International Conference on Ocean, Mechanical and Aerospace

For Scientists and Engineer

(OMAse 2016)
7–8 November 2016, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Terengganu, Malaysia

Wing in Ground Effect Craft: A Review of the State Of

Current Stability Knowledge
Mohamad Abu Ubaidah Amira, Adi Maimunb, Shahbudin Matc, Mohd Rashdan
Saada
a
Faculty of Science and Defense Technology, Universiti Pertahanan Nasional Malaysia, 5700 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
b
Marine Technology Centre, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Johor, Malaysia
c
Aeronautical Laboratories, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Johor, Malaysia.

Abstract

Wing in ground effect craft are becoming promising transportation over the last decade. This paper objectively
reviews the current state of knowledge of stability wing in ground effect craft. It encompassed the definition of the
phenomenon, the importance of the stability, the area of the studies including aerodynamic during take-off, cruises,
and landing. This paper focuses on the stability development of the WIG craft, including recent safety regulation.
It also covered a more details on the wing parameters such wing type, anhedral angle, wing tip and endplate. The
finding shows that the current developments of the stability criteria still not mature and there is still room for
improvement, particularly on transverse or lateral stability of WIG, where it plays important roles in the safety
aspect. It is crucial to understand the stability and its component in order to avoid the unforeseen accident.

Keywords: Wing in ground effect; stability; review and prospect

1. Introduction

The dynamic behavior of the WIG is formed significantly by its stability and control properties.
Today, the WIG tends to be concerned with the wider issues of flying and handling qualities rather than
the conventional which are more on stability and control. The challenges of WIG craft design very
difficult sector of aerodynamics and very little published in any readily referenced form. A lot of
studies are still continuing into various technical papers that deal specifically with ground effect
aerodynamics, stability and control, and of course, hydrodynamics.
In recent years, there has been an increasing interest in WIG, and the pace of development
quickened and the progress evolve dramatically (Halloran & O’Meara, 1999). However, the stability
and control problems that faced by the WIG in earlier development still continue until now. Many of
the researchers studying the dynamic stability of WIG during the take-off, heave, pitch, and surge
motion (longitudinal stability). But very few researches conducted on roll, yaw, and sway, especially
during cross wing (transverse and lateral stability). This is very important since the WIG operates over
the surface of sea water (commonly) and in the air. This axis (roll, yaw and sway) is commonly happen
to WIG during the cruise compare to the heave, pitch, and surge motion because of the wind in the sea
surface are more dominant compare to the higher altitude.
Thus, this paper will critically reviews and discusses the current state of knowledge of stability wing
in ground effect craft.

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Nomenclature

WIG Wing in ground

PAR Power-augmented ran

2. Current Safety Legislation of Wig

A wing in ground effect is a high speed craft that enshrined under International Maritime
Organisation (IMO) regulation. The IMO has endorsed the Interim Guidelines of a WIG craft as a
guide for references (IMO, 2005). In addition, the top safety requirement of safe WIG is written under
MSC/Cir. 1162 (IMO, 2005). According to the IMO, the WIG craft is multimodal craft that operates
above the surface by supported air using ground effect, lift by aerodynamic that created from the
wings, hull or their parts, without constant contact with surface (IMO, 2002). In details, the ground
effect phenomenon depends much on the design of the craft that increase a lift force and reduce the
resistance that generally occurs at an altitude less than the mean chord length of the wing (ICAO,
2005). The definition above is evidence suggests that WIG is really critical with the safety concerned
because operated near the surface. The guidelines published by IMO is interim guidelines, thus, the
procedure must be periodic review and improved from time to time in line with the development of
knowledge.

3. Classification of Wig Craft

Even though the WIG is well known that operated near the surface, it can be breakdown into three
types which are Type A, Type B and Type C. Type A and Type B will come under the jurisdiction of
the International Maritime Organization (IMO), adopted under COLREG 1972 amendments in 2001
agreed the WIG craft to fly within the ground effect. Meanwhile Type C will come under the
jurisdiction of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) (2005). The definition of WIG
types are as follows (MLTM, 2010) & (Hansen, 2011):

Fig. 1. The classification of WIG craft

In the history of WIG development, it is reported that majority of WIG falls under type A. For
instance, the operational design of WIG 50 seater by Korea only operated at 3 to 5.2 meters altitude,
with cruise speed exceeding 180 km/h (MLTM, 2010). The details of the WIG categories can refer to
Kirill and Halloran et at. (2006).

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4. The Significant of the Wig Development

The WIG has a various reason to become as a promising vehicle in a near future. Several studies
have shown that the WIG has advantages as described in Table 1:

Table 1. The advantages of the WIG compared to the other craft.

Mechanism Operational Compare with high Compare with aircraft

speed craft
The ground effect itself increase The WIG as a good The speed of WIG craft WIG has a potential to
the static pressure by 45% resulting potential to be used as a is faster than carry heavy load more
the increase of lifting forces military craft. (Halloran conventional marine efficient with low
(MLTM, 2010) et al. 1999) & (Park et al. craft vessels. (Halloran operational cost
2012) et al. 1999) compare to the aircraft.
A (Halloran et al. 1999) &
T (Rozhdestvensky, 2006)
T The formation of wing tip vortices The cost of development The speed of WIG craft
reduces induce drag up to 70% and operational is low,
R is not limit by the high
(MLTM, 2010) where it capable to Lower Co2 emission
I operate without the need sea states. (Halloran et (about 50% reduction of
of airports or other fuel) (MLTM, 2010)
B facilities.[1] al. 1999)
U
T Have a lower structural weight, Ability to operate from Faster and smoother ride
increase sea worthiness at take-off (MLTM, 2010)
E and landing (MLTM, 2010) & coastal areas. (Halloran Lower maintenance cost
(Rozhdestvensky, 2006) (MLTM, 2010)
S et al. 1999)

Providing low radar Lower Co2 emission

(about 20% reduction of
detectability. (Halloran fuel) (MLTM, 2010)
et al. 1999) &
(Rozhdestvensky, 2006)

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 Fig. 2. Fuel consumption vs weight of WIG (Halloran et al. 1999).

Fig. 3. Speed vs design range (Halloran et al. 1999).

Fig. 4. Payload vs speed (Halloran et al. 1999).

Figure 2 to Figure 4 and Table 1 shows the comparison between the WIG and other craft. Looking
at these advantages, it is draw the attention as a promising commercial vessel in near future, mainly for
international logistics. However, the safety of the WIG is not fully developed to a certain standard,
particularly in the lateral and side stability. The IMO itself provide only the interim guidelines (IMO,
2002), and it does not have the specific criteria for design. Thus, the designer will experience
difficulties in developing and operating the WIG. In fact, recent research focusing more on longitudinal
stability including take-off and landing, aerodynamic, and cruise condition as elaborated below under
the current state of knowledge. As far as the literature review going, very limited research conducted
on the transverse or lateral stability. The available research found (Dinitiis, 2015) and (Kornev &
Matveev, 2003) even not discussed in a comprehensive and systematic research.

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5. The Significant of the Wig Development

5.1. Generalities

The topic of WIG stability is one of the most active areas in research today. The recent studies
focusing on the aerodynamic characteristics and stability during the take-off, cruises and landing. This
is including various variable such as angle of attack, with or without endplate, with or without wing tip,
and with single hull and multi hull (Tofa et al. 2014) and (Maimum et al. 2010). This shows that
much research has been done regarding the ground effect phenomena, but has not come with solid
guides that cover the stability. This is in line with the status of the IMO interim guide.
In general, ground effect occurs when the craft flies approximately below or at the same level of the
craft’s wingspan. Experiments and theory show that, for same cases in chord-dominated ground effect,
the drag increase as the wing moves closer to the ground. However, a number of studies show that
significant differences do exist in span-dominated ground effect, where the drag decreases with
decreasing ground clearance. But in most cases, the lift-to-drag ratio tends to increase with decrease of
the ground clearance (Kirill, 2006) and (Jameia et al. 2014).
Furthermore, results from streamline pressure distribution that correspond to the mid-span shows
that the angle of attack of wing are not give a significant effect if the wing is out of ground effect. Lift
coefficient remains unchanged as h/c reduces, but its magnitude increases (Luo & Chen, 2012).
In other studies have found that the ground effect influenced the performance of the craft controller
with the inter-relation of the height dependent in flare maneuver (Staufenbiel et al. 1988). Kornev
and Matveev (2003) also found that the WIG develop additional aerodynamic forces and moments
during a banked turn, depend upon the roll angle. Other factors that influence the stability
characteristics of WIG include a wing type, endplate, and wingtip design.

5.2. Wing Type

Previous studies have primarily concentrated on various wing types. Among the wings being studied
includes a rectangular wing (Kirill, 2006), (Staufenbiel et al. 1988), (Chun & Chang, 2002) & (Jamei et
al. 2012), Delta wing (Nicola, 2005), (Lee & Park, 209) & (Bergmanna et al. 2008) standard NACA
wing profile (Luo & Chen, 2012) and swept wing design (M.I.K.A. et al. 2014). In most cases, the
literature has emphasized that for a given wing, the lift is larger for a larger aspect ratio wing (Kirill,
2006).
Nicola in his paper (Nikola, 2005) examines the effect of altitude upon the flowfield of vehicle
flying in ground effect. The wing type being studies has parameters of delta wing, with combination of
Lippisch design and has negative dihedral at the leading edge. The result shows that the ground effects
are stronger at high angle of attack, thus give a significant effect with the pitching moment. This
correlates with the speed of the craft. This paper also reported that the lateral stability considerably
changes with the altitude. During banked turn at out of ground effect, shows a small sideslip angles,
whereas nonzero sideslip is observed during ground effect. Yang et al (2009) in their study stated that
the Lippisch wing design have a better performance in term of aerodynamic and static stability, and it
would be a best choice for WIG.
NACA 4412 which has almost flat lower surface produce optimum ground effect. This profile
provides a better longitudinal static stability. However, profiling of the foil for better longitudinal static
stability usually results in lower lift coefficients, which are not necessarily bad for cruise flight (Kirill,
2006).
Meanwhile, the finding of the present study shows that the NACA 0015 wing with a straight lower
wing surface can prevent the venturi effect and hence improve a ram effect (chord-dominated ground
effect). It also can increase lift and reduce drag, but will degrade the stability provided from constant
pressure distributions on the lower wing surface (Lee et al. 2013). This is agreed with study by Park
and Lee that found the symmetric airfoil of the NACA 0015 was not adequate for the WIG craft, where
the wing profile of the lower side become flat, and hence reduce the drag, and increase the lift force.
They also suggested for optimization using Multi objective genetic algorithm (Park et al. 2010).
In another study, authors outlined the easiest way to improve stability and the damping ratio for
short period pitching oscillation (SPPO) is by increase the tail wing size. However, it also increases the
structural weight and drag force (Chun & Chang, 2002).

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5.3. Endplate Effect

The endplates are an effective means to impede the leakage of the air from under the wing (Kirill,
2009). The results of the present study suggest that the endplate improved the stability (longitudinal)
and aerodynamics characteristics in ground effect. This is because the endplate prevents the high
pressure under the wing escaping endplate, which improved the lift-drag ratio and lower the effect of
wing-tip vortices (Park et al. 2008). To suits the design of WIG, the endplates may be designed with
moving parts (tilt able) to provide control of the WIG’s static stability margin and motion (KV, 2000).

5.4. Wing Tip Effect

Many researchers have agreed that the wing tip (or so called a winglet) influenced the WIG
performance. Recent evidence suggests that free-stream turbulence with a wing tip altered the wing
aerodynamic coefficient significantly by delaying static stall, improve vortex flow and enhanced lift.
However, it also increased drag (Ahmadi-Baloutaki et al. 2015) & (Pasquale, 2014). This agreed by
Afshar and Alishahi in study (Afshar & Alishahi, 2009) that suggested the winglet has a broad effect
on performance includes a canopy lift at upstream. It is not only increase the lift and aerodynamic
efficiency, but also increases the height of a nose up moment resulting from downward force on tail
which would assist during take-off. This however increases the drag in free-flight.

5.5. Anhedral Angle

The relationship between anhedral angle and stability has been investigated. A study shows an
anhedral angle causes aerodynamic centre of height to be shifted upstream and aerodynamic centre of
pitch to be shifted downstream as the wing tip located closer to the ground. This is beneficial for
aerodynamic and longitudinal stability according to Irodov stability criteria (Wang et al. 2013). The
research study by Saeed et al. also found that the small gap between the wing tip and ground makes a
reduction of drag because of the weaker tip vortex. In addition, anhedral can create a greater reduction
of downwash velocity and modify the pressure distribution on the lower side that leads to a higher
augmentation in lift force (Jamei et al. 2012).
The wing characteristics above gave the positive significant effect to the longitudinal stability, but
compromise on the certain aspect. For instance, the wing tip improves the vortex flow, and endplate
could increase the lift-to-drag ratio, but both of them might increase the drag of the vessel. It is
interesting to discuss the stability which can be realized for the WIG effect. The facts above, shows that
the research before focusing only on the longitudinal stability. Hence there is a need to extend the study
on the transverse or lateral stability because of its consequences is an important, but understudied,
cause for concern.

5.6. Power-Augmented Ram (PAR)

The ideas of the Power-augmented Ram (PAR) engine usage are to increase the lift coefficient and
shorten the take-off distance consequently. Study by A. M. Lippisch shows that 25 % lift coefficient
increase with the PAR engine. This also improves the take-off weight due the improvement of lift
coefficient. However, a recent study shows that the PAR air blowing under the wing is
aerodynamically not efficient in cruise (Wei & Zhigang, 2011). In addition, the low speed forward
motion does not significantly benefit from the static thrust from the PAR engine (Matveev, 2008). In
fact, the usage of PAR is extremely complicated particularly on the air flow and PAR suction give a
difference attributes with regards to the nozzle angles (Wei & Zhigang, 2011) & (Kanstantin et al.
2008). In other finding it is stated that if the PAR engine shut-off, it will increase drag and just a small
change in lift (Wei & Zhigang, 2011). Hence, the consideration of the PAR engine usage is quite
complex, particularly the interaction between air blown and the wing.

6. The Importance of the Stability

As the normal vessel and craft, wing in ground (WIG) effect also exposed to the 6 degree of
freedom (DOF). The importance of the Wing in Ground (WIG) effect is to bring the forces and
momentum to the static equilibrium, where it will cause the WIG in stable conditions, unless the
direction of WIG is intentionally change by the pilot or by the external forces such as wind or

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turbulence. This disturbance is characterizing as dynamic characteristics, and should be settling into its
equilibrium state once more, after the disturbance. The corrected position of the WIG in longitudinal
stability simultaneously can be adjusted by a few factors which are airspeed, flight path angle, airframe
configuration, weight and centre of gravity position. Fortunately, the trimming a WIG in longitudinal
direction is not as challenging as it might at first seem, especially when it flew in a certain height at
cruise speed (Cook, 2007).
What is not yet understood is the effect of lateral stability. Lateral-directional stability must be put
into consideration in WIG to ensure that in roll the WIG remains at wings level, and the yaw tends to
weathercock into the wind when the ailerons and rudder are at their zero or datum positions. So, the
WIG will naturally seek lateral-directional equilibrium without interference by the pilot. This is crucial
because the distance between the WIG and the surface very narrow, which will result with catastrophic
incident if one of wing or body get caught with the surface because of roll.
In lateral- condition when a WIG craft is heeled or rolled, the pressure on its lifting surfaces changes
and redistributed. At one hand, the lifting elements approach the ground while on the other hand
deviates from it. The coefficient of lift increases for the wing that approaches the ground and decreases
for the portion that leaves the ground. This situation causes a generation of recovering transverse
moment. Therefore, a WIG craft in lateral aspects has a natural aerodynamic stabilization of roll angle
in flight close to the shield. This is an extremely important aspect in flight safety (Cook, 2007).
However, this theory never been study for the WIG purpose in scientific way. Until this moment,
very few researchers done the studies on the lateral stability of the WIG (Divitiis, 2015) & (Korney et
al. 2013). To date, surprisingly it has not yet been comprehensively studied and there are none publish
scientifically.

7. The Effect of the Losses in Altitude or Stability

A B

Fig. 5. LHS (A) shows a WIG in stable cruises and RHS (B) shows when the WIG unstable and losses altitude

The Figure 5 shows an illustration of the WIG in stable and unstable condition. LHS (A) represent
the condition of the WIG in normal cruising, where the WIG have a clearance distance from the ground
at certain height. As long the WIG maintains the distance from the ground, it can consider in a safe
condition. Whereas, in a condition when the WIG losses its stability or altitude, say from disturbance of
external forces, it can cause the WIG to catch the ground or surface such as wave as shown in RHS (B).
In open literature, it is recorded that the WIG normally operates more than 100 km/h (Halloran &
O,Meara, 1999), (MLTM, 2010) & (Kirill, 2006). One can imagine what disastrous could happen in
real situation.
The transverse or lateral stability of WIG plays important roles in the safety aspect. It is crucial to
understand the stability and its component to in order to avoid the unforeseen accident. The WIG is
categorizing in between vessel and aircraft, hence the fundamental of the stability must comprehend
between both of aircraft and marine vessel.

7.1. Ship Stability Concept

In ship stability concept, the Archimedes’ principle applied, where the law of floatation act on the
floating body. In this law, it is stated that body immersed in a liquid is subject to an upward vertical
forces equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by the body. This upward force is called as buoyant
force. In any condition, the centre of gravity of the vessel will be counter by the buoyancy force in a
same magnitude, and this known as in equilibrium. The stable and unstable states is illustrating in
Figure 6:

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 Fig. 6. LHS (A) shows the vessel in equilibrium state and RHS (B) shows the vessel in unstable state (Tupper, 2002).

The vessel has a symmetrical shape. The stable state of the vessel is shown in Figure 6 (A). If the
vessel is heeled at a small angle by the external force, for instance by wind or wave, that not affect the
displacement, it will cause the shift of centre of gravity, G to the point Z as shown in (B). This heeled
causes the different shape submerged in (B), and hence will shift the centre of buoyancy, B to the
direction of heel at point B’. The intersection of B’ and Z will cause the ship to return back to its initial
position in (A). This distance, the GZ, is known as righting arm, and the total weight, Δ x GZ is the
righting moment. This is a natural righting moment of the vessel.

7.2 Aircraft Stability Concept

The aircraft stability differs from the ship stability, where the righting moment for ship is generated
from the buoyancy force. The aircraft however totally depends on the distribution of the upward
pressure, which is a lift force along the wing. The lateral stability of aircraft can be breakdown into
three categories:
a. Roll damping- normally well damped
b. Spiral Mode- slow, often unstable
c. Dutch Roll- damped oscillation in yaw, that couples with roll

7.2.1 Roll Damping

The roll of the craft will cause the wing that going down increases in incidence angle, α where wind
envelop is effectively develop more on the wing toward the sideslip while the span wise components
will decreases resulting a roll moment as the lift goes up. The opposite effect happens on the other
wing. There is a difference in lift generated by both wing where more lift is generated on the side that
going down. This differential lift coefficient will restore the equilibrium and after the disturbance, a
steady roll established due to the restoring moment as shown in Figure 7.

Fig. 7. The roll damping effect on the aircraft. (Fall, 2004)

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7.2.2 Spiral Mode

Consider a small disturbance during the cruises creates a small roll angle which results a small
sideslip. If the condition remains, the oncoming air will continuously hit the tail fin at an elevator angle
β and creates a tail lift, lead to positive yawing moment. This will make things worse because yawing
moment creates a positive roll moment that escalates the sideslip. If this is not corrected, it would tend
to spiral into the ground as shown in Figure 8.

Fig. 8. The spiral mode effect on the aircraft. (Fall, 2004)

7.2.3 Dutch Roll

The term Dutch roll refers to a tendency for an aircraft to roll whenever there is yaw on the craft as
shown in Figure 9. In this event, the effectiveness of the span between left and right wings changes due
to one wing yawing forward causes momentarily more lift than the other side. This will cause the
forward wing rises and starts rolling due to its increased lift. The Greater concern is it also increase
drag and pulling that wing back once again and start an oscillation in the other direction (Brown &
Hold, 1995).

Fig. 9. The Dutch roll effect. (Fall, 2004)

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 All the stability components above will cost the losses of the altitude before it gain the stability
again. This is not a critical for the aircraft that flew in high altitude, but really a concern for the WIG
craft. The losses of the altitude will lead to a catastrophic incident.

8. The Proposed Righting Moment (Natural Righting Moment)

Righting
moment

Wingtip from
NACA 6409

lift force
generated from
SURFACE the ground effect
(Bernoulli)

Fig. 6. The proposed righting moment for WIG

The proposed natural righting moment for the WIG may utilize the above laws and principle. For
instance, Bernoulli’s principle that creates the difference pressure in two surfaces when different
velocity applied. From here, the potential energy from the higher lift force may use to return back to its
initial position. This is where the first Newton’s law applies, taking advantage of ground effect where
the lift force from the wingtip generated to lift up the down wing side as shown in Figure 10. The
newton’s second law define the amount of lift force must overcome the weight of the effect of gravity.
The lift will return the WIG until it is in equilibrium position, where the force acting on WIG is same
on both side, apply the Newton’s third law.

9. Conclusion

The WIG has a various reason to become as a promising vehicle in a near future. Thus, the
development of the WIG has emerged rapidly. However, the key issue that relates to the WIG always
involves the stability. Much research has conducted in last decades, but has not come yet with solid
guides that cover the stability. This is in line with the status of the IMO interim guide. Literature
clearly shows the different aerodynamic configurations that being develop and examine, which most of
the showing the advantages and disadvantages, depends on specific applications. Many
configurations articulate the longitudinal stability but very limited express on the lateral stability.
The transverse or lateral stability of WIG plays important roles in the safety aspect. It is crucial to
understand the stability and its component to in order to avoid the unforeseen accident. This is very
important since the WIG operated over the surface of sea water (commonly) and in the air. This axis
(roll, yaw and sway) is commonly happen to WIG during the cruise compare to the heave, pitch, and
surge motion because of the wind in the sea surface are more dominant compare to the higher altitude.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) for supporting this research
under the Research Industrial Grant Vot No: 3C007. All the expenses for the conference are using the
allocation from this grant.

Page 286 of 290

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