3.

0 Mechanical properties and behaviours

under service condition and environment
(16 hours)
• Static and dynamic
• Creep and fatigue
• Principles of materials corrosion
• Microstructures - properties relationship
• Design methodology for metallic materials.
Mechanical Properties (Part 1)

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...

• Static vs dynamic : How to distinguish?

• Stress and strain: What are they and why are
they used instead of load and deformation?
• Elastic behavior: When loads are small, how much
deformation occurs? What materials deform least?
• Plastic behavior: At what point does permanent
deformation occur? What materials are most
resistant to permanent deformation?
• Toughness and ductility: What are they and how
do we measure them?

Chapter 6 - 2
Chapter 6 - 3
 Elastic Deformation
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds
stretch

return to
initial
d
F
F Linear-
elastic
Elastic means reversible! Non-Linear-
elastic
d
Chapter 6 - 4
 Plastic Deformation (Metals)
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch planes
& planes still
shear sheared

dplastic
delastic + plastic

F
F
Plastic means permanent! linear linear
elastic elastic
d
dplastic
Chapter 6 - 5
 Engineering Stress
• Tensile stress, s: • Shear stress, t:
Ft Ft F

Area, Ao Fs
Area, Ao

Fs
Ft
Fs Ft
Ft lb f N t= F
s= = 2 or 2
Ao
Ao in m
original area
before loading
 Stress has units:
N/m2 or lbf /in2
Chapter 6 - 6
 Common States of Stress
• Simple tension: cable
F F
A o = cross sectional
area (when unloaded)
F
s= s s
Ao
Ski lift (photo courtesy
• Torsion (a form of shear): drive shaft P.M. Anderson)

M Fs Ao
Ac
Fs
t =
Ao
M
2R Note: t = M/AcR here.
Chapter 6 - 7
 OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (i)
• Simple compression:

Ao

Canyon Bridge, Los Alamos, NM

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

F
s=
Note: compressive
Balanced Rock, Arches structure member
National Park
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
Ao (s < 0 here).

Chapter 6 - 8
OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (ii)
• Bi-axial tension: • Hydrostatic compression:

Pressurized tank Fish under water (photo courtesy

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
P.M. Anderson)
sq > 0

sz > 0 sh< 0

Chapter 6 - 9
 Engineering Strain
• Tensile strain: • Lateral strain:
d/2
-dL
e = d eL =
Lo Lo wo
wo

dL /2
• Shear strain:
q
x g = x/y = tan q

y 90º - q
Strain is always
90º dimensionless.
Adapted from Fig. 6.1(a) and (c), Callister & Rethwisch 8e. Chapter 6 - 10
 Stress-Strain Testing
• Typical tensile test • Typical tensile
machine specimen

Adapted from
extensometer specimen Fig. 6.2,
Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.

gauge
length

Adapted from Fig. 6.3, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 6.3 is taken from H.W.
Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of Materials,
Vol. III, Mechanical Behavior, p. 2, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1965.) Chapter 6 - 11
 Linear Elastic Properties
• Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(also known as Young's modulus)

• Hooke's Law:
s=Ee s F
E

e
Linear-
elastic F
simple
tension
test

Chapter 6 - 12
 Poisson's ratio, n
eL
• Poisson's ratio, n:

eL
n=-
e e

metals: n ~ 0.33 -n
ceramics: n ~ 0.25
polymers: n ~ 0.40

Units: n > 0.50 density increases

E: [GPa] or [psi]
n < 0.50 density decreases
n: dimensionless (voids form)

Chapter 6 - 13
 Mechanical Properties
• Slope of stress strain plot (which is
proportional to the elastic modulus) depends
on bond strength of metal

Adapted from Fig. 6.7,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 6 - 14
 Other Elastic Properties
t M
• Elastic Shear
modulus, G:
G simple
g torsion
t=Gg test

M
• Elastic Bulk P P
modulus, K:
V V P P
P = -K Vo
Vo K pressure
test: Init.
vol =Vo.
• Special relations for isotropic materials: Vol chg.
= V
E E
G= K=
2(1 + n) 3(1 - 2n)
Chapter 6 - 15
 Young’s Moduli: Comparison
Graphite
Metals Composites
Ceramics Polymers
Alloys /fibers
Semicond
1200
10 00 Diamond
800
600
Si carbide
400 Tungsten Al oxide Carbon fibers only
Molybdenum Si nitride
E(GPa) 200
Steel, Ni
Tantalum <111>
C FRE(|| fibers)*
Platinum Si crystal
Cu alloys <100> Aramid fibers only
10 0 Zinc, Ti
80 Silver, Gold
Glass -soda A FRE(|| fibers)* Based on data in Table B.2,
Aluminum Glass fibers only
60
40
Magnesium,
Tin G FRE(|| fibers)* Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Concrete Composite data based on
109 Pa 20 GFRE*
CFRE *
reinforced epoxy with 60 vol%
of aligned
G raphite G FRE( fibers)*
10 carbon (CFRE),
8 C FRE( fibers) *
6 AFRE( fibers) *
aramid (AFRE), or
Polyester glass (GFRE)
4 PET
PS fibers.
PC Epoxy only
2
PP
1 HDP E
0.8
0.6 Wood( grain)
PTF E
0.4

0.2 LDPE Chapter 6 - 16

 Useful Linear Elastic Relationships
• Simple tension: • Simple torsion:
2ML o
d = FL o d = - n Fw o a=
L
EA o EA o  r o4 G
F M = moment
d/2 a = angle of twist
Ao
Lo Lo
wo

2ro
dL /2
• Material, geometric, and loading parameters all
contribute to deflection.
• Larger elastic moduli minimize elastic deflection.
Chapter 6 - 17
 Plastic (Permanent) Deformation
(at lower temperatures, i.e. T < Tmelt/3)

• Simple tension test:

Elastic+Plastic
engineering stress, s at larger stress

Elastic
initially
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed

ep engineering strain, e

plastic strain Adapted from Fig. 6.10(a),

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 6 - 18
 Yield Strength, sy
• Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has
occurred.
when ep = 0.002
tensile stress, s
sy = yield strength
sy

Note: for 2 inch sample

e = 0.002 = z/z
 z = 0.004 in

engineering strain, e
ep = 0.002 Adapted from Fig. 6.10(a),
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Chapter 6 - 19
 Yield Strength : Comparison
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
2000
Steel (4140) qt

1000
Yield strength, sy (MPa)

Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a

in ceramic matrix and epoxy matrix composites, since

700 W (pure)

since in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

600 Cu (71500) cw
500 Mo (pure)
400 Steel (4140) a
Steel (1020) cd Room temperature
300
values
Hard to measure ,

Hard to measure,
Al (6061) ag
200 Steel (1020) hr
¨
Ti (pure) a
Ta (pure)
Cu (71500) hr Based on data in Table B.4,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
100
a = annealed
dry
70 PC
hr = hot rolled
60 Nylon 6,6 ag = aged
50 Al (6061) a PET
cd = cold drawn
40 PVC humid
cw = cold worked
PP
30 HDPE qt = quenched & tempered
20

LDPE
Tin (pure) Chapter 6 - 20
10
VMSE: Virtual Tensile Testing

Chapter 6 - 21
 Tensile Strength, TS
• Maximum stress on engineering stress-strain curve.
Adapted from Fig. 6.11,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
TS
F = fracture or
sy
ultimate
engineering

strength
stress

Typical response of a metal

Neck – acts
as stress
concentrator
strain
engineering strain
• Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.
• Polymers: occurs when polymer backbone chains are
aligned and about to break.
Chapter 6 - 22
 Tensile Strength: Comparison
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
5000 C fibers
Aramid fib
3000 E-glass fib
Tensile strength, TS (MPa)

2000 Steel (4140) qt

A FRE(|| fiber)
1000 W (pure) Diamond GFRE(|| fiber)
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn)aa CFRE(|| fiber)
Steel (4140)cw
Cu (71500) Si nitride
Cu (71500) hr Al oxide
300
Steel (1020)
Al (6061) ag
Ti (pure) a
Room temperature
200 Ta (pure)
values
Al (6061) a
100 Si crystal wood(|| fiber) Based on data in Table B.4,
<100> Nylon 6,6
Glass-soda PC PET Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
40 PVC GFRE( fiber) a = annealed
Concrete PP
30 CFRE( fiber) hr = hot rolled
A FRE( fiber)
HDPE ag = aged
20 Graphite
LDPE cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
10 qt = quenched & tempered
AFRE, GFRE, & CFRE =
aramid, glass, & carbon
fiber-reinforced epoxy
wood ( fiber)
composites, with 60 vol%
fibers.
1 Chapter 6 - 23
 Ductility
Lf - Lo
• Plastic tensile strain at failure: %EL = x 100
Lo
smaller %EL
Engineering
tensile
stress, s larger %EL Ao
Lo Af Lf
Adapted from Fig. 6.13,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Engineering tensile strain, e

• Another ductility measure: Ao - Af

%RA = x 100
Ao

Chapter 6 - 24
 Toughness
• Energy to break a unit volume of material
• Approximate by the area under the stress-strain curve.

Engineering small toughness (ceramics)

tensile large toughness (metals)
stress, s
Adapted from Fig. 6.13, very small toughness
Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (unreinforced polymers)

Engineering tensile strain, e

Brittle fracture: elastic energy

Ductile fracture: elastic + plastic energy
Chapter 6 - 25
 Resilience, Ur
• Ability of a material to store energy
– Energy stored best in elastic region

ey
Ur =  sde
0
If we assume a linear
stress-strain curve this
simplifies to

1
Ur @ sy e y
2
Adapted from Fig. 6.15,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Chapter 6 - 26
 Elastic Strain Recovery

sy i D

syo
2. Unload
Stress

1. Load 3. Reapply
load
Strain

Adapted from Fig. 6.17, Elastic strain

Callister & Rethwisch 8e. recovery
Chapter 6 - 27
 Hardness
• Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
• Large hardness means:
-- resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in
compression.
-- better wear properties.
apply known force measure size
e.g., of indent after
10 mm sphere removing load

Smaller indents
D d mean larger
hardness.

most brasses easy to machine cutting nitrided

plastics Al alloys steels file hard tools steels diamond

increasing hardness
Chapter 6 - 28
 Hardness: Measurement
• Rockwell
– No major sample damage
– Each scale runs to 130 but only useful in range
20-100.
– Minor load 10 kg
– Major load 60 (A), 100 (B) & 150 (C) kg
• A = diamond, B = 1/16 in. ball, C = diamond

• HB = Brinell Hardness
– TS (psia) = 500 x HB
– TS (MPa) = 3.45 x HB

Chapter 6 - 29
 Hardness: Measurement
Table 6.5

Chapter 6 - 30
 True Stress & Strain
Note: S.A. changes when sample stretched

• True stress sT = F Ai sT = s1 + e 

• True strain eT = lni o  eT = ln1 + e 

Adapted from Fig. 6.16,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 6 - 31
 Hardening
• An increase in sy due to plastic deformation.
s
large hardening
sy
1
sy small hardening
0

e
• Curve fit to the stress-strain response:
hardening exponent:
sT = K eT  n n = 0.15 (some steels)
to n = 0.5 (some coppers)
“true” stress (F/A) “true” strain: ln(L/Lo)
Chapter 6 - 32
 Variability in Material Properties
• Elastic modulus is material property
• Critical properties depend largely on sample flaws
(defects, etc.). Large sample to sample variability.
• Statistics
n
 xn
– Mean x=
n
1
n 
 
2 2
  xi - x 
– Standard Deviation s = 
 n -1 
 
where n is the number of data points
Chapter 6 - 33
 Design or Safety Factors
• Design uncertainties mean we do not push the limit.
• Factor of safety, N Often N is
sy between
sworking = 1.2 and 4
N
• Example: Calculate a diameter, d, to ensure that yield does
not occur in the 1045 carbon steel rod below. Use a
factor of safety of 5.
d
sy
sworking = 1045 plain
carbon steel:
N sy = 310 MPa Lo
220,000N TS = 565 MPa
5

 d /42
 F = 220,000N
d = 0.067 m = 6.7 cm
Chapter 6 - 34
 Summary
• Stress and strain: These are size-independent
measures of load and displacement, respectively.
• Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a
large elastic modulus (E or G).
• Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches sy.
• Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
volume of material.
• Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.

Chapter 6 - 35
 Mechanical Properties (Part 2)
Mechanical Failure
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• How do cracks that lead to failure form?
• How is fracture resistance quantified? How do the fracture
resistances of the different material classes compare?
• How do we estimate the stress to fracture?
• How do loading rate, loading history, and temperature
affect the failure behavior of materials?

Ship-cyclic loading Computer chip-cyclic Hip implant-cyclic

from waves.
Adapted from chapter-opening photograph,
Chapter 8, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (by
Neil Boenzi, The New York Times.)
thermal loading. loading from walking.
Adapted from Fig. 22.30(b), Callister 7e. Adapted from Fig. 22.26(b),
(Fig. 22.30(b) is courtesy of National Callister 7e.
Semiconductor Corporation.)
Chapter 8 - 36
 Why study failure?

• The design of a component or structure often

calls upon the engineer to minimize the
possibility of failure.

• It is important to understand the mechanics of

the various failure modes – fracture, fatigue and
creep with appropriate design principles to
prevent in-service failure.

Chapter 8 - 37
 Fundamentals of fracture

• Simple fracture is the separation of a body

into two or more pieces in response to an
imposed stress that is static (constant or slowly
changing with time) and at temperatures that
are low relative to the melting temperature of
the material.

• Fracture can occur from fatigue(when cylic

stress are imposed) and creep (time-dependent
deformation).

Chapter 8 - 38
• Any fracture process involves two steps –
crack formation and propagation, in response to
an imposed stress.

• The mode of fracture highly dependent on the

mechanism of crack propagation.

Chapter 8 - 39
 Fracture mechanisms
• Ductile fracture
– Accompanied by significant plastic
deformation
• Brittle fracture
– Little or no plastic deformation
– Catastrophic : causing sudden great
damage

Chapter 8 - 40
 Ductile vs Brittle Failure
• Classification:
Fracture Very Moderately
Brittle
behavior: Ductile Ductile

Adapted from Fig. 8.1,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

%AR or %EL Large Moderate Small

• Ductile fracture is Ductile: Brittle:
usually more desirable Warning before No
than brittle fracture! fracture warning

Chapter 8 - 41
 Example: Pipe Failures
• Ductile failure:
-- one piece
-- large deformation

• Brittle failure:
-- many pieces
-- small deformations

Figures from V.J. Colangelo and F.A.

Heiser, Analysis of Metallurgical Failures
(2nd ed.), Fig. 4.1(a) and (b), p. 66 John
Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1987. Used with
permission.

Chapter 8 - 42
 Moderately Ductile Failure
• Failure Stages: shearing
void void growth at surface of
necking fracture
nucleation and coalescence the void
s

• Resulting 50
50mm
mm
fracture
surfaces
(steel)
100 mm
particles From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Fracture surface of tire cord wire
serve as void Analysis of Metallurgical Failures (2nd loaded in tension. Courtesy of F.
ed.), Fig. 11.28, p. 294, John Wiley and Roehrig, CC Technologies, Dublin,
nucleation Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source: P. OH. Used with permission.
sites. Thornton, J. Mater. Sci., Vol. 6, 1971, pp.
347-56.) Chapter 8 - 43
Moderately Ductile vs. Brittle Failure

cup-and-cone fracture brittle fracture

Adapted from Fig. 8.3, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 8 - 44
 Brittle Failure
Arrows indicate point at which failure originated

Adapted from Fig. 8.5(a), Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 8 - 45
 Brittle Fracture Surfaces
• Intergranular
(between grains)
4 mm
• Transgranular
304 S. Steel (through grains)
(metal) 316 S. Steel
Reprinted w/permission (metal)
from "Metals Handbook", Reprinted w/ permission
9th ed, Fig. 633, p. 650. from "Metals Handbook",
Copyright 1985, ASM 9th ed, Fig. 650, p. 357.
International, Materials Copyright 1985, ASM
Park, OH. (Micrograph by International, Materials
J.R. Keiser and A.R. Park, OH. (Micrograph by
Olsen, Oak Ridge D.R. Diercks, Argonne
National Lab.)
160 mm
National Lab.)

Polypropylene Al Oxide
(polymer) (ceramic)
Reprinted w/ permission Reprinted w/ permission
from R.W. Hertzberg, from "Failure Analysis of
"Defor-mation and Brittle Materials", p. 78.
Fracture Mechanics of Copyright 1990, The
Engineering Materials", American Ceramic
(4th ed.) Fig. 7.35(d), p. Society, Westerville, OH.
303, John Wiley and (Micrograph by R.M.
Sons, Inc., 1996. Gruver and H. Kirchner.)
3 mm
1 mm
(Orig. source: K. Friedrick, Fracture 1977, Vol. Chapter 8 - 46
3, ICF4, Waterloo, CA, 1977, p. 1119.)
 Ideal vs Real Materials
• Stress-strain behavior (Room T):
s perfect mat’l-no flaws
E/10 TSengineering << TS perfect
materials materials
carefully produced glass fiber

E/100 typical ceramic typical strengthened metal

typical polymer
0.1 e
• DaVinci (500 yrs ago!) observed... Reprinted w/
permission from R.W.
Hertzberg,
-- the longer the wire, the "Deformation and
smaller the load for failure. Fracture Mechanics
of Engineering
• Reasons: Materials", (4th ed.)
Fig. 7.4. John Wiley
-- flaws cause premature failure. and Sons, Inc., 1996.

-- larger samples contain longer flaws!

Chapter 8 - 47
 Flaws are Stress Concentrators!

• Griffith Crack

1/ 2
a
sm = 2so   = K t so
 t 
where
t t = radius of curvature
so = applied stress
sm = stress at crack tip
Kt = stress concentration
factor
Adapted from Fig. 8.8(a), Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 8 - 48
Concentration of Stress at Crack Tip

Adapted from Fig. 8.8(b),

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 8 - 49
 Engineering Fracture Design
• Avoid sharp corners!
s smax
Stress Conc. Factor, K t =
s0
w
smax
2.5
w = width
r, h
h = gauge
fillet 2.0 increasing w/h width
radius
Adapted from Fig. 1.5
8.2W(c), Callister 6e.
(Fig. 8.2W(c) is from G.H.
Neugebauer, Prod. Eng.
(NY), Vol. 14, pp. 82-87
1943.)
1.0 r/h
0 0.5 1.0
sharper fillet radius
Chapter 8 - 50
 Crack Propagation
Cracks having sharp tips propagate easier than cracks
having blunt tips.
• A plastic material deforms at a crack tip, which
“blunts” the crack (slow the crack propagation).
deformed
region
brittle ductile

Energy balance on the crack

• Elastic strain energy-
• energy stored in material as it is elastically deformed
• this energy is released when the crack propagates
• creation of new surfaces requires energy
• Elastic energy released = surface energy created
Chapter 8 - 51
 Criterion for Crack Propagation
Crack propagates if crack-tip stress (sm)
exceeds a critical stress (sc)
1/ 2
 2Eg s 
i.e., sm > sc sc =  
 a 
where
– E = modulus of elasticity
– gs = specific surface energy
– a = one half length of internal crack

For ductile materials => replace gs with gs + gp

where gp is plastic deformation energy

Chapter 8 - 52
 Fracture Toughness
• Fracture toughness is an indication of the
amount of stress required to propagate a
preexisting flaw.
• Flaws may appear as cracks, voids,
metallurgical inclusions, weld defects etc.

Kc = Ys a

Y = geometric factor or constant related to the

samples geometry
a = crack length for edge cracks or one half
crack length for internal crack Chapter 8 - 53
 Fracture Toughness Ranges
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
100
C-C (|| fibers) 1
70 Steels
60 Ti alloys
50
40
Al alloys
30 Mg alloys Based on data in Table B.5,
K Ic (MPa · m0.5 )

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

20 Composite reinforcement geometry is: f
Al/Al oxide(sf) 2 = fibers; sf = short fibers; w = whiskers;
Y2 O 3 /ZrO 2 (p) 4 p = particles. Addition data as noted
10 C/C( fibers) 1 (vol. fraction of reinforcement):
Al oxid/SiC(w) 3 1. (55vol%) ASM Handbook, Vol. 21, ASM Int.,
Diamond Si nitr/SiC(w) 5 Materials Park, OH (2001) p. 606.
7 Al oxid/ZrO 2 (p) 4 2. (55 vol%) Courtesy J. Cornie, MMC, Inc.,
6 Si carbide Glass/SiC(w) 6 Waltham, MA.
5 Al oxide PET 3. (30 vol%) P.F. Becher et al., Fracture
4 Si nitride Mechanics of Ceramics, Vol. 7, Plenum Press
PP (1986). pp. 61-73.
3 PVC 4. Courtesy CoorsTek, Golden, CO.
5. (30 vol%) S.T. Buljan et al., "Development of
2 PC Ceramic Matrix Composites for Application in
Technology for Advanced Engines Program",
ORNL/Sub/85-22011/2, ORNL, 1992.
6. (20vol%) F.D. Gace et al., Ceram. Eng. Sci.
Proc., Vol. 7 (1986) pp. 978-82.
1 <100>
Si crystal PS Glass 6
<111>
0.7 Glass -soda
0.6 Polyester
Concrete Chapter 8 - 54
0.5
 Design Against Crack Growth
• Crack growth condition:
Kc = Ys a
• Largest, most highly stressed cracks grow first!
--Scenario 1: Max. flaw --Scenario 2: Design stress
size dictates design stress. dictates max. flaw size.
2
s design 
Kc 1  K c 
amax 
Y amax   Ysdesign 
amax
s
fracture fracture
no no
fracture amax fracture s
Chapter 8 - 55
 Design Example: Aircraft Wing
• Material has KIc = 26 MPa-m0.5
• Two designs to consider...
Design A Design B
--largest flaw is 9 mm --use same material
--failure stress = 112 MPa --largest flaw is 4 mm
K Ic --failure stress = ?
• Use... sc =
Y amax
• Key point: Y and KIc are the same for both designs.
KIc
= s a = constant Size of the flaw
Y  decrease
--Result:
112 MPa 9 mm 4 mm Failure stress
s c amax  = s
A c amax  B
increase

Answer: (sc )B = 168 MPa Chapter 8 - 56

 Impact Testing
• Impact loading: (Charpy)
-- severe testing case
-- makes material more brittle
-- decreases toughness
Adapted from Fig. 8.12(b),
Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig.
8.12(b) is adapted from H.W.
Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and J.
Wulff, The Structure and
Properties of Materials, Vol. III,
Mechanical Behavior, John Wiley
and Sons, Inc. (1965) p. 13.)

final height initial height

Chapter 8 - 57
 Influence of Temperature on
Impact Energy

• Ductile-to-Brittle Transition Temperature (DBTT)...

Remain high impact energies with decreasing
FCC metals (e.g., Cu, Ni) temp.
Impact Energy

BCC metals (e.g., iron at T < 914ºC)

polymers
Brittle More Ductile

High strength materials (s y > E/150) Insensitive to temp.

Temperature Adapted from Fig. 8.15,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Ductile-to-brittle
transition temperature

Chapter 8 - 58
 Design Strategy:
Stay Above The DBTT!
• Pre-WWII: The Titanic
Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg,
"Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering
Materials", (4th ed.) Fig. 7.1(a), p. 262, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., 1996. (Orig. source: Dr. Robert D. Ballard,
The Discovery of the Titanic.)
• Problem: Steels were used having DBTT’s just below
room temperature. Chapter 8 - 59
• WWII: Liberty ships
Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg,
"Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering
Materials", (4th ed.) Fig. 7.1(b), p. 262, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., 1996. (Orig. source: Earl R. Parker,
"Behavior of Engineering Structures", Nat. Acad. Sci.,
Nat. Res. Council, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., NY,
1957.)
 Fatigue
• Fatigue = failure under dynamic and fluctuating stresses or
cycling stress.
specimen compression on top Adapted from Fig. 8.18,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
motor (Fig. 8.18 is from Materials
bearing bearing counter
Science in Engineering, 4/E
by Carl. A. Keyser, Pearson
flex coupling Education, Inc., Upper
tension on bottom Saddle River, NJ.)

• Stress varies with time for s

s max
repeated stress cycle S
-- key parameters are S (stress sm
amplitude), sm (mean stress), and s min time
cycling frequency

• Key points: Fatigue...

--can cause part failure, even though smax < sy.
--responsible for ~ 90% of mechanical engineering failures.
Chapter 8 - 60
 Types of Fatigue Behavior

S = stress amplitude
• Fatigue limit, Sfat: case for
--no fatigue if S < Sfat unsafe steel (typ.)
Sfat

safe Adapted from Fig.

8.19(a), Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.

10 3 10 5 10 7 10 9
N = Cycles to failure

S = stress amplitude
• For some materials, case for
there is no fatigue unsafe Al (typ.)
limit!
safe Adapted from Fig.
8.19(b), Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
10 3 10 5 10 7 10 9
N = Cycles to failure
Chapter 8 - 61
 Crack initiation and propagation
• The process of fatigue failure is characterized
by 3 steps:

1. Crack initiation – small crack forms at some

point of high stress concentration
2. Crack propagation – this crack advances
incrementally with each stress cycle
3. Final failure – occurs very rapidly once the
advancing crack has reached a critical size

• Cracks associated with fatigue failure almost

always initiate on the surface of the component
at some point of stress concentration
Chapter 8 - 62
 Rate of Fatigue Crack Growth
• Crack grows incrementally
typ. 1 to 6
da
= K 
m
dN
~ s  a
increase in crack length per loading cycle
crack origin
• Failed rotating shaft
-- crack grew even though
Kmax < Kc
-- crack grows faster as
• s increases Adapted from
Fig. 8.21, Callister &
• crack gets longer Rethwisch 8e. (Fig.
• loading freq. increases. 8.21 is from D.J.
Wulpi, Understanding
How Components Fail,
American Society for
Metals, Materials Park,
OH, 1985.)
Chapter 8 - 63
 Improving Fatigue Life

S = stress amplitude
1. Impose compressive Adapted from
surface stresses Fig. 8.24, Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
(to suppress surface near zero or compressive sm
cracks from growing) moderate tensile sm
Larger tensile sm
mean stress increase,
fatigue life decrease N = Cycles to failure

--Method 1: shot peening --Method 2: carburizing

shot
C-rich gas
put
surface
into
compression

2. Remove stress bad better

concentrators. Adapted from
Fig. 8.25, Callister &
bad better Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 8 - 64
 Creep
Sample deformation at a constant stress (s) vs. time
s
s,e

0 t

Primary Creep: slope (creep rate)

decreases with time.
Secondary Creep: steady-state (creep rate
constant) i.e., constant slope e/t).
Adapted from
Fig. 8.28, Callister &
Tertiary Creep: slope (creep rate) Rethwisch 8e.

increases with time, i.e. acceleration of rate. Chapter 8 - 65

 Creep: Temperature Dependence
• Occurs at elevated temperature, T > 0.4 Tm (in K)

tertiary

primary
secondary

elastic

Adapted from Fig. 8.29,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 8 - 66
 Secondary Creep
• Strain rate is constant at a given T, s
-- strain hardening is balanced by recovery
stress exponent (material parameter)
 Qc 
es = K 2 s exp  - 
n
activation energy for creep
strain rate  RT  (material parameter)
material const. applied stress
Adapted from
• Strain rate 2 00
427ºC
Fig. 8.31, Callister 7e.
Stress (MPa)

(Fig. 8.31 is from Metals

increases 10 0 Handbook: Properties
538ºC and Selection:
with increasing 40 Stainless Steels, Tool
Materials, and Special
T, s 20
Purpose Metals, Vol. 3,
9th ed., D. Benjamin
649ºC (Senior Ed.), American
10 Society for Metals,
1980, p. 131.)
10 -2 10 -1 1
Steady state creep rate es (%/1000hr)
Chapter 8 - 67
 Creep Failure
• Failure: along grain boundaries.

g.b. cavities

applied
stress

From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Analysis of

Metallurgical Failures (2nd ed.), Fig. 4.32, p. 87, John
Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source: Pergamon
Press, Inc.)

Chapter 8 - 68
 Prediction of Creep Rupture Lifetime
• Estimate rupture time
S-590 Iron, T = 800ºC, s = 20,000 psi

100 Time to rupture, tr

T (20 + log tr ) = L

Stress (103 psi)

20 function of
temperature
10 applied stress
time to failure (rupture)

data for
S-590 Iron

12 16 20 24 28
1 (1073 K )(20 + log t r ) = 24x103
103 L (K-h)
Adapted from Fig. 8.32, Callister & Rethwisch
8e. (Fig. 8.32 is from F.R. Larson and J. Ans: tr = 233 hr
Miller, Trans. ASME, 74, 765 (1952).)
Chapter 8 - 69
 Estimate the rupture time for
S-590 Iron, T = 750ºC, s = 20,000 psi
• Solution:

Time to rupture, tr 100

Stress (103 psi)

T (20 + log tr ) = L
20
temperature function of
applied stress 10
time to failure (rupture)
data for

(1023 K )( 20 + log t r ) = 24 x103 S-590 Iron

1
12 16 20 24 28
103 L (K-h)
Ans: tr = 2890 hr Adapted from Fig. 8.32, Callister & Rethwisch
8e. (Fig. 8.32 is from F.R. Larson and J.
Miller, Trans. ASME, 74, 765 (1952).)
T increase, t decrease Chapter 8 - 70
 SUMMARY
• Engineering materials not as strong as predicted by theory
• Flaws act as stress concentrators that cause failure at
stresses lower than theoretical values.
• Sharp corners produce large stress concentrations
and premature failure.
• Failure type depends on T and s :
-For simple fracture (noncyclic s and T < 0.4Tm), failure stress
decreases with:
- increased maximum flaw size,
- decreased T,
- increased rate of loading.
- For fatigue (cyclic s:
- cycles to fail decreases as s increases.
- For creep (T > 0.4Tm):
- time to rupture decreases as s or T increases. Chapter 8 - 71