1.

Introduction to Geographic Information Systems

The aim of this lecture is to introduce the concept of Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
used in this course and review main historical facts of GIS and related disciplines.

1.2 What is GIS

Everything that happens, happens at some place. Knowing where something happens is
extremely important – e.g. having no quantitative and qualitative descriptive information on
natural resources as well as information on their geographic distribution we could hardly manage
these resources at all. To guarantee effective integrated use of such information modern science
and technology offers computer-based solution – geographic information systems.

Geographic information systems include all manual and computer-based operations to store and
use geographic data. “Geo“ means the interface with physical (climate, soil, vegetation), social
and demographic (population, economics) and manmade (buildings, communications) aspects of
the Earth. “Graphic” means the “description” – Earth itself and all the processes are described
using digital models of reality, which are stored in GIS and “understood” by computers – e.g. are
expressed as points, lines or polygons, having fixed locations, recorded using X,Y and Z
coordinates. Nowadays, GIS applications are not restricted to the objects of Earth surface –
solutions introduced later are operational, e.g., space research or gene engineering. Thus, the
word: “GeoGraphic” shall be interpreted in a broader sense and used for any spatial object or
phenomenon.

“Information System” is a chain of operations on information, starting from its capture,

processing and output in a form of certain solutions.

The following definition is used here for Geographic Information System: GIS is an aggregate of
computer hardware and software, as well as geographic data, used for input, storage, analysis,
summarizing of geographic data and output of geographic information in a form suitable for
user1. The definition of GIS has evolved significantly since the first uses, so one may find very
different definitions of GIS in special literature, including the Lithuanian one. Some definitions
may be rather confusing. There are many fields of GIS application, different users from different
fields use general GIS principles to solve very specific tasks. All these lead to the modifications
of traditional concepts. For example, environmental scientists may use specific information to
solve specific tasks. The approach of this conspectus is to provide general theoretical
background of geographic information science using specific examples originating from
environmental GIS applications.

Geographic Information Science is built using knowledge of different academic disciplines and
can be considered as a new interdisciplinary science. GIS closely relates to geography,
cartography, computer sciences (data models, data bases, computer graphics, interfaces),
mathematics (topology, graph theory), statistics (traditional mathematical statistics, geostatistics),
informatics (data storage and retrieval methods, metadating). GIS is operationally used
practically in all fields of applications, related with the use of spatial information: agriculture,
water management, forestry, cadastres and registers, implementing national, regional or
municipal mapping programs, archaeology, geology, mining, solving different municipal tasks,
like management of streets, electricity, gas, other communication networks, environmental
protection, mobile communications, TV, military, etc. So, very broad scope of applications
makes GIS universal tool for a specialist no matter of what field.

1
InGIS geodata specification, 2000
1.2 Brief history of GIS

GIS combines different types of geographic information. Even the simplest methods can be used
for spatial analysis – transparent paper, table with bottom-up illuminated glass surface, etc. This
used to be quite powerful solution used for overlays even in 19th century by architects or spatial
planners. However, the real GIS era began when cartographers realized that computers are useful
to draw, capture and analyse the map, especially when the task is to prepare and publish different
national and international atlases.

Perhaps the earliest attempt to automate map production was the Atlas of British Flora, which
used a punch-card tabulator to produce maps on pre-printed paper from cards that recorded map
coordinates of plant occurrences (1957). Practically at the same time Swedish meteorologists
experimented with automated mapping solutions. In North America, the earliest ancestors of GIS
appeared at the University of Washington in the early 1950s, when geographers and
transportation engineers developed quantitative methods for analysing transportation study data.

Even some more examples to process geographic information using computers can be mentioned
here, the real GIS “birth day” is widely agreed to be considered year 1963. This year refers to the
beginning of Canadian Geographic Information System (CGIS) development. The Canada Land
Inventory was an effort by the federal and provincial governments to identify the nation’s land
resources and their existing and potential uses. CGIS was developed as a measuring tool to
produce tabular information rather than as a mapping tool. Roger Tomlinson, who has convinced
Canadian government to start development of CGIS, is deservedly recognized as “GIS father”.

A second large step in development of GIS was done in the late 1960s by the US Bureau of the
Census, in planning the 1970 Census of Population. The DIME program (Dual Independent Map
Encoding) digitized records of all US streets to support referencing and aggregation of census
records. This technology was combined with the achievements of CGIS at Harvard University’s
Laboratory for Computer Graphics and Spatial Analysis to develop a general-purpose GIS
(ODYSSEY GIS).

GIS development in the 1960s could be defined mainly as independent efforts to solve specific
tasks. However, cartographers and mapping agencies of several countries had realized that
computers might be adapted to their needs and possibly reduce the costs and shorten the time of
map creation. The UK Experimental Cartography Unit (ECU) pioneered high quality computer
mapping – it published the world’s first computer made geological map in a regular series with
the British Geological Survey. Quite soon corresponding institutions of other countries had also
started to introduce computer-based map editing methods to avoid expensive and time-
consuming map editing and manual redrawing. By the late 1970s most major cartographic
agencies worldwide were already computerized to some degree, but only 1995 Great Britain
became the world first country which achieved complete digital map coverage in a database.

Progress of remote sensing also played a part in the development of GIS, both as a source of
technology and data. The first military satellites were launched to gather the intelligence
information. However, it is commonly recognized the role of the military and intelligence
communities in the development of GIS. Spy satellites first used analog cameras which were
replaced by digital sensors later. First civilian remote sensing system LANDSAT was launched
in 1972. It started to provide vast new data on the Earth surface from the space and used the
technologies of image classification and pattern recognition that had been developed earlier for
military applications. The military developed in the 1950s the world’s first uniform system of
measuring location, driven by the need for accurate targeting of intercontinental ballistic missiles
and this led directly to the methods of positioning in use today. Military needs were also
responsible for the development of the Global Positioning System (GPS).

Actually, GIS booming began in 1980s, when the price of computing hardware had fallen to a
level that could sustain a significant software industry and cost-effective applications. In 2000,
GIS hardware, software and services industry reached the annual turnover of 7 billion USD,
growing at more than 10% per annum. Same time the amount of GIS core users has reached 1
million, and there were about 5 million of casual GIS users.

Rapid development of GIS techniques in Lithuania began in the beginning of 1990s. State
company Remote sensing and geoinformatic’s center “GIS-Centras” started the development of
first georeferenced database GDB200 in 1992. Representatives from different institutions and
universities of the country attended UNEP GRID GIS course in the autumn of the same year. All
participant’s institutions were provided by licenses of Idrisi GIS software. Joint Stock Company
“Hnit-Baltic” was established in 1994 and became the leader in the field of GIS in the Baltic
countries. Development of Lithuanian satellite map database at a scale of 1:50000 began the
same year, production of orthophoto graphic maps ORT10LT – began next year. GIS history in
Lithuania is discussed in more details in other chapters, together with introducing certain
databases or applications.

1.3 Components of GIS

There are six major components of GIS (Fig. 1.1):

1. Data. Geographic information consists of data on Earth’s surface, its bowel and atmosphere,
as well as understanding and interpretation of such data, together with infrastructure needed to
transform the data into information, evidence and knowledge to take a decision. It is usually
thought that geographic information is information that is available from the map. However, it
includes any other information which can be spatially positioned. It can be measured directly or
using remote sensing, it can be generated as an output of data analysis and modelling, etc.
Geographic information is composed of spatial (location) and nonspatial (descriptive) data
components, i.e. “where” and “what”. Database can be created to implement certain project or it
can be as the main objective of some database development of updating project. Such database
can be used for other applications, too. The size of database may range from several megabytes
(e.g. boundaries of Kaunas city voting districts) up to several terabytes (e.g. orthophoto graphic
map for whole Lithuania). Development of a database is the most expensive stage of a GIS
implementation, however, the life span for digital geographic data is relatively long (e.g.
computers outdate in 2-3 years, software changes significantly approx. every 5 years).
2. Hardware. Hardware includes all the technical equipment that user directly interacts in
performing GIS operations, typing the keyboard, using the mouse and which provides the user
with information via representing on computer monitor, printing on the paper, etc. Traditionally,
the core of hardware system is considered to be a desktop computer. However, nowadays GIS
user may be equipped with notebooks or pocket PCs, some GIS functionality is available on
phone, too. Special hardware is used to convert information into formats readable by computer
and vice-versa (scanners, digitizers, plotters, etc).
3. Software. GIS software can be conventional Internet browser, if the user is using GIS services
which are provided by distributed system located somewhere away. Most frequently, the user
work using some software package, purchased from the commercial GIS software manufacturers,
such as ESRI, Intergraph, MapInfo, etc. User may develop some software to enable or facilitate
performance of non-standard or repeated operations. The price for GIS software may range from
zero up to hundreds of thousands of Euros.
4. Procedures. This includes all the methods to automate geographic information, store in a
database, process, analyse and output in a format readable by the user.
5. People. GIS would be out of any use if there were no people. People design, code, supply the
data, administer and interpret the GIS outputs. There are three levels of people, dealing with GIS:
(a) GIS developers create specific software, design and administer databases, train users, etc. (b)
GIS users – they are specialists of other than GIS professions, however they use GIS as a tool to
solve their tasks, and (c) GIS viewers. GIS viewers are people, who usually do not understand
about GIS anything; however, they use information that is achieved on the base of GIS, take
decisions and so on.
6. Network. Networks become one of the major GIS components nowadays. There is hardly any
other option to communicate and exchange the information, unless GIS is understood to be a
small group of people or even an individual, concentrated around one computer to solve a certain
small task. World wide web is increasing its importance in GIS, because all the above-mentioned
components do not need to be in one and the same location any more.

People
Žmonės Programinė
Software
įranga

Duomenys
Data

Tinklas
Network

Procedūros
Procedures

Techninė įranga
Hardware

Fig. 1.1. Main GIS components