bimetal thermometer. This limits the uses of this design to
refrigerators, freezers, or to determining the room temperature.

Helical type bimetallic thermometer

Because of the limits of the spiral
type arrangement, the helix type is done to
compensate. This is usually used in
industrial applications. For this arrangement,
the helical bimetal strip is connected onto a
rotatable rod that guides the pointer at the
upper end of the metal rod. As the bimetal
strips expand due to temperature changes, it

40
makes the rod rotate, and in turn makes the pointer shows the temperature reading in the calibrated
scale.
Because the temperature reading (pointer) can be far from the temperature sensor (bimetal
strips), it opens different applications such as reading the temperature of a fluid inside a pipe. For
a bimetal thermometer with uniform scale division to work, the bimetal strips must be designed to
have a linear deflection at a temperature range, meaning it should linearly expand as the
temperature increases. The temperature ranges can vary depending on the bimetal strips used but
it usually has temperature ranging from 580 down to −180°C and lower. Although, at low
temperatures, the rate of deflection drops, this can give an inaccurate reading. Bimetal
thermometers are also prone to physical constraints and do not have a long-time stability at
temperatures above 430°C.

PYROMETER
The pyrometer is ideal for taking accurate measurements of temperature without contact.
Thanks to an optical mechanism, the pyrometer is safe for measuring high temperatures. Its
infrared capabilities make the pyrometer the perfect tool to use when a conventional sensor is
inadequate. A pyrometer is useful for measuring moving, extremely hot or hard-to-reach objects.
Many pyrometer models can be calibrated to meet ISO standards.
What is Pyrometer?
Pyrometer also is known as an Infrared thermometer or Radiation thermometer or non-
contact thermometer used to detect the temperature of an object’s surface temperature, which
depends on the radiation (infrared or visible) emitted from the object. Pyrometers act as photo
detector because of the property of absorbing energy and measuring of EM wave intensity at any
wavelength. Pyrometers are available in different spectral ranges (since metals – short wave ranges
and non-metals-long wave ranges).

Color pyrometers
are used to measure the
radiation emitted from
the object during the
temperature measurement. These can measure the object’s temperature very accurately. Hence the
measuring errors are very low with these devices.

41
 Color pyrometers are used to determine the ratio of two radiation intensities with two
spectral ranges. These are available in series of Metis M3 and H3 and handheld portables Capella
C3 in different versions.

High-speed pyrometers are used to temperature more fastly and quickly than M3 devices.
These are available in combination with 1-color and 2-color pyrometers. These devices can create
clear temperature profiles of fast-moving objects and control the adequate temperature level.

Working Principle of Pyrometer

Pyrometers are the temperature measuring devices used to detect the object’s temperature
and electromagnetic radiation emitted from the object. These are available in different spectral
ranges. Based on the spectral range, pyrometers are classified into 1-color pyrometers, 2-color
pyrometers, and high-speed pyrometers.
The basic principle of the pyrometer is, it measures the object’s temperature by sensing the
heat/radiation emitted from the object without making contact with the object. It records the
temperature level depending upon the intensity of radiation emitted. The pyrometer has two basic
components like optical system and detectors that are used to measure the surface temperature of
the object.

When any object is taken whose surface, temperature is to be measured with the pyrometer,
the optical system will capture the energy emitted from the object. Then the radiation is sent to the
detector, which is very sensitive to the waves of radiation. The output of the detector refers to the
temperature level of the object due to the radiation. Note that, the temperature of the detector
analyzed by using the level of radiation is directly proportional to the object’s temperature.

The radiation emitted from every targeted object with its actual temperature goes beyond
the absolute temperature (-273.15 degrees Centigrade). This emitted radiation is referred to as
Infrared, which is above the visible red light in the electromagnetic spectrum. The radiated energy
is used for detecting the temperature of the object and it is converted into electrical signals with
the help of a detector.

Types of Pyrometer
Optical Pyrometers
These are one of the types of pyrometers used to detect thermal radiation of the visible
spectrum. The temperature of the hot objects measured will depend on the visible light they emit.
Optical pyrometers are capable of providing a visual comparison between a calibrated light source
and the targeted object’s surface. When the temperature of the filament and the object’s surface
is the same, then the thermal radiation intensity caused due to the filament merges and into the
targeted object’s surface and becomes invisible. When this process happens, the current passing
through the filament is converted into a temperature level.

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 In an optical pyrometer, a brightness comparison is made to measure the temperature. As
a measure of the reference temperature, a color change with the growth in temperature is taken.
The device compares the brightness produced by the radiation of the object whose temperature is
to be measured, with that of a reference temperature. The reference temperature is produced by a
lamp whose brightness can be adjusted till its intensity becomes equal to the brightness of the
source object.
For an object, its light intensity always depends on the temperature of the object, whatever
may be its wavelength. After adjusting the temperature, the current passing through it is measured
using a multimeter, as its value will be proportional to the temperature of the source when
calibrated. The working of an optical pyrometer is shown in the figure below.

As shown in the figure above, an optical pyrometer has the following components.
1. An eye piece at the left side and an optical lens on the right.
2. A reference lamp, which is powered with the help of a battery.
3. A rheostat to change the current and hence the brightness intensity.
4. So as to increase the temperature range which is to be measured, an absorption screen is
fitted between the optical lens and the reference bulb.
5. A red filter placed between the eye piece and the reference bulb helps in narrowing the
band of wavelength.
The radiation from the source is emitted and the optical objective lens captures it. The lens
helps in focusing the thermal radiation on to the reference bulb. The observer watches the process
through the eye piece and corrects it in such a manner that the reference lamp filament has a sharp
focus and the filament is super-imposed on the temperature source image. The observer starts
changing the rheostat values and the current in the reference lamp changes. This in turn, changes
its intensity. This change in current can be observed in three different ways.
1. The filament is dark. That is, cooler than the temperature source.
2. Filament is bright. That is, hotter than the temperature source.

43
 3. Filament disappears. Thus, there is equal brightness between the filament and temperature
source. At this time, the current that flows in the reference lamp is measured, as its value
is a measure of the temperature of the radiated light in the temperature source, when
calibrated.

Infrared or Radiation Pyrometers

These pyrometers are designed to detect thermal radiation in the infrared region, which is
usually at a distance of 2-14um. It measures the temperature of a targeted object from the
emitted radiation. This radiation can be directed to a thermocouple to convert into electrical
signals. Because the thermocouple is capable of generating higher current equal to the heat
emitted. Infrared pyrometers are made up of pyroelectric materials like polyvinylidene fluoride
(PVDF), triglycine sulfate (TGS), and lithium tantalate (LiTaO3).
As discussed earlier, an Optical Pyrometer can be not only be used for temperature
measurement, but also can be used to see the heat that is measured. The observer is actually able
to calculate the infrared wavelength of the heat produced and also see the heat patterns by the
object. But the amount of heat that the device can sense is limited to 0.65 microns. This is why the
radiation pyrometer is more useful, as it can be used to measure all temperatures of wavelengths
between 0.70 microns and 20 microns

The wavelengths measured by the device are known to be pure radiation wavelengths, that
is, the common range for radioactive heat. This device is used in places where physical contact
temperature sensors like Thermocouple, RTD, and Thermistors would fail because of the high
temperature of the source.
The main theory behind a radiation pyrometer is that the temperature is measured through
the naturally emitted heat radiation by the body. This heat is known to be a function of its
temperature. According to the application of the device, the way in which the heat is measured can
be summarized into two:
1. Total Radiation Pyrometer – In this method, the total heat emitted from the hot source is
measured at all wavelengths.

44
 2. Selective Radiation Pyrometer – In this method, the heat radiated from the hot source is
measured at a given wavelength.

As shown in the figure above, the radiation pyrometer has an optical system, including a
lens, a mirror and an adjustable eye piece. The heat energy emitted from the hot body is passed on
to the optical lens, which collects it and is focused on to the detector with the help of the mirror
and eye piece arrangement. The detector may either be a thermistor or photomultiplier tubes.
Though the latter is known for faster detection of fast-moving objects, the former may be used for
small scale applications. Thus, the heat energy is converted to its corresponding electrical signal
by the detector and is sent to the output temperature display device.

Six Infrared Pyrometers Technologies

1. Short-Wavelength Pyrometers
Short-Wavelength pyrometers can be defined as those that are short than 3um. Compared
with Long-Wavelength pyrometers, errors are relatively small for moderate emissivity variation,
optical obstruction and misalignment. Additionally, with careful wavelength selection, certain
short-wavelength pyrometers can view through common interferences like steam, flames,
combustion gasses, water, and plasma.

2. Long-Wavelength Pyrometers
Long-Wavelength pyrometers are typically 8-14um. These are general purpose pyrometers
that are ideal for measuring low-temperatures (below 100°C / 212°F) and high-emissivity
materials. A change in emissivity will result in a large temperature for long-wavelength
pyrometers. Handheld IR sensors are a good example of a long-wavelength pyrometer

3. Specialty-Wavelength Pyrometers
Specialty-Wavelength pyrometers are exactly like they sound. They are filtered at very
particular and special wavelengths where a particular material is either transparent or opaque at

45
that particular wavelength. Some examples include Glass, Carbon-based flames, thin-film plastics,
and others. These pyrometers are used for specific applications.

4. Two-Color Pyrometers
Two-Color pyrometers are a type of ratio pyrometer. Ratio pyrometers measure infrared
energy at two wavelengths and convert the ratio of measured energy at both wavelengths to a
temperature reading. This technology allows ratio pyrometers to compensate for emissivity
variation for most materials. Two-color pyrometers can also tolerate partial misalignment and dirty
windows. With a fixed wavelength set, two-color pyrometers are limited in the fact that they cannot
view through common interferences like steam, flames, combustion gasses, plasmas, and water.

5. Dual-Wavelength Pyrometers
Dual-Wavelength pyrometers have the same features as two-color pyrometers but with
some significant added capabilities. Dual-Wavelength technology differs from two-color
technology in that dual-wavelength pyrometers use separate, distinct, and selectable wavelength
sets. With the ability to carefully select wavelength sets, certain dual-wavelength pyrometers can
view through steam, flames, water, combustion gasses, and plasmas. The separate and distinct
wavelength sets also allow dual-wavelength pyrometers to tolerate scale 20x better than two-color
pyrometers.

6. Multi-Wavelength Pyrometers
Multi-Wavelength pyrometers are used for specific non-grey body materials with unique
emissivity characteristics. These materials include aluminum, copper, specialty steels, and zinc.
Application-specific algorithms correct for complex emissivity characteristics.

Advantages/Disadvantages
Usually, Pyrometers are compared with thermometers and also have some advantages and
disadvantages while using.
The Advantages of pyrometer are
• It can measure very high temperature without any contact with the object or the hot source.
This is the Non-contact measurement. Thus, it can be used in a wide variety of applications.
• It has a fast response time
• Good stability while measuring the temperature of the object.
• It can measure different types of object’s temperature at variable distances.
For Radiation Polymer:
• The biggest advantage is that in radiation pyrometer, the optical lens can be adjusted to
measure temperature of objects that are even 1/15 inch in diameter and that too kept at a
long distance from the measuring device.

46
 • The sight path of the device is maintained by the construction of the instrument
components, such as the lens and curved mirrors.
For Optical Pyrometer:
• Simple assembling of the device enables easy use of it.
• Provides a very high accuracy with +/-5 degree Celsius.
• As stated above, there is no need of any direct body contact between the optical pyrometer
and the object. As long as the size of the object, whose temperature is to measured fits with
the size of the optical pyrometer, the distance between both of them is not at all a problem.
Thus, the device can be used for remote sensing.
• This device can not only be used to measure the temperature, but can also be used to see
the heat produced by the object/source. Thus, optical pyrometers can be used to measure
and view wavelengths less than or equal to 0.65 microns. But a Radiation Pyrometer can
be used for high heat applications and can measure wavelengths between 0.70 microns to
20 microns.

The Disadvantages of pyrometer are

• Pyrometers are generally rugged and expensive
• Accuracy of the device can be affected due to the different conditions like dust, smoke, and
thermal radiation.
In Optical Pyrometer:
• As the measurement is based on the light intensity, the device can be used only in
applications with a minimum temperature of 700 degree Celsius.
• The device is not useful for obtaining continuous values of temperatures at small intervals.

Applications

Pyrometers are used in different applications such as,

• To measure the temperature of moving objects or constant objects from a greater distance.
• To measure temperatures of liquid metals or highly heated materials.
• In metallurgy industries
• In smelting industries
• Hot air balloons to measure the heat at the top of the ballon
• Steam boilers to measure steam temperature
• To measure the temperature of liquid metals and highly heated materials.
• To measure furnace temperature.

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LASER
What is a laser?
The letters in the word laser stand for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiation. A laser is an unusual light source. It is quite different from a light bulb or a flash light.
Lasers produce a very narrow beam of light. This type of light is useful for lots of technologies
and instruments—even some that you might use at home!

How does a laser work?

Light travels in waves, and the distance between the peaks of a wave is called the
wavelength

Each color of light has a different wavelength. For example, blue light has a shorter
wavelength than red light. Sunlight—and the typical light from a light bulb—is made up of light
with many different wavelengths. Our eyes see this mixture of wavelengths as white light.

This image shows a representation of the different wavelengths present in sunlight. When all of
the different wavelengths (colors) come together, you get white light. Image credit: NASA
A laser is different. Lasers do not occur in nature. However, we have figured ways to
artificially create this special type of light. Lasers produce a narrow beam of light in which all of
the light waves have very similar wavelengths. The laser’s light waves travel together with their
peaks all lined up, or in phase. This is why laser beams are very narrow, very bright, and can be
focused into a very tiny spot.

48
 This image is a representation of in phase laser light waves. Image credit: NASA
Because laser light stays focused and does not spread out much (like a flashlight would),
laser beams can travel very long distances. They can also concentrate a lot of energy on a very
small area.

This image shows how a laser can focus all of its light into one small point. Credit: NASA
Lasers have many uses. They are used in precision tools and can cut through diamonds or
thick metal. They can also be designed to help in delicate surgeries. Lasers are used for recording
and retrieving information. They are used in communications and in carrying TV and internet
signals. We also find them in laser printers, bar code scanners, and DVD players. They also help
to make parts for computers and other electronics.

How Laser Thermometers Measure Temperature

Laser thermometers are actually infrared thermometers. The laser simply provides a means
to aim the thermometer. The molecules that make up objects are vibrating constantly; the hotter
the molecule is, the faster it vibrates, producing invisible light in the form of infrared energy.
Infrared (IR) thermometers measure the infrared energy given off by all objects. To display the
temperature, the thermometer converts the infrared energy it measures into an electrical signal,
which is then displayed as a temperature.

49
How the Thermometer Measures Infrared Energy
Infrared energy has a longer wavelength than visible light and is part of the electromagnetic
spectrum of light, which also includes microwaves, radio waves, ultraviolet light, gamma and X-
rays. Infrared energy can be measured in three ways: transmitted, reflected and emitted. IR
thermometers measure the emitted energy of objects. IR thermometers use a series of lenses and
mirrors to focus the emitted infrared energy onto a detector. The detector converts the emitted
infrared energy into an electrical signal, which the thermometer turns into a digital temperature
reading. Since all IR thermometers can detect transmitted, reflected and emitted infrared energy,
the thermometer has to be calibrated using the manufacturer's directions to read emitted infrared
energy only.
Emitted infrared energy is the only energy that can give an accurate surface temperature
reading. If the IR thermometer is to be used on multiple objects, an emitted infrared energy guide
will be needed. Most objects have an emitted infrared energy of 0.95; however, some objects have
a higher or lower emitted infrared energy. The guide allows the IR thermometer to be adjusted to
read a specific object's emitted energy.

When to Use Your Infrared Thermometer

IR thermometers are used to measure the temperatures of very hot objects, objects in hard-
to-reach places, hazardous materials and in food manufacturing to monitor the temperature of
frozen and hot foods. Use the laser sight to focus on the object being measured. For an accurate
temperature reading, the object being measured should fill the field of view of the IR thermometer.
Dark-colored objects give the most accurate temperature reading; shiny objects may reflect
infrared light back to the thermometer, which will skew the temperature readings.
To get the best temperature reading from shiny objects, a portion of the object should be
covered with black tape. The black tape should be allowed to come to the ambient temperature of
the object before a reading is taken. Use the black tape as the target for the temperature reading.
For liquid objects, just stir the liquid and then take the temperature reading. IR thermometers work
at room temperature and in very cold environments. For the most accurate readings the
thermometer should be the same temperature of the ambient or surrounding temperature.

SURFACE ACOUSTIC WAVE

A Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) is an acoustic wave that travels along the surface of a
material exhibiting elasticity, with amplitude that typically decays exponentially with depth into
the substrate. SAW were discovered in 1885 by Lord Rayleigh and are often named after him:
Rayleigh waves. The velocity of acoustic waves is typically 3000 m/s, which is much lower than
the velocity of the electromagnetic waves.
SAW DEVICE

SAW Device converts electrical energy into mechanical wave on a single crystal substrate
and vice versa. It provides a very complex signal processing in a very small volume. The operation

50
of this device is based on acoustic wave propagation near the surface of a piezoelectric solid. This
implies that the wave can be trapped or otherwise modified while propagating. The displacements
decay exponentially away from the surface, so that most of the wave energy is confined within a
depth equal to one wavelength. The surface wave can be excited electrically by means of an
interdigital transducer (IDT).

Basic structure of SAW device

SAW DEVICE COMPONENTS
Piezoelectric Substrate
The commonly used substrate crystals are: Quarts, Lithium Niobate, Lithium
Tantalate, Zinc Oxide and Bismuth Germanium Oxide. They have different piezoelectric coupling
coefficients and temperature sensitivities. The ST quartz is used for the most temperature stable
devices. The wave velocity of the substrate material is in the range 1500m/s to 4800 m/s, which is
105 times lower than the electromagnetic wave velocity. This enables the construction of a small
size delay line of considerable delay.
Transducers (IDT)
Consist of series of interleaved electrodes made of a metal fil deposited on a
piezoelectric substrate. The width of the electrodes usually equals the width of the inter-electrode
gaps giving the maximal conversion of electrical to mechanical signal and vice versa. The minimal
electrode width which is obtained in industry is around 0.3 , which determines the highest
frequency of around 3Ghz.
Reflectors
The wave reflects from the reflective array and travels back to the transducer, which
transforms it back to the electrical signal. The attenuation of the signal is minimal if the frequency
of the input signal matches the resonant frequency of the device.
APPLICATIONS OF SAW
Saw Touchscreen
Waves are directed across screen by reflectors then directed to receiving
transducers. When finger touches screen it absorbs waves, received values are compared to stored

51
digital maps to calculate x and y coordinates. Applications of Saw Touch Screen are ATM’s,
Amusement Parks, Gaming Environments, Kiosks and Industrial Control Rooms.
Advantages
▪ Best optical quality
▪ High surface durability
▪ Activated by multiple sources
▪ High “touch-life”

Disadvantages
▪ Expensive
▪ Contaminates on screen can cause false touches
▪ Non-conductive material cannot activate screen

Sensors

SAW sensors are a class of micro electromechanical systems (MEMS) which rely
on the modulation of surface acoustic waves to sense a physical phenomenon. The sensor
transduces an input electrical signal into a mechanical wave which, unlike an electrical signal can
easily influenced by physical phenomena. The device then transduces this wave back into an
electrical signal. Changes in amplitude, phase, frequency, or time delay between the input and
output electrical signal can be used to measure the presence of the desired phenomenon.

• RFID
• SAW FILTER
• SAW RESONATORS

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SAW

Advantages
• Low Velocity
• Low attenuation
• Low cost
• Simple design and fabrication
• Low power consumption
Disadvantages
• Cannot be operated in liquids
• Piezoelectric substrates are temperature dependent

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SEMICONDUCTOR
Semiconductor probes are the third main category of probe, and are placed on Integrated
Circuits (ICs). Like a resistance probe, they require a current (or voltage) supply to create a
reading. This is where the similarity ends. Semiconductor probes are created from a semiconductor
wafer that contains a number of active circuits. Probably the most common of these are the Analog
Devices AD590 Device. The actual circuit that the device consists of is shown below.

This device is essentially a temperature variable resistance device, which then converts the
change in resistance to a change in current. In this particular device, the controlled current output
is equal to 1µA/°K. These devices do not typically have the accuracy that an RTD would due to
the manufacturing tolerances, however they are extremely cost effective for large volume
applications. The devices have a relatively large initial tolerance or absolute offset, but this is
countered by a very high level of repeatability.
As an example, an AD590K will vary as much as ±2.5°C at 25°C, but once you know what
this offset is, you can adjust for it and the device will be able to make measurements that are
repeatable to within 0.1°C.

The above temperature sensor has three terminals and required Maximum of 5.5 V supply.
This type of sensor consists of a material that operates according to temperature to vary the
resistance. This change of resistance is sensed by the circuit and it calculates the temperature.
When the voltage increases then the temperature also rises. We can see this operation by using a
diode.

53
 Temperature sensors directly connected to microprocessor input and thus capable of direct
and reliable communication with microprocessors. The sensor unit can communicate effectively
with low-cost processors without the need for A/D converters.
Background on Semiconductor Sensors
In general, the semiconductor temperature sensor is best suited for embedded applications
- that is, for use within equipment. This is because they tend to be electrically and mechanically
more delicate than most other temperature sensor types. However, they do have legitimate
application in many areas, hence their inclusion. The sensors can be grouped into five broad
categories: voltage output, current output, resistance output, digital output and simple diode types.

1. Voltage Output Temperature Sensors

2. Current Output Temperature Sensors
3. Resistance Output Temperature Sensors
4. Digital Output Temperature Sensors
The digital temperature sensor is the first sensor to integrate a sensor and an analog
to digital converter (ADC) on to a single silicon chip. Digital temperature sensors eliminate the
necessity for extra components, such as an A/D converter, within the application and there is no
need to calibrate components or the system at specific reference temperatures as needed when
utilizing thermistors.

5. Diode Output Temperature Sensors

Diodes are frequently used as temperature sensors in a wide variety of moderate-
precision temperature measurement applications. Linear temperature coefficient such as –2mV/C°
across operating temperatures makes diodes a great solution for flexible and low-cost applications.
The circuitry can be quite simple, but making a temperature measurement system with a diode will
require excitation, offsetting, and amplification.

Comparison of Semiconductor-based sensors to other sensors

For basic temperature sensing where accuracy of ±2°C to ±3°C is adequate, thermistors
tend to be a popular choice due to their low cost and minimal bill of materials (BOM). However,
for MCU-based applications if an ADC input is not available, then semiconductor sensors are the
preferred option. For designs that require higher accuracy better than ±2°C, lower power
consumption and/or high-resolution measurements, semiconductor sensors provide the best
performance for the price as long as the sensing range is within –40 to +125 °C.
Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) traditionally offer the highest accuracy as good
as ±0.2°C, albeit at high cost and with additional external BOM cost necessary to maintain accurate
analog to digital conversions. New semiconductor temperature sensors like the Si705x from
Silicon Labs now offer accuracy levels comparable to RTDs without the need for external BOM.

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 FLOW
(GROUPS 1 and 2)

ORIFICE FLOW METER

An Orifice Meter is basically a type of flow meter used to measure the rate of flow of
Liquid or Gas, especially Steam, using the Differential Pressure Measurement principle. It is
mainly used for robust applications as it is known for its durability and is very economical.
As the name implies, it consists of an Orifice Plate which is the basic element of the
instrument. When this Orifice Plate is placed in a line, a differential pressure is developed across
the Orifice Plate. This pressure drop is linear and is in direct proportion to the flow-rate of the
liquid or gas.
Since there is a drop in pressure, just like Turbine Flow meter, hence it is used where a
drop in pressure or head loss is permissible.
An orifice meter is a conduit and a restriction to create a pressure drop. A nozzle, venturi
or thin sharp-edged orifice can be used as the flow restriction.
In order to use any of these devices for measurement it is necessary to empirically
calibrate them. That is, pass a known volume through the meter and note the reading in order to
provide a standard for measuring other quantities.
Due to the ease of duplicating and the simple construction, the thin sharp-edged orifice
has been adopted as a standard and extensive calibration work has been done so that it is widely
accepted as a standard means of measuring fluids. Provided the standard mechanics of
construction are followed no further calibration is required.

55
PRINCIPLE
When a liquid / gas, whose flow-rate is to be determined, is passed through an Orifice
Meter, there is a drop in the pressure between the Inlet section and Outlet Section of Orifice Meter.
This drop in pressure can be measured using a differential pressure measuring instrument.
Since this differential pressure is in direct proportion to the flow-rate as per the
Bernoulli's Equation hence the differential pressure instrument can be configured to display
flow-rate instead of showing differential pressure. The coefficient of discharge of the orifice
meter is much smaller than that of a venturimeter

HOW DOES IT WORK?

In order to determine the rate of flow of fluid through small pipe lines, orifice meter is
better to use as compared to venturimeter. Orifice meter consists of one flat circular plate and
this circular plate will have one circular sharp edge hole bored in it. The circular sharp edge hole
is termed as orifice.
Diameter of orifice will be 0.5 times of diameter of pipe through which fluid is flowing,
though it may vary from 0.4 to 0.8 times of diameter of pipe. Orifice plate is installed in pipe
between two flanges of pipe. Orifice will restrict the flow of fluid and will reduce the cross-
sectional area of flow passage. A differential pressure will be developed across the orifice plate.
Due to creation of pressure difference, we will be able to determine the rate of fluid flow through
the pipe.
As the fluid approaches the orifice the pressure increases slightly and then drops
suddenly as the orifice is passed. It continues to drop until the “vena-contracta” is reached and
then gradually increases until at approximately 5 to 8 diameters downstream a maximum
pressure point is reached that will be lower than the pressure upstream of the orifice.
The decrease in pressure as the fluid passes thru the orifice is a result of the increased
velocity of the gas passing thru the reduced area of the orifice.
When the velocity decreases as the fluid leaves the orifice, the pressure increases and
tends to return to its original level. All of the pressure loss is not recovered because of friction
and turbulence losses in the stream.
The pressure drop across the orifice increases when the rate of flow increases. When
there is no flow there is no differential.
The differential pressure is proportional to the square of the velocity, it therefore follows
that if all other factors remain constant, then the differential is proportional to the square of the
rate of flow.

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ORIFICE CONSTRUCTION
Inlet Section-A linearly extending section of the same diameter as the inlet pipe for an end
connection for an incoming flow connection. Here we measure the inlet pressure of the fluid /
steam / gas.
Orifice Plate- An Orifice Plate is inserted in between the Inlet and Outlet Sections to create a
pressure drop and thus measure the flow.
Outlet Section- A linearly extending section similar to the Inlet section. Here also the diameter
is the same as that of the outlet pipe for an end connection for an outgoing flow. Here we
measure the Pressure of the media at this discharge. A gasket is used to seal the space between
the Orifice Plate and the Flange surface, prevent leakage.
Sections 1 & 2 of the Orifice meter, are provided with an opening for attaching a
differential pressure sensor (u-tube manometer, differential pressure indicator).
MATERIAL OF CONSTRUCTION:
The Orifice plates in the Orifice meter, in general, are made up of stainless steel of
varying grades.

SHAPE & SIZE OF ORIFICE METER:

Orifice meters are built in different forms depending upon the application specific
requirement, the shape, size and location of holes on the Orifice Plate describes the Orifice Meter
Specifications as per the following:

TYPES OF ORIFICE PLATES

• Concentric Orifice Plate
It is made up of SS and its thickness varies from 3.175 to 12.70 mm. The plate thickness
at the orifice edge should not be exceeded by any of following parameters:
1 – D/50 where, D = The pipe inside diameter
2 – d/8 where, d = orifice bore diameter
3 – (D-d)/8
*Beta Ratio(β): It is the ratio of orifice bore diameter (d) to the pipe inside diameter (D).
• Eccentric Orifice Plate
It is similar to Concentric Orifice plate other than the offset hole which is bored
tangential to a circle, concentric with the pipe and of a diameter equal to 98% of that of
the pipe. It is generally employed for measuring fluids containing:

57
 Media having Solid particles
Oils containing water
Wet steam
• Segment Orifice Plate
It has a hole which is a semi-circle or a segment of circle. The diameter is customarily
98% of the diameter of the pipe.
• Quadrant Edge Orifice Plate
This type of orifice plate is used for flow such as crude oil, high viscosity syrups or
slurries etc.
It is conceivably used when the line Reynolds Numbers range from 100,000 or above or in
between to 3,000 to 5,000 with a accuracy coefficient of roughly 0.5%.

OPERATION OF ORIFICE METER

The fluid flows inside the Inlet section of the Venturi meter having a pressure P1.
As the fluid proceeds further into the Converging section, its pressure reduces gradually
and it finally reaches a value of P2 at the end of the Converging section and enter the Cylindrical
section.
The differential pressure sensor connected between the Inlet and the and the Cylindrical
Throat section of the Venturi meter displays the difference in pressure (P1-P2). This difference
in pressure is in direct proportion to the flow rate of the liquid flowing through the Venturi
meter.
Further the fluid passed through the Diverging recovery cone section and the velocity
reduces thereby it regains its pressures. Designing a lesser angle of the Diverging recovery
section, helps more in regaining the kinetic energy of the liquid.

ADVANTAGES OF ORIFICE METER

• The Orifice meter is very cheap as compared to other types of flow meters.
• Less space is required to Install and hence ideal for space constrained applications
• Operational response can be designed with perfection.
• Installation direction possibilities: Vertical / Horizontal / Inclined.
• The Orifice is small plates and easy to install/remove.
• Offer very little pressure drop from which 60% to 65% is recovered.
• The orifice meter can be easily maintained.
• Measures a wide range of flows.
• They have a simple construction.

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 • They have easily fitted between the flanges.
• They are the most suitable for most gases and liquids.
• They are cheap, The price does not increase dramatically with size.

LIMITATIONS OF ORIFICE METER

• Easily gets clogged due to impurities in gas or in unclear liquids
• The minimum pressure that can be achieved for reading the flow is sometimes difficult to
achieve due to limitations in the vena-contracta length for an Orifice Plate.
• Unlike Venturi meter, downstream pressure cannot be recovered in Orifice Meters.
Overall head loss is around 40% to 90% of the differential pressure.
• Flow straighteners are required at the inlet and the outlet to attain streamline flow thereby
increasing the cost and space for installation.
• Orifice Plate can get easily corroded with time thereby entails an error.
• Discharge Co-efficient obtained is low.
• Requires homogeneous fluid.
• Requires single phase liquid
• It requires the flow of axial velocity vectors.
• It causes a pressure drop in the fluid.
• Its accuracy is affected by the density, pressure and viscosity of the fluid.
• The range of measurement of viscosity limits of fluids.
• It requires straight conduits to ensure accuracy is maintained.
• The pipe must be totally special for the measurement of the flow of liquids.
• They have low range capacity.

APPLICATIONS OF ORIFICE METER

• Natural
• Water Treatment
• Oil Filtration Plants
• Petrochemicals and Refineries
• It is used to measure the flow rate of fluids in their single state (i.e. gaseous state or liquid
state).
• It can also be used to measure the flow rate of fluids in a mixed state (both gaseous and
liquid states) such as, wet steam, or natural gas with water.
VENTURI FLOW METER

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 Venturi Meter is a device in which pressure energy is converted into kinetic energy and it
is used for measuring the rate of flow of liquid through pipes. It provides real-time monitoring
and control to materials processing. The fluid density, cross-sectional area of the pipe, and
average velocity directly affects the flow rate being measured. It is invented by an American
Engineer ClemansHerchel and named by the Italian physicist Giovanni Venturi. It works on
the basic principle of Bernoulli's Equation.
When a venturi flow meter is placed in a pipe carrying the fluid whose flow rate is to be
measured, a pressure drop occurs between the entrance and throat of the venturi meter. This
pressure drop is measured using a differential pressure sensor and when calibrated this pressure
drop becomes a measure of flow rate. It is installed at fluid-carrying pipes to measure its
relative flow rates. It is designed to constrict the passage of liquid to decrease pressure and
facilitate higher velocity.
PRINCIPLE
When cross sectional area of the flow is reduced, it creates pressure difference between the
different areas of flow. This difference in pressure is measured with the help of manometer
and helps in determining rate of fluid flow or other discharge from the pipe line. It is widely
used particularly for large volume liquid and gas flows since it exhibits little pressure loss.
The governing principle of Venturimeter is inclined to Bernoulli’s energy conservation and
continuity equation. It is a combined representation of Kinetic Energy, Potential Energy and
Pressure of target location.
Bernoulli’s Equation is used to determine fluid velocities through pressure measurements.
It starts with qualifications of non-viscous, steady, incompressible flow at a constant
temperature.
Suppose the quantity of liquid v1 enter to the pipe, as per continuity equation volume flow
rate at the inlet (Q1), is equal to discharge at the outlet (Q2), so if v1 amount of water enters
to the inlet of the venturi meter the same amount of water should be discharged at the outlet,
that means at unit second v1/t1= v2/t2.
As the area of section 1 (according to the above diagram) is more than the area of section
2, that means due to the decrease area the pressure at throttling section is decreased and velocity
will be increased to maintain the flow (Q1=Q2).
In the throat position, the velocity of flow is maximum and pressure is minimum.
After throttling there again a diverging cone (diffuser) which restores the pressure as nearly
possible to the actual value.
By this, we can easily determine the volume flow rate with the help of the U-Tube
Manometer which is shown in the above diagram, by finding the pressure difference between
section 1 (converging section) and section 2 which is throat.

60
 The continuity equation states that total mass flow rate is conserved within the
system. These concepts are only applicable to incompressible liquids where density change
does not occur.
The relative asymptotic shape simultaneously increases flow velocity to induce a pressure
drop, or “Venturi Effect”. Any gain in Kinetic Energy (E ) of the fluid is directed by this
ke

principle. Fluid molecules speed up to retain the total flow rate.

PARTS
Cylindrical entrance section
This is the section having the size of a pipe to which it is attached. The venturi meter should
be proceeded by a straight pipe of not less than 5 to 10 times the pipe diameter and free from
fittings, misalignment and other source of large scale turbulence.
Converging conical section
The converging takes place at an angle of 21±2°. It is starting section of venturimeter which
attached at inlet pipe.
Throat
This is a cylindrical section of minimum area. The velocity is maximum and the pressure
is minimum. At this point pressure is decreases and velocity is increases. One end is connected
with converging part and other end is attached with diverging part.
Diverging section
This is a section in which there is a change of stream area back to the entrance area. Angle
of diverging part is 5 to 15 degree. The main reason behind the low diverging angle is to avoid
the formation of eddies because flow separation and eddies formation will results in large
amount of loss in energy.
TYPES OF VENTURIMETER ACCORDING TO ORIENTATION:
Horizontal Venturimeter
This type of venturimeter has the highest kinetic energy and the lowest potential energy.
Vertical Venturimeter
This type has the maximum potential energy and the minimum kinetic energy.
Inclined Venturimeter
Both potential and kinetic energy are in between the above two types mentioned.
CLASSIFICATION OF VENTURIMETER ACCORDING TO DESIGN:
1. Standard long-form-Classic venturi tube
2. Eccentric form-minimize build-up of heavy materials.

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 3. Rectangular form-used in air ventilation ducts
CALIBRATION AND PROCEDURE
a. Water is supplied to the chosen pipe by opening the main inlet valve and pipe valve.
b. To remove the air inside a pipe, the knot of manometer was changed from isolate position
to air-vent position.
c. In such time that uniform, steady flow is achieved, the manometer knot should be tapped
into the read position.
d. The left limb and right limb readings are recorded to determine the Head Loss, hL.
e. As water passes through the Venturi Meter, pressure difference between inlet and throat is
measured.
f. We closed the outlet valve. The time it takes for water to reach a 5 cm elevation difference
in the opposing sides of the manometer was noted.
EQUATIONS
The equations below are utilized in determining the Actual discharge, Theoretical Fluid
flow rate and Coefficient of discharge (Cd).
h (m)=12.6 x (LL-RL)
L

Q (m /s)=A x h
act
3

Q (m /s)=A1 x A2 x √2gh
th
3
L

√(A -A ) 1
2
2
2

C=Q d act

Q th

ADVANTAGES OF VENTURI METER

• Power loss is very less.
• This can be used where a small head is available.
• Venturimeters can be installed in a horizontal, inclined, or vertical direction.
• High reproducibility (the extent to which consistent results are obtained when an
experiment is repeated).
• Accuracy is high over wide flow ranges.
• This can also be used for a compressible and incompressible fluid.
• This device is easy to operate.
• The coefficient of discharge (Cd) for the venturi meter is high.
• This is widely used for a high flow rate (Discharge).
• Wide applicability for water, suspended solids, gases, slurries, chemicals, dirty liquids, etc.
DISADVANTAGES OF VENTURI METER

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 • The installation cost of a venturi meter is high.
• There are little difficulties while maintenance.
• This device cannot be used where the pipe has a small diameter of 76.2 mm.
• Non-linear.
• This system occupies more space as compared to the orifice meter.
• It has a limitation of the lower Reynolds number of 150,000.
• It is expensive and a little bulky.
• Not suitable for very small diameter pipes.
APPLICATIONS
• Calculating the flow rate of fluid that is discharged through the pipe.
• In the industrial sector, it is used to determine the pressure as well of the quantity of gas
and liquid inside a pipe.
• The flow of chemicals in pipelines.
• This is widely used in the waste treatment process where large diameter pipes are used.
• Also used in the medical sector for the measure the flow rate of blood in arteries.
• This also used where high-pressure recovery is required.

ROTAMETER

DEFINITION
Rotameters are the most widely used type of variable-area (VA) flowmeter. In these
devices, the falling and rising action of a float in a tapered tube provides a measure of flow rate.
Rotameters are known as gravity-type flowmeters because they are based on the opposition
between the downward force of gravity and the upward force of the flowing fluid. When the flow
is constant, the float stays in one position that can be related to the volumetric flow rate. That
position is indicated on a graduated scale. Note that to keep the full force of gravity in effect, this
dynamic balancing act requires a vertical measuring tube.
Other forms of gravity-type VA meters may incorporate a piston or vane that responds to flow in
a manner similar to the float's behavior. All these devices can be used to measure the flow rates of

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most liquids, gases, and steam. There are also similar types that balance the fluid flow with a spring
rather than gravitational force. These do not require vertical mounting, but corrosive or erosive
fluids can damage the spring and lead to reduced accuracy.
The term rotameter derives from early versions of the floats, which had slots to help
stabilize and center them and which caused them to rotate. Today's floats take a variety of shapes,
including a spherical configuration used primarily in purgemeters. The materials of construction
include stainless steel, glass, metal, and plastic.

PRINCIPLE
Rotameters are a particular kind of flowmeter, based on thevariable area principle. They
provide a simple, precise andeconomical means of indicating flow rates in fluid systems.This
variable area principle consists of three basic elements: Auniformly tapered flow tube, a float, and
a measurement scale. Acontrol valve may be added if flow control is also desired. In operation,
the rotameter is positioned vertically in the fluidsystem with the smallest diameter end of the
tapered flow tube atthe bottom. This is the fluid inlet. The float, typically spherical, islocated inside
the flow tube, and is engineered so that its diameteris nearly identical to the flow tube’s inlet
diameter. When fluid — gas or liquid — is introduced into the tube, the floatis lifted from its initial
position at the inlet, allowing the fluid topass between it and the tube wall. As the float rises, more
andmore fluid flows by the float because the tapered tube’s diameteris increasing. Ultimately, a
point is reached where the flow area is large enough to allow the entire volume of the fluid to flow
pastthe float. This flow area is called the annular passage. The float isnow stationary at that level
within the tube, as its weight is beingsupported by the fluid forces which caused it to rise. This
positioncorresponds to a point on the tube’s measurement scale andprovides an indication of the
fluid’s flow rate.
One way to change the capacity, or flow range, of a rotameter is tochange the float material,
and thus its density, while keeping theflow tube and float size constant. Floats which are made
from lessdense materials will rise higher in the tube and therefore will yieldlower flow capacities
for the same diameter flow tube
The following are the terms that would help describe the principle of rotameter:
• Vertical Installation
• Liquid-flow direction
• Bouyancy Force
• Impact of gravity
• Annular Space
• Equilibrium

In measuring principles, the value inside the radicand is constant since the pressure
difference will remain constant and the fluid density will likely remain constant as well. Thus, k

64
will change in proportion to Q. The only variable within k relevant to float position is the flowing
area between the float and the tube walls.

PARTS / FEATURES

1. Tapered tube - It is placed vertically in the flow channel with a conical shape inside. The
quantity measured is defined by the height of float going up. (Glass tubes-liquid,gas measurement.
Metallic tubes-process fluid with high temperature and pressure.
2. Float - Its material and shape vary according to applications, considering the density. Spherical
shape floats are used for small flows.

CALIBRATION
Rotameters are typically provided with calibration data and direct reading scales for
commonly-used fluids. Sizing a rotameter for use with other fluids requires conversion into one
of those standard formats; for liquids, the water equivalent in gpm; for gases, the air flow
equivalent in standard cubic feet per minute (scfm). These calibration tables for standard flow
values, combined with slide rules, nomographs, or computer software for determining the size of
the rotameter, will often be provided by the manufacturer.

ADVANTAGES
Rotameter can be used to measure flow of liquid, gases and vapors. It is useful to measure
low flow rates. They are independent from effects of viscosity upto certain range. Also, the
accuracy of rotameters is higher compare to accuracy of obstruction meter types.
For more specific advantages, here are the following:
• long measurement range
• low-pressure drop
• simplicity of installation and maintenance

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 • linear scale of measurement
• No external power needed
• Can Measure Liquid or Gas Flows
• It can measure flow rates of corrosive fluid

DISADVANTAGES
For an in-depth discussion of the disadvantages of rotameter, here are the following:
• Due to its use of gravity, a rotameter must always be vertically oriented and right way up,
with the fluid flowing upward.
• Due to its reliance on the ability of the fluid or gas to displace the float, graduations on a
given rotameter will only be accurate for a given substance at a given temperature. The
main property of importance is the density of the fluid; however, viscosity may also be
significant. Floats are ideally designed to be insensitive to viscosity; however, this is
seldom verifiable from manufacturers' specifications. Either separate rotameters for
different densities and viscosities may be used, or multiple scales on the same rotameter
can be used.
• Due to the direct flow indication the resolution is relatively poor compared to other
measurement principles. Readout uncertainty gets worse near the bottom of the scale.
Oscillations of the float and parallax may further increase the uncertainty of the
measurement.
• Rotameters normally require the use of glass (or other transparent material), otherwise the
user cannot see the float. This limits their use in many industries to benign fluids, such as
water.
• Rotameters are not easily adapted for reading by machine; although magnetic floats that
drive a follower outside the tube are available.
• Usually, rotameters aren't made in very large sizes (more than 4 inches/100 mm), but
bypass designs are sometimes used on very large pipes.
• Clear glass is used which is highly resistant to thermal shock and chemical action.

APPLICATION
The following are the different applications of rotameter:
• Control panels
• Control in Research laboratories
• Measurement and control on machinery
• Pilot Plants
• Water purification (Osmosis)
• Control of gas burners
• Flow control of Industrial refrigeration
• Chemical/pharmaceutical/cosmetic industry
• Heat Treatment

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 TURBINE FLOW METER

Turbine flow meters are specially engineered for high accuracy measurement of liquid and
gas flow in pipes. Turbine flow meters measure the volumetric flow of clean and low viscosity
fluidssuch as hydrocarbons, chemicals, gases and vapors, fuels and other types of liquids with
lower viscosity
The turbine meter is a popular displacement flow measuring device, which can be used in
a wide range of industries for both liquids and gases. They have the ability to measure wide flow
ranges with good accuracy at an economic price. Their application is restricted only by the fact
that they must be used with clean, non-corrosive fluids.
The Turbine flow meter (axial turbine) was invented by Reinhard Woltman and is an
accurate and reliable flow meter for liquids and gases. It consists of a flow tube with end
connections and a magnetic multi bladed free spinning rotor (impeller) mounted inside; in line
with the flow. The rotor is supported by a shaft that rests on internally mounted supports.The
supports in process automatics turbine flow meters are designed to also act as flow straighteners,
stabilizing the flow and minimizing negative effects of turbulence.

PARTS—TURBINE FLOWMETER DESIGN

Turbine housing- The housing covers the turbine rotor, bearings, and shaft. Materials used to
manufacture turbine housings include stainless steel, bronze, and cast iron. In municipal water
services, bronze or cast-iron turbine flow meters are common. You can also find turbine flow
meters made from other materials such as plastic.
Turbine rotor - The rotor turns as the fluid passes through the flow meter, mounted on the shaft.
The fabrication material for the turbine rotor and the corresponding bearings are matched
accordingly with the type of fluid and intended application. The most common material used for
making rotors is stainless steel while bearings are commonly graphite. In some cases, rotors can
be ceramic and tungsten carbide. Turbine flow meter rotors are designed to produce minimal
friction and high resistance to wear and tear.

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Pickup sensor - This component is responsible for detecting rotor movement. It is composed of
coiled wires compactly arranged and placed near a magnet. The frequency of signal detected by
the sensor determines fluid velocity and corresponds to the volumetric fluid flow rate. There are
several kinds of pickup sensors used in turbine flow meters such as capacitive, reluctance,
inductance, and hall-effect pickup sensors.

HOW DOES IT WORK?

The turbine meter is an accurate and reliable flowmeter for both liquids and gases. It
consists of multi-bladed rotor mounted at right angles to flow and suspended in the fluid stream
on a free-running bearing. The diameter of the rotor is slightly less than the inside diameter of the
metering chamber, and its speed of rotation is proportional to the volumetric flow rate. Turbine
flowmeters works by using the energy of the fluid passing through. As fluid passes through the
turbine meter, its rotor rotates. If the effects of the friction are ignored, the turbine rotor will revolve
at a speed directly proportional to the velocity of the flowing fluid.
The turbine meter is provided with an electrical pickup which detects the rotation of its rotor and
then transforms this speed of the turbine rotor into pulses:
• Flow rate is proportional to the frequency of these pulses
• Volume is proportional to the number of these pulses
You can operate this in vertical or horizontal orientation as long as the flow direction arrow is
aligned in the same direction as the actual line flow.

APPLICATIONS
Because turbine flow meters are only suitable in measuring the flow rate of clear liquids,
they are often used in water industries, chemical plants, automotive and petroleum industries. In
petroleum industries, turbine flow meters are used in hydrocarbon transfer. In the water industry,
distribution systems commonly use turbine flow meters for measuring flow rate within and
between water districts. In the same manner, turbine flow meters are also common in the food and
beverage industry.
Examples:

Oil and Gas

• Water injection
• Test and production separators
• Disposal wells
• Hydraulic fracturing
• Natural gas pipelines
• Chemical injection

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 Aerospace/Defense

• Engine Testing
• Fuel flow measurement
• Shipboard reverse osmosis systems
• Monitor fuel supply to ship engines

Pharma-Bio Tech, Food & Beverage

• Sanitary measurement
• Pill coating

Power Generation

• Custody transfer

Industrial & Municipal

• Building automation
• HVAC
• Water metering

Cryogenics

• Liquids measurement for plant applications and truck deliveries

ADVANTAGES
• Suitable for gases and liquids
• Highly accurate and precise
• Economical to purchase
• Easy to set up and operate
• Useable for a wide range of applications

DISADVANTAGES
• Requirement of clean, dry liquid/gas samples
• Errors caused by high viscosity in samples
• Frequent calibration checks needed

CALIBRATION
With any flow measurement instrument, the overall system accuracy achieved can be no
greater than the equipment used to perform the calibration. There are several possible calibration
techniques, positive displacement, time weigh, field prover, and the old standby, bucket and stop
watch.

69
 The technique positive displacement calibration utilizes a precision machined
measurement chamber, or flow tube, that houses a piston. This piston acts as a moving barrier
between the calibration fluid and the pressurizing media used to move the piston. Attached to the
piston is a shaft that keeps the piston moving in a true path and provides the link between the piston
and the translator. The translator converts the linear movement of the piston through the precision
flow chamber into electrical pulses that are directly related to the displaced volume.

VORTEX SHEDDING

Vortex shedding flowmeters are a type of flowmeter available to the process industry for
the consistent evaluation of flow rates. These flowmeters measure the volumetric flow rate of
media such as steam flowing in pipes, gases, and low viscosity liquids, boasting both versatility
and dependability. Since they have no moving parts, they are virtually impervious to wear.

PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
A "shedder" bar (also known as a bluff body) in the path of the flowing fluid produces flow
disturbances called vortices. The resulting vortex trail is predictable and proportional to the fluid
flow rate. This phenomenon is known as the "Von Kármán vortex street". Sensitive electronic
sensors downstream of the shedder bar measures the frequency of the vortices and produce a small
electrical pulse with every vortex created. The electrical pulses also proportional to fluid velocity
and is the basis for calculating a volumetric flow rate, using the cross-sectional area of the flow
measuring device.

TYPICAL AREAS OF USE

Vortex shedding flowmeters are used on steam, cryogenic liquids, hydrocarbons, air, feed
water, and industrial gases.

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APPLICATIONS TO AVOID
Splitting higher viscosity fluids into concordant vertices is extremely difficult due to the
internal friction present, so using vortex shedding flowmeters on high viscosity media should be
avoided. Also, avoid applications with low flow rates and low Reynolds Numbers, as the vortices
created are unstable.

CONSIDERATION FOR USE

Consideration must be given to applications with low Reynolds numbers, as the generation
of vortices declines at critical points of reduced velocity. Low pressure can also be a problem in
this regard. Users must take Reynolds number, velocity, and density into consideration before
choosing a vortex shedding flow meter. As always, it's best to discuss your application with
anknowledgable support professional before specifying, purchasing, or installing this type of
flowmeter.

ULTRASONIC FLOW METER

DEFINITION
An ultrasonic flow meter utilizes ultrasound to measure the velocity of a fluid and is used in a
variety of fluid applications. Ultrasonic flowmeters are ideal for water and other liquids. Clamp-
on ultrasonic flow meters achieve high accuracy at low and high flows, save time with no pipe
cutting or process shutdown, and are not affected by external noise.
PRINCIPLE
The basic principle of operation employs the frequency shift (Doppler Effect) of an
ultrasonic signal when it is reflected by suspended particles or gas bubbles (discontinuities) in
motion. This metering technique utilizes the physical phenomenon of a sound wave that changes
frequency when it is reflected by moving discontinuities in a flowing liquid. Ultrasonic sound is
transmitted into a pipe with flowing liquids, and the discontinuities reflect the ultrasonic wave with
a slightly different frequency that is directly proportional to the rate of flow of the liquid (Figure
1). Current technology requires that the liquid contain at least 100 parts per million (PPM) of 100
micron or larger suspended particles or bubbles.
The Doppler ultrasonic flow meter operates on the principle of the Doppler Effect, which
is the physical phenomenon of a sound wave changing frequency. In the case of ultrasonic flow
meters, the frequency of an ultrasonic signal changes (Doppler Effect) in direct proportion to the
rate of flow of the liquid when reflected by suspended particles or gas bubbles (discontinuities) in
motion.
Typically, an ultrasonic Doppler flowmeter consists of a transmitter/indicator/totalizer and
a transducer. The user selects a configuration appropriate to the application, taking into account
the liquid, the size and concentration of solids or bubbles, the pipe dimensions and the pipe lining.
The transmitter’s signal threshold usually adjusts to filter out mechanical and electrical noise.
A high-frequency oscillator in the transmitter drives the transducer, which, in the popular
clamp-on design, mounts on the pipe exterior. The transducer generates an ultrasonic signal that
passes through the pipe wall into the flowing liquid; the transmitter converts the difference
between its output and input frequencies to electronic pulses. Processed, scaled and totalized, the
pulses provide a measurement of flow.
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 Ultrasonic Doppler flowmeters that clamp onto the outside of a pipe operate non-
invasively, without moving parts. They cause no pressure drop, risk no damage from the process
liquid and entail little maintenance. If properly calibrated, they can have ±1% accuracy, however,
the pipe wall and any air space between the wall and the liquid can generate signal interference.
Moreover, a stainless-steel pipe wall might conduct the transmitted signal to the extent that the
reflected signal will seem to undergo a major shift.
Transit time ultrasonic flow meters measure the time difference between when an
ultrasonic signal is transmitted from the first transducer until it is received by the second
transducer. A comparison is made of upstream and downstream measurements. If there is no flow,
the travel time will be the same in both directions. When flow is present, sound moves faster if
traveling in the same direction and slower if moving against it.
A third ultrasonic flowmeter employs cross-correlation between upstream and downstream
transducer pairs to compute flow. Some flowmeters of this design use microprocessors to switch
automatically between “clean” and “dirty” modes based on correlation factors. A single cross-
correlation hybrid flowmeter could, for example, monitor flow of either activated or digested
sludge. Carefully engineered applications using such flowmeters have had reported installed
accuracy within 0.5% of reading.

PARTS / FEATURES / TYPES

Ultrasonic flow meters available in the market are radar, Doppler velocity, ultrasonic clamp-on,
and ultrasonic level.

• Doppler velocity type meters use reproduced ultrasonic noise to calculate the liquid’s
velocity.
• Radar type meter employs microwave technology for transmitting small pulses to reflect off a
flowing surface back to the sensor for deciding velocity.
• Ultrasonic clamp-on type meter is ideal for applications wherever accessing the pipe is difficult
otherwise not possible.
• Ultrasonic level type meter is ideal for determining the fluid level in both open & closed
channels.

ADVANTAGE
Ease-of-Installation: The largest benefit of any “clamp-on” transit-time flow meter is the ease-
of-installation. While still requiring sections of straight pipe upstream of the measurement
location, the process does not require shutting the system down to install, making maintenance and
upkeep of transit-time meters much more attractive.
Low maintenance: There are no blades to wear out or bearings to replace as in turbine meters,
nor are there electrodes that can foul over time as in magnetic flow meters.

• The electronics in the ultrasonic flow meter includes ultrasonic flowmeter detector which
compensate and adapt to the changes in the profile of the flow, type of the liquid and material
of the pipe.
• A portable ultrasonic flow meter converter can be used as a direct method to determine the
flow rates effectively when compare to the other flow systems.
• Ultrasonic flow meter converter is inexpensive to use and maintain when compared to the
other mechanical flow meters as they are no moving parts in these flow meters.

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 • Their design is highly sophisticated, and they do not obstruct the liquid flow, so they can be
used for sanitary, corrosive and abrasive liquids.
DISADVANTAGE
• The main disadvantage of the ultrasonic flow meter is the cost. The cost of the flow meter is
very high when compared to the other types of the mechanical flow meters.
• The ultrasonic flow meters are sophisticated when compared to the mechanical flow meters,
so it needs experts to repair and maintain the flow meters.

APPLICATION
Ultrasonic flow meters use sound waves at a frequency beyond the range of hearing (typically 0.5,
1, or 4 MHz). This ultrasound signal is sent into a stream of flowing liquid by using wetted
(insertion) transducers that make direct contact with the liquid or external (clamp-on) transducers
that send the ultrasound through the pipe wall. Clamp-on ultrasonic flow meters allow users to
measure the volumetric flow rate of a fluid in a pipe without having to penetrate the pipe which
decreases installation and maintenance costs.
A typical transit-time ultrasonic liquid flow meter utilizes two ultrasonic transducers that function
as both ultrasonic transmitter and receiver. The ultrasonic flow meter operates by alternately
transmitting and receiving a burst of ultrasound between the two transducers by measuring the
transit time that it takes for sound to travel between the two transducers in both directions. The
difference in the transit time (∆ time) measured is directly proportional to the velocity of the liquid
in the pipe.

Below is a drawing of a typical application using the most common, V (2 pass) mounting method
with clamp-on transducers. In this application, the ultrasound is transmitted from the first
transducer and travels through the pipe wall, through the liquid, then reflects off the back wall of
the pipe, then travels through the pipe wall, and is picked up by the second transducer.
The same process is then repeated in reverse as the second transducer transmits the ultrasound.
The time difference between the times of flight up and down is the ∆ Time. When the liquid in the
pipe is not moving, the ∆ Time would be zero.

73
To calculate the velocity of the liquid, you need to convert the raw ∆ Time into the velocity of the
liquid in the pipe. The angle of the ultrasound path is calculated by knowing the speed of sound of
the pipe and the liquid. This angle is used in a common trigonometry equation to convert the
ultrasound path into a straight line in the pipe. This will be the velocity of the liquid in the pipe.
Once the velocity is known, it’s just a matter of converting it into a flow rate by multiplying it
times the cross-sectional area of the pipe, as with any velocity-based flow meter.

Others:

• These meters are used in wastewater and dirty liquid applications

• These meters are used wherever chemical compatibility, less maintenance, and low-pressure
drop are required.
• These meters are used to measure the velocity of a liquid through ultrasound to analyze volume
flow.
• These meters measure the disparity between the transit time of ultrasonic pulses which
transmits with the direction of liquid flow
• The applications of these meters range from process to custody flow
• This is one kind of device for volumetric flow measurement for liquids as well as gases.
• These are excellent alternatives for both vortex & electromagnetic flowmeters.

Magnetic Flow
Definition
A magnetic flow meter (mag flow meter) is a volumetric flow meter which does not have
any moving parts and is ideal for wastewater applications or any dirty liquid which is conductive
or water based. Magnetic flow meters will generally not work with hydrocarbons, distilled water
and many non-aqueous solutions). Magnetic flow meters are also ideal for applications where low
pressure drop and low maintenance are required.

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Principle
Magnetic flow meters utilize Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction to determine the
velocity of a liquid flowing in a pipe. Magnetic flow meters consist of a nonmagnetic flow tube,
liner, electrodes and electromagnets to generate a magnetic field. In magnetic flow meters, a
magnetic field is generated and channeled into the liquid flowing through the pipe.
Faraday’s Formula
E is proportional to V x B x D where:

E = The voltage generated in a conductor

V = The velocity of the conductor
B = The magnetic field strength
D = The length of the conductor

The liquid flowing through the pipe is the conductor, and electromagnetic coils surrounding
the flow tube generate the magnetic field. The signal is sensed by the two electrodes embedded on
opposite sides of the flow tube. The flow signal at the electrodes is directly proportional to the
flow velocity, the intensity of the magnetic field, and distance between electrodes. Magnetic flow
meters do not require much upstream and downstream straight runs so they can be installed in
relatively short meter runs.

Parts/ Features
Magnetic flow meters consist of a nonmagnetic flow tube, liner, electrodes and
electromagnets to generate a magnetic field. In magnetic flow meters, a magnetic field is generated
and channeled into the liquid flowing through the pipe.

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Advantages
1. The main advantages of using magmeters is that they feature an obstruction-free design
with no moving parts which eliminates flow impediment, requires less maintenance and
can be used on very large line sizes.
2. Accuracy over a wide flow range can be as good as ±0.5%.
3. A mag meter performs extremely well in many municipal and processing applications
and is the meter of choice for measuring conductive liquids such as water or slurry.
4. Mag meters also have the advantage of being able to measure both very low flows and
very high-volume flow rates.
Disadvantages
1. These meters can be used only for fluids which have reasonable electrical conductivity.
2. Accuracy is only in the range of ± 1% over a flow rate range of 5%.
3. The size and cost of the field coils and circuitry do not increase in proportion to their size
of pipe bore. Consequently, small size meters are bulky and expensive.
Application
1. Water/Wastewater Industry
2. Brewing, Distilling, and Wine Making
3. Chemical
4. Food and Beverage
5. Power Generation
6. Pulp and Paper
7. Metals and Mining

Thermal Mass Flow Meter

Definition
Thermal mass flow meters, is also known as thermal dispersion or immersible mass flow
meters, comprise a family of instruments for the measurement of the total mass flow rate of a fluid,
primarily gases, flowing through closed conduits. Thermal mass flow meters are designed to
accurately monitor and measure mass flow (as opposed to measuring volumetric flow) of clean

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gases, a parameter that is not temperature dependent. Therefore, the thermal mass flow meter does
not require a correction for changes in gas temperature, pressure, viscosity and density.

Principle
Thermal mass flow meters employ the thermal dispersion principle whereby the rate of
heat absorbed by a fluid flowing in a pipe or duct is directly proportional to its mass flow. In a
typical thermal flow meter gas flowing over a source of heat absorbs the heat and cools the source.
As flow increases, more heat is absorbed by the gas. The amount of heat dissipated from
the heat source is proportional to the gas mass flow and its thermal properties. Therefore,
measurement of the heat transfer supplies data from which a mass flow rate may be calculated.

Parts/ Features
A thermal mass flowmeter consists of the main flow channel and flow sensor line as
shown in the figure. The flow sensor line is constructed with a capillary, a heater and
temperature sensors upstream and downstream of the heater. The temperature sensors form a part
of the bridge circuit. Fluid passing through the flow sensor line is heated to provide stable
temperature difference between upstream and downstream of the heater. The temperature
difference is converted to electric voltage in the bridge circuit and amplified to output a signal
on mass flow rate.

Advantages
• Measure gas mass flow rate directly
• Suitable for applications where temperature and pressures fluctuate
• Highly accurate and repeatable measurements with a typical accuracy of ± 1% FS
• Able to measure accurately low gas flow rates or low gas velocities
• Excellent turn down ratio, typically 50:1

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• No moving parts

Disadvantages
• Gas mass meter use is limited to clean, non-abrasive fluids
• Presence of moisture or droplets can lead to measurement inaccuracy
• Thermal properties must be known: variation from calibrated values can cause inaccuracies
• Relatively high initial cost

Application
Thermal mass flow meters are suitable for a variety of processes requiring mass flow measurement
and are frequently used for the regulation of low gas flows.
Some common gas flow applications for thermal mass flow meters include:
• Compressed air flow and distribution
• Natural gas consumption eg for burner and boiler feed control
• Monitoring and control of stack or flue gas (where composition known)
• Landfill gas recovery
• Flare gas measurement
• Gas flow mixing & blending
• Gas leak testing and detection

Coriolis Flow Meter

Definition

A Coriolis flow meter is a type of mass flow meter. A mass flow meter is a device that
measures mass flow rate of a fluid traveling through a tube. Coriolis flow meter is designed
differently and works differently than thermal or differential mass flow meters. The first industrial
Coriolis patents date back to the 1950s with the first Coriolis mass flow meters built in the 1970s.

Principles behind

A Coriolis flow meter contains a tube which is energized by a fixed vibration. When a fluid
(gas or liquid) passes through this tube the mass flow momentum will cause a change in the tube
vibration, the tube will twist resulting in a phase shift. This phase shift can be measured and a
linear output derived proportional to flow.

As this principal measures mass flow independent of what is within the tube, it can be
directly applied to any fluid flowing through it - LIQUID or GAS - whereas thermal mass flow
meters are dependent of the physical properties of the fluid. Furthermore, in parallel with the phase
shift in frequency between inlet and outlet, it is also possible to measure the actual change in
natural frequency. This change in frequency is in direct proportion to the density of the fluid – and
a further signal output can be derived. Having measured both the mass flow rate and the density it
is possible to derive the volume flow rate.

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 Instead of having a rotating frame of reference, Coriolis flow meters work on the principle
that the inertia created by fluid flowing through an oscillating tube causes the tube to twist in
proportion to mass flowrate. Many Coriolis flow meters have two tubes. They are made to vibrate
in opposition to each other by means of a magnetic coil. Sensors in the form of magnet and coil
assemblies are mounted on the inlet and the outlet of both flow tubes. As the coils move through
the magnetic field created by the magnet, they create a voltage in the form of a sine wave. These
sine waves are the key to measuring mass flow.

Under no-flow conditions, the inlet and outlet sine waves are in phase with each other.
When fluid is moving through the tubes, the tubes twist in proportion to mass flowrate. The amount
of this twist is detected by the inlet and outlet sensors, based on a phase shift (time difference) that
occurs in the sine waves formed by the two sensors. The mass flowrate is derived from the
difference in phase shift in the sine waves formed by the inlet and outlet sensors.

Parts and Features

Applying the Technology Coriolis sensors are classified as a multivariable sensor, as they
provide a measurement of mass and volume flow rate, density and temperature. The mass flow
rate accuracy is 0.05 to 0.1% of rate. The sensor consists of a manifold which splits the fluid flow
in two, and directs it through each of the two flow tubes and back out the outlet side of the

manifold.

A drive coil is mounted at the center of the two flow tubes geometry to vibrate the process
fluid and tubes at a natural harmonic frequency. A magnet and a pickoff coil are located on the
inlet and outlet side of the flow tubes and provide the means for measuring the Coriolis effect.
Because of the vibration, the coil moves through the magnetic field and generates a sine wave
proportional to that motion.

Drive and pickoff coils When the tubes are full of process fluid and at a zero-flow
condition, the sine waves from the inlet and outlet pickoff coils are in phase. Under flowing
conditions, the tubes twist due to the Coriolis effect and the two sine waves shift apart. The time
differential between the two signals is directly proportional to mass flow rate Measuring the
frequency of the tube vibration provides a direct measure of the density of the fluid in the flow
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tubes. The density accuracy is 0.0002 - 0.0005 g/cm3 (0.0017 - 0.004 lb/gal) for liquids only and
has an operational range up to 5 g/cm3 (41.7 lb/gal).

The fluid volume flow rate at operating conditions is determined by dividing the mass rate
by the measured density. For turndown ratios up to 20:1, the volume flow accuracy is the same as
the mass rate accuracy specification. For drilling applications, an accuracy of +/-2% across a wide
operating range can be expected.

A Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) within the sensor is used to measure the
temperature of the flow tubes and since it is not immersed within the flowing fluid stream, it can
only be used for general temperature monitoring applications and is accurate to ±1 °C ±0.5% of
the reading. See Figure 5. Figure 5. Measuring temperature Interfacing Micro Motion Coriolis
sensors to data logging systems is easily accomplished due to the variety of electronics options
offered, which include combinations of analog, frequency and Modbus to transmit both multiple
process variables and diagnostics data as well as wireless data transmission and Smart Meter
Verification diagnostics. Micro Motion Coriolis sensors are currently used in the measurement of
drilling fluid volume flow rates and/or density.

Advantages

The most fundamental advantage of the Coriolis meter is that it provides a true mass flow
and density reading. Since its output is directly proportional to mass flowrate, there is no need to
compensate for temperature and/or pressure. It often eliminates the need for complex flow
computers to integrate the output from multiple devices and perform the complex calculations
(e.g., PVTz corrections) required by traditional gas flowmeters.

Because a single device provides multivariable outputs— such as flow, density, and
temperature — there are fewer instruments to specify, install, calibrate, and maintain. And, the
Coriolis meter is bidirectional, handling flow in either direction with no adjustments.

Coriolis meters are extremely accurate. In fact, a Coriolis meter is often used as a standard
for checking other flow- meters. A liquid mass flow accuracy of 0.10% is common, and 0.05% is
readily available. Gas mass flow accuracy to 0.25% is available, although 0.35–0.5% is more
common.

Liquid density accuracies up to 0.0002 g/cm3 are available. Newer Coriolis meters have
onboard diagnostics such as meter verification, which allows the user to confirm accu- racy while
the meter is operating. Coriolis meters have large turndown ratios — up to 80:1, as determined by
a 10-psi pressure drop at the top end and 0.5% of the actual mass flowrate at the low end. There is
no industry standard to define how turndown is measured.

However, in one established technique, a minimum accuracy is defined, which sets the
low-end flowrate, and a maximum pressure drop is defined, which determines the top-end
flowrate. The ratio of the top-end to low-end flowrates is the turndown ratio. Large turndown ratios
are particularly beneficial for batch reactions, multiproduct fiscal transfer, and process startup
applications.

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 With no moving parts, Coriolis meters require little maintenance, which reduces personnel
exposure to the pro- cess for servicing and calibration, thereby enhancing safety. They also
enhance installation safety because they require fewer pipe breaks to install than other types of
meters. And, they do not require long upstream or downstream straight piping runs, which reduces
installed cost.

Limitations.

The capital costs of a Coriolis meter are often higher than those of other types of
flowmeters, and their price increases rapidly with size. They are not suitable for applica- tions
where the value of the fluid or the criticality of the process does notjustify the high capital costs.
However, with a growing shortage of experi- enced instrument operators in the field, sometimes a
Coriolis flowmeter is a wise investment.Coriolis meters are available in a limited range of sizes —
for lines up to 14–16 in. in diameter. The weight, too, goes up rapidly with size — a Coriolis meter
for a 12-in. line weighs 1,000 lb.

Applications

Coriolis mass flow meters are used predominately in scientific applications where they
measure both corrosive and clean gases and liquids. They are also used in:

• Pulp and paper processing

• Petroleum and oil
• Chemical processing
• Wastewater handling

Coriolis flow meters with a straight tube design are more easily cleaned so are preferred for
food and beverage applications as well as pharmaceuticals. They can also handle the slurries
typically found in mining operations.

Target Flow Meter

Definition
Target flow meter measures flow by measuring the amount of force exerted by the
flowing fluid on a target suspended in the flow stream. It is also known as drag force flow meters,
insert a target (drag element), usually a flat disc or a sphere with an extension rod, into the flow
field. They then measure the drag force on the inserted target and convert it to the flow velocity.
The force exerted on the target by the flow is proportional to the pressure drop across the target.

81
 Some types of target flow meter are the following:

Principle

Target flowmeters measure flow by measuring the amount of force exerted by the flowing
fluid on a target suspended in the flow stream. The force exerted on the target by the flow is
proportional to the pressure drop across the target.
Similar to differential pressure flow meters, Bernoulli’s equation states that the pressure
drop across the target (and hence the force exerted on the target) is proportional to the square of
the flow rate.

A target flow meter is capable of measuring sporadic and multi-directional flows with a
sphere drag element, a proper strain gage layout, and well thought-out mathematical formulas.
When the medium flows in the measuring tube, because of its kinetic energy and the pressure
difference between the target plate and the target plate, the force exerted on the target plate will
produce a small displacement. The magnitude of the force is proportional to the square of the

82
velocity of the medium.

The deflection of the target and the force bar is measured in the instrument. The force on the target
can be expressed as:
F=Cdv2At2
where
F = force on the target (N)
Cd = overall drag coefficient obtained from empirical data
ρ = density of fluid (kg/m )
3

v = fluid velocity (m/s)

A = target area (m )
t
2

The force acting on the target plate is transmitted by the target rod, which makes the
elastomer of the sensor change slightly. Through circuit conversion, the corresponding electrical
signals are output.

83
Parts

• A target meter consists of a target (or disc) which is mounted on a force bar (or beam)
passing through a flexible seal, and is positioned in the centre of and perpendicular to the
flowing stream.
• The device may be installed directly in the flow line, thus eliminating the need for pressure-
tap connections.
• The flowing fluid while passing through the pipe, develops a force on the target which is
proportional to velocity head (the square of the flow).
• The force bar transmits this force to a force transducer (either electronic or pneumatic) to
measure the force which is proportional to the square of the flow

Advantages
• Low initial set up cost
• Useful for difficult measurements such as slurries, polymer bearing and sediment-bearing
materials corrosive mixtures, etc.
• Provide good accuracy when calibrated for specific streams
• Can be used in abrasive, contaminated, or corrosive fluid flow
• High reliability where life tests have been made to 20,000,000 cycles.

Disadvantages
• Pressure drop is inevitable due to the rod and the drag element
• Less popular than it was before
• Calibration must be verified in the field

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Application
The target flow meters are applicable to the following:

• Ranges in :
• Diameter: 15 to 2000mm or bigger
• Temperature: -200°C to 500°C
• Pressure: 0 to 42Mpa
• Minimum measurable flow rate: 0.08m / s (it is suitable for low-velocity media)
• Target flowmeters inferentially measure the flow of liquids (heavy oil, salt water, paste,
ink, coolant, toothpaste, gel, fuel, milk, bleach, conditioner, cleaning agents, alkaline, high
boiling point organic solution, etc.), gases (gas, air, hydrogen, natural gas, nitrogen,
liquefied petroleum gas, etc.) and steams (superheated steam, saturated steam)
• Be careful using target flowmeters on fluids that can coat the target. Because the flowmeter
accuracy can be degraded.
• This flowmeter can be applied to sanitary, cryogenic liquids, relatively clean, and corrosive
liquids.
• The materials of construction of all wetted parts, including the flowmeter body and seals,
should be considered.
• Inline target flowmeters are available up to approximately 6 inches in size.
• Insertion target flowmeters are available for larger line sizes.
• Applications requiring sanitary piping systems are often found in the pharmaceutical and
chemical industries such as in the manufacture of drugs and vitamins.
• Sanitary applications are especially prevalent in the food and beverages industry where
cleanliness is important.
• Applications for target flowmeters are found in the mining, mineral processing, pulp and
paper, power, petroleum, chemical, and petrochemical industries.
• Common applications include the measurement of process and cooling water flows.

Application Cautions
• Be careful when operating target flowmeters low in their flow range. Because accuracy can
be compromised at these flow rates.
• Avoid abrasive fluids. Because the target can be damaged and measure inaccurately.
• Fluids that coat the target can cause it to become heavy. Such that the force measurement
can become inaccurate and unresponsive to flow changes.
• These flowmeters should not be applied to slurries and high viscosity liquids.
• Calibration is an important part of ensuring accurate operation of target flowmeters.
• Pressure effects, physical effects, and flowmeter orientation can affect the zero
adjustment of target flowmeters.
• After calibrating the target flowmeter (typically with weights), be sure to zero target
flowmeters after installation with a full pipe under no flow conditions. To ensure
compensation for these effects in the final installation.
• This procedure also compensates for the calibration shift that can occur when the
orientation of the flowmeter during calibration is different than its installed orientation.
• In general, in-situ zero adjustment should be performed after re-installing target
flowmeters.

85
• Operating a target flowmeter above its maximum flow rate can cause the calibration to shift
and potentially damage the suspension system of the flowmeter.
• Note also that operating target flowmeters continuously for extended periods of time can
cause a mechanical shift to occur that can affect the zero. Because the target may not return
to exactly the same position after being exposed to forces over time.
• Rapidly changing flow, such as slug flow conditions, two-phase flow, and start-up
conditions (gas to liquid transitions) can similarly affect the mechanics of the target
flowmeter and hence its zero. Therefore, it is advisable to periodically verify the zero
adjustment of target flowmeters.

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 LEVEL
(GROUPS 3 and 4)
LEVEL MEASUREMENT OPTIONS FOR PROCESS CONTROL

FLOAT ACTUATED DEVICES

Float actuated devices are characterized by a buoyant member which floats at the interface
between two fluids. A float is usually a hollow ball or cylinder whose movement as the liquid
surface rises or falls is transmitted to an indicator. Float-actuated devices may either be a switch
or a valve. Float switches can be used either as alarm devices or as control switches, turning
something ON or OFF, such as a pump, or sending a signal to a valve actuator. On the other hand,
a float valve is hooked up to a piping system and when the water level drops, it opens the valve
and allows water to go through. Float switches may be used for high or low indication, pump
starting, etc., where electrical contacts are made or broken, depending upon the liquid level. Float-
type level switches are generally able to handle high-temperature applications, and sometimes
prove useful for close interface detection.
The float rides on the process liquid surface, precisely tracking liquid surface motion. Data
transmission is usually done through two possible indicators: an electrical switch that is within the
mechanism or through an indicator board. The electrical switch is usually activated through a
change in level of fluid detected by the float. At a certain fluid level, the switch usually activates
an NC (Normally Closed) circuit that indicates the beginning of a certain programmed operation.
Otherwise, the switch is kept at an NO (Normally Open) Circuit until the fluid level is at the desired
height.

PRINCIPLE
Ffloat = mfloat × agravity
The condition of balance for the float may be written in the form:
Ffloat - Fresultant - Farchimedes = 0

SAMPLE FLOAT SWITCH SAMPLE FLOAT VALVE

CLASSIFICATIONS
Floats Switches are classified based on the float’s design orientation.

87
 1. VERTICAL
A vertical float switch is one that is connected upright into a vessel. The float fits around
the stem and it rises and falls with the level of the liquid. Inside the stem, you will have
one or more sealed reed switches. When the float nears one of the reed switches, the
magnetic force causes the switch to open or close.

These switches can be mounted through the top or bottom of a container. This can make
them especially good for situations where there is no side access to the tank that needs
liquid level detection.

2. HORIZONTAL
With a horizontal float switch, the float is attached to a hinge. As with a vertical switch,
the float rises and falls with the levels of the liquid. When the float nears the reed switch,
it moves a magnet close to the switch and opens or closes the circuit.

Horizontal float switches will be mounted through ports in the side of the container. The
ports are sealed to prevent leakage and the float side goes inside the tank, with the wires
coming out through the port. Since these float switches are mounted through the side of the
vessel, they are good for applications where the top and bottom of the tank are inaccessible.

Methods are classified based on methods used to couple the float motion to the indicating system.
1. CHAIN OR TAPE FLOAT GAUGE

Float and tape gauges, also known as “automatic tank gauges”, have been in the
marketplace for over 90 years. This tried-and-true method works by using a large float
inside the tank attached to a negator spring via a chain or perforated tape. The negator
spring provides constant tension, which balances the float on the liquid. The perforated
tape engages pins on a sprocket wheel that, in turn, drives the counter assembly.
Alternatively, when a gauge board is used to display level, the negator spring is
replaced by a counter weight system. The liquid level in the tank is displayed on the
gauge counter or indicated on the gauge board.

88
 In these types of transmitters, the float is connected to the indicating mechanism by
means of a flexible chain or tape. These are commonly used in large atmospheric
storage tanks. This type of float device is largely used in Refineries, Oil Depots,
Chemical and Fertilizer Industries. Useful for medium and large size charged or empty
tanks. It may be cone roof, floating roof, underground or gas holding tank. It covers
critical applications like corrosive & aggressive acids & liquids with fumes.

Liquid level sensing is achieved by a float, which is connected to a very accurately

perforated stainless-steel measuring tape. The tape runs from the float and is coiled
around a pulley wheel in the gauge head. As the tape moves in and out of the gauge
head it rotates a sprocket wheel connected to the counter dial mechanism to give a
direct reading of liquid level. The counter mechanism compartment can be filled with
oil to reduce friction.

2. LEVER AND SHAFT MECHANISMS

In pressurized vessels, float actuated lever and shaft mechanisms are frequently used
for level measurement. This type of mechanism consists of a hollow metal float and
lever attached to a rotary shaft which transmits the float motion to the outside of the
vessel through a rotary seal.

When the level of the tank rises, the float moves up, and the float arm rotates around
the float arm pivot, thus pulling the attraction sleeve down.

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 3. MAGNETICALLY COUPLED DEVICES

Typical of this class of devices are magnetically operated level switches and magnetic-
bond float gauges. A typical magnetic-bond float gauge consists of a hollow magnet-
carrying float which rides along a vertical nonmagnetic guide tube. The follower
magnet is connected and drives an indicating dial similar to that on a conventional tape
float gauge. The float and guide tube are in contact with the measured fluid and come
in a variety of materials for resistance to corrosion and to withstand high pressures or
vacuum.

Rising liquid level lifts the float, sliding the attraction sleeve up inside the enclosing
tube and into the magnetic field to actuate the electrical or pneumatic switch (signaling
liquid presence). Subsequently, falling liquid level lowers the float, drawing the
attraction sleeve out of the magnetic field to deactivate the electrical or pneumatic
switch (signaling liquid absence).

HEAD DEVICES
Head devices are devices that utilize hydrostatic head as a measure of level. Most of these
class of systems utilize standard pressure and differential pressure measuring devices.

HYDROSTATIC HEAD OR DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE

This method relies on the pressure of the measured liquid head to provide level indication.
The pressure exerted by a column of liquid is equal to the height of the column, h, times the specific
gravity of the liquid, sg. (𝑃 = ℎ × 𝑠𝑔, where 𝑠𝑔 = 𝜌𝑔). Thus, from this we can calculate the level
of the liquid in a vessel or tank, (i.e., the h), if we know the pressure at the bottom of the tank and
the specific gravity of the liquid, sg.

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DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE TRANSMITTER
Differential pressure (DP) transmitter is a transmitter that measures the pressure difference
between the two ends of the transmitter. The differential pressure transmitter outputs standard
signals (eg 4-20mA, 0-5V). Differential pressure transmitters are generally divided into positive
and negative pressure end. In general, the pressure at the positive end should be greater than the
pressure in the negative section to measure.

TWO TYPES OF DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE LEVEL MEASUREMENT:

1. Open Tank Differential Pressure Level Measurement

This is an application where the level value is inferred from a pressure

measurement. The differential pressure (DP) sensor/detector method of liquid level
measurement uses a DP detector connected to the bottom of the tank being monitored. The
higher pressure, caused by the fluid in the tank, is compared to a lower reference pressure
(usually atmospheric). This comparison takes place in the DP detector. The figure
illustrates a typical differential pressure detector attached to an open tank.

91
 The tank is open to the atmosphere; therefore, it is necessary to use only the high
pressure (HP) connection on the DP transmitter. The low pressure (LP) side is vented to
the atmosphere; therefore, the pressure differential is the hydrostatic head, or weight, of
the liquid in the tank. The maximum level that can be measured by the DP transmitter is
determined by the maximum height of liquid above the transmitter. The minimum level
that can be measured is determined by the point where the transmitter is connected to the
tank.

2. Closed Tank Differential Pressure Level Measurement

● Closed Tank – Dry Reference Leg

Not all tanks or vessels are open to the atmosphere. Many are totally enclosed to
prevent vapors or steam from escaping, or to allow pressurizing the contents of the tank.
When measuring the level in a tank that is pressurized, or the level that can become
pressurized by vapor pressure from the liquid, both the high pressure and low-pressure
sides of the DP transmitter must be connected.
The high-pressure connection is connected to the tank at or below the lower range
value to be measured. The low-pressure side is connected to a “reference leg” that is
connected at or above the upper range value to be measured. The reference leg is
pressurized by the gas or vapor pressure, but no liquid is permitted to remain in the
reference leg. The reference leg must be maintained dry so that there is no liquid head
pressure on the low-pressure side of the transmitter. The high-pressure side is exposed to
the hydrostatic head of the liquid plus the gas or vapor pressure exerted on the liquid’s
surface. The gas or vapor pressure is equally applied to the low- and high-pressure sides.
Therefore, the output of the DP transmitter is directly proportional to the hydrostatic head
pressure, that is, the level in the tank.

92
 ● Closed Tank – Wet Reference Leg
Where the tank contains a condensable fluid, such as steam, a slightly different
arrangement is used. In applications with condensable fluids, condensation is greatly
increased in the reference leg. To compensate for this effect, the reference leg is filled with
the same fluid as the tank. The liquid in the reference leg applies a hydrostatic head to the
high-pressure side of the transmitter, and the value of this level is constant as long as the
reference leg is maintained full. If this pressure remains constant, any change in DP is due
to a change on the low-pressure side of the transmitter.
The filled reference leg applies a hydrostatic pressure to the high-pressure side of
the transmitter, which is equal to the maximum level to be measured. The DP transmitter
is exposed to equal pressure on the high- and low-pressure sides when the liquid level is at
its maximum; therefore, the differential pressure is zero. As the tank level goes down, the
pressure applied to the low-pressure side goes down also, and the differential pressure
increases. As a result, the differential pressure and the transmitter output are inversely
proportional to the tank level.

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BUBBLE TUBE LEVEL MEASUREMENT
In the bubble type level system, liquid level is determined by measuring the pressure
required to force a gas into a liquid at a point beneath the surface.
This method uses a source of clean air or gas and is connected through a restriction to a
bubble tube immersed at a fixed depth into the vessel. The restriction reduces the airflow to a
small amount. As the pressure builds, bubbles are released from the end of the bubble tube.
Pressure is maintained as air bubbles escape through the liquid. Changes in the liquid level
cause the air pressure in the bubble tube to vary. At the top of the bubble tube is where a pressure
sensor detects differences in pressure as the level changes.

HOW DOES IT WORK?

With the supply air blocked, as can be seen in the diagram above, the water level in the
tube will be equal to that in the tank. When the air pressure from the regulator is increased until
the water in the tube is displaced by air, the air pressure on the tube is equal to the hydrostatic head
of the liquid in the tube.
The pressure set in the regulator must overcome the liquid head and bubble up through the
measured liquid. This will be indicated by a continuous flow, which is evidenced by the formation
of bubbles rising to the level of the liquid in the tank.
As it may not be convenient to visually inspect the tank for the presence of the bubbles, an
air flow indicator will usually be installed in the air line running into the tank. A rotameter is
generally used for this purpose. The importance of maintaining a flow through the tube lies in the
fact that the liquid in the tube must be displaced by air and the back pressure on the air line provides
the measurement, which is related to level. The hydrostatic back pressure of the dip tube is
measured by the pressure transmitter, which sends a 4-20ma signal. This signal can be used to

94
control a pump, sound alarms or can be sent to a programmable logic controller for further use in
controlling functions of a process.

For the closed tank application, the following bubbler system above can be used. Two dips
are installed with the shorter one dipped for “maximum” level of liquid to be measured, and a
longer dip has its tip at “minimum” level. Instrument air is supplied to the system at both dips. A
DP cell transmitter is placed to sense and measure the level and produce a proportional signal
according to the level.
ADVANTAGES OF A BUBBLER SYSTEM
1. Equipment set-up of a bubbler system is relatively simple.
2. It is suitable for use with corrosive fluids.
3. It is intrinsically safe.
4. It can be used for high temperature applications.
5. The reliability of a bubbler system is better than other level measurement methods
because the dip tube is the only part of the system in contact with the liquid being
measured.

DISADVANTAGES OF A BUBBLER SYSTEM

1. It requires compressed air and installation of air lines.
2. The build up of material on bubble tube is not permissible but does occur.
3. There is a high level of mechanical wear necessitating constant maintenance.

CONDUCTIVE LEVEL DEVICES

95
 The conductance method of liquid level measurement is based on the electrical
conductance of the measured material, which is usually a liquid that can conduct a current with a
low-voltage source (normally <20 V). Hence the method is also referred to as a conductivity
system. Conductance is a relatively low-cost, simple method to detect and control level in a vessel.
One common way to set up an electrical circuit is to use a dual-tip probe that eliminates
the need for grounding a metal tank. Such probes are generally used for point level detection, and
the detected point can be the interface between a conductive and nonconductive liquid.
Figure 3 shows an arrangement with two dual-tip probes that detect maximum and
minimum levels. When the level reaches the upper probe, a switch closes to start the discharge
pump; when the level reaches the lower probe, the switch opens to stop the pump.

MEASUREMENT PRINCIPLE
The conductivity of a liquid medium may vary widely. Once the liquid reaches the fill limit
determined from the installation height of the electrode, the liquid medium closes the DC free
alternating current circuit between the two electrodes (or between the container wall and an
electrode). A switching signal is produced from the sudden increase in current consumption.
Acids, lyes and solutions containing water are conductive and are detected very well.
Aggressive liquids can be detected without problems using probes made from highly-resistant
materials. Combustible liquids such as fuels, oils and solvents are nonconductive and cannot be
measured by this measurement principle.

96
OPERATION

Two electrodes are installed above the surface of the conductive liquid to be monitored. If
the liquid level rises to the point where both electrodes are in contact with the liquid, the current
circuit of a connected relay is completed via the two electrodes and the liquid, activating
aswitching signal.
The minimum conductivity of the liquid must be 10 µS/cm. These conditions are fulfilled
by practically all conductive liquids, such as water, acids and lyes, with the exception of pure
solvents.
If several switching points are needed, multiple electrodes should be used. In order to avoid
electrical effects in the liquid, a DC free alternating current is used for measurement. This is
generated by an electrode relay or a converter.
Interfacial level detection can be easily and economically achieved with this measurement
method. Particularly with oil and petrol separators, the limit value between the water and the non-
conductive liquid is easy to detect.

ADVANTAGES
● Simple, cost-effective measuring principle
● Multi-point detection with one process connection
● Liquid food applications

APPLICATIONS
● To avoid overflow
● For maintaining a constant level to avoid material wastage
● For switching off pumps when running dry and indicating an empty tank to avoid wear and
tear and production stoppage

RADIATION LEVEL DEVICES

Radiation
It is the emission of energy as electromagnetic waves or as moving subatomic particles
which cause ionization. This energy has an electric field and magnetic field with wave like

97
properties. Gamma rays are produced in the disintegration of radioactive atomic nuclei and in the
decay of certain subatomic particles. It has the highest photon energy and has the shortest
wavelength.

NUCLEAR LEVEL MEASUREMENT

It is used to measure the level of fluid or solid in a closed tank with the use of gamma rays
and their great penetrating power that cannot be deflected.

(Radiation level measurement diagram)

The gamma source is normally mounted outside the vessel and emits energy through the
wall and contents of the tank to the detector which is mounted on the opposite side. If the
continuous strip detects rays equal to the length and it is in maximum absorption, the tank is empty.
As the process level rises in the vessel, energy reaching the detector will decrease in an inversely
proportional relationship to the level.

COMPONENTS OF RADIATION METER

1. The source
The two common types of radioactive sources are Caesium 137 (Cs 137) and Cobalt 60
(Co 60). The activity of the radioactive substance decreases with time. The time taken for the
activity of such a substance to halve is termed its half-life.
2. The strip source and point source
The strip source is much accurate because it radiates a long, narrow, uniform beam in the
direction of the detector. It produces a linear signal that corresponds with change in level. In point
source, the strip detector measures the radiation from the source similar to the strip source system.
In this system, it produces a non-linear response with level change.

THE STRIP DETECTOR

98
 The detector being used in the process is a type of scintillation counter and photomultiplier.
This type of sensing has highly sensitive scintillation crystals.
When in presence of gamma radiation, the scintillation crystals which are uniformly
distributed to the rod emit flashes of light which are then detected by a photomultiplier at the base
of the rod and converted into electrical pulses.

To improve linearity and accuracy, we use multiple point sources:

ADVANTAGES:
● Suitable for a variety of products
● Mounted without obstruction
● Can be mounted external to the vessel
● Applicable in many process because:
▪ Solid or liquid contents not a factor
▪ Immune to internal obstructions
▪ Wide range of process temperatures
▪ Chemical characteristics not critical
▪ Unaffected by turbulence, flow variations
▪ Reads through mist, foam and heavy vapor density.
DISADVANTAGES:
● Must always be mounted on the side of the vessel
● Special safety measures are required for the use of gamma radiation
● May also involve licensing requirements
● Expensive

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 RADAR LEVEL DEVICES
RADAR (Radio Detection and Ranging) is a device that can detect the presence of faraway
objects by obtaining a reflection of electromagnetic waves emitted from the device itself. Although
invented much earlier, wide deployment of radar was done by Britain during the Second World
War to detect oncoming German bombers. Initially, radar was deployed for military purposes and
for weather forecasting. Recently radar principle is used for industrial applications also.
Radar level instruments measure the distance from the transmitter (located at some high
point) to the surface of a process material located farther below in much the same way as ultrasonic
transmitters – by measuring the time-of-flight of a traveling wave. The fundamental difference
between a radar instrument and an ultrasonic instrument is the type of wave used: radio waves
instead of sound waves.
Radio waves are electromagnetic in nature (comprised of alternating electric and magnetic
fields), and very high frequency (in the microwave frequency range – GHz). Sound waves are
mechanical vibrations (transmitted from molecule to molecule in a fluid or solid substance) and of
much lower frequency (tens or hundreds of kilohertz – still too high for a human being to detect
as a tone) than radio waves. Some radar level instruments use waveguide “probes” to guide the
electromagnetic waves to and from the process liquid while others send electromagnetic waves out
through open space to reflect off the process material.
The instruments using waveguides are called guided-wave radar instruments, whereas the
radar instruments relying on open space for signal propagation are called non-contact radar.

PRINCIPLE
There are two types of radar level transmitter:
1)Guided wave radar transmitter
It is based on the ‘time of flight’ principle. It consists of electronics housed in an enclosure and
a waveguide i.e. probe to guide the radio wave into the process media. Low energy
electromagnetic pulses of 1 GHz from the electronics are transmitted along with the probe which

100
travels down along the probe at the speed of light into the process media and their partial energy
is reflected back to the sensor circuitry.
The intensity of reflection depends on the dielectric constant value of the media. The
electronics measures the time delay between transmitted and reflected signal and calculate the
distance of the surface of process media using formula –
Distance = (Speed of light x time delay) / 2, Level = (Tank height – Distance)
The Radar Level Transmitter is programmed with tank height and the corresponding level
is calculated by the microprocessor. It is also used for liquid-liquid interface level measurement
only when upper layer media is of low dielectric and the difference between two dielectric
constants is >10.
Residual electromagnetic pulses after the first reflection continue to travel down the probe
through the low dielectric media and again reflected back. The second reflected signal determines
the interface level.
Advantages:
● Provides accurate & reliable level measurement of liquids, slurries, pastes, liquid interface
& solids.
● Suitable for low dielectric constant media.
● Unaffected by liquid turbulence, change in density, dielectric constant, conductivity, foam,
dust, temperature & pressure
● Minimal maintenance as no moving parts

2)Non-contact type radar transmitter

It uses a high-frequency microwave signal of 26 GHz which is transmitted via an antenna
towards the product surface. Its frequency increases linearly during the measurement. The signal
is reflected back to the antenna from the surface of process media and received at the time-delayed
frequency.
The difference is calculated from actual transmitting frequency and received frequency which
is directly proportional to distance to the liquid surface from the antenna. The frequency of non-
contact radar level transmitters affects the performance of the level transmitter. Lower frequency
increases the beam width and reduces the sensitivity due to vapor, foam, and deposition on the
antenna.
With higher frequency, the beam width is narrowed which minimizes the influence of nozzle,
wall and tank internals.
Advantages:
● Suitable for liquids, solids & granules
● Reliable performance with high accuracy up to 1mm
● Choice of antennas- sealed rod, horn, drop or parabolic to suit the application
● Unaffected by liquid turbulence, change in density, dielectric constant, conductivity, foam,
dust, temperature & pressure

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 ULTRASONIC LEVEL MEASUREMENT
DEFINITION
Ultrasonic level measurement is contactless principle and most suitable for level
measurements of hot, corrosive and boiling liquids. The normal frequency range used for
ultrasonic level measurements is within a range of 40-200 KHz.

PRINCIPLE
Ultrasonic waves detect an object in the same way as Radar does it. Ultrasonic uses the
sound waves, and Radar uses radio waves. When an ultrasonic pulse signal is targeted towards an
object, it is reflected by the object and echo returns to the sender. The time travelled by the
ultrasonic pulse is calculated, and the distance of the object is found. Bats use a well known method
to measure the distance while travelling. Ultrasonic level measurement principle is also used to
find out fish positions in the ocean, locate submarines below water level, also the position of a
scuba diver in sea.

We will refer to Fig-1 and make an effort to understand the technicalities of ultrasonic level
transmitter. An ultrasonic level transmitter is fixed at the top of a tank half filled with liquid. The
reference level for all measurements is the bottom of the tank. Level to be detected is marked as
“C”, and “B” is the distance of the ultrasonic sensor from the liquid level. Ultrasonic pulse signals

102
are transmitted from the transmitter, and it is reflected back to the sensor. Travel time of the
ultrasonic pulse from sensor to target and back is calculated. Level “C” can be found by
multiplying half of this time with the speed of sound in air. The measuring unit final result can be
centimeters, feet, inches etc.

Level = Speed of sound in air x Time delay / 2

PRACTICAL SYSTEM DESIGN PROBLEMS OF ULTRASONIC LEVEL

TRANSMITTER:

The above principle of measurement looks quite straightforward and true only in theory. In
practice, there are some technical difficulties which are to be taken care to get correct level reading.

a. Velocity of sound changes due to the variation of air temperature. An integrated

temperature sensor is used to compensate for changes in velocity of sound due to
temperature variations.
b. There are some interference echoes developed by the edges, welded joints etc. This is taken
care by the software of the transmitter and called interference echo suppression.
c. Calibration of the transmitter is crucial. Accuracy of measurement depends on the accuracy
of calibration. The Empty distance “A” and measurement span “D” is to be ascertained
correctly for inclusion in calibration of the transmitter.
d. The transient characteristics of the sensor will develop a Blocking distance as shown in
Fig-1. Span “D” should never extend to the blocking distance.

THE BASIC STRUCTURE OF AN ULTRASONIC TRANSDUCER (REFER: FIG-2):

Ultrasonic Sensor is the heart of the ultrasonic level Transmitter instrument. This sensor
will translate electrical energy into ultrasound waves. Piezoelectric crystals are used for this
conversion process. Piezoelectric crystals will oscillate at high frequencies when electric energy
is applied to it. The reverse is also true. These piezoelectric crystals will generate electrical signals
on receipt of ultrasound. These sensors are capable of sending ultrasound to an object and receive
the echo developed by the object. The echo is converted into electrical energy for onward
processing by the control circuit.

103
 Functional block diagram of a typical Ultrasonic Level Transmitter:

We will refer to Fig-3 Functional Block Diagram for clarify physical structures of an Ultrasonic
Level Transmitter.

A micro-controller-based Control Circuit monitors all the activities of the ultrasonic level
transmitter. There are two Pulse Transmission Circuits, one for transmitter pulse and the other one
for receiver pulse. The pulse generated by the transmitter pulse is converted to Ultrasound pulses
by the Ultrasonic Sensor (Transmitter) and targeted towards the object.

This ultrasound pulse is reflected back as an echo pulse to the Ultrasonic Sensor (Receiver).
The receiver converts this Ultrasonic pulse to an electrical signal pulse through the pulse generator.
The time elapsed, or the reflection time is measured by the counter. This elapsed time has relation
to the level to be measured. This elapsed time is converted to level by the Control Circuit. There
is a Timing Generator Circuit which is used to synchronize all functions in the ultrasonic level
measurement system.

The level is finally converted to a 4-20mA signal. 4mA is 0% level, and 20mA is the 100%
level (see Fig-1). This 4-20mA output signal carrying the level data can be transmitted to a long
distance to Process Control Instruments.

104
ADVANTAGES OF ULTRASONIC LEVEL TRANSMITTER:

Ultrasonic level transmitter has no moving parts, and it can measure level without making
physical contact with the object. This typical characteristic of the transmitter is useful for
measuring levels in tanks with corrosive, boiling and hazardous chemicals. The accuracy of the
reading remains unaffected even after changes in the chemical composition or the dielectric
constant of the materials in the process fluids.

LIMITATIONS OF ULTRASONIC LEVEL TRANSMITTER:

Ultrasonic level transmitters are the best level measuring devices where the received echo of the
ultrasound is of acceptable quality. It is not so convenient if the tank depth is high or the echo is
absorbed or dispersed. The object should not be sound absorbing type. It is also unsuitable for
tanks with too much smoke or high density moisture.

DISPLACER LEVEL DEVICES

Displacer level instruments exploit Archimedes’ Principle to detect liquid level by
continuously measuring the weight of an object (called the displacer) immersed in the process
liquid. It observes liquid level by unendingly measurement the load of a displacer rod immersed
within the process liquid.
In practice a displacer level instrument usually takes the following form. Process piping in
and out of the vessel has been omitted for simplicity – only the vessel and its displacer level
instrument are shown:

105
PRINCIPLE
According to Archimedes’ Principle, the buoyant force on an immersed object is always
equal to the weight of the fluid volume displaced by the object.
As liquid level can increase, the displacer rod experiences a bigger buoyant force,
creating it appear lighter to the sensing instrument, that interprets the loss of weight as a
rise in level and transmits a proportional o/p signal.
As liquid level decreases, the buoyant force on the displacer rod decreases with a
corresponding weight increase that is understood as decreasing level by the level detector
that then provides a corresponding signal output.

When container is full, buoyant force on displacer rod is given by:

Buoyant Force = weight of method fluid displaced
When vessel is empty or level is minimum:
Buoyant force on displacer = zero
Difference Between Displacer and Float
The main difference between a float and a displacer is that a float moves with liquid level on
the surface of the liquid, whereas a displacer is submerged into the liquid and moves less distance
than a float. Floats are allowed to move if level or density changes, whereas the displacers don't
move or move very little. This means that the float devices follow the changes in level more
closely, while the displacer follows the changes in density more accurately.
● Float switches are accessible in a glandless layout and are capable of failing secure
operation under severe process circumstances, unlike displays that can provide a route of
leakage if the load pipe falls.
● A float usually travels above the fluid ground while a displacer stays either partially or
completely submerged in the fluid method.
● In the event of turbulent, surging, frothy and foamy facilities, displacer switches are
regarded as extra robust and reliable relative to conventional float stage switches.
● Displayer settings can be altered very readily as they can be moved anywhere along the
suspension cord path. In addition, these tier systems provide tank-to-tank
interchangeability.
● It is much easier to test the proper functioning of a displacer switch than a usual float level
switch, since the former requires only the lifting of a suspension, whereas the latter requires
the filling of liquid in the tank up to the actuation mark.

Displacer Level Transmitter

In these kinds of displacer level sensors, the displacer is connected to a spring that restricts
its movement for every increment of buoyancy (i.e. level change). The transmitter is designed for
a buoyancy force measuring span of minimum force to maximum force in N.

106
1. Torque Tube

A torque tube uses a torsion bar that rotates relative to the weight of the displacer in
fluid to correspond to a level reading.

2. Linear Variable Differential transformer (LVDT)/Range Spring

A transmitter incorporating a Linear Variable Differential transformer (LVDT) is

employed to trace the increase and fall of the displacer rod as liquid level changes. It is a
common type of electromechanical transducer that can convert the rectilinear motion of an
object to which it is coupled mechanically into a corresponding electrical signal.
Sophisticated electronics is then accustomed to process the voltage signal from the LDVT
into a 4-20mA o/p signal.
The LVDT registers a voltage signal at min. container level and outputs a
corresponding signal. The displacer length is decided by the operative range (span)
nominative, the specific gravity, pressure, and temperature of the method fluid. The
diameter and weight area unit factory calculated to make sure correct operation and
providing exact 4-20mA output.

107
DIFFERENCE IN TORQUE AND LVDT
Torque Tube LVDT

Torque tube liquid level Range spring/LVDT displacer

measurement is susceptible transmitter is four times more
Accuracy to fatigue failure and resistant to vibration, six times
accelerated corrosion. more linear, and 20 times more
accurate than a torque tube.
The torque tube itself serves The enclosing tube for the
as the pressure boundary range spring design is 0.035"
Structural Integrity
component and has a thick.
thickness of 0.01".
Torque tubes have a very A vertical and fully rotatable
large footprint when housing head is available to
including the level cover a smaller amount of area,
Footprint transmitter, and users of this allowing for easy wiring
technology are also depending on where the wiring
confined to a left-hand or is coming from.
right-hand display design.
Torque tubes consist of a Range spring/LVDT liquid
knife edge that the sensing level measurement features a
Maintenance Capability element rotates on and can removable and rotatable
wear over time. transmitter for installation
flexibility.

AREAS OF APPLICATION
The displacer level sensor is employed in level measuring applications like knock- out pots,
condensation drums, separators, flash vessels, storage vessels and receiver tanks.

108
 WEIGHT LEVEL MEASUREMENT DEVICES

Level Measurement by Weight or Gravimetric level control is one of the most accurate
inventory control methods available. Its high degree of accuracy makes it particularly helpful when
measuring high-value liquids and sometimes even gases. Due to the fact that load cells or weigh
modules are placed outside of the tank or silo, gravimetric level control is perfect for measuring
aggressive, hot, frozen, non-free-flowing, and non-self-leveling materials.
Tank/silo weighing is preferred in many applications for other reasons as well. Because of
the system's inherent design, operators never need to handle materials being weighed. This makes
it almost impossible to contaminate stored materials. Also, results are independent of tank shape,
measured materials, or process parameters such as temperature and material viscosity.

What is a load cell?

A load cell (or loadcell) is a transducer which converts force into a measurable electrical
output. Although there are many varieties of force sensors, strain gauge load cells are the most
commonly used type. A load cell works by converting mechanical force into digital values that the
user can read and record. The inner working of a load cell differs based on the load cell that you
choose

Types of Load Cells

There are load cells made in various shapes and sizes, for a variety of applications. Here are the
main one's available today:
● Bar / Bending Beam Load Cells
● Canister Load Cells
● S-Beam Load Cells
● Through-Hole / Donut Load Cells
● Pancake Load Cells

109
 Type Bar / Canister S-Beam Through- Pancake
Bending Hole / Donut
Beam

Applicat Used for Used to It can be used Most rugged Highest load
ion measuring measure for both type for high types, reaching
weight. Great compression compression compression 100 kg (220,000
at making loads and tension. and tension. lbs) or more of
off-center The hole(s) compression and
measurement allow the tension.
s structure to
pass through
the load cell
Can Tension and Compression Tension and Compression Tension and
Measure compression compression only OR compression
tension and
compression

ADVANTAGES OF LOAD CELL:

1). Load cell is small and compact in size.

2). Accuracy is very good.
3). It has good sensitivity and low hysteresis.
4). It is less expensive.

DISADVANTAGES OF LOAD CELL:

1). Its performance is affected by non axial force.

2). It requires a temperature compensation network.
3). Excessive stress or force may damage the load cell permanently.

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IMPORTANCE OF USING WEIGHT LEVEL MEASUREMENT
Highly effective inventory management can be obtained using gravimetric level control.
This is primarily because tank-based gravimetric inventory control is independent of many
influences that other technologies must mitigate. Tank design can be optimized for the material
that will be measured. Therefore, gravimetric inventory control offers a great deal of production
flexibility. Materials and other process parameters, such as temperature, viscosity, humidity,
density, and pressure, can be changed without recalibration or sensor adjustment.
The gravimetric method provides the best accuracy combined with high flexibility for
inventory control over a long time. Even simple systems achieve accuracy levels of 1 percent or
better. Accuracy can be as good as to 0.1 percent or lower of the applied load in optimized systems.
No other inventory control technology for tanks comes close to this level of optimized material
use.
Single load cells and weigh modules are available from a few kilograms to several hundred
tons. Multiple cells or modules can be arranged under one tank for a net capacity of several
thousand tons.
In addition, load cells can be integrated into complete weigh modules with factory-adjusted
overload protection. Dedicated mechanisms protect the load cells from damage due to under load
coming from the effects of wind forces. The tank can even be protected from tipping over in case
of earthquakes or very strong wind forces. Stabilizers protect the load cells from torsion effects,
which result from mixers inside of the tank.
Gravimetric inventory control also requires no direct product contact with the sensor. No
special access to the silo or direct contact with material is required as with other technologies. All
maintenance is possible without contact with the material or the inside of the tank. Thus, the tank
can be optimized for hygienic aspects and low contamination thread.
Furthermore, manufacturers have the ability to choose the most suitable tank material and surface
quality without compromising accuracy. This simplifies the design phase and construction of food-
grade tanks.

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 VALVES
(GROUPS 5 and 6)
Introduction
Valves are mechanical devices that control flow and pressure within a system or process.
They are essential components of a piping system that carries liquids, gases, vapors, sludge and
many more. Different types of valves are available: gate, globe, plug, ball, butterfly, check,
diaphragm, clamp, pressure relief, control valves, etc. Each of these types has several models, each
with different features and functional capabilities. Some valves are self-operated while others are
operated manually or with an actuator or are operated pneumatically or hydraulically.
The valve is one of the most basic and indispensable components of our modern
technological society. It is essential for virtually all manufacturing processes and all energy
production and supply systems. However, it is one of the oldest products known to man, with a
history of thousands of years.
There has been a need to regulate the flow of water since man began building cities and
planting crops for farming. Men and women would control the flow of water using trees, tree
trunks and stones right prior to the first actual pipe systems (the aqueducts). The Romans, however,
were the first to construct something similar to a formal canal system, and are thus credited with
developing the valve. The first valves were made of a substance made of bronze. They were very
solid and built for the pipes already in place to be welded. These pipes were bronze as well, or lead
occasionally. In architecture, the first valves were very basic, but successful. A plug with a hole, a
bottom support and a long lever for turning the plug were included in the body of the valve.
Throughout the Mediterranean region, several of these valves have been found. The smart thought
that our Roman ancestors put into the development of the water systems they used in these "new"
ancient towns is shown by these artifacts.
The industrial revolution was the next major improvement to the valve and harkened to
this, disappointingly basic, system in the modern age. When Thomas Newcomen invented his
steam engine, even in high-pressure conditions, he needed modern, enhanced valve operations to
manage steam. The lessons learned from steam engineering will continue to make irrigation and
plumbing valves much more functional. Eventually, valves could be made in large quantities. The
ability to produce them on an assembly line would allow more and more towns, farms and people
to use the numerous available valves. As they are used in engines and other areas of the automobile,
valves have also become an important part of the automotive world.
Valves are usually made of metal or plastic and have several different parts. The outer part
is called the seat and often has a solid metal outer casing and a soft rubber or plastic inner seal so
that the valve makes a completely tight seal. The inner part of the valve, which opens and closes,
is called the body, and fits into the seat when the valve is closed. There is also some type of
mechanism to open and close the valve, whether it is a manual lever or wheel (as in a faucet or
stopcock) or an automatic mechanism (as in a car or steam engine).
Valves are often used to contain dangerous liquids or gases, perhaps toxic chemicals,
flammable oil, high pressure steam, or compressed air, which should not be allowed to escape
under any circumstances. In theory, a valve should be perfectly safe and, once closed, should never
allow liquid or gas to pass through. In practice, that is not entirely true. Sometimes it is better for
a valve to fail, intentionally, to protect some other part of a system or machine. For example, if

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 you have a steam engine powered by a water boiler where steam builds up, but the pressure
suddenly rises too high, you need a valve to open, let the steam escape, and release the pressure
safely before that the entire boiler explodes catastrophically. Valves that work in this way are
called safety valves. They are designed to open automatically when the liquid or gas they contain
reaches a certain pressure (although many systems and machines have safety valves that can be
opened manually for the same purpose).

• Main Parts of a Valve

1. The body is the part of a valve that is attached to pipes and hold all the parts together.
2. The opening element is the part that opens and closes the valve.
3. The stem raises or lowers the opening element.
4. The hand wheel or handle allows the operator to turn the stem.
5. The bonnet is a separate housing that is bolted tightly to the top of the valve body.
6. The gland packing is held in place by bolts, or sometimes it is screwed into place

• Types of Valve End Connections

1. Screwed or Threaded
2. Flanged 4. Socket Welded
3. Butt Welded 5. Wafer and Lug

There are a large variety of valves and valve configurations.

• Type of Valve According to Mechanical Motion

1. Multi-Turn valves - Depending on the valve, these can have higher or lower differentials
allowing you to open or close them at various speeds.

2. Quarter turn valves - Offer a full range of motion in a 90-degree turn of the handle.

• Type of Valve According to the Method of Actuation

1. Manual Valves 3. Automatic Valves

2. Actuated Valves 4. Non-Return Valves

5. Special Purpose Valves

1. Gate Valves
• Definition
A gate valve can be defined as a type of valve that used a gate or wedge type disk
and the disk moves perpendicular to flow to start or stop the fluid flow in piping. It is the
most

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common type of valve used in any process plant. It is a linear motion valve used to start
or stop fluid flow. In service, these valves are either in a fully open or fully closed position.

Figure 1.A – Gate Valve

When the gate valve is fully open, the disk of a gate valve is completely removed from
the flow. Therefore, virtually no resistance to flow. Due to this very little pressure drops
when fluid passes through a gate valve.
Gate valves are used when a straight-line flow of fluid and minimum flow
restriction are needed. Gate valves use a sliding plate within the valve body to stop, limit,
or permit full flow of fluids through the valve. The gate is usually wedge-shaped. When
the valve is wide open, the gate is fully drawn into the valve bonnet. This leaves the flow
passage through the valve fully open with no flow restrictions. Therefore, there is little or
no pressure drop or flow restriction through the valve.

• Parts of a Gate Valve

A gate valve's main components are body, seat, gate, stem, bonnet, and actuator.

Figure 1.B – Parts of a Gate Valve

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 Valve’s Body or Shell. A gate valve is comprised of certain parts that allow it to
function properly. The most principal part of this particular valve is the valve’s body or
shell, which is considered the initial pressure boundary and can connect inlet and outlet
pipes in a piping system. The shape of the body is often cylindrical and houses the gates,
also known as the valve’s disks, and the valve’s seats.
Bonnet. There is a covering used for a valve body’s opening at the top and this is
called the bonnet. A valve’s bonnet is often screwed in so as to enable any sort of
maintenance or repair work to be done without having to remove the entire gate valve from
the piping system, which would cause more headaches than necessary. The bonnet houses
other internal parts of the valve such as the stem, gland packing, and gland follower.
Disk. The internal parts are known collectively as a valve’s trim and these are the
parts that enable the valve to control the flow of water and other basic actions to be made.
The first integral part of the trim is the disk. The disk is what closes and opens, thus
explaining why it is often referred to as the gate in this particular kind of valve. When the
hand wheel or actuator is turned closed, the disk also seals up, preventing any water flow
from occurring. When the hand wheel or actuator is turned open, the disk opens up,
allowing water flow to happen.
Seat. The seat is thought of as the partner of the disk and can either be in a "V"
shape or pointed valley for a wedge disk or in a parallel shape to that of a parallel disk. It
is vital that both the disk and the seat are able to have a snug enough fit in order for it to be
sealed, thus, making it impossible for any flow to occur when the valve has been closed.
Stem. The stem of the valve connects the hand wheel or actuator to the disk. The
stem rotates as the hand wheel is turned, making it possible for the disk to rotate in the
same motion as the stem and hand wheel. There are two kinds of stems: the rising stem and
the non-rising stem. A rising stem rises above the hand wheel as the valve is opened while
a non-rising stem does not.
Hand Wheel. The hand wheel is the circular part found at the very top of a gate
valve. It is what controls the stem, which in turn controls the disk. It is turned clockwise to
close the valve and counter-clockwise to open the valve.
Gland Packing. The gland packing is composed of a material that creates a seal
between the stem and the trim. The gland follower extends into the gland packing. It is
necessary for the gland packing to be properly compressed to ensure no breach occurs.
• Types of Gate Valves
Gate valves are divided into a number of classes, depending on its disc and type of
stems. Gate Valves are classified by:
▪ Gate Valve types as per Type of Closing Element:
a. Parallel disk Gate Valve: Parallel disk gate valves consist of two discs
that are forced apart against parallel seats by a spring at the point of the
closure. The most famous type is the knife gate valve that has a flat gate
between two parallel seats (an upstream and a downstream seat) to achieve

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 the required shut-off. The application of a parallel gate valve is limited to
low pressures and low-pressure drops.
Figure 1.C - Parallel Disk Gate Valve
b. Solid-Wedge Gate Valve: The solid, or single wedge gate valve is the

most widely used and the lowest cost used-type in the process industry. The
purpose of the wedge shape is to introduce a high supplementary seating
load. Solid-Wedge Gate Valve can be installed in any position, suitable for
almost all fluids and practical for turbulent flow services.
Figure 1.D - Solid Wedge Gate Valve

c. Flexible Wedge Gate Valve: Flexible wedge gate valve employs a

flexible wedge that is a one-piece disk with a cut around the perimeter (the
cut varies in size, shape, and depth). Thermal expansion and contraction
entail no problems in such kind of gate valves as the disk is able to
compensate for this and remain easy to open. Flexible wedge gate valves are
widely used in steam systems to prevent thermal binding

Figure 1.E - Flexible Wedge Gate Valve

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 d. Split Wedge Gate Valve: Split wedges of this type of gate valves are
made in two separate halves. This allows the wedge angle between their
outer faces to fit the seat (self -adjusting and self-aligning to both seating
surfaces).

Figure 1.F - Split Wedge Gate Valve

▪ Gate Valve types as per Type of Stem:

a. Rising Stem Gate Valve with Outside Screw : This type of gate
valve is also known as OS & Y type (Outside steam and York). The stem
rises while opening and lower while closing the valve offering an
indication of the gate valve position. The stem threads never contact the
flow medium (not subject to corrosion/erosion).

Figure 1.G - Rising Stem Gate Valve

b. Non-Rising Stem Gate Valve: It is also known as Insider Screw

Valve. The stem of the non-rising stem gate valve is threaded into the
gate. The hand wheel and stem move together and there is no rising and
lowering of the stem. The stem is in contact with the flow medium.
Figure 1.H - Non-Rising Stem Gate Valve

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• Working Principle
The working principle of a gate valve is quite simple. When the gate of the
valve is lifted from the flow path, the valve opens and when the gate again returns to its
position, the gate valve closes. This gate movement is achieved by manually turning the
hand-wheel. The hand-wheel rotates the valve stem and the internal threaded mechanism
provides a vertical movement of the gate. When the handle wheel will be rotated in
clockwise direction, steam and gate will move in downward direction across the fluid flow
line and gate will be tightly located between the two seats. Hence there will not be any
leakage of fluid through the valve once the valve is closed completely. When the handle
wheel will be rotated in anti-clockwise direction, steam and gate will move in upward
direction across the fluid flow line and valve will be opened from closed position and will
permit the flow of fluid through the gate valve. Once the gate valve is completely opened,
it will permit no resistance or very little resistance to the flow of fluid. Gate valve can be
used in semi-open condition also but there will be one issue of erosion of gate as fluid will
strike the gate if the valve is partially open. Therefore the gate valve should be used in
completely closed or completely open condition.

Figure 1.I – Working Principle of a Gate Valve

• Functions
A gate valve is designed to turn the flow of liquid through pipes on and off. It
is generally used on a valve that is not used frequently. It is also helpful in controlling the
flow of pressure through the pipes and valves. Also known as a sluice valve, it controls
flow by moving a round or rectangular wedge in and out of the liquid path.
Gate valves are used to shut off the flow of fluid by inserting a rectangular gate or
wedge into the path of a flowing fluid. Gate valves require very little space along the pipe
axis and hardly restrict the flow of fluid when the gate is fully opened enabling gate valves
to offer straightway flow with very little pressure drop.
• Purpose
Gate valves are more commonly used in refineries and petrochemical plants where
pressure remains relatively low, but temperature may be very high. Gate valves are used
less in upstream oil and gas production facilities due to high operating pressures, long

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 opening/closing times, and severe environmental conditions when operating in marine
atmospheres. Gate valves are mostly used with larger pipe diameters (from 2″ to the largest
pipelines) since they are less complex to construct than other types of valves in large sizes.
More recently, however, the larger sizes have been supplemented by butterfly valves due
to space limitations under which they are installed.
• Advantages and Disadvantages
▪ Advantages of a Gate Valve
o Gate valve provides good on/off or shutoff features.
o Pressure drop during operation is very less.
o Gate valves are bi-directional valves and can provide shut-off in either flow
directions.
o They are suitable for high pressure and temperature application and required
less maintenance.
o Gate valves tend to be slightly cheaper than ball valves of the same size and
quality.
• Disadvantages of a Gate Valve
o It cannot be used to regulate or throttle the flow.
o A gate valve is slow in operation and cannot be quickly opened or closed.
This is good also as it reduces the chance of hammering.
o It is prone to vibration and noise in the partially open state.
o It is more subject to seat and disk wear.
o Gate valves require large space envelope for installation, operation, and
maintenance.
o Repairs, such as lapping and grinding, are generally more difficult to
accomplish.
o Some designs of gate valves are susceptible to thermal or pressure locking,
depending upon the application.

2. Butterfly Valves
• Definition
Butterfly valve is a flow control device that incorporates a rotational disk to control
the flowing media in a process. The disk is always in the passageway, but because it is
relatively thin, it offers little resistance to flow. Butterfly valve technology has evolved
dramatically over the past half century, as has its industry popularity. This popularity can
be partly attributed to the quarter-turn operation, tight shutoff and its availability in a
variety of materials of construction.

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 Butterfly valve is a quarter-turn rotational motion valve, which is used to stop,
regulate, and start flow. Butterfly valves are easy and fast to open. A 90° rotation of the
handle provides a complete closure or opening of the valve. Large Butterfly valves are
usually equipped with a so-called gearbox, where the handwheel by gears is connected to
the stem. This simplifies the operation of the valve, but at the expense of speed.
Figure 2.A – Butterfly Valve
• Parts of a Gate Valve

The butterfly valve consists of only four main components: body, disk, stem and
seat.
Figure 2.B – Parts of a Butterfly Valve

Body. Butterfly valves generally have bodies that fit between two pipe flanges. The
most common body designs are lug and wafer. The lug body has protruding lugs that
provide bolt holes matching those in the pipe flange. A wafer body does not have
protruding lugs. The wafer valve is sandwiched between the pipe flanges, and the flange
bolts surround the body.

Each type of body has advantages, some of which are listed:

▪ The wafer style is less expensive than a lug style.
▪ Wafer designs do not transfer the weight of the piping system directly
through the valve body.
▪ A lug body allows dead-end service or removal of downstream piping.

Disk. The flow closure member of a butterfly valve is the disk. Many variations of
the disk design have evolved relative to the orientation of the disk and stem in an attempt
to improve flow, sealing and/or operating torque. The disk is the equivalent of a plug in a

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plug valve, gate in a gate valve or a ball in a ball valve. Rotating the disk one-quarter turn
or 90 Degrees opens and closes the butterfly valve.

Stem. The stem of the butterfly valve may be a one-piece shaft or a two-piece (split-
stem) design. The stem in most resilient seated designs is protected from the media, thus
allowing an efficient selection of material with respect to cost and mechanical properties.
In high-performance designs, the stems are in contact with the media and, therefore, must
be compatible, as well as provide the required strength for seating and unseating the disk
from the seat.

Seat. The seat of a resilient-seat butterfly valve utilizes an interference fit between
the disk edge and the seat to provide shutoff. The material of the seat can be made from
many different elastomers or polymers. The seat may be bonded to the body or it may be
pressed or locked in.
In high-performance butterfly valves, the shutoff may be provided by an
interference-fit seat design or a line-energized seat design, where the pressure in the
pipeline is used to increase the interference between the seat and disk edge. The most
common seat material is polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) or reinforced PTFE (RTFE)
because of the wider range of compatibility and temperature range.
Metal seats are also offered in high-performance butterfly valves. These metal seats
allow a butterfly valve to be used in even higher temperatures to 1,000 Degrees F. Fire-
safe designs are offered that provide the shutoff of a polymer seat valve before a fire, and
the metal seal backup provides shutoff during and after a fire.

• Types of Butterfly Valve

Depending on disc closure design, connection design, and actuation method,
Butterfly valves can be categorized into several types.

▪ Based on Disc Closure Design

a. Concentric Butterfly Valve: The concentric butterfly valve is the most basic
type of butterfly valve design. In this design, the stem passes through the
centreline of the disc. This is also known as a zero-offset valve. Concentric
butterfly valves are used for low-pressure services.

b. Eccentric Butterfly Valve: In an eccentric butterfly valve, the stem does not
pass through the centreline of the disc. There are three types of offset valves.

i. Single-Offset: It is the butterfly valve where the stem is located right

behind the centreline of the disc.

ii. Double Offset: The stem is located behind the disc with an additional
offset to one side.

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 iii. Triple Offset: For highly critical applications, a triple offset butterfly
valve is used. The third offset is in between the disc and seat contact
axis. This design results in minimal seat contact thus very less wear and
highly efficient.

Figure 2.C - Single, Double and triple Offset Butterfly Valve Design

▪ Based in Piping Connection

a. Lug type: The lug-style butterfly valve designs have threaded lugs outside
the valve body. Using two sets of studs, the valve is connected with piping
flanges. One end of the line can be disconnected without affecting the other
side since each flange has its own bolts.

b. Wafer Type: A wafer-type butterfly valve is sandwiched between two pipe

flanges and the flange bolts surround the valve body. This is the most
economical butterfly valve. Long bolts are used covering both flanges and
valve body. A wafer butterfly valve provides sealing against bi-directional
pressure difference in the fluid flow. The wafer version of the butterfly valves
is designed to protect against a tight seal and two-way pressure difference.

c. Flanged Butterfly Valve

d. Butt-welded Butterfly Valves for high-pressure applications

▪ Based on Operation method

a. Manual Actuation

i. Lever Operated
ii. Gear Operated
b. Automatic Actuation
i. Electric
ii. Pneumatic

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 iii. Hydraulic

▪ Based on Seat Material

a. Soft Seated
b. Metal Seated

• Working Principle
A Butterfly Valve is from a family of valves called Quarter-Turn Valves.
Butterfly valves have a relatively simple construction. The main components of a butterfly
valve are the body, disc, stem and seat. In operation, the valve is fully open or closed when
the disc is rotated a quarter turn. The “butterfly” is a metal disc mounted on a rod. The disc is
positioned in the center of the pipe. A rod passes through the disc to the outside of the valve.
Rotating the rod, through hand-wheel or actuator, turns the disc either parallel or
perpendicular to the flow. When the disc plane is at right angle or perpendicular to the center
line of pipe, butterfly valve is closed. Then when the disc is rotated a quarter turn to make the
plane of disc in line with the center line of pipe, butterfly valve is fully open and it allows an
almost unrestricted passage of the fluid. The valve may also be opened incrementally
to throttle flow.
Butterfly valves should normally be mounted with the stem horizontal since this
allows debris in the pipe to be swept clear as the valve is closed. Where the stem is vertical
solids can lodge under the disc at the spindle and cause damage to the seal. Furthermore, when
opening the valve, the bottom of the disc should lift away from solids that may have
accumulated on the upstream side of the disc. It’s important to note that pipelines that contain
butterfly valves can’t be ‘pigged’ for cleaning.

Figure 2.D – Working Principle of a Butterfly Valve

• Functions
The main functions of a butterfly valve are:

o Flow regulation: Flow can be easily controlled or regulated simply by

turning the valve wheel. Using a flow controller, the process can be
automated.

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 o Flow Isolation

o Prevention of Backflow: Butterfly valves can be used for backflow

prevention in some situations.

• Purpose
Early use of butterfly valves focused on water applications, but new designs and
component materials have allowed them to be utilized in growing industrial fluid applications.
Presently, butterfly valves can be found in almost every chemical plant handling a variety of
diverse fluids. Butterfly valves can be used across a wide range of applications. They perform
well in large volume water applications and slurry applications. The following are some
typical applications of Butterfly valves:
o In fuel handling systems
o Water supply
o Power generation
o Wastewater treatment, Slurry
o Compressed air and gas
services.
services
o Fire protection, air and gas
o Steam Services
supply
o Food Processing
o Vacuum services
o Pharmaceutical
o Lubrication System
o Marine System
o In the chemical and oil
industries o Sanitary Valve Application.
Basically, Butterfly Valves are suitable for use in:

o Constant Load Applications

o Space-Restrictive Applications
o Throttling Valves

• Advantages and Disadvantages

▪ Advantages of a Butterfly Valve

o Compact design; little space requirement.

o Lightweight; easily supported by the piping system.
o Quick operation; less opening or closing time.
o Easy to Install.
o Simple operation due to low operation torque.
o Available in very large sizes

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 o Improved energy efficiency
o Low-pressure drop and high-pressure recovery
o Long valve life
o Relatively inexpensive to build.
o Less number of parts; hence, reduced maintenance.

▪ Disadvantages of a Butterfly Valve

o Throttling service is limited to low differential pressure

o Disc movement is affected by flow turbulence.
o The valve disc is always under pressure and can interrupt the flow even in an
open position.
o Possibility of Cavitation and choked flow is a concern
o Poor sealing function.
o Not suitable for high differential pressure.

3. Safety Valve
The safety valve is a valve that acts as protection of the equipment against explosion or damage
and is installed mainly in pressure vessels such as chemical plants, electric power boilers and gas
storage tanks.
The safety valve is a type of valve that is activated automatically when the pressure on the inlet
side of the valve increases to a predetermined pressure, to open the valve disc and discharge the
fluid (steam or gas); and when the pressure drops to the prescribed value, close the valve disc
again. The safety valve is a final safety device that controls the pressure and discharges a certain
amount of fluid by itself without any electrical power support.
Safety valves support not only the safety of the energy industry, but also the safety of our lives.
DEFINITION
• A valve that opens automatically to relieve excessive pressure.
• A part of a machine that opens to release pressure if it becomes too high
• A safety valve is a valve that acts as a fail-safe.
• An example of safety valve is a pressure relief valve (PRV), which automatically releases
a substance from a boiler, pressure vessel, or other system, when the pressure or
temperature exceeds preset limits.
FUNCTION
The main function of safety relief valves is the protection of life, property, and the
environment. A safety relief valve is a (safety) device designed to protect a pressurized vessel or
system from overpressure if all other safety systems fail.

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 A safety relief valve is designed to open and relieve excess pressure from vessels or equipment
and then to reclose to prevent further release of liquid, gas, or vapor once normal conditions have
been restored.
1. "Nozzle" inside the Safety Valve starts to receive a higher pressure from the inlet side of
the valve.
2. When the pressure becomes higher than the set pressure, "Disc" starts to lift and discharge
the fluid.
3. When the pressure decreases until the predetermined pressure, the force of the spring closes
"Disc".

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COMPONENTS OF A SAFETY VALVE

DIFFERENT TYPES OF SAFETY VALVE

There are several notable differences between the terminology used in the USA and
Europe. One of the most important differences is that a valve referred to as a ‘safety valve’ in
Europe is referred to as a ‘safety relief valve’ or ‘pressure relief valve’ in the USA. In addition,
the term ‘safety valve’ in the USA generally refers specifically to the full-lift type of safety valve
used in Europe.
Spring-loaded Pressure-relief Valves

Generally, the safety valveｓ are referred to the Spring-loaded Pressure-relief valves, the
most common type (See the above figure). The load of the spring is designed to press the "Disc"
against the inlet pressure. Depending on the fluid type, such as steam, gas or liquid, we are offering
a Bellows model to clear the back pressure effect.
Pilot-operated Pressure-relief Valves

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 Pilot-operated Pressure-relief Valves are composed of Pilot Assy and Main Valve.
Although Spring-loaded Pressure-relief valves adopts the force of the spring against the inlet
pressure, the reliving pressure and reseating pressure of the Pilot-operated Pressure-relief Valves
is controlled by Pilot Assy, which acts nearly as same as Spring-loaded Pressure-relief valves.
There is no adjusting function in the Main Valve. Pilot-operated Pressure-relief Valves have larger
size variations compared to Spring-loaded type, which is applied in a severe condition such as high
pressure.

Dead-Weight Pressure-relief Valves

In case the design pressure of the pressure vessel is set at very low pressure, Dead-weight
Pressure-relief valve adjusts relieving pressure only by the disc weight.
The Vacuum relief valve has been adopting this functional characteristic which absorbs the
pressure when the inside of the pressure vessel falls into a negative pressure.

Full Bore Type Safety Valve

A safety valve having no protrusions in the bore, and wherein the valve lifts to an extent
sufficient for the minimum area at any section, at or below the seat, to become the controlling
orifice. The flow passage area at valve seat is bigger enough than the nozzle throat area at the inlet
side.

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Lift type safety valve

Lift type safety valve can be used when discharge amount is insufficient. Steam boiler
needs this type. The lift of the valve is 1/40 or more and less than 1/4 of the inside diameter
of valve seat, and the flow passage area of valve port becomes the smallest in the flow passage
area when the valve disc is opened.
Relief valve or pressure relief valve (PRV)

Relief valve or pressure relief valve (PRV) is a type of safety valve used to control or
limit the pressure in a system; pressure might otherwise build up and create a process upset,
instrument or equipment failure, or fire.
The valve is mainly applied to liquid, and automatically operates to open its valve disc
when inlet pressure rises and reaches set pressure, and to close the valve disc when inlet pressure
falls to set pressure.

PURPOSE
Protection of life, property and the atmosphere is the primary objective of a safety valve.
A safety valve is designed for opening and relieving excess pressure from vessels or machinery
and for reclosing and preventing further fluid release after restoration under normal conditions.
A safety valve is a safety mechanism and the last line of defense in certain circumstances.
It is necessary to ensure that the safety valve is capable of working in all conditions and at all
times. A safety valve is not a pressure regulator or process valve and should not be misused as
such. For one reason only: overpressure security, it should have to work.

Reasons for excess pressure in a vessel

There is a number of reasons why the pressure in a vessel or system can exceed a predetermined
limit. API Standard 521/ISO 23251 Sect. 4 provides a detailed guideline about causes of
overpressure. The most common are:

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 • Blocked discharge
• Exposure to external fire, often referred to as “Fire Case”
• Thermal expansion
• Chemical reaction
• Heat exchanger tube rupture
• Cooling system failure

Each of the events mentioned above can occur separately from the other, and individually.
They can also take place concurrently. A separate mass or volume flow to be discharged would
also be created by each cause of overpressure, e.g., small mass flow for thermal expansion and
large mass flow in the event of a chemical reaction. For the sizing and selection of a suitable
pressure relief system, it is the duty of the customer to assess a worst-case scenario.

PARTS OF A SAFETY VALVE

The standard design of a safety valve has two fundamental parts. They are the valve body
that is located at a right angle and the relation to the valve inlet or what is generally referred to as
a nozzle. It is important that you know the sections of a valve so that you can use them to the fullest
extent in the event that you use them. Typical designs consist of a variety of components.

Those with a spring inside are the normal ones that you will find. The standard design
consists of two fundamental sections. They are the valve body that is located at a right angle and
the relation to the valve inlet or what is generally referred to as a nozzle. The nozzle is also
positioned above the pressure holding device. The outlet attachment, on the other hand, can be

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screwed so that it is attached to the discharged piping device. If the bonnet is closed, there will be
no outlet connection in certain situations.
Meanwhile, there may be a full-nozzle or semi-nozzle type of design in the approach
channel or the inlet tract. Aside from the disc, this part is the only portion of the safety valve that
is accessible to the process elements when the procedure is in normal mode. If the valve is used
for high pressure applications, it is recommended that you use full-nozzles, especially if the fluid
is very acidic. On the other hand, if you are not fond of replacing the inlet each time, particularly
when it is the only seat that you can exchange, you can opt for semi-nozzles.

The disc, on the other hand, is placed by the spring behind the nozzle seat, provided it is in
normal operating condition. Within a bonnet situated above the body this spring is lodged.
Depending on the valve's application and what it comprises, it can be open or locked. In the rapid
opening function of the valves, the disks in the pop styles have a holder that plays a key role. It is
the spring that is in control of the force forced into the disk so that it can contract. The springs used
in safety devices are more often than not made of carbon steel.

The spring adjuster is used to adjust the amount of compression introduced into the spring.
Especially when the disc is shifted from where it lies, it has the ability to control the pressure. In
the Dresser Inc. safety valve reviews, the reliability of all the above-mentioned sections is typically
guarded. No matter how good the valve you may have, it will be of no use if you do not know how
you can make its parts function for your benefit. Such security systems are not inexpensive, but
you can optimize your budget as well.
Advantages:
• Most reliable type if properly sized and operated.
• Versatile — can be used in many services.

• Wide range of material available.

• Wide range of chemical compatibility.
• High operating temperature.
• Standard Piping dimensions.
• Compatible with foaling and/or dirty service.
Disadvantages:
• Relieving pressure affected by back pressure.

• Susceptible to chatter if built-up back pressure is too high.

• Prone to leakage (if no soft seat).
• Long simmer or long flow period.
• Prone to chatter on liquid service unless with special trim.
• Vulnerable to effects of initial pressure losses.
• Sensitive to the effect on the back pressure (affects the set point and the capacity).
• Limited in pressure size ratio.

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Globe Valves
• Definition
A Globe valve is a linear motion valve specifically designed to stop, start and
control flow. The Globe valve's disk can be completely removed from the flow path, or the
flowpath can be completely closed.For insulation and throttling services, traditional Globe
valves can be used. To regulate flow, globe valves are widely used. In the design of the
valve to avoid premature failure and ensure adequate operation, the range of flow control,
pressure drop, and duty must be taken into account. Specially designed valve trims are
needed for valves undergoing high-differential pressure-throttling operation.

Figure No. – Globe Valve

The maximum differential pressure across the valve disc should usually not exceed
20 percent or 200 psi (1380 kPa) of the maximum upstream pressure, whichever is less.
For applications exceeding these differential pressure limits, valves with special trim can
be built.
• Parts of a Globe Valve
Listed are the main components of a globe valve.

Figure No. – Parts of a Globe Valve

o Bonnet: The bonnet is the outer part of the valve, which encompasses these other
parts.

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 o Cage: The cage surrounds the stem within the valve.

o Stem.The stem connects the disk to the valve actuator or hand wheel, transmitting
the force.

o Disk (Plug). The part of the globe valve that moves perpendicular to the seat. It’s
the moveablephysical barrier that blocks (or frees) the flow.When closed, the disk
sits against the seat, plugging the flow. When opened, the disk sits above theseat,
allowing liquid to pass.

Types of Globe Valve Disk

▪ The ball disk design. Used in low-pressure and low-temperature systems.

It is capable of throttling flow, but in principle, it is used to stop and start
the flow.

▪ Needle disk design. Provides better throttling as compared to ball or

composition disk design. A wide verity of long and tapered plug disks are
available to suit different flow conditions.

▪ Composition disk. Used to achieve better shutoff. A hard, non-metallic

insert ring is used in composition disk design.

o Seat (Seat ring).This part of the valve provides the seal between the stem/disk and
bonnet whenthe disk is tightly pressed against it. It’s either integrated or screwed
into the valve itself.

• Types of Globe Valves

o Z types
A Z-body is the simplest design and most common type. Within the globular
body, the Z-shaped partition includes the bench. The seat's horizontal seating
configuration enables the stem and disk to pass perpendicular to the axis of the pipe,
resulting in a loss of very high pressure.

Z Type

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o Y types
A solution to the high pressure drop problem in Z-type valves is the Y-type
style. The seat and stem are angled at approximately 45 ° to the pipe axis in this form.
In high pressure and other critical facilities where pressure drops are involved, y-body
valves are used.

Y Type
o Angle Types

Without using an elbow and one additional pipe weld, the angle globe valve
transforms the flow direction by 90 degrees. Open Disk against the flow. In the
fluctuating flow state, this type of globe valve can also be used, as they are able to
handle the slugging effect.

Angle Type

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 • Flow Direction through the globe valves
Globe valve have specific flow directions. Depending on the application, a globe valve will
have fluid flow above or below the disc. Globe valves can be arranged so that the disk
closes against or in the same direction of fluid flow. When the disk closes against the direction of
fluid flow, the kinetic energy of the fluid impedes closing but aids opening of the valve. When the
disk closes in the same direction of fluid flow, the kinetic energy of the fluid aids closing but
impedes opening.
For low temperature and low-pressure applications, globe valves are ordinarily installed so that
pressure is under the disk. This promotes easy operation, helps protect the packing, and eliminates
a certain amount of erosive action to the seat and disk faces.
For high temperature and high-pressure applications, like steam, globe valves are installed so
that pressure is above the disk. This helps to prevent the stem from contracting when it cools down
and will keep the disc from lifting off the seat that may cause leakage. If the pressure on top of the
disc is higher, a bypass valve may have to be provided that permits the downstream system to be
pressurized before the globe valve is
opened.
Usually flow direction arrow is marked on the globe valve body for ease and simplification of
installation purpose.

• Advantages and Disadvantages of Globe valves

Advantages:
o Good shutoff capability
o Moderate to good throttling capability
o Shorter stroke (compared to a gate valve)
o Available in tee, wye, and angle patterns, each offering unique capabilities
o Easy to machine or resurface the seats
o With disc not attached to the stem, valve can be used as a stop-check valve
Disadvantages:
o Higher pressure drops (compared to a gate valve)
o Requires greater force or a larger actuator to seat the valve (with pressure under the
seat)
o Throttling flow under the seat and shutoff flow over the seat

• Typical Applications of Globe valves

The following are some of the typical applications of Globe valves:
o Cooling water systems where flow needs to be regulated
o Fuel oil system where flow is regulated and leaktightness is of importance
o High-point vents and low-point drains when leaktightness and safety are major
considerations.
o Feedwater, chemical feed, condenser air extraction, and extraction drain systems
o Boiler vents and drains, main steam vents and drains, and heater drains
o Turbine seals and drains
o Turbine lube oil system and others
• Working Principle

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 When the valve is actuated to open the disk will perpendicularly move away from the seat.
When compared to a gate valve, a globe valve generally yields much less seat leakage. This is
because the disk-to-seat ring contact is more at right angles, which permits the force of closing to
tightly seat the disk.
Globe valves can be arranged so that the disk closes against or in the same direction of
fluid flow. When the disk closes against the direction of flow, the kinetic energy of the fluid
impedes closing but aids opening of the valve. When the disk closes in the same direction of flow,
the kinetic energy of the fluid aids closing but impedes opening. This characteristic is preferable
to other designs when quick-acting stop valves are necessary.
• Applications
Duty:
o Controlling flow
o Stopping and starting flow
o Frequent valve operation
Service:
o Gases essentially free of solids
o Liquids essentially free of solids
o Vacuum Cryogenic
Ball Valve
A ball valve controls the flow of a fluid with the use of a rotary ball. The rotation of the
ball in 90 degrees around its axis can let the liquid or gas to flow through or be blocked. In addition,
ball valves require manual and power operators in large sizes at a high operating pressure.
Ball valves are used practically anywhere a fluid flow must be shut off, from a compressed-
air line to a high-pressure, hydraulic system. Ball valves can provide low head-loss characteristics
as the port can exactly match the pipe diameter. Ball valves also tend to seal better than butterfly
valves, but they can be costlier to purchase and maintain. Typically, they are actuated with a lever
which provides a visual indication of the valve status.

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Parts and function

• Shell or Body
One of the main ball valve parts is its body. The shell or body is used to keep all the units of a
ball valve together and help them stay in one place. Plus, it helps keeping all the units safe from
outside threats and dangers to some extent. No matter what shape or type the ball valve is, it will
always need a shell or a body to keep everything together. This framework also works as the
pressure boundary of the ball valve when it comes to protecting the units inside, preventing the
volume and the pressure of the liquid from damaging ball valve parts.

• Bonnet

The bonnet in the opening of the ball valve’s body. Bonnet is used to cover this opening and
just like the body, it serves as a pressure boundary at the second stage. Bonnet holds the ball and
the stem assembly in place and its cap is fastened to the body to do the task. By the right adjustment
of this unit, you can achieve the right compression of the packing to supply the stem seal..

• Ball

The ball is another one of the ball valve parts that shapes like a sphere and contains a flow path
(also known as hole or tunnel) at its center. The ball has a connection point for a shaft which
permits the rotation of the ball.

• Actuator

The actuator works with the parts inside the trim. Actuator runs the stem and the disk (two
parts of the trim). There are different designs for actuators you can choose based on the operation
you need. Different actuator designs include: handwheels, motors, levers, solenoids, pneumatic
operators, or hydraulic arms. The most popular design is that the actuator will be mounted with
the bonnet through a yoke.

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 • Trim

Different ball valve parts together create the trim. These parts are Disk, Sleeves, Seat (also
known as seals ring), and Stem. Trim enables the ball valve to perform basic motions as well as
providing flow control. The disk separately is considered as a pressure boundary at the third stage
in many designs, just like the body that was the first stage and the bonnet as the second stage. The
disk has pressure-retaining capacity, enabling it to prohibit or permit fluid flow.

In the trim, the seat and the disk together help determining the performance of the ball
valve system. The seat works like an interface, showing where the disk is seated and it is designed
in two different ways. Manufacturers either forge the seat within the body, or welding it by
machine. The seat shapes like a doughnut. This round unit contains discs that form a seal between
the ball and the body.

Stems usually have a rectangular portion at the ball end. By turning the stem, the
enlargement enables the rotation of the ball. The stem is not fastened to the ball in a ball valve.
The stem is also responsible for connecting the disk and the actuator through welded joints and
help positioning the disk.

• Packing

The space between the bonnet and the valve stem needs something to help prevent leaks.
That’s where packing comes in. The packing helps preventing leaks from this space. There are
different materials enabling packing to seal the space between ball valve parts (the internal parts)
and the outside environment of the valve. These materials can fibrous materials such as flax or
Teflon that can make the packing the best choice for sealing. Since leaks can cause damage to the
ball valve system and its environment, it’s important for the packing to be properly placed at the
right space. It shouldn’t be too loose or too tight.

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Working principle
To understand the working principle of a ball valve, it is important to know the 5 main ball
valve parts and 2 different operation types. The 5 main components can be seen in the ball valve
diagram in Figure 2. The valve stem (1) is connected to the ball (4) and is either manually operated
or automatically operated (electrically or pneumatically). The ball is supported and sealed by the
ball valve seat (5) and their are o-rings (2) around the valve stem. All are inside the valve housing
(3). The ball has a bore through it, as seen in the figure below. When the valve stem is turned a
quarter-turn the bore is either open to the flow allowing media to flow through or closed to prevent
media flow.

• Circuit function
The valve may have two, three or even four ports (2-way, 3-way or 4-way). The
vast majority of ball valves are 2-way and manually operated with a lever. The lever is in
line with pipe when the valve is opened. In closed position, the handle is perpendicular to
the pipe. The ball valve flow direction is simply from the input to the output for a 2-way
valve. Manually operated ball valves can be quickly closed and therefore there is a risk of
water hammer with fast-flowing media. Some ball valves are fitted with a transmission.
The 3-way valves have an L-shaped or T-shaped bore, which affect the circuit function
(flow direction). As a result, various circuit functions can be achieved such as distributing
or mixing flows.

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 • Housing assembly
The assembly of the valve housing can be divided in three commonly used designs:
one-piece, two-piece and three-piece housings. The difference is how the valve is assembled
and this affects the possibilities for maintenance or repair. The operation of the valves is the
same in each embodiment.

➢ One-piece: This is the cheapest variant. The two parts which enclose the ball are pressed
or welded. The valves cannot be opened for cleaning or maintenance. This type is generally
used for low-demanding applications.
➢ Two-piece: Two-piece valves can be disassembled for cleaning, servicing and inspection.
Often, the parts are connected via a threaded connection. The valve must be completely
removed from the pipe in order to separate the two parts.
➢ Three-piece: More expensive valves have often three pieces. The parts are generally
clamped together by bolt connections. The advantage of this embodiment is that the valve
can be serviced without removing the entire valve from the pipeline.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages
• ensures a reliable sealing even in the case of dirty media.
• it is easy to disassemble and repair.
• the packing seal of the valve stem is not easily broken.
• Considered as high recovery valves, having a low pressure drop and relatively high flow
capacity.
Disadvantages
• can only be fully open or fully closed and cannot be used for throttling.
• not suitable for slurry applications due to cavities around the ball and seats.
• may induce water hammer or surge pressures.
• abrasive solids suspended in the fluid flow may damage the seats and ball surface

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 COMPOSITION ANALYZER
(GROUP 9)

ELECTROCHEMICAL

What is electrochemistry?
We may not be aware but we encounter electrochemistry every single day. From the
batteries that we use to power up our phones to the different modes of transportation that we have,
electrochemistry is present. Electrochemistry is the study of chemical processes that cause
electrons to move. This movement of electrons is what we call electricity which is generated by
the movement of electrons that is powered by chemical reactions.
Electrochemical analysis in liquid solutions is concerned with the measurement of
electrical quantities, such as potential, current, and charge, to gain information about the
composition of the solution and the reaction kinetics of its components.
So, to put this in simpler words, the amount of electricity that is generated or measured
using these analyses is related/ affected by the changes in the chemicals/ composition of the liquid
solutions.

VOLTAMMETRY

Voltammetry is a category of electroanalytical methods used in analytical chemistry and

various industrial processes. In voltammetry, information about an analyte is obtained by
measuring the current as the potential is varied.

Anodic stripping voltammetry is a voltametric method for quantitative determination of

specific ionic species.

So, in this example let’s say you want to determine the amount/concentrations of cadmium
and lead in your sample. Cadmium is a carcinogenic metal and the more exposure you have with
this metal gives you a greater chance/risk of developing cancer. Lead on the other hand is a known
neurotoxin which is bad for children and it is also used as an additive in gasoline. So anodic
stripping voltammetry involves two major steps. The first step is the deposition step where metals
from your sample are deposited onto the electrode and the next step is the stripping part where the
different metals/element is selectively removed from the electrode by oxidizing it and then
measuring the change in the potential of the solution. The potential change can quantitatively tell
you how much type of each metal was in your sample.

POTENTIOMETRY

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 Potentiometry passively measures the potential of a solution between two electrodes,
affecting the solution very little in the process. One electrode is called the reference electrode and
has a constant potential, while the other one is an indicator electrode whose potential changes with
the composition of the sample. Therefore, the difference of potential between the two electrodes
gives an assessment of the composition of the sample.

Instrumentation:

ION-SELECTIVE ELECTRODES (ISES)

An ion-selective electrode (ISE) is an example of an electrochemical sensor utilizing the

principle of potentiometry, or measurement of the cell potential (i.e., ISE against a standard
reference electrode) at near-zero current. The information on the composition of the sample is
achieved through the measurement of the potential difference across two electrodes.

CONDUCTOMETRY

In addition to potentiometry, conductometric analysis represents the most important non-

faradaic method. Conductometry is based on the measurement of the electrical conductance of an
electrolyte solution, which directly depends on the number of positively and negatively charged
species in the solution. This analysis method is limited due to its nonselective nature, because all
ions in the solution will contribute to the total conductance. Nevertheless, direct conductance
measurements play an important role in the analysis of binary water/electrolyte mixtures, for
example, in chemical water monitoring. The technique can also be applied to ascertain the endpoint
detection in conductometric titrations for the determination of numerous substances.

Conductimetry (the measurement of conductivity) is a physical chemical measurement that

provides information about the total ionic content of aqueous solutions.

Instrumentation:

CONDUCTIVITY METER

Distilled water is a poor electrical conductor. The substances (or salts) dissolved in the
water determine how conductive the solution will be. As the number of dissolved ions increases,
so does the solution's ability to carry an electrical charge. This electrical charge is what allows a
conductivity meter to measure the conductance of a solution.
The conductivity meter reports conductance or it Measures the electrical conductivity in
a solution. It has multiple applications in research and engineering, with common usage
in hydroponics, aquaculture, aquaponics, and freshwater systems to monitor the amount of
nutrients, salts or impurities in the water. Conductivity measurement is a versatile tool in process
control. The measurement is simple and fast, and most advanced sensors require only a little

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maintenance. The measured conductivity reading can be used to make various assumptions on
what is happening in the process. In some cases, it is possible to develop a model to calculate the
concentration of the liquid.

COULOMETRY

Coulometry is an analytical method for measuring an unknown concentration of an analyte

in solution by completely converting the analyte from one oxidation state to
another. Coulometry is an absolute measurement similar to gravimetry or titration and requires no
chemical standards or calibration. It is therefore valuable for making
absolute concentration determinations of standards.

COULOMETRIC TITRATION (CONTROLLED-CURRENT COULOMETRY)

It is a procedure where a known amount of current is applied to a solution of unknown

species in it. That current will completely oxidize or reduce that species until all of it turns into a
different or new state. The magnitude of the current applied and the time duration can be used to
find the number of moles or concentration or any information that we want to get. Controlled-
current coulometry maintains a constant current throughout the reaction period. Here, an excess of
a redox buffer substance must be added in such a way that the potential does not cause any
undesirable reaction. That means the product of the electrolysis of the redox buffer must react
quantitatively with the unknown substance to be determined. Coulometric titrations need an
electrolytically generated titrant that reacts stoichiometrically with the analyte to be determined.
As in controlled-potential coulometry, 100% current efficiency is required. The current is
accurately fixed at a constant value and the quantity of electricity can be calculated by the product
of the current (in A) and the time (in s) using endpoint detection. In principle, any endpoint
detection system that fits chemically can be used, for example, chemical indicators (color change)
and potentiometric, amperometric, or conductometric procedures. For coulometric titrations the
instrumentation consists of a titrator (constant-current source, integrator) and a cell.

APPLICATIONS

● Digital cameras (lithium batteries)

● Digital watches (mercury/silver-oxide batteries)

● Food Analysis

● Environmental monitoring

● Electrochemical sensors can be used in automobiles, aircrafts, mobile phones etc.

● Biomedical applications

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ELECTROPHORESIS

Electrophoresis is a quick and easy molecular technique used to analyze and separate
nucleic acids based on their size (i.e. how many base pairs a molecule is composed of). It is one
of the most important method for separating colloidal particles and biological molecules such as:

-proteins

-carbohydrates

-nucleic acids

-polysaccharides

-peptides

-amino acids

-oligosaccharides

-nucleosides

-organic acids

-small anions and cations of body fluids.

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Electrophoresis takes advantage of the fact that DNA’s phosphate backbone is negatively charged.
Thus, when DNA is placed in an electric field, it will migrate toward the positive electrode. The
differential ability of DNA to move through a gel based on its size doesn’t really depend on the
electric field or the charged properties of DNA, but more importantly on the composition of the
gel. It is usually performed in labs to analyze DNA, RNA, or protein samples from various sources.

PRINCIPLES OF GEL ELECTROPHORESIS

The gel electrophoresis technique exploits the difference in size and charge of different molecules
in a sample. The DNA or protein sample to be separated is loaded onto a porous gel placed in an
ionic buffer medium. On application of electric charge, each molecule having different size and
charge will move through the gel at different speeds.

The porous gel used in this technique acts as a molecular sieve that separates bigger molecules
from the smaller ones. Smaller molecules move faster across the gel while the bulkier ones are left
behind. The mobility of the particles is also controlled by their individual electric charge. Two
oppositely charged electrodes that are part of the system pull molecules towards them on the basis
of their charge.

HOW DOES IT WORK?

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The gel used in gel electrophoresis is usually made of a material called agarose, which is a complex
polymer that forms a matrix through which DNA travels when subjected to an electric field. It is
also a gelatinous substance extracted from seaweed. This porous gel could be used to separate
macromolecules of many different sizes. The gel is submerged in a salt buffer solution in an
electrophoresis chamber.

Tris-borate-EDTA (TBE) is commonly used as the buffer. Its main function is to control the pH
of the system. The chamber has two electrodes – one positive and another negative - at its two
ends.

Samples that need to be analyzed are then loaded into tiny wells in the gel with the help of a pipette.
Once loading is complete, an electrical current of 50–150 V is applied. Now, charged molecules
present in the sample start migrating through the gel towards the electrodes. Negatively charged
molecules move towards the positive electrode and positively charged molecules migrate towards
the negative electrode.

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The speed at which each molecule travels through the gel is called its electrophoretic mobility and
is determined mainly by its net charge and size. Strongly charged molecules move faster than
weakly charged ones. Smaller molecules run faster leaving behind the larger ones. Thus, strong
charge and small size increases a molecule’s electrophoretic mobility, while weak charge and large
size decreases the mobility of a molecule. When all molecules in a sample are of the same size,
the separation will solely be based on their size.

Once the separation is complete, the gel is stained with a dye to reveal the separation bands.

Ethidium bromide is a fluorescent dye commonly used in gel electrophoresis. The gel is soaked in
a diluted ethidium bromide solution and then placed on a UV transilluminator to visualize the
separation bands.

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The bands are immediately examined or photographed for future reference, as they will diffuse
into the gel over time. The dye can also be loaded into the gel well in advance to track the
migration of the molecules as it happens.

APPLICATIONS

Gel electrophoresis is widely used in the molecular biology and biochemistry labs in areas such
as forensic science, conservational biology, and medicine.

Some key applications of the technique are listed below:

To analyze results of polymerase chain reaction

In the separation of DNA fragments for DNA fingerprinting to investigate crime scenes

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 To analyze genes associated with a particular illness

In DNA profiling for taxonomy studies to distinguish different species

149
 In paternity testing using DNA fingerprinting

In the study of structure and function of proteins

150
 In the analysis of antibiotic resistance

Study of evolutionary relationships by analyzing genetic similarity among populations or species

151
RAMAN SPECTROSCOPY

Raman Spectroscopy is a non-destructive chemical analysis technique which provides

detailed information about chemical structure, phase and polymorphy, crystallinity and molecular
interactions. It is based upon the interaction of light with the chemical bonds within a material.
Raman is a light scattering technique, whereby a molecule scatters incident light from a
high intensity laser light source. Most of the scattered light is at the same wavelength (or color) as
the laser source and does not provide useful information – this is called Rayleigh Scatter. However,
a small amount of light (typically 0.0000001%) is scattered at different wavelengths (or colors),
which depend on the chemical structure of the analyte – this is called Raman Scatter.

Principle of Raman Spectroscopy

When light interacts with molecules in a gas, liquid, or solid, the vast majority of the
photons are dispersed or scattered at the same energy as the incident photons. This is described as
elastic scattering, or Rayleigh scattering. A small number of these photons, approximately 1
photon in 10 million will scatter at a different frequency than the incident photon. This process is
called inelastic scattering, or the Raman effect, named after Sir C.V. Raman who discovered this
and was awarded the 1930 Nobel Prize in Physics for his work. Since that time, Raman has been
utilized for a vast array of applications from medical diagnostics to material science and reaction
analysis. Raman allows the user to collect the vibrational signature of a molecule, giving insight
into how it is put together, as well as how it interacts with other molecules around it.

How does Raman Spectroscopy Work?

Unlike FTIR Spectroscopy that looks at changes in dipole moments, Raman looks at
changes in a molecular bonds’ polarizability. Interaction of light with a molecule can induce a
deformation of its electron cloud. This deformation is known as a change in polarizability.
Molecular bonds have specific energy transitions in which a change of polarizability occurs, giving
rise to Raman active modes. As an example, molecules that contain bonds between homonuclear
atoms such as carbon-carbon, sulfur-sulfur, and nitrogen-nitrogen bonds undergo a change in
polarizability when photons interact with them. These are examples of bonds that give rise to
Raman active spectral bands but would not be seen or difficult to see in FTIR.

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 Because Raman is an inherently weak effect, the optical components of a Raman
Spectrometer must be well matched and optimized. Also, since organic molecules may have a
greater tendency to fluoresce when shorter wavelength radiation is used, longer wavelength
monochromatic excitation sources, such as solid-state laser diodes that produces light at 785 nm,
are typically used.

Information provided by Raman spectroscopy

● Chemical structure and identity
● Phase and polymorphism
● Intrinsic stress/strain
● Contamination and impurity

Raman spectra of ethanol and methanol, showing the significant spectral differences which
allow the two liquids to be distinguished.

Typically, a Raman spectrum is a distinct chemical fingerprint for a particular molecule or

material and can be used to very quickly identify the material, or distinguish it from others. Raman
spectral libraries are often used for identification of a material based on its Raman spectrum –
libraries containing thousands of spectra are rapidly searched to find a match with the spectrum of
the analyte.

In combination with mapping (or imaging) Raman systems, it is possible to generate

images based on the sample’s Raman spectrum. These images show distribution of individual
chemical components, polymorphs and phases, and variation in crystallinity.

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 Mineral distribution

Application of Raman Spectroscopy

Raman spectroscopy is used in many varied fields – in fact, it can be used in any application
where non-destructive, microscopic, chemical analysis and imaging is required. Whether the goal
is qualitative or quantitative data, Raman analysis can provide key information easily and quickly.
It can be used to rapidly characterize the chemical composition and structure of a sample, whether
solid, liquid, gas, gel, slurry or powder.

● Pharmaceutical and Cosmetics

● Geology and Mineralogy
● Carbon Materials
● Semiconductors
● Life Sciences

Advantages of Raman Spectroscopy

Raman microscopy is the smart combination of optical confocal microscopy with Raman
Spectroscopy. One big advantage of light microscopes is the ability to observe living cells. It is
possible to observe a wide range of biological activity, such as the uptake of food, cell division
and movement. Additionally, it is possible to use in-vivo staining techniques to observe the uptake
of colored pigments by the cells. These processes can hardly be observed in real time using Raman
microscopes, due to long acquisition times, and electron microscopes as the specimen has to be

154
fixed, and dehydrated (and is therefore often dead). The low cost of optical microscopes makes
them useful in a wide range of different areas, such as education, and medical applications.

● Detailed Chemical/Molecular Analysis

● Subtle information (crystallinity, polymorphism, phase)
● Speed
● No sample preparation
● Non-destructive
● Microscopic spatial resolution
● Confocal Analysis
● Suitable for in situ, in vitro, in vivo analysis

MASS SPECTROMETRY

● Mass Spectrometry is widely used to determine and identify the elements present in
samples and to determine their concentrations.
● Mass Spectrometry is also used to measure the relative atomic mass of an element and to
measure the relative molecular mass of a substance.

Basic Principle

A mass spectrometer generates multiple ions from the sample under investigation, it then separates
them according to their specific mass-to-charge ratio (m/z), and then records the relative
abundance of each ion type.
· In a typical procedure, a sample, which may be solid, liquid, or gas, is ionized, for
example by bombarding it with electrons.
· This may cause some of the sample’s molecules to break into charged fragments. These
ions are then separated according to their mass-to-charge ratio, typically by accelerating them
and subjecting them to an electric or magnetic field:
· Ions of the same mass-to-charge ratio will undergo the same amount of deflection.

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 · The ions are detected by a mechanism capable of detecting charged particles, such as
an electron multiplier. Results are displayed as spectra of the relative abundance of detected
ions as a function of the mass-to-charge ratio.
· The atoms or molecules in the sample can be identified by correlating known masses
(e.g. an entire molecule) to the identified masses or through a characteristic fragmentation
pattern.

Four Key Stages

1. Ionization
2. Acceleration
3. Deflection

4. Detection

Ionization

- Atoms are ionized by knocking one or more

electrons off to give positive ions by
bombardment with a stream of electrons. Most
of the positive ions formed will carry charge of
+1.
- Ionization can be achieved by :
o Electron Ionization (EI-MS)
o Chemical Ionization (CI-MS)
o Desorption Technique (FAB)

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Acceleration
- Ions are accelerated so that they all have
the same kinetic energy.
- Positive ions pass through 3 slits with
voltage in decreasing order.
- Middle slit carries intermediate and finals
at zero volts.

Deflection
- Ions are deflected by a magnetic field due
to difference in their masses.
- The lighter the mass, more they are
deflected.
- It also depends upon the no. of positive
charge an ion is carrying; the more positive
charge, more it will be deflected.

Detection
- The beam of ions passing
through the mass analyzer is detected
by the detector on the basis of m/e
ratio.
- When an ion hits the metal box,
charge is neutralized by an electron
jumping from metal on to the ion.
- Types of analyzers:
o Magnetic sector mass analysers
o Double focussing analysers
o Quadrupole mass analysers
o Time of Flight analysers (TOF)
o Ion trap analyser
o Ion cyclotron analyser

APPLICATIONS

● Environmental monitoring and analysis (soil, water and air pollutants, water quality, etc.)
● Geochemistry – age determination, soil and rock composition, oil and gas surveying

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 ● Chemical and Petrochemical industry – Quality control
● Identify structures of biomolecules, such as carbohydrates, nucleic acids
● Sequence biopolymers such as proteins and oligosaccharides
● Determination of molecular mass of peptides, proteins, and oligonucleotides.
● Monitoring gases in patients' breath during surgery.
● Identification of drug abuse and metabolites of drugs of abuse in blood, urine, and saliva.
● Analysis of aerosol particles.
● Determination of pesticides residues in food

INFRARED (IR) SPECTROSCOPY

Infrared spectroscopy (IR spectroscopy) is the spectroscopy that deals with the infrared
region of the electromagnetic spectrum, that is light with a longer wavelength and lower frequency
than visible light. It covers a range of techniques, mostly based on absorption spectroscopy. Similar
to other spectroscopic techniques, IR spectroscopy can also be used to identify and study
chemicals.
Infrared (IR) spectroscopy is one of the most common spectroscopic techniques used by
organic and inorganic chemists. Simply, it is the absorption measurement of different IR
frequencies by a sample positioned in the path of an IR beam. Generally, stronger bonds and light
atoms will vibrate at a high stretching frequency (wavenumber).
Different functional groups absorb characteristic frequencies of IR radiation. Using various
sampling accessories, IR spectrometers can accept a wide range of sample types such as gases,
liquids, and solids. Thus, IR spectroscopy is an important and popular tool for structural
elucidation and compound identification.

MAIN GOAL: to determine the chemical functional groups in the sample.

INFRARED SPECTROMETER
- Instrument used in infrared spectroscopy
- Used to produce an infrared spectrum

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HOW DOES IT WORK?

THE INFRARED SPECTROSCOPIC PROCESS

- The quantum mechanical energy levels observed in IR spectroscopy are those of molecular
vibration
- When we say a covalent bond between two atoms is of a certain length, we are citing an
average because the bond behaves as if it were a vibrating spring connecting the two atoms
- For a simple diatomic molecule, this model is easy to visualize:

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There are two types of bond vibration:
- STRETCH
- Symmetric
- Asymmetric

- BEND
- Scissor
- Rock
- Twist
- Wag

Stretch – Vibration or oscillation along the line of the bond

Bend – Vibration or oscillation not along the line of the bond

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THE IR SPECTRUM AND GROUP ANALYSIS

- There are 4 primary regions of the IR spectrum

It is important to make note of peak intensities to show the effect of these factors:

Strong (s) – peak is tall, transmittance is low (0-35 %)

Medium (m) – peak is mid-height (75-35%)

Weak (w) – peak is short, transmittance is high (90-75%)

Broad (br) – if the Gaussian distribution is abnormally broad

APPLICATIONS

● Identification of functional group and structure elucidation

● Identify unknown materials and substances
● Studying the progress of the reaction
● Detection of impurities
● Determine the amount of components in a mixture
● Quantitative analysis

ULTRAVIOLET (UV) SPECTROSCOPY

UV spectroscopy is a type of absorption spectroscopy in which light of the UV region

(200–400 nm) is absorbed by the molecule. Absorption of the UV radiations results in the

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excitation of the electrons from the ground state to a higher energy state. The energy of the UV
radiation that is absorbed is equal to the energy difference between the ground state and the higher
energy states (ΔE = hν). Generally, the most favored transition is from the highest molecular orbital
occupied to the lowest molecular orbital unoccupied. Such electron transfer processes can take
place in metal transition ions and inorganic and organic molecules. This absorption spectroscopy
uses electromagnetic radiation between 190 and 800 nm and is divided into UV regions (190–400
nm) and visible regions (400–800 nm). Since absorption of UV or visible radiation by a molecule
leads to a change between the electronic energy levels of the molecule, it is also sometimes referred
to as electronic spectroscopy.

UV spectroscopy obeys the Beer–Lambert law, which states that when a beam of
monochromatic light is passed through a solution of an absorbing substance, the rate of decrease
of intensity of the radiation with thickness of the absorbing solution is proportional to the incident
radiation as well as the concentration of the solution. From the Beer–Lambert law it is clear that
the greater the number of molecules capable of absorbing light of a given wavelength, the greater
the extent of light absorption. This is the basic principle of UV spectroscopy.

Principles

1. Basically, spectroscopy is related to the interaction of light with matter.

2. As light is absorbed by matter, the result is an increase in the energy content of the
atoms or molecules.
3. When ultraviolet radiations are absorbed, this results in the excitation of the electrons
from the ground state towards a higher energy state.
4. Molecules containing π-electrons or non-bonding electrons (n-electrons) can absorb
energy in the form of ultraviolet light to excite these electrons to higher anti-bonding
molecular orbitals.
5. The more easily excited the electrons, the longer the wavelength of light it can absorb.
There are four possible types of transitions (π–π*, n–π*, σ–σ*, and n–σ*), and they
can be ordered as follows: σ–σ* > n–σ* > π–π* > n–π*
6. The absorption of ultraviolet light by a chemical compound will produce a distinct
spectrum which aids in the identification of the compound.

Transitions between electronic states can be divided into the following categories:

● π → π ∗ transitions: For molecules that possess π bonds like alkenes, alkynes, aromatics,
acryl compounds or nitriles, light can promote electrons from a π bonding molecular orbital
to a π anti-bonding molecular orbital. This is called a π → π ∗ transition and is usually
strong (high extinction coefficient). Groups of atoms involved in π bonding are thus often

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 called chromophores. The transition energy (or absorption wavelength) can be an
indication for different types of π bonds (carbon-carbon, carbon oxygen or carbon-nitrogen
in a nitrile group).
● n → π ∗ transitions: Lone pair electrons that exist on oxygen and nitrogen atoms may be
promoted from their non-bonding molecular orbital to a π anti-bonding molecular orbital.
This is called an n → π ∗ transition and requires less energy (longer wavelength) compared
to a π → π ∗ transitions within the same chromophore. However, the transition probability
is usually much lower.
● n → σ ∗ transitions: Saturated compounds with substituents containing lone-pairs such as
water, ammonia, hydrogen disulfide only has n → σ∗ and σ → σ ∗ transitions in the UV-
visible range.
● d−d transitions: Many transition metal ion solutions are colored as a result of their partially
filled d-levels, which allows promotion of an electron to an excited state (change of d-level
occupation) by the absorption of relatively low energy visible light. The bands are often
broad and strongly influenced by the chemical environment. They are also usually very
weak.
● Charge transfer transitions: Much stronger absorption is found when complexing the metal
ion with some suitable organic chelating agent to produce a charge-transfer complex.
Electrons may be transferred from the metal to the ligand or vice versa. The high transition
probability is exploited to quantitatively detect ions in solution. There are numerous
chelating agents available which may or may not be complex selectively where there is
more than one type of metal ion present. For example, 1,10-phenanthroline is a common
chelate for the analysis of Fe (II).

Instrumentation

Optical spectrometry is the technique of measuring the intensity of absorption or emission of

radiation in the ultraviolet-visible region of the spectrum. In analytical applications, these
measurements are made by exciting, in various ways, transitions of electrons between outer

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orbitals of atoms, ions or molecular species. In most applications, it is necessary to dissolve the
sample before analysis.

1. Light sources
Radiation sources need to be continuous over the range of wavelengths of interest.
The earliest sources were simply tungsten filament lamps (light-bulbs!) but these have
since been replaced by tungsten-halogen lamps. Such light sources cover the wavelength
range from 300-900 nm. To reach further into the UV an additional source is needed. This
is usually a deuterium arc lamp, which has a continuous spectrum below 400 nm.

2. Monochromator
A monochromator is used to select the wavelength at which an absorption
measurement is made. In fact, it is not possible to select a ’single’ wavelength, but rather a
narrow range of wavelengths, which defines the spectral resolution of the spectrometer.
There are two main choices for dispersing light into its different components: a prism, or a
diffraction grating. Most modern instruments employ gratings, because it is easier to
achieve high spectral resolution. However, gratings have the disadvantage of giving rise to
more than one order of diffraction. This means that if the monochromator is set to 600 nm
for example, then it will also pass 300 nm (second order) radiation. This problem is easily
overcome by the use of additional filters to remove the unwanted radiation. A typical
monochromator design is shown in Figure 4. It consists of the diffraction grating
(dispersing element), slits, and curved mirrors, which image the entrance slit onto the exit
slit and produce a parallel beam at the grating. During a scan, the grating is slowly rotated,
and light of different wavelengths will emerge from the exit slit and pass through the
sample to the detector. Thus the spectrum is obtained sequentially as the grating is rotated
to select the wavelength and the detector observes the transmitted radiation intensity. The
spectral resolution can be varied by changing the size of the slits. Narrower slits allow for
higher resolution at the expense of light intensity, which can result in larger noise.

3. Detectors
The following detectors are commonly used in UV/Vis spectroscopy:
● Photomultipliers: A photomultiplier consists of a photocathode and a series of
dynodes in an evacuated glass enclosure. Light that strikes the photo cathode causes
the ejection of electrons due to the photoelectric effect. The electrons are
accelerated towards a series of additional electrodes called dynodes. These
electrodes are each maintained at a more positive potential. Additional electrons
are generated at each dynode. This cascading effect creates 105 to 107 electrons for
each photon hitting the first cathode depending on the number of dynodes and the
accelerating voltage. This amplified signal is finally collected at the anode where it
can be measured.

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 ● Semiconductor Photodiodes: When a photon strikes a semiconductor, it can
promote an electron from the valence band (filled orbitals) to the conduction band
(unfilled orbitals) creating an electron(-) - hole(+) pair. The concentration of these
electron-hole pairs is dependent on the amount of light striking the semiconductor,
making the semiconductor suitable as an optical detector. Photovoltaic detectors
contain a p-n junction that causes the electron-hole pairs to separate to produce a
voltage that can be measured. Photodiode detectors are not as sensitive as PMTs
but they are small, cheap and robust.
● Charge-coupled devices (CCD): A CCD is an integrated-circuit chip that contains
an array of capacitors that store charge when light creates electron-hole pairs. The
charge accumulates and is read in a fixed time interval. CCDs are used in similar
applications as arrays of photodiodes but the CCD is much more sensitive for
measurement of low light levels. They can replace the exit slit of a monochromator
which disperses light only after it has passed a sample. In this way, full spectra can
be accumulated very quickly without moving any optics.

4. Dual Beam Spectrophotometers

A diagram of the components of a typical dual beam spectrometer is shown in
Figure 5. A beam of light from either the visible or UV light source is separated into its
component in a monochromator. An additional filter suppresses light at shorter
wavelengths to avoid interference from second order diffraction. The monochromatic
(narrow bandwidth) beam is then split into two beams of equal intensity by a half-mirror
or beam splitter. One beam, the sample beam, passes through the cuvette containing a
solution of the compound being studied. The other beam, the reference, passes through an
identical cuvette containing only the solvent. The intensities of these light beams are then
measured by photo detectors and compared. The intensity of the reference beam, which
should have suffered little or no light absorption but the same reflection losses as the
sample beam, is defined as I0. The intensity of the sample beam is defined as I. During a
wavelength scan, intensity changes and fluctuations are equally sensed by the two detectors
and normalized out by the division of I by I0. However, even if both cuvettes contain the
same solution, these two intensities may not be exactly the same, for example because of
different detector efficiencies or spatial beam drifts. This leads to a small background
spectrum, which can even be negative in some frequency ranges. Like with a single beam
spectrometer (no reference beam) it is thus important to first record the background
spectrum with only solvent in the sample cell. This spectrum must then be subtracted from
the one recorded with the sample solution. If you do this, the reference compartment may
even be left empty.

5. Data acquisition
The earliest instruments simply directly connected the amplified detector signal to
a chart recorder. Today, all experimental settings are controlled by a computer and the

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 detector signals are digitized, processed and stored. Nevertheless, it is important that you
note parameters which you set via the instrument software (slit width, scan range, scan
speed, single beam/dual beam) into your laboratory journal, along with the name of the file
containing the data (and its path). Otherwise it can become very difficult to find or
reproduce a measurement after other users have changed these settings!

Applications

1. Detection of Impurities
UV absorption spectroscopy is one of the best methods for determination of
impurities in organic molecules. Additional peaks can be observed due to impurities in the
sample and it can be compared with that of standard raw material. By also measuring the
absorbance at specific wavelengths, the impurities can be detected. Benzene appears as a
common impurity in cyclohexane. Its presence can be easily detected by its absorption at
255 nm.

2. Structure elucidation of organic compounds

UV spectroscopy is useful in the structure elucidation of organic molecules, the
presence or absence of unsaturation, the presence of hetero atoms.
From the location of peaks and combination of peaks, it can be concluded that whether the
compound is saturated or unsaturated, hetero atoms are present or not etc.

3. Quantitative analysis
UV absorption spectroscopy can be used for the quantitative determination of
compounds that absorb UV radiation. This determination is based on Beer’s law which is
as follows.
A = log I0 / It = log 1/ T = – log T = abc = εbc
Where ε is extinction coefficient, c is concentration, and b is the length of the cell that is
used in UV spectrophotometer.
Other methods for quantitative analysis are as follows.
a. calibration curve method
b. simultaneous multicomponent method
c. difference spectrophotometric method
d. derivative spectrophotometric method

4. Qualitative analysis
UV absorption spectroscopy can characterize those types of compounds which
absorb UV radiation. Identification is done by comparing the absorption spectrum with the
spectra of known compounds.

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 UV absorption spectroscopy is generally used for characterizing aromatic
compounds and aromatic olefins.

5. Dissociation constants of acids and bases

PH = PKa + log [A-] / [HA]
From the above equation, the PKa value can be calculated if the ratio of [A-] / [HA]
is known at a particular PH. and the ratio of [A-] / [HA] can be determined
spectrophotometrically from the graph plotted between absorbance and wavelength at
different PH values.

6. Chemical kinetics
Kinetics of reaction can also be studied using UV spectroscopy. The UV radiation
is passed through the reaction cell and the absorbance changes can be observed.

7. Quantitative analysis of pharmaceutical substances

Many drugs are either in the form of raw material or in the form of formulation.
They can be assayed by making a suitable solution of the drug in a solvent and measuring
the absorbance at specific wavelength.
Diazepam tablet can be analyzed by 0.5% H2SO4 in methanol at the wavelength
284 nm.

8. Molecular weight determination

Molecular weights of compounds can be measured spectrophotometrically by
preparing the suitable derivatives of these compounds.
For example, if we want to determine the molecular weight of amine then it is
converted in to amine picrate. Then known concentration of amine picrate is dissolved in
a litre of solution and its optical density is measured at λmax 380 nm. After this the
concentration of the solution in gm moles per litre can be calculated by using the following
formula.

"c" can be calculated using the above equation, the weight "w" of amine picrate
is known. From "c" and "w", molecular weight of amine picrate can be calculated. And
the molecular weight of picrate can be calculated using the molecular weight of amine
picrate.

9. As HPLC detector
A UV/Vis spectrophotometer may be used as a detector for HPLC. The presence of
an analyte gives a response which can be assumed to be proportional to the concentration.

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 For more accurate results, the instrument's response to the analyte in the unknown should
be compared with the response to a standard; as in the case of the calibration curve.

CHEMILUMINESCENCE

Luminescence is the emission of light by certain materials when they are relatively cool. It
is in contrast to light emitted from incandescent bodies, such as burning wood or coal, molten iron,
and wire heated by an electric current. Luminescence may be seen in neon and fluorescent lamps;
television, radar, and X-ray fluoroscopy screens; organic substances such as luminol or the
luciferins in fireflies and glowworms; certain pigments used in outdoor advertising; and also,
natural electrical phenomena such as lightning and the aurora borealis. In all these phenomena,
light emission does not result from the material being above room temperature, which is why
luminescence is often referred to as cold light. The practical value of luminescent materials lies in
their capacity to transform invisible forms of energy into visible light.

EARLY INVESTIGATIONS
Although lightning, the aurora borealis, and the dim light of
glowworms and of fungi have always been known to mankind, the first
investigation of luminescence began with a synthetic material.
Vincenzo Cascariolo, an alchemist and cobbler in Bologna, Italy,
heated a mixture of barium sulfate (in the form of barite, heavy spar)
and coal. The powder obtained after cooling exhibited a bluish glow at
night, and Cascariolo observed that this glow could be restored by
exposure of the powder to sunlight.
The name lapis solaris or “sunstone” was given to the material
because alchemists at first hoped it would transform baser metal into
gold. The afterglow aroused the interest of other people, who gave the
material other names, including phosphorus, meaning “light bearer”, which was applied to any
material that glowed in the dark.

SOURCES AND PROCESS

Luminescence emission occurs after an appropriate material has absorbed energy from a
source such as ultraviolet or X-ray radiation, electron beams, and chemical reactions. The energy
lifts the atom of the material into an excited state and because excited states are unstable, the
material undergoes another transition, back to its unexcited ground state, and the absorbed energy
is liberated in the form of either light or heat.

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 The excitation involves only the outermost electrons orbiting around the nuclei of the
atoms. Luminescence efficiency depends on the degree of transformation of excitation energy into
light. Luminescence phenomenon could be classified as photoluminescence (fluorescence and
phosphorescence) when the excitation source is energy from absorbed light, chemiluminescence-
energy from chemical reactions and bioluminescence energy from biologically catalyzed reactions.

INSTRUMENTATION
light consists of billions of tiny packets of energy called photons. Photons emitted from
bioluminescent and chemiluminescent reactions are typically measured using a luminometer.

1. Luminometers are simple, relatively inexpensive instruments designed to measure sample

light output. Light output is measured by integrating, or measuring the area under the
chemical reaction’s light emission curve for a period of time. Luminometers consist of a
sample chamber, detector, signal processing method, and signal output display.

a. Sample Chamber - The luminometer sample chamber, which holds a test tube,
microplate, or other type of sample container, presents the luminescent sample to
the detector. The chamber must be sealed from ambient light in order to minimize
potential interferences. The sample chamber should be positioned as close to the
detector as possible to maximize optical efficiency. High optical efficiency is
desirable for an optimum signal-to-noise ratio, which allows rapid and precise
measurements.

b. Detector - Photodiodes and photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) are the detection devices
commonly found in commercial luminometers. Improvements in photodiodes have
made them effective for some applications, however PMTs continue to be the
detector of choice for measuring extremely low levels of light. PMTs are positioned
either to the side (“side-on” configuration) or underneath (“end-on” configuration)

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 the sample cell. The bottom-viewing or end-on configuration of the photomultiplier
tube ensures uniformity of light collection from even the smallest sample.

c. Photon counting vs. Current Measuring - Most of today’s commercial

luminometers are either photon-counting or current- measuring in their signal
processing and readout design. A photon-counting luminometer counts individual
photons with a PMT and a current-measuring luminometer measures the electrical
current that results when photons strike the PMT. A photon counter will read in
“photons per second”, while a current-measuring luminometer will read in arbitrary
light units, usually referred to as “relative light units” or RLUs.

THE NATURE OF CHEMILUMINESCENCE REACTIONS

Chemiluminescence is the production of light from a chemical reaction. Two chemicals

react to form an excited (high-energy) intermediate, which breaks down, releasing some of its
energy as photons of light to reach its ground state.

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APPLICATIONS

Chemiluminescent reactions do not usually release much heat, because energy is released
as light instead.

1. Luminol
A glow in the dark chemical, produces a light when it reacts with an oxidizing
agent. The release of a photon of light from a molecule of luminol is a fairly complex,
multi-stage process. In an alkaline solution, luminol exists in equilibrium with its anion,
which bears a charge of -2. The anion can exist in two forms (or tautomers), with the two
negative charges delocalized on either the oxygens (the enol-form) or on the nitrogens (the
ketol-form)

Molecular oxygen (𝑂2) combines with the enol-form of the luminol anion,
oxidizing it to a cyclic peroxide. The required oxygen is produced in a redox reaction

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 involving hydrogen peroxide (𝐻2 𝑂2 ), potassium hydroxide and potassium
hexacyanoferrate (III) (𝐾3 [𝐹𝑒(𝐶𝑁)6 ],also known as potassium ferricyanide).

2. Forensics
Forensic scientists use the reaction of luminol
to detect blood at crime scenes. A mixture of luminol
in a dilute solution of hydrogen peroxide is sprayed
onto the area where the forensic scientists suspect that
there is blood. One of the drawbacks of using luminol
is that the reaction can be catalysed by other chemicals
that may be present at the crime scene, for example,
copper-containing alloys, some cleaning fluids such as
bleach, and even horseradish. Clever criminals can clean up the blood with bleach, which
destroys the evidence of the blood. Once luminol has been applied to the area, it may
prevent other tests from being performed there. Despite these drawbacks, luminol is still
used by forensic scientists as a tool to solve crime.

3. Glow sticks
When you snap a glow stick and it begins to glow, the
light produced is an example of chemiluminescence. Glow
sticks are a plastic tube containing a mixture including diphenyl
oxalate and a dye (which gives the glow stick its colour). Inside
the plastic tube is a smaller glass tube containing hydrogen
peroxide. When the outer plastic tube is bent, the inner glass
tube snaps, releasing the hydrogen peroxide and starting a
chemical reaction that produces light. The colour of light that a
glow stick produces is determined by the dye used.

Chemiluminescence reactions, such as those in glow sticks, are temperature-

dependent. The reaction speeds up as the temperature rises – snapping your glow stick in
hot water will produce a fantastic glow, but it will not last as long as it would at room
temperature. Conversely, the reaction rate slows down at low temperature; this is why

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 keeping your glow stick in the freezer for several hours can allow the stick to glow brightly
again when it is removed and warmed up.

Chemistry of Glow Sticks

When diphenyl oxalate reacts with hydrogen

peroxide (𝐻2 𝑂2 ),it is oxidized to give phenol and a cyclic
peroxide. The peroxide reacts with a molecule of dye to
give two molecules of carbon dioxide and in the process,
an electron in the dye molecule is promoted to an excited
state. When the excited (high-energy) dye molecule
returns to its ground state, a photon of light is released.
The reaction is pH-dependent. When the solution is
slightly alkaline, the reaction produces a brighter light.

Phenol is toxic, so if the glow stick leaks, do not

let the liquid go into your hands.

The dyes used in glow sticks are conjugated aromatic compounds (arenes). The
degree of conjugation is reflected in the different color of the light emitted when an electron
drops down from the excited state to the ground state.

GAS-LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY (GLC)

Gas – Liquid chromatography (GLC) is one of the most useful techniques in analytical
chemistry. Claesson published one of the first important accounts of gas liquid chromatography in
1946. Gas – liquid chromatography is a form of partition chromatography in which the stationary
phase is a film coated on a solid support and the mobile phase is an inert gas like Nitrogen (N2)
called as carrier gas flowing over the surface of a liquid film in a controlled fashion. The sample
under analysis is vaporized under conditions of high temperature programming. The components
of the vaporized sample are fractionated as a result of partitioning between a mobile gaseous phase
and a liquid stationary phase held in a column.

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PRINCIPLE:

When the vapours of sample mixture move between the stationary phase (liquid) and
mobile phase (gas) the different components of a sample mixture will separate according to their
partition coefficient between the gas and liquid stationary phase.

APPLICATIONS OF GLC:

Gas liquid chromatography is generally used for both qualitative and quantitative analysis
of organic compounds. This technique is much sought technique in Agricultural Science,
Agriculture Industry, Food industry, Environmental field, Forensic field, Biotechnology field,
Perfume and fragrance industry i.e. cosmetic industry and chemical industry. This technique is
very useful for the estimation of (i) pesticide and insecticide residues in food and other
consumables (ii) estimation of pollutants in water and other food stuff (iii) Banned and controlled
drugs in urine, blood, tablets, energy drinks etc.

CARRYING OUT GAS-LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY

All forms of chromatography involve a stationary phase and a mobile phase. In all the other
forms of chromatography you will meet at this level, the mobile phase is a liquid. In gas-liquid
chromatography, the mobile phase is a gas such as helium and the stationary phase is a high boiling
point liquid adsorbed onto a solid.
How fast a particular compound travels through the machine will depend on how much of
its time is spent moving with the gas as opposed to being attached to the liquid in some way.

A flow scheme for gas-liquid chromatography:

Injection of the sample

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 Very small quantities of the sample that you are trying to analyze are injected into the
machine using a small syringe. The syringe needle passes through a thick rubber disc (known as a
septum) which reseals itself again when the syringe is pulled out.
The injector is contained in an oven whose temperature can be controlled. It is hot enough
so that all the sample boils and is carried into the column as a gas by the helium (or other carrier
gas).
HOW THE COLUMN WORKS

The packing material

There are two main types of column in gas-liquid chromatography. One of these is a long
thin tube packed with the stationary phase; the other is even thinner and has the stationary phase
bonded to its inner surface.
To keep things simple, we are just going to look at the packed column.
The column is typically made of stainless steel and is between 1 and 4 meters long with an
internal diameter of up to 4 mm. It is coiled up so that it will fit into a thermostatically controlled
oven.
The column is packed with finely ground diatomaceous earth, which is a very porous rock.
This is coated with a high boiling liquid - typically a waxy polymer.

The column temperature

The temperature of the column can be varied from about 50°C to 250°C. It is cooler than
the injector oven, so that some components of the mixture may condense at the beginning of the
column.

In some cases, as you will see below, the column starts off at a low temperature and then
is made steadily hotter under computer control as the analysis proceeds.

How separation works on the column

One of three things might happen to a particular molecule in the mixture injected into the
column:
• It may condense on the stationary phase.
• It may dissolve in the liquid on the surface of the stationary phase.
• It may remain in the gas phase.

None of these things is necessarily permanent.

A compound with a boiling point higher than the temperature of the column will obviously
tend to condense at the start of the column. However, some of it will evaporate again in the same
way that water evaporates on a warm day - even though the temperature is well below 100°C. The
chances are that it will then condense again a little further along the column.

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 Similarly, some molecules may dissolve in the liquid stationary phase. Some compounds
will be more soluble in the liquid than others. The more soluble ones will spend more of their time
absorbed into the stationary phase; the less soluble ones will spend more of their time in the gas.
The process where a substance divides itself between two immiscible solvents because it
is more soluble in one than the other is known as partition. Now, you might reasonably argue that
a gas such as helium can't really be described as a "solvent". But the term partition is still used in
gas-liquid chromatography.
You can say that a substance partitions itself between the liquid stationary phase and the
gas. Any molecule in the substance spends some of its time dissolved in the liquid and some of its
time carried along with the gas.

Operational Procedure:
● The sample to be reacted is injected into the gas stream just before it enters the column.
● The components of the mixture are then carried through the column in a stream of gas.
● Each compound distributes itself between the phases to different extents and therefore
emerges from the column at a different time.
● Some of the compounds dissolve in the stationary solvents more readily than others; these
travel through the column slower and so emerge last.
● The most volatile compounds usually emerge first.
● A detector on the outlet tube monitors compounds emerging from the column. Signals
from the detector are plotted out by a recorder as a chromatogram
● The chromatogram shows the recorder response against the time which has elapsed since
the sample was injected into the column.
● Each component of the mixture gives rise to a peak on the chromatogram.

APPLICATIONS

● Gas chromatography is a physical separation method in which volatile mixtures are

separated. It can be used in many different fields such as pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and
even environmental toxins. Gas-liquid chromatography is very sensitive and can be used
to detect small quantities of substances; it is often used in forensic tests.
● Since the samples have to be volatile, human breath, blood, saliva and other secretions
containing large amounts of organic volatiles can be easily analyzed using GC. Knowing
the amount of which compound is in a given sample gives a huge advantage in studying
the effects of human health and of the environment as well.
● GC/MS is also another useful method which can determine the components of a given
mixture using the retention times and the abundance of the samples. This method is applied
to many pharmaceutical applications such as identifying the amount of chemicals in drugs.

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Moreover, cosmetic manufacturers also use this method to effectively measure how much
of each chemical is used for their products.

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