CHAPTER TWO Literature Review

2. Literature Review

2.1. Poultry feather

Poultry slaughterhouses generate a significant amount of feather every year. Deeming

a mature chicken to weigh 1.8-1.9 kg (Salminen and Rintala, 2002); with 10 % of its
body weight comprising feathers (Grazziotin et al., 2006). Chicken feathers are
approximately half feather fiber (barbs) and half quill (rachis) by weight, the quill
being the stiff central core with hollow tube structure. There are several kinds of
feathers. The type we know best is called a contour feather. The other feather-type is
known as a semiplume. Semiplumes have shafts like contour feathers, but their vanes
are fluffy, not well organized with the barbs. The big part of a feather‟s physical
structure is the barb which is the slender, parallel side branches arising from two sides
of the shaft and all the barbs considered collectively as one flat thing are known as the
vane. Just like general feathers, barbs also have branching structure and nodes along
the barb shown in Fig. 2.1.

Fig. 2.1 Scheme of a chicken feather.

Chapter 2 | Literature Review 5

These are barbules, and the barbules of adjacent barbs hook together to hold the barbs
into a well-organized vane. Feathers have a hierarchical structure beginning with the
level of the central barbs which grow directly from the quill. The central bars are tiny
“quill” which also grow barbs (Martinez-Hernandez et al., 2005). Nodes and barbs on
the feather fiber are related with memory properties and improve the structural
strength.

Feathers are composed of 90-95% of proteins (Haddar et al., 2009; Onifade et al.,
1998) most of which is pure keratin protein (Moran et al., 1966), a fibrous and
insoluble structural protein broadly cross-linked by disulfide bonds and 5-10 % of
lipids (Haddar et al., 2009; Onifade et al., 1998). Furthermore, keratin is also the
main component of hair, wool, nails, horn, and hoofs (Zoccola et al., 2009). Keratin
is distinguished from the other structural proteins by its relatively high cysteine
content, which enables it to form disulfide bonds, which serve as structural elements,
thereby stabilizing the molecule (Hill et al., 2010). Feather keratins are composed of
about 20 kinds of proteins, which differ only by a few amino acids (Woodin, 1954).
The amino acid composition of feathers is presented in Table 2.1 (Schmidt, 1998).
The amounts of different amino acids in feather depend on the age of the birds, and
data vary in the literature (Stilborn et al., 2010). While feathers generally have high
content of cysteine (7%) in the amino acid sequence (Murayama-Arai et al.,1983)
along with high concentrations of serine (16%) which is the most abundant amino
acid in chicken feathers (Kannapan and Bharathi, 2012), proline, and acidic amino
acids, they are deficient in some essential amino acids, like methionine and histidine.

The secondary structure of feather keratin comprises 41 % α-helix and 38 % β-sheet

configurations, and 21 % disordered regions (Barone and Schmidt, 2006). Fig. 2.2
(Whitford, 2005), Shows a schematic model of α- helix and β-sheet configurations.
The quill has much more β-sheet than α-helix structure and has a melting point of 230
ºC. Feather keratin has an average molecular weight of about 60,500 g/mol (Fraser et
al., 1972), ranging from 59,000 to 65,000 Daltons (Murayama-Arai et al., 1983). The
secondary structure and the cysteine content are the two most important properties;
they determine the physical and chemical qualities of feathers. Feathers are insoluble
in water (Van der Poelo and El Boushy, 1990), weak acids, and alkalis and difficult to
digest (Van der Poelo and El Boushy, 1990). They are very resistant against attacks
by most proteolytic enzymes, as a result of the numerous inter- and intra-molecular

Chapter 2 | Literature Review 6

disulfide cysteine bonds, hydrogen bonds, and hydrophobic interactions
(Kornillowicz‐Kowalska and Bohacz, 2011; Coward‐Kelly et al.,2006).

Table 2.1. The amino acid composition of feathers

Functional groups Amino acid Contents (as %mole)

Negatively charged Aspartic acid 5

Glutamic acid 7

Positively charged Arginine 5

Conformationally special Proline 12

Glycine 11

Phenylalanine 4

Alanine 4

Cysteine 7

Hydrophobic Valine 9

Isoleucine 5

Leucine 6

Tyrosine 1

Hydrophilic Threonine 4

Serine 16

However, some soil microorganisms and many species of soil bacteria are able to
degrade the keratin (Gousterova et al., 2005; Kim et al., 2001). Keratin can be
degraded by some species of saprophytic and parasitic fungi (Malviya et al.,1992) a
few actinomyces (Bressollier et al.,1999) and Bacillus species which was identified as
the most productive feather‐degrading bacteria in soil (Kao and Lai, 1995). Thus,
microbial degradation of feather represents an alternative for the development of
slow-release nitrogen fertilizers. Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) is a major plant growth
regulator which increases the accessibility of nutrients to plant and also promotes root
growth (Vessey, 2003). Indole acetic acid-producing and phosphate-solubilizing
bacteria are capable of stimulating plant growth (Das and Tiwary, 2014).

Chapter 2 | Literature Review 7

 Fig. 2.2 Schematic model of α- helix and β-sheet configurations

The plant growth-promoting activity of protein hydrolysates could also be effectively

applied in agriculture (Tiwary and Gupta, 2010). The degraded product of chicken
feathers could generate the appropriate amount of tryptophan which is the key source
of IAA synthesis (Tsavkelova et al., 2012). Reports have shown that feathers
disintegrate slowly and thus act as good sources of slow-release fertilizers (Hadas and
Kautsky, 1994).

The unique characteristic of keratin has generated interest in investigating the use of
waste chicken feathers for a number of potential applications ranging from
reinforcement in plastics to microchips (Aluigi et al., 2008; Huda and Yang, 2008)
and fibres. Unfortunately, due to the low volume requirements of these products, they
have not significantly reduced the volume of waste feathers generated each year.

2.2. Compost

Composting is a biological process which is able to transform unstable organic waste

into stable ones by converting them into a humus-like structure called compost which
results into a valuable agronomic by-product (Kashmanian et al., 2000) to use as a
soil conditioner and an organic fertilizer (Popkin, 1995). In other words, composting
presents a low-technology and low-investment process to add value to organic solid
waste through conversion into an organic fertilizer known as compost (Neves et al.,
2009) or soil amendments.

Chapter 2 | Literature Review 8

Generally, composting could be carried out under a wide range of initial C/N ratios,
namely, 11 to 105, depending on the starting materials (Ghosh et al., 2007). Tuomela
et al. (2000) indicated that initially higher C: N ratio will cause a slower beginning of
the process and the required composting time to be longer than usual. Tiquia and Tam
(2000) reported that low initial C: N ratio results in the higher emission of NH3.
Composting considerably reduces odour emissions, biodegradable hydrocarbons, and
dries up the waste making it unattractive to insects (Barrington et al., 2002). Compost
is also used to provide biological control against various plant pathogens (Hoitink and
Grebus, 1994). Aqueous extracts of compost have also been suggested to replace
synthetic fungicides (Zhang et al., 1998). The addition of solid waste compost to
agricultural soils has beneficial effects on crop development and yields by improving
soil physical and biological properties (Zheljazkov and Warman, 2004). Compost is
easier to handle than manure and other raw organic materials, stores well and is odor-
free. Compost has a unique ability to improve the chemical, physical, and biological
characteristics of soils. It improves water retention in sandy soils and promotes soil
structure by increasing the stability of soil aggregates. Soil becomes microbially
active and more suppressive to root pathogens. The enhanced microbial activity also
accelerates the breakdown of pesticides.

2.2.1. Effects of Compost on Soils

Compost application can improve soil quality and productivity as well as

sustainability of agricultural production (Farrell and Jones, 2009) by replenishing soil
organic matter and supplying nutrients. Compost has two main effects on soils,
particularly nutrient-poor soils: replenish soil organic matter and supply plant
nutrients (Tejada et al., 2009). The effect of compost on soil pH depends both on the
initial pH of the compost and the soil pH (Tiquia and Tam, 2002). Organic
amendments significantly increase the soil reducing exchangeable acidity,
exchangeable Al, and exchangeable Fe that altered soil chemical properties in a way
that enhanced the availability of phosphorus pH (Chang et al., 2014). Additionally,
increasing the organic matter content (Compost which has low EC) of soil has the
additional benefit of reducing the problems associated with the use of brackish water
for crop irrigation (Tomar et al., 2003). In contrast, Repeated addition compost which
has high soluble salt content may result in increases in soil salinity to levels that are
toxic to salt sensitive plants; therefore the EC of mature compost should only range

Chapter 2 | Literature Review 9

from 1 to 3 dSm-1 (Tognetti et al., 2007). Composts have a high cation exchange
capacity and can, therefore, increase soil CEC when incorporated. Humic acids, major
components of compost can bind cations because they contain carboxylic acid groups,
which can bind positively charged multivalent ions e.g. Mg2+, Ct2+, Fe2+, Fe3+, trace
elements, but also Cd2+ and Pb2+ (Pedra et a1., 2008). Research clearly indicates that
the use of organic amendments and lime can improve soil physical and chemical
properties and increase overall crop growth (Baligar et al., 2001). Sullivan (2004)
describes a few of the benefits of a topsoil rich in organic matter, including rapid
decomposition of crop residues, granulation of soil into aggregates, decreased
crusting, better water infiltration and drainage, increased water and nutrient holding
capacity, easier tillage, reduced erosion, better formation of root crops, and more
prolific plant root systems. Compost C is quite resistant to further decomposition; thus
compost may be useful to increase C sequestration in soils (Whalen et al., 2008).
Compost C is mainly stored in macroaggregates (Lee et al., 2009). Compost generally
increases the abundance of soil organisms including earthworms (Cheng and Grewal,
2009). Soil structure can be improved by the binding between soil organic matter and
clay particles via cation bridges and through stimulation of microbial activity and root
growth (Gao et al., 2010; Farrell and Jones, 2009). Other beneficial effects of
composts include increasing water holding capacity and plant water availability
(Farrell and Jones, 2009), decreasing leaching of nutrients (Hepperly et al., 2009),
reducing erosion and evaporation and prevention of plant diseases (Arthur et al.,
2011). Celik et al. (2004) reported that the available water content of soils increased
by 58-86% in the compost-amended soil as a result of an increase in micro- and
macro-porosity. By increasing the water retention of soils, more water can be
conserved over the growing season in arid or semiarid regions and in some cases,
increase yields of perennial crops (Moran and Schupp, 2003).

2.2.2. Compost as a Source of Organic Matter for Soils

Organic matter is a vital component of a healthy soil as it plays an important role in

soil physical, chemical and biological fertility. Among the practices recommended for
improvement of the soil quality and soil fertility is the application of composted
organic wastes, which slowly release significant amounts of nitrogen and phosphorus
(Muse, 1993). Frequently, the regular use of organic material (compost) is a
prerequisite for sustained upland soils with inherent low natural fertility (Schoningh
Chapter 2 | Literature Review 10
and Wichmann, 1990). As reported by Nyamangara et al. (2003a), management of
soil organic matter by using composted organic waste is the key to sustainable
agriculture. Increasing soil organic matter has the added benefit of improving soil
quality and thereby enhancing the long-term sustainability of agriculture (Laird et al.,
2001). Within the possibilities of economical procurement of organic matter, a farmer
should “feed” the soil organisms for maximum activity, which means frequent
additions of easily decomposed organic matter (Cook and Ellis, 1987). Research
suggests that repeated applications of organic amendments, such as animal manures,
biosolids, and composted materials, can increase soil organic matter level (Darby et
al., 2006). Furthermore, properly processed compost reduces soil-borne diseases
without the use of chemical control (Rynk et al., 1992). In short, high-quality compost
will do more for soil fertility and soil quality than commercial fertilizer. The use of
composted organic waste as fertilizer and soil amendment not only results in an
economic benefit to the small-scale farmer but it also reduces pollution due to reduced
nutrient run-off, and N leaching (Nyamangara et al., 2003b) and adds most important
organic matter to the soil. Additionally, organic soil amendments increase the soil
organic matter content and water reserve and reduce runoff and soil erosion from the
typical hilly, terrain characteristic of the Mediterranean region (Querejeta et al.,
2001).

2.2.3. Effect of Compost on Plant growth and nutrient uptake

Composted organic material contains essential nutrients for plant growth, especially N
and P (Beltran et al., 2002). Compost can also increase the retention of applied
fertilizer N in the soil-plant system by stimulation of plant N uptake and microbial
immobilisation and reduced N leaching and gaseous losses (Steiner et al., 2008). Land
application of composted material as a fertilizer source can increase plant nutrient
availability (Poll et al., 2008) and provides essential nutrients to plants; it also
improves soil quality and effectively disposes of wastes. Compost application to soils
compared to the same amount of N and P added, plant N and P uptake from compost
may be lower than that from inorganic N fertiliser, because the organic N in the
compost has to be mineralised before it can be taken up by plants or because of
microbial immobilisation of N (Odlare and Pell, 2009). However, initial slow
mineralisation can sustain the release of N for the following seasons; over a 2 year
period, 36-44% of compost N could be mineralised (Passoni and Bonn, 2009).
Chapter 2 | Literature Review 11
Compost also inoculates the soil with vast numbers of beneficial microbes (bacteria,
fungi, etc.) that promote biological activity of the soil (Muse, 1993). These microbes
are able to extract nutrients from the mineral part of the soil and eventually pass the
nutrients on to plant. Organic matter is a significant reservoir of nutrients and can
retain nutrients in a plant-available form (Baldock, 2007). Increasing soil organic
matter can also enhance microbial activity, which can improve plant nutrient uptake
and suppression of certain plant diseases (Darby et al., 2006). One of the beneficial
properties of compost-amended soils is the highly induced suppression of numbers of
soilborne pathogens, such as Pythium spp. (Mckellar and Nelson, 2003),
Phytophthora spp. (Aryantha et al., 2000), Rhizoctonia spp. (Tuiter et al., 1998) and
Fusarium spp. (Borrero et al., 2006) and thus enhance the plant growth and nutrient
availability to plant. Compost can also stimulate plant growth, root development and
thus nutrient uptake (Oworu et al., 2010; Walker and Bernal, 2008). Humic
substances, the major component of soil organic matter in composts, can increase
shoot biomass via hormonal effects on root elongation and plant development
(Lazcano et al., 2009).

2.2.4. Feather Wastes Compost

Composting is one of the most economical and environmentally safe methods of

recycling feather waste generated by the poultry slaughterhouse. 60-70% of the
poultry products are edible for human (Hegedűs et al., 1998), Since dried feather
contains 91% protein (Salminen and Rintala, 2002) in which serine (16%) with
hydroxyl group in each residue is the main amino acid component of chicken feathers
(Saravanan, 2012), and feather contains approximately 15% N (Brandelli,
2008; Ichida et al., 2001) that makes poultry feather an excellent raw material for
composting and can be utilized as N fertilizer. Due to the approximate 15% of the
nitrogen content in feathers and non-digestibility of the feather wastes by the soil
microbes, they are found to be a slow release nitrogen fertilizer (Brandelli, 2008;
Ichida et al., 2001). In the same context, compost resulting from the bioconversion of
feather wastes being rich in nitrogen and inexpensive could be used as a potential
fertilizer for soil amendment, serving the dual purpose of improving plant growth and
stimulating microbial activity in soil (Vasileva-Tonkova et al., 2009). The simplest
and most appropriate application of recycled keratin wastes (feather wastes) and other
organic wastes is as cheap soil amendments and fertilizers providing organic matter,

Chapter 2 | Literature Review 12

an important constituent of biologically active and productive soils (Zheljazkov,
2005). The effect of the organic matter may be either direct or indirect. Organic
matter acts as a direct source of plant nutrients and in an indirect manner influences
the physical and biological properties of the soil (Chesworth, 2008). Among the
means available to achieve sustainability in agricultural production, organic manure
and biofertilizer play an important and key role on the desired soil properties and
exerts a beneficial effect on all soil characteristics (Soleimanzadeh and Ghooshchi,
2013). In this regard, Paul et al. (2013) have recently shown the potential effect of
keratin microbial hydrolysates on plant growth promotion suggesting that they play an
important role in the adjustment of the composition and quality of soil and they may
be applied as a long-lasting plant growth promoting fertilizer. Moreover, using
organic amendments may result in a soil with greater resistanse against plant
pathogenic organisms and reduced use of fungicides can be considered as biological
control as an alternative tool for disease management in agriculture (Raaijmakers et
al., 2002) that have been given increasing impetus due to inadequate effectiveness of
chemical control and increasing restrictions on the use of fungicide or pesticides.
During the last few decades, research has been conducted to improve the agronomic
utilization of organic wastes, and keratin wastes in particular. At this stage, the
simplest and most appropriate uses are as bio-fertilizers and plant growth promoters
(PGP) (Freitas et al., 2007). Among the various composts, such as feather compost,
mulberry, cow dung, and urea, tested for their beneficial effect on plant growth, the
feather one gave the best results (Nayaka and Vidyasagar, 2013). Rangarajan et al.
(1998) reported that poultry feather compost resulted in the more vigorous growth of
beets and lower incidence of root rot than in plots amended with synthetic fertilizer. It
is, therefore, promising to develop ecologically friendly methods for more effective
utilization of feather wastes to obtain new organic amendments and fertilizers for
improving the quality of agricultural soils. Anaerobic digestion is an environmentally
and economically promising process to recover feather waste and other solid organic
wastes to valuable materials such as biogas and fertilizers (Salminen and Rintala,
2002). The isolation of some microorganisms can be used to get rid of keratinous
wastes and increasing crop productivity (Anwar et al., 2014). The effects of compost
on soil properties and plant growth and how they are modulated by soil and compost
properties are summarized in Fig. 2.3 (Duong, 2013).

Chapter 2 | Literature Review 13

 Fig. 2.3 Schematic diagram of mineralization of compost after application to soil and the factors
influencing mineralization and the effect of compost on plants and soils

2.3. Waste Management

Waste management has become an issue of increasing global concern as populations

continue to rise and consumption patterns change. The health and environmental
implications associated with waste management are mounting in urgency, particularly
in the context of developing countries. These issues are an ongoing concern for
nations, municipalities, corporations, and individuals around the world (Nemerow,
2009), and the global community at large (Wilson, 2007). The primary goals of waste
management are to address the health, environmental, aesthetic, land-use, resource,
and economic concerns associated with the improper disposal of waste (Nemerow,
2009; Wilson, 2007). Additional goals include prevention of the export of waste
related problems into the future (Brunner, 2013)) and socially acceptable waste
management practices (Wilson et al., 2007) with affordable waste management costs.

For a variety of reasons, poor waste management practices and associated public
health implications remain severely problematic in many developing countries a
century and a half after the European sanitary revolution, despite increasing

Chapter 2 | Literature Review 14

globalization (Konteh, 2009). In industrialized nations, the health benefits from solid
waste and sanitation systems are largely taken for granted, and the focus has moved
from sanitation-related communicable diseases to „diseases of affluence‟ (cancer,
cardiovascular disease, drug and alcohol abuse) and „„sustainability‟‟ (Konteh, 2009).
Meanwhile, many developing countries are currently affected by the „double burden‟
of the combined effects of the diseases of affluence and communicable diseases
(Konteh, 2009). Wilson (2007) points out that „„in some countries, simple survival is
such a predominant concern, that waste management does not feature strongly on the
list of public concerns‟‟.

Humans have been mass-producing solid waste since they first formed non-nomadic
societies around 10,000 BC (Worrell and Vesilind, 2012) and problems with the
disposal of waste can be traced from the time when humans first began to congregate
in tribes, villages, and communities and the accumulation of waste become a
consequence of life (Techobanaglous et al.,1993). Historically, public health
concerns, security, scarcity of resources, and aesthetics acted as central drivers for
waste management systems (Worrell and Vesilind, 2012; Wilson, 2007).
Environmental protection is still relatively low on the political and public agendas,
although this is starting to change (Wilson, 2007). A common misconception is that
environmental protection and sustainable initiatives must come at the expense of
economic development (El-Haggar, 2007). This is particularly true for managing
wastes, a process which depletes natural resources and pollutes the environment if not
done correctly. Proper waste management can be costly in terms of time and resources
and so it is important to understand what options exist for managing waste in an
effective, safe and sustainable manner (El-Haggar, 2007). Waste management
methods cannot be uniform across regions and sectors because individual waste
management methods cannot deal with all potential waste materials in a sustainable
manner (Staniškis, 2005). Conditions vary; therefore, procedures must also vary
accordingly to ensure that these conditions can be successfully met. Waste
management systems must remain flexible in light of changing economic,
environmental and social conditions. In most cases, waste management is carried out
by a number of processes, many of which are closely interrelated; therefore it is
logical to design holistic waste management systems, rather than alternative and
competing options (Staniškis, 2005). Improper management of waste has direct

Chapter 2 | Literature Review 15

adverse effects on health. Uncontrolled fermentation of garbage creates a food source
and habitat for bacterial growth. In the same environment, insects, rodents, and some
birds‟ species proliferate and act as passive vectors in the transmission of some
infectious diseases (Gerald, 1997). About 22 human diseases are related to improper
solid waste management (World Bank, 1999). To a large extent ecological
phenomena such as water and air pollution have also been attributed to improper
management of solid waste (Techobanaglous et al., 1993). A variety of approaches
has been developed to tackle waste issues including composting, landfilling,
recycling, and incineration and so on. Landfills is a common and one of the cheapest
methods for organized waste management in many parts of the world (Biswas, 2010)
and remain the most economic form of disposal in the vast majority of cases (Carra
and Cossu, 1990). Therefore, landfills will continue to be the most attractive disposal
route for solid waste. Indeed, depending on location, up to 95% of solid waste
generated worldwide is currently disposed of in landfills (Nozhevnikova et al.,1992)
but this practice of landfilling not only occupies precious land resources; it also
degrades the quality of land and soil on the site. Unsanitary landfills can contaminate
ground and surface water resources when the leachate produced percolates through
the soil strata into the ground water underneath or is washed as runoff during rains.
Leachate has reportedly been associated with the contamination of aquifers
underlying landfills (Albaiges et al.,1986) which is constituent of large amount of
organic matter such as chemical oxygen demand and total organic carbon; as well as
ammonia nitrogen, heavy metals like copper, zinc, iron, lead manganese etc,
chlorinated organic and inorganic salts, which are a great threat to the
surrounding soil, groundwater and even surface water (Robinson, 2005) and this
contaminated surface water generates the problems of eutrophication, decreased
species diversity and acidification of soils because of deposition of nitrogen.
Furthermore, the emission of trace toxic gases within landfill gas has been established
to cause a serious threat to air. Besides potential health hazards, these concerns
include fires and explosions, vegetation damage, unpleasant odors, landfill settlement,
air pollution and global warming. It would require massive remediation efforts which
are time and infrastructure intensive, to make the degraded land useful. Recycling/
reuse is the removal or diversion of material from solid waste discarded as useless and
the use of material for the same purpose as was originally designed for, for other use
in its original form, or processing (treatment and reconstruction) of material to
Chapter 2 | Literature Review 16
produce secondary raw material for other products (Gerald, 1997). Recycling is more
suited to manage dry recyclates, and recovering a considerable amount of materials
(Menikpura et al., 2014). Incineration is recognized as one of the biologically safest
methods of disposal, eliminating the threat of disease (Blake et al., 2008). Cai et al.
(1994) observed that incineration is expensive and can potentially pollute the air.
Therefore incineration is often vehemently opposed because of its health impacts and
high operation cost.

2.3.1 Poultry Feather as Waste

Globally chicken feathers are the most common solid waste product of keratin.
Several million tonnes of feathers are produced annually. (Gerber et al., 2007).
Continuously and intensive growing of human population in the last 50 year in the
world indicated a linear increasing of chicken product demand as the ratio between
human populations and produced chicken changed to 1:3 in 2012 from 1:1, so three
times higher was the amount of chicken product than the number of human
population in 2012 (Faostat, 2014). Parallel increased the number of chicken
slaughterhouse wastes, and feather wastes (Faostat, 2014). The produced feather
concentrates as waste in poultry slaughterhouses which are left uncollected at the
designated and in the undesignated waste dumping sites in each day. These
unattended heaps of waste leads to clogging of drains and gutters, creating
feeding ground for pests that spread disease thereby generating a myriad of
related health and infrastructural problems, the solid wastes in most cases are
being blown around by winds or rainstorm making the environment dirty, and
air pollution arising from the decay of these waste to emit poisonous gases to
the environment. Sometimes that is disposed in the landfills which is a potential
threat to the environment (Cavello et al., 2012) and leading to the deterioration of a
valuable resource (Huda and Yang, 2008). The use of higher concentrations of
poultry extended to environmental problems at regional to global scales (Gerber et al.,
2007).The need of chicken is recognizable but the proper disposal of waste products is
also essential. The traditional methods for disposal of feather wastes include
incineration and landfilling (Onifade et al., 1998) or recycled into low-quality feeds
for the animals. However; these methods have extensive operating costs, consume
energy, result in loss of natural resources and extreme environmental implications
(Onifade et al., 1998) and have some difficulties, even not so effective too.

Chapter 2 | Literature Review 17

So, disposal of feather waste is quite challenging.

2.3.2. Composting, A Sustainable Waste Management Methods

Composting is one of the important and sustainable waste management practices for
treatment of the biodegradable part of waste in subtropical climates that converts any
volume of accumulated organic waste into a usable product as a soil conditioner and
an organic fertilizer (Popkin, 1995). The benefits of composting are manifold. When
organic wastes are broken down by microorganisms in a heat-generating environment,
the waste volume is reduced, many harmful organisms are destroyed, and a useful,
potentially marketable product is produced. There has been an emergence that
biodegradable solid waste can be used to obtain several bioproducts through
composting (Estévez-Schwarz et al., 2012), or even to obtain biofuels such as biogas
or bioethanol. In addition, these anaerobic digestion processes of composting are also
simultaneously resolving ecological and agrochemical issues through covering
environmental problems due to waste disposal, digestate does not reduce its value
as a fertilizer, as available nitrogen and other substances remain in the treated
sludge even biogas is also produced (Alvarez and Lide´n, 2008). Recent advances in
waste treatment have shown that in fact composting through anaerobic digestion
provides an opportunity to generate both a soil improver and energy in the process
(Hogg, 2006) as well as, reductions in greenhouse gas emissions (Phanthavongs et al.,
2011); hence, it is possibly the most climate-friendly option in terms of total CO2and
total SO2 saved (Evangelisti et al., 2014). Methane gas produced during anaerobic
digestion can be gas cleaned and used as a renewable energy in households for
cooking and heating (Collins et al., 2002). The high proportion of keratin in feathers
makes feather waste useful for several value-added applications (Latshaw et al.,
1994). A diversity of microorganisms is capable of carrying out keratin degradation
(Lucas, et al., 2003). Many bacteria and fungi have been reported to carry out keratin
degradation. Keratinolytic bacteria include Actinomycetes sp., Bacillus sp.,
Micrococcus sp., Clostridium sp., etc (Lucas et al., 2003). These keratinolytic micro-
organisms exist in different ecological conditions all having their own preferences to
solubilize keratin-containing substrates. Keratin degrading fungi include many
dermatophytic fungi and non-dermatophytic keratinolytic fungi (Ulfig et al., 1996).
Feather waste recycling with anaerobic digestion and utilization as soil nutrient
provides an environmentally friendly way of utilization. Thus, recycling of feather

Chapter 2 | Literature Review 18

waste becomes a subject of interest. Compositing has the ability to reduce feather
waste volume and poultry litter, dispose of carcasses, stabilise trace minerals and
reduce odours (Turnell et al., 2007) and reduces the pathogenic organisms due to the
high heat produced during the process of compositing. Also, compositing can be done
any time of the year and can be done with equipment available on farms; hence it is
economical (Bonhotal et al., 2008). Imbeah (1998) stated that the decomposition
process kills pathogens, converts ammonia nitrogen to organic nitrogen and reduces
waste volume. In spite of having disadvantages of composting as the land requirement
and odour problems, composting is one of the best measures of waste management in
developing countries (Glatz et al., 2011).

Chapter 2 | Literature Review 19