Chemistry in Daily life

Details of Unit 1 to learn:

Fertilizer
 Types of Fertilizers
• Straight
• Complex
• Mixed
• Complete
• Incomplete
• Organic
• Inorganic
• Soluble
• Insoluble
 Forms of Fertilizer

FERTILIZERS
Fertilizer is any material of natural or synthetic origin added to the soil to
supply one or more plant nutrients.

CLASSIFICATION OF FERTILIZERS

Fertilizer
 Forms of Fertilizer

1. Straight fertilizers 2. Complex fertilizers 3. Mixed fertilizers:

Straight Complex fertilizers Mixed fertilizers are just

fertilizers are those contain two or three primary physical mixtures of

which supply only one plant nutrients of which two different straight
primary nutrients are in fertilizers. Mixed
primary plant nutrient,
chemical combination. fertilizers contain two or
namely nitrogen or
These fertilizers three primary plant
phosphorus or
are usually produced in nutrients.
potassium. E.g. Urea,
granular form e.g.
ammonium sulphate, Mixed fertilizers are
Diammonium phosphate,
potassium chloride and made by thoroughly
nitrophosphates and
potassium sulphate. mixing the ingredients
ammonium phosphate.
either mechanically or
manually.
 Complete vs. Incomplete
• Complete Fertilizers
– Contain all 3 primary nutrients of nitrogen,
phosphorus, & potassium.
• Examples:
– 10-10-10
– 15-30-15
– 20-5-20
 Complete vs. Incomplete

• Incomplete Fertilizers
– DO NOT have all 3 primary
nutrients.
• Examples:
– 20-0-0
– 0-20-0
– 12-0-44
Fertilizer Analysis
Choosing a Fertilizer
 Organic Fertilizers
• Comes from plant or animal matter and
contains carbon compounds
• Examples: urea, sludge.
 Advantages of Organic
• Slow release of nutrients
• Not easily leached from the soil
• Add organic components to growing media
 Disadvantages of Organic
• Hard to get
• Not sterile
• Low nutrient content
• Expensive
 Inorganic Fertilizers
• Comes from sources other than animals or
plants
• Chemical products
 Advantages of Inorganic
• Can make the desired ratio of nutrients
• easy to get
• lower cost
 Disadvantages of Inorganic
• No organic material
• More possibility of environmental pollution
compared to Organic one.
 Soluble Fertilizer
• Dissolve in water and are applied as a liquid
solution
• Fertigation
– fertilizing through irrigation water
– big advantage
 Insoluble Fertilizer
• Includes granular and slow release applied to
the growing media
 Granular vs. Slow Release
• Granular
– relatively inexpensive
– easy to find
• Slow Release
– more expensive because it is coated
– more uniform release of nutrients over time
period
 Forms of Fertilizer

A. Nitrogenous fertilizers
More than 80 per cent of the fertilizers used in this country are made up of
nitrogenous fertilizers, particularly urea.

Ammoniacal Nitrate Ammoniacal and Amide fertilizer

Nitrate
Ammoniumm Sodium Nitrate Ammonium Nitrate Urea
Sulphate Calcium Nitrate Calcium Ammonium Nitrate Calcium Cynamide
Ammonium chloride Potassium Nitrate Ammonium Sulphate Nitrate
Anhydrous ammonia
 Forms of Fertilizer

Ammonical fertilizers

• Ammoniacal fertilizers contain the nutrient nitrogen in the form of

ammonium or ammonia.
• Except rice, all crops absorb nitrogen in nitrate form. These fertilizers are
resistant to leaching loss, as the ammonium ions get readily absorbed
on the colloidal complex of the soil.
 Fertilizer

a) Ammonium sulphate [(NH4)2 S04]

• It is a white salt completely soluble in water containing 20.6 per cent of
nitrogen and 24.0 per cent of sulphur. It is used advantageously in rice and
jute cultivation.
• It is easy to handle and it stores well under dry conditions. But during
rainy season, it sometimes forms lumps.
• It can be applied before sowing, at the time of sowing
 Fertilizer

b) Ammonium chloride (NH4Cl)

• It is a white salt contains 26.0 per cent of
nitrogen.
• It is usually not recommended for tomato,
tobacco and such other crops as may be injured by
chlorine.
Ammonium chloride
 Fertilizer

2. Nitrate Fertilizers
• Nitrate fertilizers contain the nitrogen in the form of NO3

• These ions are easily lost by leaching because of the greater mobility
of nitrate ions in the soil.

• Continuous use of these fertilizers may reduce the soil acidity as

these nitrogenous fertilizers are basic in their residual effect on soils.
 Fertilizer

b) Potassium nitrate (KNO3)

The purified salt contains 13.0 per cent nitrogen and 36.4 per cent
potassium.
The nitrogen of the potassium nitrate has the same properties and value as
that of the sodium nitrate.
3. Ammoniacal and nitrate fertilizers
These fertilizers contain nitrogen in both ammonium and nitrate
forms. The nitrates are useful for rapid utilization by crops and the ammonical is
gradually available
 Fertilizer

a) Ammonium nitrate (NH4N03)

• Contain 35 per cent nitrogen half as nitrate nitrogen and half in the
ammonium form.

• In the ammonium form, it cannot be easily leached from the soil.

• This fertilizer is quick-acting, but highly hygroscopic and not fit for
storage.

•
 Fertilizer

C) Ammonium sulphate nitrate [(NH4)2S04 NH4NO3]

• It contains 26 per cent nitrogen, three fourths of it in the ammoniacal
form and the rest (6.5 per cent) as nitrate nitrogen.
• It is a mixture of ammonium nitrate and ammonium sulphate.
• It absorbs moisture from the atmosphere and has to be kept in moisture
proof containers.
• It is readily converted to ammoniacal and nitrate forms in the soil.
It is suitable for most crops and can be applied to all soils.
 Fertilizer

4. Amide fertilizers
Amide fertilizers are readily soluble in water and easily decomposable in
the soil.

a) Urea [CO (NH2)2]

It is the most concentrated solid nitrogenous fertilizer, containing 46 per
cent nitrogen.
It is a white crystalline substance readily soluble in water.
 Fertilizer

Super phosphate [Ca (H2PO4)2)

This is the most important phosphatic fertilizer in use.

It contains 16 Per cent P2O5 in available form.

It is a grey ash like powder with good keeping or storage qualities.
Phosphatic fertilizer hardly moves in the soil and hence they are
placed in the, root zone.
 Fertilizer

Triple super phosphate:

The concentrated super phosphate is called as Triple super phosphate and

it contains 46 per cent P2O5. (3 times than super phosphate)
This fertilizer is suitable for all crops and all soils.
In acid soils, it should be used in conjunction with organic manure.
It can be applied before or at sowing or transplanting.
 Essential Elements
• The 16 elements required by plants are obtained from the soil,
water and air.

• Thirteen of these elements must be supplied by the soil.

• Six of the soil elements required by plants are needed in

relatively large amounts and are usually added to the soil
through fertilizer or lime. These are called macronutrients.
• The remaining 7 elements supplied by soil are required in very
small amounts and are termed micronutrients.
 Macronutrients
Element Symbol Source
• Macronutrients are Oxygen O Air/Water
needed in relatively
Hydrogen H Air/Water
large amounts by
Carbon C Air/Water
plants.
Nitrogen N Soil
Phosphorus P Soil
Sulfur S Soil
Potassium K Soil
Calcium Ca Soil
Magnesium Mg Soil
 Macronutrients – Form Used By Plants
Nutrient Form Used
Carbon CO2
Charge on the
Oxygen H2O molecule
Hydrogen H2O
- +
Nitrogen NO3 , NH4
2-
Phosphorus H2PO4 & HPO4
Potassium K+
+
Calcium Ca2
Magnesium Mg2+
-
Sulfur SO4
 Micronutrients
• Micronutrients are Element Symbol Source
needed in relatively Iron Fe Soil
small amounts by Manganese Mn Soil
plants. Boron B Soil
• They are usually Molybdenum Mo Soil
supplied by Copper Cu Soil
fertilizers. Zinc Zn Soil
Chlorine Cl Soil
 Micronutrients – Form Used By
Plants
Nutrient Form Used Charge on the
Iron Fe2+ molecule
Manganese Mn2+
-
Boron H2B03
2-
Molybdenum MoO4
Copper Cu2+
Zinc Zn2+
Chlorine Cl-
 Nutrient Deficiency Symptoms
• Nutrient deficiency symptoms usually appear on the plant when
one or more nutrients are in short supply.

• In many cases, deficiency may occur because an added

nutrient is not in the form the plant can use.
 Deficiency Symptoms - N
• General Chlorosis.

• Chlorosis progresses from

light green to yellow.

• Growth is immediately
restricted and plants soon
become weak and drop older
leaves.
 Deficiency Symptoms - P
• Leaves appear dull, dark green,
blue green, or red- purple,
especially on the underside,
and especially at the midrib and
deposit.
• Petioles may also exhibit
purpling. Restriction in
growth may be noticed.
 Deficiency Symptoms - K
• Leaf margins brown, dry as a
bone, or have necrotic spots
(may be small black spots).
• Margins become brown and cup
downward.
• Growth is restricted and die back
may occur.
• Mild symptoms appear first on
recently matured leaves.
Nitrogen (N) Deficiency Symptoms

Yellowing of mature lower leaves- nitrogen is

highly mobile in plants
Leaf Margin Necrosis in Poinsettia
Potassium (K) Deficiency
 Macronutrients N, P, K Deficiencies
Leaf Lettuce

Control
Macronutrient Deficiencies
Beans
Nutrient Deficiency in Plants
Thank you
 Chemistry in Daily life

Details of Unit 1 to learn:

 Thought Boosters
• Case1:
Forest> >>>Self-sustainable system where no one cares for plants (biomes)
but those plants still grow fine.. Why? How does forest maintain this?
What we could learn from this? [8 marks
• Case2:
In the year when people did deforestation, they produced a lot of crops,
but lately they could not produce enough crops. Why is this happening?
How could they improve this? What is the learning from it? [8 marks
• Case3:
Let's assume Akash is from a farmer family background. His father bought
a land and started cultivating wheat crops. First and 2nd year, he produced
a lot of crops just by using Urea [46% N content]. However, 3rd yrs
onward, production of wheat was decreased even after applying similar
amount of Urea. He also got a new problem of weeds competing with
wheats. Why? How could you father improve his crop production? What
is the learning outcome here? [8 marks]
• OUTCOME based ACTION: Please apply all these above learnings from 3
case studies and suggest a best proposal for Akash's father; so that he can
produces optimised yield in crop production. [6 marks]
Fertilizer
 Types of Fertilizers
• Straight
• Complex
• Mixed
• Complete
• Incomplete
• Organic
• Inorganic
• Soluble
• Insoluble
 Forms of Fertilizer

FERTILIZERS
Fertilizer is any material of natural or synthetic origin added to the soil to
supply one or more plant nutrients.

CLASSIFICATION OF FERTILIZERS

Fertilizer
 Forms of Fertilizer

1. Straight fertilizers 2. Complex fertilizers 3. Mixed fertilizers:

Straight Complex fertilizers Mixed fertilizers are just

fertilizers are those contain two or three primary physical mixtures of

which supply only one plant nutrients of which two different straight
primary nutrients are in fertilizers. Mixed
primary plant nutrient,
chemical combination. fertilizers contain two or
namely nitrogen or
These fertilizers three primary plant
phosphorus or
are usually produced in nutrients.
potassium. E.g. Urea,
granular form e.g.
ammonium sulphate, Mixed fertilizers are
Diammonium phosphate,
potassium chloride and made by thoroughly
nitrophosphates and
potassium sulphate. mixing the ingredients
ammonium phosphate.
either mechanically or
manually.
 Complete vs. Incomplete
• Complete Fertilizers
– Contain all 3 primary nutrients of nitrogen,
phosphorus, & potassium.
• Examples:
– 10-10-10
– 15-30-15
– 20-5-20
 Complete vs. Incomplete

• Incomplete Fertilizers
– DO NOT have all 3 primary
nutrients.
• Examples:
– 20-0-0
– 0-20-0
– 12-0-44
Fertilizer Analysis
Choosing a Fertilizer
 Thought Booster

Akash’s illiterate father wanted a bag of 100 kg complete fertilizer where the
complete fertilizer code is written as 25:10:30 which is suggested by a soil
analysis expert. He went to a nearby market and bought a bag of fertilizer.
Unfortunately, it was an incomplete fertilizer with a code of 0:10:30. When his
father realised this and wanted to return it, the shop keeper refused to accept
the sold bag of fertilizer.

As Akash is a student of course CHE882 (Chemistry in daily life), his father asked
him about a solution to this problem. It is worth to mention that Akash’s father
already bought 80 kg of Urea (46% N content) from the market. What would be
Akash’s best solution this unique problem so that Akash father can be
economically beneficial. [10 marks]
 Organic Fertilizers
• Comes from plant or animal matter and
contains carbon compounds
• Examples: urea, sludge.
 Advantages of Organic
• Slow release of nutrients
• Not easily leached from the soil
• Add organic components to growing media
 Disadvantages of Organic
• Hard to get
• Not sterile
• Low nutrient content
• Expensive
 Inorganic Fertilizers
• Comes from sources other than animals or
plants
• Chemical products
 Advantages of Inorganic
• Can make the desired ratio of nutrients
• easy to get
• lower cost
 Disadvantages of Inorganic
• No organic material
• More possibility of environmental pollution
compared to Organic one.
 Soluble Fertilizer
• Dissolve in water and are applied as a liquid
solution
• Fertigation
– fertilizing through irrigation water
– big advantage
 Insoluble Fertilizer
• Includes granular and slow release applied to
the growing media

Eg. Rock Phosphate

 Granular vs. Slow Release
• Granular
– relatively inexpensive
– easy to find
• Slow Release
– more expensive because it is coated
– more uniform release of nutrients over time
period
 Forms of Fertilizer

A. Nitrogenous fertilizers
More than 80 per cent of the fertilizers used in this country are made up of
nitrogenous fertilizers, particularly urea.

Ammoniacal Nitrate Ammoniacal and Amide fertilizer

Nitrate
Ammoniumm Sodium Nitrate Ammonium Nitrate Urea
Sulphate Calcium Nitrate Calcium Ammonium Nitrate Calcium Cynamide
Ammonium chloride Potassium Nitrate Ammonium Sulphate Nitrate
Anhydrous ammonia
 Forms of Fertilizer

Ammonical fertilizers

• Ammoniacal fertilizers contain the nutrient nitrogen in the form of

ammonium or ammonia.
• Except rice, all crops absorb nitrogen in nitrate form. These
fertilizers are resistant to leaching loss, as the ammonium ions
get readily absorbed on the colloidal complex of the soil.
 Fertilizer

a) Ammonium sulphate [(NH4)2 S04]

• It is a white salt completely soluble in water containing 20.6 per cent of
nitrogen and 24.0 per cent of sulphur. It is used advantageously in rice and
jute cultivation.
• It is easy to handle and it stores well under dry conditions. But during
rainy season, it sometimes forms lumps.
• It can be applied before sowing, at the time of sowing
 Fertilizer

b) Ammonium chloride (NH4Cl)

• It is a white salt contains 26.0 per cent of
nitrogen.
• It is usually not recommended for tomato,
tobacco and such other crops as may be injured by
chlorine.
Ammonium chloride
 Fertilizer

2. Nitrate Fertilizers
• Nitrate fertilizers contain the nitrogen in the form of NO3

• These ions are easily lost by leaching because of the greater mobility
of nitrate ions in the soil.

• Continuous use of these fertilizers may reduce the soil acidity as

these nitrogenous fertilizers are basic in their residual effect on soils.
 Fertilizer

b) Potassium nitrate (KNO3)

The purified salt contains 13.0 per cent nitrogen and 36.4 per cent
potassium.
The nitrogen of the potassium nitrate has the same properties and value as
that of the sodium nitrate.
3. Ammoniacal and nitrate fertilizers
These fertilizers contain nitrogen in both ammonium and nitrate
forms. The nitrates are useful for rapid utilization by crops and the ammonical is
gradually available
 Fertilizer

a) Ammonium nitrate (NH4N03)

• Contain 35 per cent nitrogen half as nitrate nitrogen and half in the
ammonium form.

• In the ammonium form, it cannot be easily leached from the soil.

• This fertilizer is quick-acting, but highly hygroscopic and not fit for
storage.

•
 Fertilizer

C) Ammonium sulphate nitrate [(NH4)2S04 NH4NO3]

• It contains 26 per cent nitrogen, three fourths of it in the ammoniacal
form and the rest (6.5 per cent) as nitrate nitrogen.
• It is a mixture of ammonium nitrate and ammonium sulphate.
• It absorbs moisture from the atmosphere and has to be kept in moisture
proof containers.
• It is readily converted to ammoniacal and nitrate forms in the soil.
It is suitable for most crops and can be applied to all soils.
 Fertilizer

4. Amide fertilizers
Amide fertilizers are readily soluble in water and easily decomposable in
the soil.

a) Urea [CO (NH2)2]

It is the most concentrated solid nitrogenous fertilizer, containing 46 per
cent nitrogen.
It is a white crystalline substance readily soluble in water.
 Fertilizer

Super phosphate [Ca (H2PO4)2)

This is the most important phosphatic fertilizer in use.

It contains 16 Per cent P2O5 in available form.

It is a grey ash like powder with good keeping or storage qualities.
Phosphatic fertilizer hardly moves in the soil and hence they are
placed in the, root zone.
 Fertilizer

Triple super phosphate:

The concentrated super phosphate is called as Triple super phosphate and

it contains 46 per cent P2O5. (3 times than super phosphate)
This fertilizer is suitable for all crops and all soils.
In acid soils, it should be used in conjunction with organic manure.
It can be applied before or at sowing or transplanting.
Reading assignment (slide 35- 39)

Thought Booster

When food will treated as medicine, you don’t

have to take medicine as food. –Unknown
One of the best quote to remember!!!
Thank you
 Essential Elements
• The 16 elements required by plants are obtained from the soil,
water and air.

• Thirteen of these elements must be supplied by the soil.

• Six of the soil elements required by plants are needed in

relatively large amounts and are usually added to the soil
through fertilizer or lime. These are called macronutrients.
• The remaining 7 elements supplied by soil are required in very
small amounts and are termed micronutrients.
 Macronutrients
Element Symbol Source
• Macronutrients are Oxygen O Air/Water
needed in relatively Hydrogen H Air/Water
large amounts by Carbon C Air/Water
plants. Nitrogen N Soil
Phosphorus P Soil
Sulfur S Soil
Potassium K Soil
Calcium Ca Soil
Magnesium Mg Soil
 Macronutrients – Form Used By Plants
Nutrient Form Used
Carbon CO2
Charge on the
Oxygen H2O molecule
Hydrogen H2O
- +
Nitrogen NO3 , NH4
2-
Phosphorus H2PO4 & HPO4
Potassium K+
+
Calcium Ca2
Magnesium Mg2+
-
Sulfur SO4
 Micronutrients
• Micronutrients are Element Symbol Source
needed in relatively Iron Fe Soil
small amounts by Manganese Mn Soil
plants. Boron B Soil
• They are usually Molybdenum Mo Soil
supplied by Copper Cu Soil
fertilizers. Zinc Zn Soil
Chlorine Cl Soil
 Micronutrients – Form Used By
Plants
Nutrient Form Used Charge on the
Iron Fe2+ molecule
Manganese Mn2+
-
Boron H2B03
2-
Molybdenum MoO4
Copper Cu2+
Zinc Zn2+
Chlorine Cl-
 Nutrient Deficiency Symptoms
• Nutrient deficiency symptoms usually appear on the plant when
one or more nutrients are in short supply.

• In many cases, deficiency may occur because an added

nutrient is not in the form the plant can use.
 Deficiency Symptoms - N
• General Chlorosis.

• Chlorosis progresses from

light green to yellow.

• Growth is immediately
restricted and plants soon
become weak and drop older
leaves.
 Deficiency Symptoms - P
• Leaves appear dull, dark green,
blue green, or red- purple,
especially on the underside,
and especially at the midrib and
deposit.
• Petioles may also exhibit
purpling. Restriction in
growth may be noticed.
 Deficiency Symptoms - K
• Leaf margins brown, dry as a
bone, or have necrotic spots
(may be small black spots).
• Margins become brown and cup
downward.
• Growth is restricted and die back
may occur.
• Mild symptoms appear first on
recently matured leaves.
Nitrogen (N) Deficiency Symptoms

Yellowing of mature lower leaves- nitrogen is

highly mobile in plants
Leaf Margin Necrosis in Poinsettia
Potassium (K) Deficiency
 Macronutrients N, P, K Deficiencies
Leaf Lettuce

Control
Macronutrient Deficiencies
Beans
Nutrient Deficiency in Plants
Pesticides
 Pesticides
Pesticides are chemicals used to eliminate or control a variety of agricultural pests that can
damage crops and livestock and reduce farm productivity.

Major types of pesticides:

Insecticides – used to kill insects
Herbicides – weed killers
Fungicides – used to kill molds, rusts
Rodenticides – rat & mouse killers

DDT- A common insecticides

 IDEAL PESTICIDES would…
o Kills only the target pest!!
o Harms no other species in ecosystem
o Disappears or breaks down into something non toxic
o Does not promote genetic resistance in pests
o Is more cost-effective (cheap)
 PESTICIDE PROBLEMS:

Endocrine disruptors (DDT, Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), Atrazine,

Bisphenol A) are carcinogens.

> Wildlife –mutations

> Humans –increasecancers , increase in miscarriage, increase in male
infertility

> Biomagnification in the ecosystem (DDT; PCBs)

> Neurological Damage – PCBs, mercury

> Surface Water Runoff of pesticides – killing millions of fish
> Direct contact of farmers resulting in deaths
> Organophosphates (Malathion) Broad Spectrum Pesticides – killing useful
insects - honeybee
 Some Common Pesticides
• Insecticide:
. Organochlorines (DDT), Organophosphates (Parathion) and carbamates (Carbaryl)
• DDT:- is a colorless, crystalline, tasteless and almost odorless organochloride.

o Highly hydrophobic,it is nearly insoluble in water but has good solubility in most
organic solvents, fats and oils.
o From 1950 to 1980, DDT was extensively used in agriculture.
o In insects it opens sodium ion channels in neurons, damage neurons which leads to spasms
and eventual death.
o Problems:
o In the 1970s and 1980s, agricultural use was banned in most developed countries.
o is a persistent organic pollutant that is readily adsorbed to soils and sediments
o Due to hydrophobic properties, in aquatic ecosystems DDT and its metabolites are
absorbed by aquatic organisms.
o Because of its lipophilic properties, DDT has a high potential to bioaccumulate, especially
in predatory birds
 Herbicide: 2,4-D (2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid)

 It is a common systemic herbicide used in the control

of broadleaf weeds but not grasses or crops.
 It is absorbed through the leaves .

Problems:

 Men who work with 2,4-D are at risk of fertility problems; the risk depends on
the amount and duration of exposure and other personal factors.

 World Health Organization's (WHO), International Agency for Research on

Cancer (IARC) confirmed that, 2,4-D as a possible carcinogen.
 Soil Chemistry
Soil is the top layer of the earth’s crust in which organic matter grows. There are
many components which determine a soil type such as pH, nutrient level and organic
content.

pH of the soil:

Can be modified by adding different chemicals. Soil pH indicates how acid or

alkaline the soil is.

The pH of a soil is crucial because crops grow best in a narrow pH range which
can vary among crops.

For example, blueberries and a few types of flowers grow best when the pH is 5.5
or less. Potatoes, a more familiar crop, grow best with a soil pH range of 5.5 to 6.0.

Most garden vegetables, shrubs, trees and lawns grow best when the soil pH is
over 6.0 or 6.5. The range between 5.5 and 7.5 is favorable for two reasons.

It allows sufficient microorganisms to break down organic matter. It is also the best
range for nutrient availability.
 Liming
Farmers needed a way to increase the pH of crops. the soil to make it suitable for other

The pH of soil can be increased by liming.

This is why people sometimes spread white powder on their lawns or gardens. This
white powder is Lime.

Calcitic limestone (CaCO3) provides a good source of Calcium (Ca) and helps
neutralize soil acidity.

Limestone functions similarly but also adds Magnesium (Mg).

Chemistry to liming
Hydrogen ions (H+) are attracted to soil and organic material which have a negative charge. When
lime is applied, these hydrogen ions are exchanged for calcium or magnesium(Ca2+ or Mg2+) ions
which have a greater positive charge. This helps to neutralize the acidity of the soil. The free
hydrogen ions are taken out of solution. This also helps to increase the pH.

Buffering capacity
is the ability of the soil to resist change. In the case of acidity, it is the ability of the soil to
resist change in pH.
 Manures
Manure is organic matter, mostly derived from animal feces except in the case of
green manure, which can be used as organic fertilizer in agriculture.

Manures contribute to the fertility of the soil by adding organic matter and
nutrients, such as nitrogen, that are trapped by bacteria in the soil.

Manures with low nutrient, content per unit quantity have longer residual
effect besides improving soil physical properties compared to fertilizer with
high nutrient content.
Major sources of manures are:

• Cattle shed wastes-dung, urine and

slurry from biogas plants
• Human habitation wastes-human urine,
town refuse, sewage, sludge and sullage
• Poultry Jitter, droppings of sheep and
goat
• Slaughterhouse wastes-bone meal,
meat meal, blood meal, horn and hoof
meal, Fish wastes
• By products of agro industries-oil cakes,
bagasse and press mud, fruit and
vegetable processing wastes etc
• Crop wastes-sugarcane trash, stubbles
and other related material
• Water hyacinth, weeds and tank silt, and
• Green manure crops and green leaf
manuring material
Thank you
 Essential Elements
• The 16 elements required by plants are obtained from the soil,
water and air.

• Thirteen of these elements must be supplied by the soil.

• Six of the soil elements required by plants are needed in

relatively large amounts and are usually added to the soil
through fertilizer or lime. These are called macronutrients.
• The remaining 7 elements supplied by soil are required in very
small amounts and are termed micronutrients.
 Macronutrients
Element Symbol Source
• Macronutrients are Oxygen O Air/Water
needed in relatively Hydrogen H Air/Water
large amounts by Carbon C Air/Water
plants. Nitrogen N Soil
Phosphorus P Soil
Sulfur S Soil
Potassium K Soil
Calcium Ca Soil
Magnesium Mg Soil
 Macronutrients – Form Used By Plants
Nutrient Form Used
Carbon CO2
Charge on the
Oxygen H2O molecule
Hydrogen H2O
- +
Nitrogen NO3 , NH4
2-
Phosphorus H2PO4 & HPO4
Potassium K+
+
Calcium Ca2
Magnesium Mg2+
-
Sulfur SO4
 Micronutrients
• Micronutrients are Element Symbol Source
needed in relatively Iron Fe Soil
small amounts by Manganese Mn Soil
plants. Boron B Soil
• They are usually Molybdenum Mo Soil
supplied by Copper Cu Soil
fertilizers. Zinc Zn Soil
Chlorine Cl Soil
 Micronutrients – Form Used By
Plants
Nutrient Form Used Charge on the
Iron Fe2+ molecule
Manganese Mn2+
-
Boron H2B03
2-
Molybdenum MoO4
Copper Cu2+
Zinc Zn2+
Chlorine Cl-
 Nutrient Deficiency Symptoms
• Nutrient deficiency symptoms usually appear on the plant when
one or more nutrients are in short supply.

• In many cases, deficiency may occur because an added

nutrient is not in the form the plant can use.
 Deficiency Symptoms - N
• General Chlorosis.

• Chlorosis progresses from

light green to yellow.

• Growth is immediately
restricted and plants soon
become weak and drop older
leaves.
 Deficiency Symptoms - P
• Leaves appear dull, dark green,
blue green, or red- purple,
especially on the underside,
and especially at the midrib and
deposit.
• Petioles may also exhibit
purpling. Restriction in
growth may be noticed.
 Deficiency Symptoms - K
• Leaf margins brown, dry as a
bone, or have necrotic spots
(may be small black spots).
• Margins become brown and cup
downward.
• Growth is restricted and die back
may occur.
• Mild symptoms appear first on
recently matured leaves.
Nitrogen (N) Deficiency Symptoms

Yellowing of mature lower leaves- nitrogen is

highly mobile in plants
Leaf Margin Necrosis in Poinsettia
Potassium (K) Deficiency
 Macronutrients N, P, K Deficiencies
Leaf Lettuce

Control
Macronutrient Deficiencies
Beans
Nutrient Deficiency in Plants
Pesticides
 Pesticides
Pesticides are chemicals used to eliminate or control a variety of agricultural pests that can
damage crops and livestock and reduce farm productivity.

Major types of pesticides:

Insecticides – used to kill insects
Herbicides – weed killers
Fungicides – used to kill molds, rusts
Rodenticides – rat & mouse killers

DDT- A common insecticides

 IDEAL PESTICIDES would…
o Kills only the target pest!!
o Harms no other species in ecosystem
o Disappears or breaks down into something non toxic
o Does not promote genetic resistance in pests
o Is more cost-effective (cheap)
 PESTICIDE PROBLEMS:

Endocrine disruptors (DDT, Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), Atrazine,

(Bisphenol A) are carcinogens.

> Wildlife –mutations

> Humans –increasecancers , increase in miscarriage, increase in male
infertility

> Biomagnification in the ecosystem (DDT; PCBs)

> Neurological Damage – PCBs, mercury

> Surface Water Runoff of pesticides – killing millions of fish
> Direct contact of farmers resulting in deaths
> Organophosphates (Malathion) Broad Spectrum Pesticides – killing useful
insects - honeybee
 Some Common Pesticides
• Insecticide:
. Organochlorines (DDT), Organophosphates (Parathion) and carbamates (Carbaryl)
• DDT:- is a colorless, crystalline, tasteless and almost odorless organochloride.

o Highly hydrophobic,it is nearly insoluble in water but has good solubility in most
organic solvents, fats and oils.
o From 1950 to 1980, DDT was extensively used in agriculture.
o In insects it opens sodium ion channels in neurons, damage neurons which leads to spasms
and eventual death.
o Problems:
o In the 1970s and 1980s, agricultural use was banned in most developed countries.
o is a persistent organic pollutant that is readily adsorbed to soils and sediments
o Due to hydrophobic properties, in aquatic ecosystems DDT and its metabolites are
absorbed by aquatic organisms.
o Because of its lipophilic properties, DDT has a high potential to bioaccumulate, especially
in predatory birds
 Herbicide: 2,4-D (2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid)

 It is a common systemic herbicide used in the control

of broadleaf weeds but not grasses or crops.
 It is absorbed through the leaves .

Problems:

 Men who work with 2,4-D are at risk of fertility problems; the risk depends on
the amount and duration of exposure and other personal factors.

 World Health Organization's (WHO), International Agency for Research on

Cancer (IARC) confirmed that, 2,4-D as a possible carcinogen.
 Soil Chemistry
Soil is the top layer of the earth’s crust in which organic matter grows. There are
many components which determine a soil type such as pH, nutrient level and organic
content.

pH of the soil:

Can be modified by adding different chemicals. Soil pH indicates how acid or

alkaline the soil is.

The pH of a soil is crucial because crops grow best in a narrow pH range which
can vary among crops.

For example, blueberries and a few types of flowers grow best when the pH is 5.5
or less. Potatoes, a more familiar crop, grow best with a soil pH range of 5.5 to 6.0.

Most garden vegetables, shrubs, trees and lawns grow best when the soil pH is
over 6.0 or 6.5. The range between 5.5 and 7.5 is favorable for two reasons.

It allows sufficient microorganisms to break down organic matter. It is also the best
range for nutrient availability.
 Liming
Farmers needed a way to increase the pH of crops. the soil to make it suitable for other

The pH of soil can be increased by liming.

This is why people sometimes spread white powder on their lawns or gardens. This
white powder is Lime.

Calcitic limestone (CaCO3) provides a good source of Calcium (Ca) and helps
neutralize soil acidity.

Limestone functions similarly but also adds Magnesium (Mg).

Chemistry to liming
Hydrogen ions (H+) are attracted to soil and organic material which have a negative charge. When
lime is applied, these hydrogen ions are exchanged for calcium or magnesium(Ca2+ or Mg2+) ions
which have a greater positive charge. This helps to neutralize the acidity of the soil. The free
hydrogen ions are taken out of solution. This also helps to increase the pH.

Buffering capacity
is the ability of the soil to resist change. In the case of acidity, it is the ability of the soil to
resist change in pH.
 Manures
Manure is organic matter, mostly derived from animal feces except in the case of
green manure, which can be used as organic fertilizer in agriculture.

Manures contribute to the fertility of the soil by adding organic matter and
nutrients, such as nitrogen, that are trapped by bacteria in the soil.

Manures with low nutrient, content per unit quantity have longer residual
effect besides improving soil physical properties compared to fertilizer with
high nutrient content.
Major sources of manures are:

• Cattle shed wastes-dung, urine and

slurry from biogas plants
• Human habitation wastes-human urine,
town refuse, sewage, sludge and sullage
• Poultry Jitter, droppings of sheep and
goat
• Slaughterhouse wastes-bone meal,
meat meal, blood meal, horn and hoof
meal, Fish wastes
• By products of agro industries-oil cakes,
bagasse and press mud, fruit and
vegetable processing wastes etc
• Crop wastes-sugarcane trash, stubbles
and other related material
• Water hyacinth, weeds and tank silt, and
• Green manure crops and green leaf
manuring material
Thank you
Preservation of Food
 Food additives
Food additives are substances/chemicals added to food
products to perform specific technological functions.

functions include:
• Adding colour,
• Adding flavor and sweetness to food for interest and
variety.
• Preserving, i.e. increasing shelf-life or inhibiting the
growth of pathogens.
 Use of food additives (PAT)

Preserving
Attractive
Tastier
1. Colourings
2. Flavourings
3. Sweeteners (To sweeten food without using sugar)
4. Preservatives
5. Emulsifiers and stabilizers(Stabilize oil-water
mixtures like ice-cream)
6. Acids, bases and buffers(Control the pH value of
food)
7. Nutrients
 Types of additives
Additives may be:
•Natural – found naturally, such as
extracts from beetroot juice (E162),
used as a colouring agent;
•Manmade versions – synthetic
identical copies of substances found
naturally, such as benzoic acid (E210),
used as a preservative;
•Artificial – produced synthetically
and not found naturally, such as nisin
(E234), used as a preservative in
some dairy products.
 Colours
Colours aim to:
• Restorecolour, lost, during processing or storage, eg: marrow, fat
peas.
• Ensure that each batch produced is identical in appearance or
does not appear ‘off’
• Reinforces colour already in foods, e.g. enhance
the yellowness of a custard
• Give colour to foodswhich otherwise would be colourless
(e.g. soft drinks) and so make them more attractive.
 Colours
Certain combinations of the following artificial food
colours: sunset yellow (E110), quinoline yellow (E104),
carmoisine (E122), allura red (E129), tartrazine (E102)
and ponceau 4R (E124) have been linked to a negative
effect on children’s behaviour.

These colours are used in soft drinks, sweets and ice

cream.
 Flavour enhancers
Flavour enhancers bring out the flavour in foods without
imparting a flavour of their own, e.g. Monosodium
glutamate (E612) is added to processed foods. For
example some soups, sauces and salad dressing.
(Prolonged eating cause numbness in a portion of brain)
 Sweeteners
Sweeteners include:
•Intense sweeteners, e.g. saccharin, have a sweetness many times
that of sugar and therefore are used in small amounts, e.g. in diet
foods, soft drinks, sweetening tablets; (non caloric, control obesity
but causes bladder tumours)

•Bulk sweeteners, e.g. sorbitol, have a similar sweetness to sugar

and are used at similar levels.

If concentrated warm drinks that contain sweeteners are given to

children between the ages of 6 months to 4 years, it is important to
dilute them more than for adults. Infants under 6 months should not
be given cordial drinks.
 Food
Preservatives
 Preservatives
• Chemicals added to maintain color and freshness of
food and drink products.
Preservatives
Preservatives aim to:
•Prevent the growth of micro-organisms which could
cause food spoilage and lead to food poisoning;

•Extend the shelf-life of products, so that they can be

distributed and sold to the consumer with a longer shelf-
life.
For example:-
Different types of meats
are often treated with
nitrite and nitrate (E249
to E252) during the
curing process.
 General Name of Product and
Chemicals Used in Daily Life
products and their Effect

• Chemical drinks
• Bread
• Butter
• Beer
A) Chemical drinks

“Soft drinks” is a term used for beverages that don’t

contain Alcohol

Contents:
Sugar,
Artificial sweeteners (Aspartame)
Caffeine
Acid (citric, tartaric etc.)
Carbon Dioxide
Preservatives (Sodium benzoate)
Artificial Flavorings and Colorings (Tartrazine: orange-yellowish)
 Beer
• Ingredients
–Barley, Hops, Yeast, Water
• Brewing process
–The processing, required for the formation of Beer is
known as Brewing process.
 Types of Grain Used for Beer
• Barley
• Other Grains
– Wheat, Oats, Corn, Rice.
 Malting-Process of Malt Formation
• Grain (usually barley) is malted
a) Harvested grain is soaked
in water until it germinates
This activates amylases (and
Proteases) Barley Amylase

b) Grain is dried
c) Acrospires (sprouts) are removed
d) Grain is cured -usually at
least one month
e) Malt is formed
 Yeast
• The word “enzyme” (meaning biological catalyst)
originates from the Greek for “within the yeast”*
• Through anaerobic respiration, it converts the malt
sugar into alcohol, CO2, and other by-products
C6H12O6  2 CH3CH2OH + 2 CO2 + 118 kJ
• Yeast is essentially a fermentation catalyst and often
removed after fermentation, and can be re-uesd
 Water
1. Flavor of water
2. Nutrients for yeast
a) Can’t use distilled water
b) pH effects how well enzymes
make maltose
c) Keep mash pH 5-5.5
3.Ion concentration important
e.g. Ca2+, Mg2+, CO32-
 Brewing Process
• Sugar is extracted from grains
• Hops are added and Wort(Liquid
mixture) is boiled
• Wort is cooled
• Yeast is added
• Wort ferments to become beer
• Water is a medium for fermentation
Fermentation
• Yeast absorbs oxygen and sugar, and reproduces.
• When oxygen is used up, reproduction stops and fermentation
(anaerobic respiration) begins
• Each glucose produces two molecules of ethyl alcohol and CO2
C6H12O6  2 CH3CH2OH + 2 CO2 + 118 kJ (2 ATP)
Butter
Butter is a solid dairy product made by churning fresh
or fermented cream or milk, to separate the butterfat
from the buttermilk.

It is generally used as a spread on plain or toasted

bread products and a condiment on cooked
vegetables, as well as in cooking, such as baking,
sauce making, and pan frying.

Butter consists of butterfat, milk proteins and water.

Most frequently made from cows' milk, butter can also be manufactured
from the milk of other mammals, including sheep, goats, buffalo, and yaks.

Salt such as dairy salt, flavorings and preservatives are sometimes added to
butter. Rendering butter produces clarified butter or ghee, which is almost
entirely butterfat.
Bread
Raw Materials
• Bread is made with three basic
ingredients: grain, water, and bakers'
yeast.
• The harvested grain is ground
according to the type of bread being
made.
• All grains are composed of three
parts: bran (the hard outer layer),
germ (the reproductive component),
and endosperm (the soft inner core).
• All three parts are ground together to make whole wheat and rye
breads. To make white flour, the bran and the germ must be
removed.
Unit 2
 Varnish
• A coating material which when applied to a substrate forms
a solid transparent film having protective, decorative or
specific technical properties.
• Varnish is a transparent, hard, protective finish or film
that is primarily used in wood finishing but also for
other materials.
5.Lacquer (clear or coloured wood finish): Protecting covering or
coating consisting of resin sometimes pigment also

5.Resin: thicks, sticky yellowish material-brown substance which

bound material material together.
 Example
Shellac is a resin secreted by the female Lac bug, on trees in the
forests of India and Thailand
 Paint
A pigmented coating material in liquid or in paste or powder form which
when applied to a substrate forms an opaque(Solid) film having protective,
decorative or specific technical properties.
Paint Composition:
Coatings are a combination of numerous ingredients, all of which fulfil a
specific purpose.

Film formers: are chlorinated with macro-molecular products (eg. or low

molecular mass products rubber) which react to form macromolecular
structures (eg. epoxy/amine).

Resins: the essence of a resin is that it can be made to form a continuous

supporter film when applied to a substrate.
 Paint
Plasticizer: are organic liquids of oily consistency and low volatility. They are
used to modify the film characteristics of the film former/resin being used, for
example by improving flow and increasing flexibility.

Binder: Film former/resin/ plasticizer combinations are often referred to as the

binder of the system.

Pigments: are responsible for colour, hiding power and, in special cases, for
specific properties (eg passivation or fouling control). Pigments are finely
ground, crystalline solids dispersed in the paint. Metals, inorganic, organic and
organometallic compounds are all used as pigments.
Extenders: are naturally occurring or synthetic materials which
have little hiding power or effect on colour. Extenders are used to
impart specific properties to the paint (eg shiny finish control,
scratch resistance or reinforcement). Typical extenders are talc,
mica and dolomite.

Solvents: are volatile fluids used to assist in dissolving solid resins

and to aid the application of paint. Solvent evaporates from the
coating during drying and essentially plays no part in the final
coating performance.

Additives: a wide range of materials are used in paint at low levels

to improve the properties of the finished product.
 Film Formation (Drying)

During the film formation process the paint is transformed

from a liquid (usually) to a coherent, tightly supporter film
on the surface of the item being coated.

Two types drying processes in coating:

Physical and chemical drying

 There are essentially two drying
mechanisms used in marine coatings
Physical drying – referring to non-convertible coatings. Such coatings
dry by simple solvent evaporation. No chemical reaction takes place.
Binders are usually long chain polymers, which can interlock to form
continuous films without chemical reaction. To facilitate film formation it
is necessary to dissolve the polymers in appropriate solvents due to the
inherently high viscosities of the polymers in use.

Chemical drying – referring to convertible coatings. Such coatings dry

by chemical reaction, i.e. they are converted from their original state into
a new state. Once they are fully cured they cannot be redissolved in the
original carrier solvent, unlike non- convertible coatings.
 Timber and its chemical protection
More than 5000 products such as cellulose, varnishes,
alcohol, synthetic fibres, sugars, plastics, adhesives, oils,
dyes, soaps, inks, medicines, disinfectants, boards, many
of which are known since centuries ago, are prepared
from wood.
Specially new wood products with better quality and
properties are recently seen in the field of board
products and composite materials. The demand for
wood material and the price are seen to be increasing
by time.
Although wood material has many advantages with its unique
properties compared with other materials, there are three
deficiencies limiting its use:

a. Wood can be degraded by beetles, termites, and wood destroying fungi

of its because organic chemical structure.
b. Wood is a inflammable material.
c. Wood can absorb water molecules with its free hydroxyl groups and its
absorbed water content depends on the relative humidity of the air.
Timber preservation is becoming increasingly important:
a)to help conserving forest resources
b)to protect wood with higher proportions of sapwood
c)to allow the use of non-durable wood species
d)to influence the use of alternative materials
e)to reduce the necessity for over demand
f)to provide economic and social benefits
 WOOD PRESERVATIVES
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WOOD PRESERVATIVES
a)They must be toxic to fungi, pests and marine organisms.
b)They must be free from objectionable properties in use and handling.
c)They have to possess satisfactory properties with stability under the
conditions for which they are recommended for use.
d) They should not have corrosive properties.
e)They should not be expensive.
Examples:
• Tar Oils
• Anthracene Oil
• Lignite oil
• Pentachlorophenol
• Ammoniacal copper arsenite
(ACA)
• Chromated zinc chloride (CZC)
• Paints and varnishes
• Fire Retardants
Thank you
Cleaners and stain removers

• Cleaning or Stain removal is the process of removing a

mark or spot left by one substance on a specific
surface like a fabric.
• A solvent or detergent is generally used to conduct
stain removal and many of these are available over
the counter.
• If a stain has "set", it has become chemically bonded
to the material that it has stained, and cannot be
removed without damaging the material itself.
 Stain prevention
It is important to avoid setting stains that one wants to remove.
 This can be done by avoiding heat (by not pressing or ironing the stain),
 Remove stained materials as quickly as possible, using the correct
solvent (some solvents will act as catalysts on certain substances and
cause the stain to set more quickly)
 and avoiding rubbing the stain.
 Stain removal
• Most stains are removed by dissolving them with a solvent. The solvent to use is
dependent on two factors:
(a)The agent that is causing the stain (b)The
material that has been stained.
Mechanism
 Solvents
These are some of the solvents that can be used for stains, with some examples
of the stains that they are capable of removing
 Oxidizing solvents
Household bleach generally removes a stain's colour, without dissolving the stain
itself. Hydrogen peroxide is also a bleaching agent that can be used to treat
stains.
 Reducing solvents
Sodium hydrosulphite and sodium hypochlorite normally used for removing stain
and dyes colors.
 Lacquer solvents
Acetone is good for removing some glues, nail polish, ink stains, rubber cement,
and grease. Nail polish remover may contain acetone, however for general use it
is best to obtain bottled acetone from a hardware store. It can be diluted with
water.
 Detergents
Surfactants (detergents) can help to emulsify compounds that are not usually soluble
in water. For example, if you put oil in water, they tend to stay separated. If you put oil,
detergent, and water together and shake them up, then you get a mixture that can help
to remove stains.
 Acids
Lemon juice, containing citric acid which is the active bleaching agent, can effectively
remove stains. Its action can be accelerated by exposing the stain to sunlight, or some
other UV source, while soaking. Other rust removal acids are oxalic acid. Borax or Boric
Acid, Vinegar ( or acetic acid ) which can also help bring out stains.
Alkalis
 Sodium Hydroxide Is also commonly used in drain cleaners. It allows
Grease and other oils to dissolve into Aqueous solution. i.e. Water.

 Other Alkalis such as Potassium Hydroxide (much stronger than Sodium

Hydroxide ) are also used.

Both of these are hazardous chemicals and react with animal flesh(Soft
tissue). High enough concentrations, as in industrial cleaners, and/or
significant exposure time without adequate protection of the exposed area
will cause serious chemical burns.
 Pesticides
Pesticides are chemicals used to eliminate or control a variety of agricultural pests that can
damage crops and livestock and reduce farm productivity.

Major types of pesticides:

Insecticides – used to kill insects
Herbicides – weed killers
Fungicides – used to kill molds, rusts
Rodenticides – rat & mouse killers

DDT- A common insecticides

 IDEAL PESTICIDES would…
o Kills only the target pest!!
o Harms no other species in ecosystem
o Disappears or breaks down into something non toxic
o Does not promote genetic resistance in pests
o Is more cost-effective (cheap)
 Fire Extinguisher
A fire extinguisher, or extinguisher, is an active fire protection device used to
extinguish or control small fires, often in emergency situations.
There are two main types of fire extinguishers:
* Stored-pressure
* Cartridge-operated.

In stored pressure units, the expellant is stored in the

same chamber as the firefighting agent itself.

Eg: In dry chemical extinguishers, nitrogen is typically

used; In water and foam extinguishers typically use air.

Cartridge-operated extinguishers contain

the expellant gas in a separate cartridge
that is punctured prior to discharge,
exposing the propellant to the
extinguishing agent.

use compressed carbon dioxide instead of

nitrogen
Internationally accepted classification methods for hand-held fire extinguisher, useful
in fighting fires with a particular group of fuel.
 Chemicals/agents used as fire extinguishers
#Chemicals:
Monoammonium phosphate: used on class A, B, and C fires
Sodium bicarbonate: used on class B and C fire
Potassium bicarbonate: used on class B and C fires
Potassium bicarbonate & Urea Complex:used on class B and C fires.
Potassium chloride: For B & C fire

#Foam:
Aqueous film-forming foam (AFFF): used on A and B fires
Compressed air foam system (CAFS): on class B for vapor suppression.

#Water:
Air-pressurized water (APW) Water
Mist(Spray)

#Clean agents & Carbondioxide:

Mixtures of inert gases: including
Inergen and Argonite. CO2
Thank you
Lecture 9
PORTLAND CEMENT
A hydraulic cement capable of setting, hardening
and remaining stable under water. It consists
essentially of hydraulic calcium silicates, usually
containing calcium sulfate.

RAW MATERIALS OF P.C.

Calcareous Rocks (CaCO3 > 75%)
Limestone
Marl
Chalk
Marine shell deposits

Argillocalcareous Rocks (40%<CaCO3<75%)

Cement rock
Clayey limestone
Clayey marl
Clayey chalk
Argillaceous Rocks (CaCO3 < 40%)
Clays
Shales
Slates

 Portland cement is made by mixing substances containing CaCO3

with substances containing SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3 and heating them
to a clinker which is subsequently ground to powder and mixed
with 2-6 % gypsum.
 PRODUCTION STEPS
1) Raw materials are crushed, screemed & stockpiled.
2) Raw materials are mixed with definite proportions to obtain “raw
mix”. They are mixed either dry (dry mixing) or by water (wet mixing).
3) Prepared raw mix is fed into the rotary kiln.
4) As the materials pass through the kiln their temperature is rised upto
1300-1600 °C. The process of heating is named as “burning”. The
output is known as “clinker” which is 0.15-5 cm in diameter.
5) Clinker is cooled & stored.
6) Clinker is ground with gypsum
(3-6%) to adjust setting time.
7) Packing & marketing.
 Some common example of Cement
Chemical Name Chemical Formula Oxide Formula
Dicalcium Silicate Ca2SiO4 2CaO.SiO2
Tricalcium Aluminate Ca3Al2O6 3CaO.Al2O3
Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite Ca2AlFeO5 4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3
Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 CaO.H2O
 Glasses
Glass is a non-crystalline amorphous solid that is often transparent and has
widespread practical, technological, and decorative usage in, for example,
window panes, tableware, and optoelectronics.

glass are based on the chemical compound silica (silicon dioxide), the primary
constituent of sand.

soda-lime glass:
Silicon dioxide (SiO2), sodium oxide (Na2O)
calcium oxide (CaO), and several minor
additives.
 Properties and Uses of Glass

Properties of glass:
improve the temperature workability
of the product
Toughness
thermal stability
optical transmittance.

Uses of Glass:
 Optical lenses
 Prisms
 fine glassware
 Optical fibers
 paperweights, marbles, and beads
 list of the more common types of
silicate glasses

 Fused quartz, also called fused silica glass, vitreous silica glass (SiO2)

Soda-lime-silica glass, window glass: silica + sodium oxide (Na2O) + lime

(CaO) + magnesia (MgO) + alumina (Al2O3) Is transparent

Sodium borosilicate glass, Pyrex: silica + boric oxide (B2O3) + soda (Na2O)
+ alumina (Al2O3)

 Lead-oxide glass, crystal glass: silica + lead oxide (PbO) + potassium oxide
(K2O) + soda (Na2O) + zinc oxide (ZnO) + alumina
 Safety Glasses
Safety glass is glass with additional safety features that make it
less likely to break, or less likely to pose a threat when broken
also helps the user to less likely threatened by various hazards.
Common design for a safety glass

Common designs include

 toughened glass (also known as tempered glass)

 laminated glass,

 wire mesh glass (also known as wired glass)

 Toughened glass
Toughened glass is processed by controlled thermal or chemical treatments to
increase its strength compared with normal glass.

Tempering, by design, creates balanced internal stresses which causes the glass
sheet, when broken, to crumble into small granular chunks of similar size and
shape instead of splintering into random, jagged shards. The granular chunks
are less likely to cause injury.

Uses:
vehicle windows
shower doors
architectural glass doors and tables
refrigerator trays
as a component of bulletproof glass
for diving masks
various types of plates and cookware.
 Laminated glass
Laminated glass is usually layers of toughened glass and plastic. When
laminated glass is broken, it is held in place by an interlayer, (polyvinyl
butyral (PVB)) polymer.

The interlayer keeps the layers of glass bonded even when broken, and its
toughening prevents the glass from breaking up into large sharp pieces.

Uses:
automobile windshields
In geographical areas requiring hurricane-resistant
construction
exterior storefronts
curtain walls and windows
PVB interlayer also gives the glass a much
higher sound insulation rating and blocks 99% of
incoming UV radiation.
 Wire mesh glass

Wire mesh glass has a grid or mesh of thin metal wire embedded within the glass.
The presence of the wire mesh may impart strengthening component.

Uses for:
 fire-resistant abilities,
 heat and hose streams.
The wire prevents the glass from falling
out of the frame even if it cracks
under thermal stress, and is far more heat-
resistant than a laminating material.
 SILVERING OF MIRROR
To deposit a coating of pure silver (Ag) on a glass sheet or a glass plate
is called silvering of mirror. This process converts a plane glass sheet
into a mirror.

THEORY OF SILVERING PROCESS

Ammonical silver nitrate ([Ag(NH3)2]+) is a mild oxidizing agent. It can
oxidize many compounds such as aldehydes and a layer of pure 'Ag' is
deposited on the glass surface. In the process Ag+ ions are reduced to
Ag metal.

Glucose
 METHOD OF SILVERING OF MIRROR

1)Clear the glass sheet to remove any stain or oily materials.

2)Cleaning is done with ammonia solution.
3)Prepare aqueous solution of AgNO3.
4)Dilute this solution with ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH) solution slowly,
until brown ppt of silver oxide (Ag2O) is redissolved.

AgNO3 + NH4OH  AgOH + NH4NO3

(white ppt.)
AgOH + 2NH4OH  [Ag(NH3)2]OH + 2H2O
2[Ag(NH3)2]OH  Ag2O + H2O + 4NH3
(Brown ppt.)
 METHOD OF SILVERING OF MIRROR
4) To this solution add glucose (reducing agent) and immediately pour
the solution on the glass sheet to be silvered. It spreads over the
surface glass sheet. The reduction begins and 'Ag' is deposited on the
glass sheet and a brilliant mirror is formed.

5) In order to protect the layer of silver, a coating of varnish is deposited

over it.
Thank you
Lecture 10

Chemistry and consumer

products
Chemistry in Computers and Electronics:
Silicon chips are the basis of powerful computers and different consumer
items.

Semiconductors are generally applicable in CD players, ipods, lasers, barcode

scanners, mobile etc.

 Transistor (semiconductor made) a component was the main part which

revolutionaries the computers.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IcrBqCFLHIY

Computers had provided new strength to chemistry also with its some
program like C, C++, Fortran, Java languages etc.
Silicon is poor conductor but addition of impurities (dopant) such as
phosphorus and boron enhance the electrical properties

The region where many modern development in electronics and computers

takes place is known as “Silicon Valley”.
 Chemistry of Soap
Soaps are water-soluble sodium or potassium salts of fatty acids.
Soaps are made from fats and oils, or their fatty acids, by treating them chemically with
a strong alkali.
Fats and Oils
Surfactants The fats and oils used in soap making come
Builders from animal or plant sources. Each fat or oil is
Bleaches made up of a distinctive mixture of several
Additives different triglycerides.
In a triglyceride molecule, three fatty acid
molecules are attached to one molecule of
glycerine.
Alkali
An alkali is a soluble salt of an alkali metal like sodium or potassium.
The common alkalis used in soap making are sodium hydroxide (NaOH), also called
caustic soda; and potassium hydroxide (KOH), also called caustic potash.

How Soaps are Made

Saponification of fats and oils is the most widely used soap making process. This
method Saponification involves heating fats and oils and reacting them with a liquid
alkali to produce soap and water (neat soap) plus glycerine.
 Detergent
A detergent is a surfactant or a mixture of surfactants with
cleaning properties in dilute solutions
These substances are usually alkylbenzenesulfonates, a
family of compounds that are similar to soap but are more
soluble in hard water

Detergents, like soaps, work because they are

amphiphilic: partly hydrophilic (polar) and
partly hydrophobic (non-polar)

Chemical classification of detergents

Anionic detergents
Cationic detergents
Non-ionic and zwitterionic detergents

 All soaps are detergents: whereas all detergents are surfactants

 surfactant= That’s lower the surface tension of water
Anionic detergents

Typical anionic detergents

are alkylbenzenesulfonates. The
alkylbenzene portion of
these anions is lipophilic and the
sulfonate is hydrophilic.

Cationic detergents are similar to the anionic

ones, with a hydrophobic component, but,
instead of the anionic sulfonate group, the
cationic surfactants have quaternary
ammonium as the polar end. The ammonium
center is positively charged.

Non-ionic and zwitterionic detergents

uncharged, hydrophilic head groups.
Working of Soap/Detergent
Thank you
Chemistry and consumer
products
 Diamond
In mineralogy, diamond is a allotrope of carbon, where the carbon atoms are arranged in
a variation of the face-centered cubic (FCC) crystal structure called a diamond lattice.

Properties:

 diamond is a colourless, lustrous, crystalline solid.

 Most natural diamonds are formed at high temperature and pressure
 Diamond is less stable than graphite
 diamond has the highest hardness and thermal conductivity of any bulk material.
 Diamond also has relatively high optical dispersion
 A diamond is a transparent crystal of tetrahedrally bonded carbon atoms in a covalent
network lattice (sp3)
 Diamond is a bad conductor of heat and electricity
 Natural diamond is transparent to X-rays whereas artificial diamond is opaque to X-
rays. This property is used for distinguishing artificial and natural diamonds.

USES:
1. Diamonds are valuable gemstones. Larger and purer the diamond, the more valuable it
is.
2. Smaller pieces of diamonds are used for cutting glass and drilling rocks. Only a diamond
can cut another diamond. Diamond dust is used for polishing diamonds and precious
stones.
3. Carbonado and bort are used for making precision instruments for cutting and
abrasion.
4. Diamond dyes are used to make thin tungsten wires.
Gem, Jewellery and Ornaments

A gemstone or gem is a
piece of mineral crystal,
which, in cut and polished
form, is used to
make jewelry or other
adornments
Certain rocks or organic
materials that are not
minerals are also used for
jewelry, and are therefore
often considered to be
gemstones as well
Properties and Uses:
 Most gemstones are hard and lustrous (some are soft)
 Gems are rare, that lends value to a gemstone
 Gemstones do vary considerably in their durability
 Health, superstitions, religion, social custom effects
 Eg:
Pearl (CaCO3)

Ruby (Corundum, Al2O3)

Sapphires (aluminium oxide (α-Al2O3)), Topaz

(Al2SiO4(F,OH)2)

Quartz (SiO2) etc.

 How Gems are formed
1. Formation from water near the Earth's surface
Water near the Earth's surface interacts with minerals and dissolves them. If the solution
conditions change minerals will precipitate. A similar, familiar processes is formation of salt
crystals by evaporation of sea water. If the water has interacted with silica-rich rocks, the
process creates quartz.

2. Metamorphic gems
Metamorphic rocks are rocks changed by heat, pressure, and interaction with solutions (eg:
garnet)

3. Magmatic gems
Some gems crystallize in magmas or in gas bubbles (holes) in volcanic rocks.
E.g: zircon, topaz, ruby, etc.
Synthetic, 'Cultured' or lab created gemstones :
 diamonds, rubies, sapphires and emeralds have
been manufactured in labs to possess identical
chemical and physical characteristics to the naturally
occurring variety.

 Synthetic (lab created) corundum, including ruby

and sapphire, are very common and they cost only a
fraction of the natural stones.

 Smaller synthetic diamonds have been

manufactured in large quantities as
industrial abrasives, although larger gem-quality
synthetic diamonds are becoming available in multiple
carats.
 Jewellery and Ornaments

Gold (Au)
Silver (Ag)
Platinum (Pt)

Generally gold (24-carat) is soft and can’t be used in making ornaments, watches or
coins. Hence mixed with like copper, silver and aluminum to make it hard and to
modify its colour.

 Gold writing is used for decorating in

book binding
 Silver is used as jewelry and table
ware
 Diamond, gems, pearls etc. are
studded in gold, silver or their alloy.
Electroplating
(often just called "plating") is the
deposition of a metal coating onto an
object by putting a negative charge on
it and putting it into a solution which
contains a metal salt.

The metal salt contains positively

charged metal ions which are attracted
to the negatively charged object and
are "reduced" to metallic form upon it.

The overall process of electroplating uses an electrolytic cell, which

consists of putting a negative charge on the metal and dipping it into a
solution that contains metal salt (electrolytes) which contain positively
charged metal ions.
Cu, Ag, Cr and Au are extensively used
Purposes of Electroplating:
 Protection
 Appearance, decoration
Special surface properties
 Engineering or mechanical properties

The plating is most commonly a single metallic element, not

an alloy. However, some alloys can be electrodeposited,
notably brass and solder.
Many everyday items made from iron are plated with
zinc (in a process called galvanization) to make them
resistant to corrosion
Thank you
Lecture 16

Chemistry and consumer

products

METALS AND METAL ALLOYS

A metal is a material (an element) that is typically hard, opaque,
shiny, and has good electrical and thermal conductivity.

Physical properties of metals

 They are characteristically shiny
 most are flexible, elastic and dense
 very good electrical conductors
and have high melting points.
 Chemical Properties
Metals Nonmetals
Usually have 1-3 electrons in their Usually have 4-8 electrons in their
outer shell. outer shell.
Lose their valence electrons easily. Gain or share valence electrons easily.
Form oxides that are basic. Form oxides that are acidic.
Are good reducing agents. Are good oxidizing agents.
Have lower electronegativities. Have higher electronegativities.
Physical Properties
Metals Nonmetals

Good electrical conductors and heat

Poor conductors of heat and
conductors.
electricity.
Malleable - can be beaten into thin
Brittle - if a solid.
sheets.
Non ductile.
Ductile - can be stretched into wire.
Do not possess metallic luster.
Possess metallic luster.
Transparent as a thin sheet.
Opaque as thin sheet.
Solids, liquids or gases at room
Solid at room temperature (except
temperature.
Hg).
Lecture 17

Chemistry and consumer

products

METAL ALLOYS
What are alloys?
Mixtures of metals, called alloys, are more commonly used than the pure
metal. By alloying, some of the important properties of metals can be
improved.

Solder, which is used in the electronics industry, is a mixture of tin and

lead. One type of solder (63% tin and 37% lead) has a lower melting
point but is harder than either of the metals. These properties allow it to
be used successfully.

An amalgam is an alloy based on mercury. Dental amalgam is an alloy of

mercury, silver, tin, copper and zinc. It is hard-wearing, corrosion-
resistant and has high-impact strength.

A titanium alloy known as Ti6Al4V is used in the aerospace industry. It is

lightweight, very strong and has high corrosion-resistance properties.
 Alloy Constituents Uses
Nickel Steel 3-5% Ni Armour plate, wire, propeller
blades of aeroplane
Chromium Steel 12% Cr Stainless cutlery
Stainless steel 8% Ni, 18% Cr Table ware, Knives, utensils
Manganese 12-14% Mn Grinding Machinery, rock
steel chrushers, burglar proof safes
Tungsten Steel 18% W High speed tools
Coinage metal Cu, 25% Ni Coins
Brass 70-80% Cu, 30- Utensils, musical instruments
20% Zn
Bronze 90% Cu, 10% Sn Statues, monuments, medals
Chemistry and fireworks
Fireworks are a class of low
explosive pyrotechnic devices used for
visual and entertainment purposes.
The most common use of a firework is
as part of a fireworks display.
Fireworks (devices) take many forms to produce the four primary
effects: noise, light, smoke, and floating materials
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sxztkX9z1s4
They may be designed to burn with
colored flames and sparks including
red, orange, yellow, green, blue,
purple, and silver. Displays are
common throughout the world and
are the focal point of many cultural
and religious celebrations.
Fireworks are generally made up of
charcoal, sulphur and potassium
nitrate (KNO3, the most important
ingredient)
Safety

 Improper use of fireworks may be dangerous, both to the person

operating them (risks of burns and wounds) and to bystanders;
 in addition, they may start fires after landing on flammable
material.
Fireworks are also a problem for animals, both domestic and wild,
who can be terrified by their noise, leading to them running away,
often into danger, or hurting themselves on fences or in other ways
in an attempt to escape.
SAFETY MATCHES
The first known use of matches was in 577 during the
siege of a town in northern China. Women in the town
used sticks coated with a mixture of chemicals to start
fires for cooking and heating, thus allowing them to
conserve their limited fuel by putting the fires out
between uses. The first modern, self igniting match was
invented in 1805 by Jean Chancel, assistant to Professor
Louis Jacques Thénard of Paris.
In 1831, Charles Sauria of France developed a match that
used white phosphorus. These matches were strike-
anywhere matches and were much easier to ignite.

J. E. L. Strom of Sweden to introduce safety matches in

1855.

The first matchbook matches were patented in the United

States by Joshua in 1892.
Common raw material for Safety matches

Soft wood splints: must be porous enough to absorb various chemicals, and rigid enough
to withstand the bending forces encountered when the match is struck. They should also
be straight-grained and easy to work, so that they may be readily cut into sticks. White
pine and aspen are two common woods used for this purpose.

Match head:
Sulphur, Charcoal, Antimony trisulphide, Paraffin wax (combustible substance)

Red lead, manganese dioxide or potassium dichromate (oxidizing agents)

Gum (binding material)

Chemical on rubbing surface:

Red phosphorus, Antimony sulphide

Ground glass (causes friction)

Gum, glue or starch (binding material)

Thank you
Lecture 17

Chemistry and consumer

products

Wax candles->common salt

WAX CANDLES
A candle is an ignitable wick embedded in wax or another
flammable solid substance that provides light, and in
some cases, a fragrance.
For a candle to burn, a heat source (commonly a flame) is
used to light the candle's wick, which melts
and vaporizes a small amount of fuel (the wax).

Once vaporized, the fuel combines with oxygen in the

atmosphere to ignite and form a constant flame. This
flame provides sufficient heat to keep the candle burning
via a self-sustaining chain of events: the heat of the flame
melts the top of the mass of solid fuel; the liquefied fuel
then moves upward through the wick via capillary action;
the liquefied fuel finally vaporizes to burn within the
candle's flame.
Components:
Wax: Paraffin wax, stearic acid (3-10%), waxoline dye (0.2%)

Wick: A candle wick works by capillary action, drawing ("wicking") the melted wax
or fuel up to the flame. When the liquid fuel reaches the flame, it
vaporizes and combusts. The candle wick influences how the candle burns.
Important characteristics of the wick include diameter, stiffness, fire-resistance,
and tethering.
Mosquito Coil/Repellent
a substance or more especially a chemical (chemicals) that deters
mosquitoes from approaching or settling.

A mosquito coil is a mosquito repelling incense, usually shaped

into a spiral, and typically made from a dried paste
of pyrethrum powder.
Burning usually begins at the outer end of the
spiral and progresses slowly toward the centre
of the spiral, producing a mosquito-repellent
smoke.
Invention
Pyrethrum was used for centuries as an insecticide in Persia and Europe, and the
mosquito coil was developed around the 1890s by a Japanese business man,
people usually mixed pyrethrum powder with sawdust and burned it in incense
burner to repel mosquitoes.
The mosquito repellent are used in form of coils, mats, body lotions and creams.

Mosquitoes are known to carry

many infectious diseases from
several different classes of
microorganisms, including viruses
and parasites. Mosquito-borne
illnesses include malaria, West Nile
virus, elephantiasis, dengue
fever, yellow fever etc.
Ingredients
Active ingredients found in mosquito coils may include:
Pyrethrum - a natural, powdered material from a kind of chrysanthemum plant;
performance moderate
Pyrethrins - an extract of the insecticidal chemicals in pyrethrum, mixture of pleasant-
smelling esters.

Pyrethroids: synthetic materials designed to imitate natural pyrethrum, are

biodegradable and disintegrate in sunlight.
Allethrin - sometimes d-trans-allethrin, the first synthetic pyrethroid
Esbioallethrin, d-allethrin, d-transallethrin, bioallethrin: - form of allethrin.
Additives:
Butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) - an optional additive to prevent pyrethroid from
oxidizing during burning
Piperonyl butoxide (PBO) - an optional additive to improve the effectiveness of
pyrethroid
N-Octyl bicycloheptene dicarboximide (MGK 264) - an optional additive to improve the
effectiveness of a pyrethroid
Fragnances: regular, sandal, rose, lavender etc.
Activity
These chemical effects the central nervous system of insects.
Water based formulations are used as home and garden insect
spray and as pet shampoo for effective control of fleas, tics, lice on
domestic animals
 Disadvantages
Mosquito coils can be hazardous.
Sparks from mosquito coils ignited a fire
Recent studies showed that the smoke generated from a burning mosquito coil
is of certain health concerns – one burning mosquito coil produces the same
amount of particulate mass (diameter up to 2.5 μm) as 75-137 burning cigarettes
would.

The emission of formaldehyde from one burning coil can be as high as that
released from 51 burning cigarettes.
Common Salt
Sodium chloride also known as salt or halite, is an ionic compound with
the chemical formula NaCl, representing a 1:1 ratio of sodium (Na)
and chloride (Cl) ions.

Other names:
Table salt or rock salt

Sodium chloride is the salt most responsible

for the salinity of seawater and of
the extracellular fluid of many multicellular
organisms.
Chemistry of NaCl
Solid sodium chloride
Each ion is surrounded by six ions of the opposite charge as expected on electrostatic
grounds. The surrounding ions are located at the vertices of a regular octahedron.

The larger chloride ions are arranged in a cubic array whereas the smaller sodium ions fill
all the cubic gaps (octahedral voids) between them. This same basic structure is found in
many other compounds and is commonly known as the halite or rock-salt crystal
structure.

Represented as a face-centered cubic (fcc)

lattice with a two-atom basis or as two
interpenetrating face centered cubic
lattices.

Solid sodium chloride has a melting point

of 801 °C.
Aqueous solutions
The attraction between the Na+ and Cl− ions in the solid is so strong that only highly polar
solvents like water dissolve NaCl well.

When dissolved in water, the sodium chloride framework disintegrates as the Na+ and
Cl− ions become surrounded by the polar water molecules. The chloride ions are also
strongly solvated, each being surrounded by an average of 6 molecules of water.

Solutions of sodium chloride have very different properties from pure water. The freezing
point is −21.12 °C (23.3% salt by weight) and the boiling point of saturated salt solution is
near 108.7 °C (227.7 °F).
USES:
In the form of edible or table salt (common salt: 97-99% NaCl, with calcium chloride and
magnesium chloride as impurities).

it is commonly used as a condiment and food preservative.

Large quantities of sodium chloride are used in many industrial processes, and it is a
major source of sodium and chlorine compounds used as feed stocks for further chemical
syntheses.

A second major consumer of sodium chloride is de-icing of roadways in sub-freezing

weather.
Thank you
Chemistry and consumer
products

Chemistry of Batteries/cells
1. Introduction
Batteries definition:
Two or more electrochemical cells, electrically interconnected,
each of which contains two electrodes and an electrolyte. The
redox (oxidation-reduction) reactions that occur at these
electrodes convert electrochemical energy into electrical energy.
In everyday usage, 'battery' is also used to refer to a single cell. The
solid-state batteries are the batteries in which the electrolyte is in
solid state, which is responsible for the conduction of ions from
one electrode to other electrode.

In 1800, Alessandro Volta invented the first modern battery.

PH 0101 Unit-5 Lecture-7 50

2. Types of batteries
Basically batteries can be classifieds as two types as primary
batteries and secondary batteries.
Primary batteries
In primary batteries, the electrochemical reaction is not
reversible.

During discharging the chemical compounds are permanently

changed and electrical energy is released until the original
compounds are completely exhausted.

Thus the cells can be used only once.

PH 0101 Unit-5 Lecture-7 51

Secondary batteries

In secondary batteries, the electrochemical reaction is reversible and

the original chemical compounds can be reconstituted by the
application of an electrical potential between the electrodes injecting
energy into the cell.

Such cells can be discharged and recharged many times.

PH 0101 Unit-5 Lecture-7 52

Chemistry of Batteries/Cells
Electrochemical Cells
Types:
Dry Cell: Outer casing act as anode made up of zinc and central rod act as cathode
and completing the cell, space between the cell is filled with substances like, water,
ammonium chloride, manganese dioxide, and zinc chloride
Types of dry cells
Primary cell
•Zinc-carbon cells, also known
as Leclanche cells
•Alkaline battery
•Lithium battery
•Mercury battery

Secondary cell
•Nickel-cadmium battery
•Silver oxide battery
Primary cells are not rechargeable. They •Lithium ion battery
have to be thrown away after their
chemicals are used up.

Secondary cells are rechargeable. They can

be used again.
Alkaline Battery
Like Zinc-carbon battery
Contains KOH (potassium hydroxide)
Gives 1.5 V
Longer life time
Lead Storage Battery:

Anode of lead metal (Pb) and cathode of lead oxide (PbO)

Electrodes are surrounded by aqueous solution of sulphuric acid, and is used up
during the use of battery
White insoluble lead sulphate coating is formed.
The battery get dead.
Battery can be recharged on passing the current in reverse direction.
Solar cells:
A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell (PV), is an electrical device that converts the energy
of light directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect, which is
a physical and chemical phenomenon.

Solar cells are described as

being photovoltaic irrespective
of whether the source
is sunlight or an artificial light.

Made up of two layers of semi-conducting materials such as Silicon (Si). Each layer is
duped with tiny amount of different impurities (usually phosphorus or boron) which
produce an electrostatic field between the two layers.

New semiconducting material like gallium arsenide, indium phosphite and cadmium
telluride provide more efficiency to PV cells
Chemistry in recreation:
Chemistry and Sports:

Rugby ball, football, helmets, running

shoes, skates etc. all use polymer plastic,
ceramics, alloys and paint coatings

Tennis racquets, golf club and finishing rods are made from graphite-reinforced epoxy
resins.
Golf balls are products of a superior synthetic rubber.
Racing cars and boats are made of fiber glass-reinforced polyester plastics.
Tents and camping use polymers and plastic equipments.
Chemical disinfectants are used in swimming pools to keep healthy atmosphere.
Deep ocean divers are supplied a mixture of Helium and oxygen instead of air for
breathing.

Air proves harmful when the diver goes deep into water.

On coming back on surface again bubbles of free gas collect at the joints and causes
pain.
Chemistry in Swimming pool:

Chlorine is used as a bactericide in pools because of its cheapness and also as an

algaecide.
The use of chlorine lowers the pH of the water so alkali must be added to maintain the
pool water at pH 7.2 to 7.8, or slightly alkaline.
To kill algae in pools, a mixture of CuSO4 and citric acid. (as a chelating agent to keep
copper in solution).
Photography:
Silver Iodide and silver bromide crystals become sensitized when struck by light,
it reduced them.

When an image is focused on a thin colloidal dispersion of AgBr and AgI which
are activated corresponding to the intensity of the light.

No sign is visible untill the film is treated with developer (a strong reducing
agent). Which converts the sensitized grain to free black silver.

The unchanged AgX is still light-sensitive and is removed by dissolving it away in

“Hypo” (sodium thiosulphate solution, fixer)
Areas where most intense light fall have the highest
density of black silver grain as compared to the area
reciving least light

The image is recorded just opposite to negative.

The negative is converted to a positive print with more AgX (on paper) and light
by developing and fixing.

In colour photograph 3 layers of light sensitive emulsion are used.

Top layer is sensitive to blue light, middle to green and bottom to red.

Dyes are produced by an redox reaction.

Ag ions from sensitized grains oxidize the developer to a product that react
with coupler to for dye. Dye in each layer shows their colour.
Thank you
Lecture 10

Chemistry and consumer

products
Surprise test_ 10 questions_ 10 marks_(NO CREDIT)

1. The role of calcium sulfate (CaSO4) in Portland Cement is to

a) Control the price of the cement
b) Control the set time for the cement
c) Controls the preparation time of the cement
d) None of above

2. Find the wrong type in Portland Cement’s classification

a) Calcareous Rocks
b) Argillocalcareous Rocks
c) Argillaceous Rocks
d) Ceous Rocks
3. Glass is an amorphous solid because
a) It is a crystalline substance having a definite lattice
pattern
b) It is a non-crystalline substance lacking a definite
lattice pattern
c) It has both crystalline and non-crystalline properties
d) None of above

4. Key component in glass is

a) Aluminum Oxide (Al2O3)
b) Silicon Dioxide (SiO2)
c) Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3)
d) Magnesium Carbonate (MgCO3)
5. Pyrex is an alternative name of
a) Sodium borosilicate glass
b) Lead-oxide glass
c) Soda-lime-silica glass
d) None of above

6. Wood is hygroscopic because

a) It has free nascent chlorine
b) It has free hydroxyl groups
c) It has free carboxyl groups
d) It has free carbonate group

7. Sapwood is the
a. Interior part of a wood
b. Exterior part of a wood
c. Wood-skin
d. Heart of the wood
8. Find the wrong statement about a wood preservative
a) It must be toxic to fungi, pests and marine organisms
b) It must be free from objectionable properties in use and handling
c) It should be really expensive
d) It should not have corrosive properties

9. Lemon is good for stain removal because

a) It contains stearic acid
b) It contains citric acid
c) It contains lactic acid
d) None of above

10. The chemical compound that used on class A, B, and C fires is

a) Potassium chloride

b) Monoammonium phosphate

c) Potassium bicarbonate

d) Sodium bicarbonate
Answer key will be given in the class!
Chemistry in Computers and Electronics:
Silicon chips are the basis of powerful computers and different consumer
items.

Semiconductors are generally applicable in CD players, ipods, lasers, barcode

scanners, mobile etc.

 Transistor (semiconductor made) a component was the main part which

revolutionaries the computers.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IcrBqCFLHIY

Computers had provided new strength to chemistry also with its some
program like C, C++, Fortran, Java languages etc.
Silicon is poor conductor but addition of impurities (dopant) such as
phosphorus and boron enhance the electrical properties

The region where many modern development in electronics and computers

takes place is known as “Silicon Valley”.
 Chemistry of Soap
Soaps are water-soluble sodium or potassium salts of fatty acids.
Soaps are made from fats and oils, or their fatty acids, by treating them chemically with
a strong alkali.
Fats and Oils
Surfactants The fats and oils used in soap making come
Builders from animal or plant sources. Each fat or oil is
Bleaches made up of a distinctive mixture of several
Additives different triglycerides.
In a triglyceride molecule, three fatty acid
molecules are attached to one molecule of
glycerine.
Alkali
An alkali is a soluble salt of an alkali metal like sodium or potassium.
The common alkalis used in soap making are sodium hydroxide (NaOH), also called
caustic soda; and potassium hydroxide (KOH), also called caustic potash.

How Soaps are Made

Saponification of fats and oils is the most widely used soap making process. This
method Saponification involves heating fats and oils and reacting them with a liquid
alkali to produce soap and water (neat soap) plus glycerine.
 Detergent
A detergent is a surfactant or a mixture of surfactants with
cleaning properties in dilute solutions
These substances are usually alkylbenzenesulfonates, a
family of compounds that are similar to soap but are more
soluble in hard water

Detergents, like soaps, work because they are

amphiphilic: partly hydrophilic (polar) and
partly hydrophobic (non-polar)

Chemical classification of detergents

Anionic detergents
Cationic detergents
Non-ionic and zwitterionic detergents

 All soaps are detergents: whereas all detergents are surfactants

 surfactant= That’s lower the surface tension of water
Anionic detergents

Typical anionic detergents

are alkylbenzenesulfonates. The
alkylbenzene portion of
these anions is lipophilic and the
sulfonate is hydrophilic.

Cationic detergents are similar to the anionic

ones, with a hydrophobic component, but,
instead of the anionic sulfonate group, the
cationic surfactants have quaternary
ammonium as the polar end. The ammonium
center is positively charged.

Non-ionic and zwitterionic detergents

uncharged, hydrophilic head groups.
Working of Soap/Detergent
Thank you
Chemistry and consumer
products
 Diamond
In mineralogy, diamond is a allotrope of carbon, where the carbon atoms are arranged in
a variation of the face-centered cubic (FCC) crystal structure called a diamond lattice.

Properties:

 diamond is a colourless, lustrous, crystalline solid.

 Most natural diamonds are formed at high temperature and pressure
 Diamond is less stable than graphite
 diamond has the highest hardness and thermal conductivity of any bulk material.
 Diamond also has relatively high optical dispersion
 A diamond is a transparent crystal of tetrahedrally bonded carbon atoms in a covalent
network lattice (sp3)
 Diamond is a bad conductor of heat and electricity
 Natural diamond is transparent to X-rays whereas artificial diamond is opaque to X-
rays. This property is used for distinguishing artificial and natural diamonds.

USES:
1. Diamonds are valuable gemstones. Larger and purer the diamond, the more valuable it
is.
2. Smaller pieces of diamonds are used for cutting glass and drilling rocks. Only a diamond
can cut another diamond. Diamond dust is used for polishing diamonds and precious
stones.
3. Carbonado and bort are used for making precision instruments for cutting and
abrasion.
4. Diamond dyes are used to make thin tungsten wires.
Gem, Jewellery and Ornaments

A gemstone or gem is a
piece of mineral crystal,
which, in cut and polished
form, is used to
make jewelry or other
adornments
Certain rocks or organic
materials that are not
minerals are also used for
jewelry, and are therefore
often considered to be
gemstones as well
Properties and Uses:
 Most gemstones are hard and lustrous (some are soft)
 Gems are rare, that lends value to a gemstone
 Gemstones do vary considerably in their durability
 Health, superstitions, religion, social custom effects
 Eg:
Pearl (CaCO3)

Ruby (Corundum, Al2O3)

Sapphires (aluminium oxide (α-Al2O3)), Topaz

(Al2SiO4(F,OH)2)

Quartz (SiO2) etc.

 How Gems are formed
1. Formation from water near the Earth's surface
Water near the Earth's surface interacts with minerals and dissolves them. If the solution
conditions change minerals will precipitate. A similar, familiar processes is formation of salt
crystals by evaporation of sea water. If the water has interacted with silica-rich rocks, the
process creates quartz.

2. Metamorphic gems
Metamorphic rocks are rocks changed by heat, pressure, and interaction with solutions (eg:
garnet)

3. Magmatic gems
Some gems crystallize in magmas or in gas bubbles (holes) in volcanic rocks.
E.g: zircon, topaz, ruby, etc.
Synthetic, 'Cultured' or lab created gemstones :
 diamonds, rubies, sapphires and emeralds have
been manufactured in labs to possess identical
chemical and physical characteristics to the naturally
occurring variety.

 Synthetic (lab created) corundum, including ruby

and sapphire, are very common and they cost only a
fraction of the natural stones.

 Smaller synthetic diamonds have been

manufactured in large quantities as
industrial abrasives, although larger gem-quality
synthetic diamonds are becoming available in multiple
carats.
 Jewellery and Ornaments

Gold (Au)
Silver (Ag)
Platinum (Pt)

Generally gold (24-carat) is soft and can’t be used in making ornaments, watches or
coins. Hence mixed with like copper, silver and aluminum to make it hard and to
modify its colour.

 Gold writing is used for decorating in

book binding
 Silver is used as jewelry and table
ware
 Diamond, gems, pearls etc. are
studded in gold, silver or their alloy.
Electroplating
(often just called "plating") is the
deposition of a metal coating onto an
object by putting a negative charge on
it and putting it into a solution which
contains a metal salt.

The metal salt contains positively

charged metal ions which are attracted
to the negatively charged object and
are "reduced" to metallic form upon it.

The overall process of electroplating uses an electrolytic cell, which

consists of putting a negative charge on the metal and dipping it into a
solution that contains metal salt (electrolytes) which contain positively
charged metal ions.
Cu, Ag, Cr and Au are extensively used
Purposes of Electroplating:
 Protection
 Appearance, decoration
Special surface properties
 Engineering or mechanical properties

The plating is most commonly a single metallic element, not

an alloy. However, some alloys can be electrodeposited,
notably brass and solder.
Many everyday items made from iron are plated with
zinc (in a process called galvanization) to make them
resistant to corrosion
Thank you
Chemistry and consumer
products

Chemistry of fire works

Find out the wrong statement below.
a) Metals form oxides that are basic
b) Metals are good reducing agents
c) Metals have higher electronegativity
d) Metals are good electrical conductors
Chemistry and fireworks
Fireworks are a class of low
explosive pyrotechnic devices used for
visual and entertainment purposes.
The most common use of a firework is
as part of a fireworks display.
Fireworks (devices) take many forms to produce the four primary
effects: noise, light, smoke, and floating materials
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sxztkX9z1s4
They may be designed to burn with
colored flames and sparks including
red, orange, yellow, green, blue,
purple, and silver. Displays are
common throughout the world and
are the focal point of many cultural
and religious celebrations.
Chemistry and fireworks
Fireworks (devices) take many forms to produce the four primary
effects: Noise, light, smoke, and floating materials

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sxztkX9z1s4
 Chemistry and fireworks

They may be designed to burn with colored flames and sparks

including red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple, and silver.
Displays are common throughout the world and are the focal point
of many cultural and religious celebrations.
Find out the wrong component of Gunpowder used in fireworks
a) Chloramine
b) Sulphur
c) Charcoal
d) Potassium Nitrate
The colour of firecrackers is result of
a. The presence of metal salts in the compositions of firecrackers
b. The presence of Non-metal salts in the compositions of firecrackers
c. The presence of metalloid and amalgam in the compositions of
firecrackers
d. None of above
Fireworks are generally made up of
charcoal, sulphur and potassium
nitrate (KNO3, the most important
ingredient)
Safety

 Improper use of fireworks may be dangerous, both to the person

operating them (risks of burns and wounds) and to bystanders;
 in addition, they may start fires after landing on flammable
material.
Fireworks are also a problem for animals, both domestic and wild,
who can be terrified by their noise, leading to them running away,
often into danger, or hurting themselves on fences or in other ways
in an attempt to escape.
The most important ingredient for Fireworks is
a. KNO3
b. HI
c. N2
d. None of above
Chemistry and consumer
products

Chemistry of safety matches

SAFETY MATCHES
The first known use of matches was in 577 during the
siege of a town in northern China. Women in the town
used sticks coated with a mixture of chemicals to start
fires for cooking and heating, thus allowing them to
conserve their limited fuel by putting the fires out
between uses. The first modern, self igniting match was
invented in 1805 by Jean Chancel, assistant to Professor
Louis Jacques Thénard of Paris.
In 1831, Charles Sauria of France developed a match that
used white phosphorus. These matches were strike-
anywhere matches and were much easier to ignite.

J. E. L. Strom of Sweden to introduce safety matches in

1855.

The first matchbook matches were patented in the United

States by Joshua in 1892.
Common raw material for Safety matches

Soft wood splints: must be porous enough to absorb various chemicals, and rigid enough
to withstand the bending forces encountered when the match is struck. They should also
be straight-grained and easy to work, so that they may be readily cut into sticks. White
pine and aspen are two common woods used for this purpose.

Match head:
Sulphur, Charcoal, Antimony trisulphide, Paraffin wax (combustible substance)

Red lead, manganese dioxide or potassium dichromate (oxidizing agents)

Gum (binding material)

Chemical on rubbing surface:

Red phosphorus, Antimony sulphide

Ground glass (causes friction)

Gum, glue or starch (binding material)

Raw materials for match head in Safety matches include
a. combustible substance like Sulphur, Charcoal, Antimony trisulphide
b. oxidizing agents like Red lead, manganese dioxide
c. binding material like gum
d. all of above
Thank you
Lecture 17

Chemistry and consumer

products

Chemistry in Wax candles

WAX CANDLES
A candle is an ignitable wick embedded in wax or another
flammable solid substance that provides light, and in
some cases, a fragrance.
For a candle to burn, a heat source (commonly a flame) is
used to light the candle's wick, which melts
and vaporizes a small amount of fuel (the wax).

Once vaporized, the fuel combines with oxygen in the

atmosphere to ignite and form a constant flame. This
flame provides sufficient heat to keep the candle burning
via a self-sustaining chain of events: the heat of the flame
melts the top of the mass of solid fuel; the liquefied fuel
then moves upward through the wick via capillary action;
the liquefied fuel finally vaporizes to burn within the
candle's flame.
Components:
Wax: Paraffin wax, stearic acid (3-10%), waxoline dye (0.2%)

Wick: A candle wick works by capillary action, drawing ("wicking") the melted wax
or fuel up to the flame. When the liquid fuel reaches the flame, it
vaporizes and combusts. The candle wick influences how the candle burns.
Important characteristics of the wick include diameter, stiffness, fire-resistance,
and tethering.
Chemistry and consumer
products

Chemistry in Mosquito repellant

Mosquito Coil/Repellent
a substance or more especially a chemical (chemicals) that deters
mosquitoes from approaching or settling.

A mosquito coil is a mosquito repelling incense, usually shaped

into a spiral, and typically made from a dried paste
of pyrethrum powder.
Burning usually begins at the outer end of the
spiral and progresses slowly toward the centre
of the spiral, producing a mosquito-repellent
smoke.
Invention
Pyrethrum was used for centuries as an insecticide in Persia and Europe, and the
mosquito coil was developed around the 1890s by a Japanese business man,
people usually mixed pyrethrum powder with sawdust and burned it in incense
burner to repel mosquitoes.
The mosquito repellent are used in form of coils, mats, body lotions and creams.

Mosquitoes are known to carry

many infectious diseases from
several different classes of
microorganisms, including viruses
and parasites. Mosquito-borne
illnesses include malaria, West Nile
virus, elephantiasis, dengue
fever, yellow fever etc.
Ingredients
Active ingredients found in mosquito coils may include:
Pyrethrum - a natural, powdered material from a kind of chrysanthemum plant;
performance moderate
Pyrethrins - an extract of the insecticidal chemicals in pyrethrum, mixture of pleasant-
smelling esters.

Pyrethroids: synthetic materials designed to imitate natural pyrethrum, are

biodegradable and disintegrate in sunlight.
Allethrin - sometimes d-trans-allethrin, the first synthetic pyrethroid
Esbioallethrin, d-allethrin, d-transallethrin, bioallethrin: - form of allethrin.
Additives:
Butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) - an optional additive to prevent pyrethroid from
oxidizing during burning
Piperonyl butoxide (PBO) - an optional additive to improve the effectiveness of
pyrethroid
N-Octyl bicycloheptene dicarboximide (MGK 264) - an optional additive to improve the
effectiveness of a pyrethroid
Fragnances: regular, sandal, rose, lavender etc.
Activity
These chemical effects the central nervous system of insects.
Water based formulations are used as home and garden insect
spray and as pet shampoo for effective control of fleas, tics, lice on
domestic animals
 Disadvantages
Mosquito coils can be hazardous.
Sparks from mosquito coils ignited a fire
Recent studies showed that the smoke generated from a burning mosquito coil
is of certain health concerns – one burning mosquito coil produces the same
amount of particulate mass (diameter up to 2.5 μm) as 75-137 burning cigarettes
would.

The emission of formaldehyde from one burning coil can be as high as that
released from 51 burning cigarettes.
Lecture 21

Chemistry and consumer

products

Chemistry in common salt

Pyrethrum was used for centuries as
a) an insecticide
b) a herbicide
c) a fungicide
d) a rodenticide
Common Salt
Sodium chloride also known as salt or halite, is an ionic compound with
the chemical formula NaCl, representing a 1:1 ratio of sodium (Na)
and chloride (Cl) ions.

Other names:
Table salt or rock salt

Sodium chloride is the salt most responsible

for the salinity of seawater and of
the extracellular fluid of many multicellular
organisms.
Chemistry of NaCl
Solid sodium chloride
Each ion is surrounded by six ions of the opposite charge as expected on electrostatic
grounds. The surrounding ions are located at the vertices of a regular octahedron.

The larger chloride ions are arranged in a cubic array whereas the smaller sodium ions fill
all the cubic gaps (octahedral voids) between them. This same basic structure is found in
many other compounds and is commonly known as the halite or rock-salt crystal
structure.

Represented as a face-centered cubic

(fcc) lattice with a two-atom basis or as
two interpenetrating face centered cubic
lattices.

Solid sodium chloride has a melting point

of 801 °C.
The key component of common salt is
a) Potassium Chloride
b) Sodium Chloride
c) Iodine
d) None of above
Aqueous solutions
The attraction between the Na+ and Cl− ions in the solid is so strong that only highly polar
solvents like water dissolve NaCl well.

When dissolved in water, the sodium chloride framework disintegrates as the Na+ and
Cl− ions become surrounded by the polar water molecules. The chloride ions are also
strongly solvated, each being surrounded by an average of 6 molecules of water.

Solutions of sodium chloride have very different properties from pure water. The freezing
point is −21.12 °C (23.3% salt by weight) and the boiling point of saturated salt solution is
near 108.7 °C (227.7 °F).
The freezing point of saltwater (23.3% salt by
weight) is
a) −1.12 °C
b) −21.12 °C
c) +1.12 °C
d) 0.0 °C
USES:
In the form of edible or table salt (common salt: 97-99% NaCl, with calcium chloride and
magnesium chloride as impurities).

it is commonly used as a condiment and food preservative.

Large quantities of sodium chloride are used in many industrial processes, and it is a
major source of sodium and chlorine compounds used as feed stocks for further chemical
syntheses.

A second major consumer of sodium chloride is de-icing of roadways in sub-freezing

weather.
Chemistry and consumer
products

Chemistry of Batteries/cells
1. Introduction
Batteries definition:
Two or more electrochemical cells, electrically interconnected,
each of which contains two electrodes and an electrolyte. The
redox (oxidation-reduction) reactions that occur at these
electrodes convert electrochemical energy into electrical energy.
In everyday usage, 'battery' is also used to refer to a single cell. The
solid-state batteries are the batteries in which the electrolyte is in
solid state, which is responsible for the conduction of ions from
one electrode to other electrode.

In 1800, Alessandro Volta invented the first modern battery.

PH 0101 Unit-5 Lecture-7 81

2. Types of batteries
Basically batteries can be classifieds as two types as primary
batteries and secondary batteries.
Primary batteries
In primary batteries, the electrochemical reaction is not
reversible.

During discharging the chemical compounds are permanently

changed and electrical energy is released until the original
compounds are completely exhausted.

Thus the cells can be used only once.

PH 0101 Unit-5 Lecture-7 82

Secondary batteries

In secondary batteries, the electrochemical reaction is reversible and

the original chemical compounds can be reconstituted by the
application of an electrical potential between the electrodes injecting
energy into the cell.

Such cells can be discharged and recharged many times.

PH 0101 Unit-5 Lecture-7 83

Primary cells are
a) Rechargeable batteries
b) Non-rechargeable batteries
c) Both rechargeable and non-
rechargeable batteries
d) None of above
Chemistry of Batteries/Cells
Electrochemical Cells
Types:
Dry Cell: Outer casing act as anode made up of zinc and central rod act as cathode
and completing the cell, space between the cell is filled with substances like, water,
ammonium chloride, manganese dioxide, and zinc chloride
Types of dry cells
Primary cell
•Zinc-carbon cells, also known
as Leclanche cells
•Alkaline battery
•Lithium battery
•Mercury battery

Secondary cell
•Nickel-cadmium battery
•Silver oxide battery
Primary cells are not rechargeable. They •Lithium ion battery
have to be thrown away after their
chemicals are used up.

Secondary cells are rechargeable. They can

be used again.
Alkaline Battery
Like Zinc-carbon battery
Contains KOH (potassium hydroxide)
Gives 1.5 V
Longer life time
In alkaline battery, we use
a) Calcium Hydroxide
b) Potassium Hydroxide
c) Aluminium hydroxide
d) Lithium Hydroxide
Lead Storage Battery:

Anode of lead metal (Pb) and cathode of lead oxide (PbO)

Electrodes are surrounded by aqueous solution of sulphuric acid, and is used up
during the use of battery
White insoluble lead sulphate coating is formed.
The battery get dead.
Battery can be recharged on passing the current in reverse direction.
Solar cells:
A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell (PV), is an electrical device that converts the energy
of light directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect, which is
a physical and chemical phenomenon.

Solar cells are described as

being photovoltaic irrespective
of whether the source
is sunlight or an artificial light.

Made up of two layers of semi-conducting materials such as Silicon (Si). Each layer is
duped with tiny amount of different impurities (usually phosphorus or boron) which
produce an electrostatic field between the two layers.

New semiconducting material like gallium arsenide, indium phosphite and cadmium
telluride provide more efficiency to PV cells
Photovoltaic cell is used to produce
a) Geothermal energy
b) Solar energy
c) Hydro energy
d) Wind energy
Thank you
Chemistry in recreation:
Chemistry and Sports:

Rugby ball, football, helmets, running

shoes, skates etc. all use polymer plastic,
ceramics, alloys and paint coatings

Tennis racquets, golf club and finishing rods are made from graphite-reinforced epoxy
resins.
Golf balls are products of a superior synthetic rubber.
Racing cars and boats are made of fiber glass-reinforced polyester plastics.
Tents and camping use polymers and plastic equipments.
Chemical disinfectants are used in swimming pools to keep healthy atmosphere.
Deep ocean divers are supplied a mixture of Helium and oxygen instead of air for
breathing.

Air proves harmful when the diver goes deep into water.

On coming back on surface again bubbles of free gas collect at the joints and causes
pain.
Chemistry in Swimming pool:

Chlorine is used as a bactericide in pools because of its cheapness and also as an

algaecide.
The use of chlorine lowers the pH of the water so alkali must be added to maintain the
pool water at pH 7.2 to 7.8, or slightly alkaline.
To kill algae in pools, a mixture of CuSO4 and citric acid. (as a chelating agent to keep
copper in solution).
Photography:
Silver Iodide and silver bromide crystals become sensitized when struck by light,
it reduced them.

When an image is focused on a thin colloidal dispersion of AgBr and AgI which
are activated corresponding to the intensity of the light.

No sign is visible untill the film is treated with developer (a strong reducing
agent). Which converts the sensitized grain to free black silver.

The unchanged AgX is still light-sensitive and is removed by dissolving it away in

“Hypo” (sodium thiosulphate solution, fixer)
Areas where most intense light fall have the highest
density of black silver grain as compared to the area
reciving least light

The image is recorded just opposite to negative.

The negative is converted to a positive print with more AgX (on paper) and light
by developing and fixing.

In colour photograph 3 layers of light sensitive emulsion are used.

Top layer is sensitive to blue light, middle to green and bottom to red.

Dyes are produced by an redox reaction.

Ag ions from sensitized grains oxidize the developer to a product that react
with coupler to for dye. Dye in each layer shows their colour.
Thank you
Chemistry and consumer
products

Chemistry of Batteries/cells-
Part-2
Lead Storage Battery:

Anode of lead metal (Pb) and cathode of lead oxide (PbO)

Electrodes are surrounded by aqueous solution of sulphuric acid, and is used up
during the use of battery
White insoluble lead sulphate coating is formed.
The battery get dead.
Battery can be recharged on passing the current in reverse direction.
Lithium-ion battery (Li-ion Battery/cell)

It doesn’t involved true oxidation and reduction. Uses the

transport of Li+ ions through the electrolyte from one electrode to
other accompanied by the transport of electrons through the
external circuit to maintain the charge balance.
 The battery consists of a anode of Lithium-ions, into a carbon.
(Graphite)
 The cathode material is made up from Lithium liberating
compounds, typically the three electro-active oxide materials.

• Lithium Cobalt-oxide (LiCoO2 )

• Lithium Manganese-oxide (LiMn2 O4 )
• Lithium Nickel-oxide (LiNiO2)
• Electrolyte: solid lithium-salt electrolytes
(LiPF6, LiBF4, or LiClO4) and organic solvents (ether)
92
Principle/ working

 During the charge and discharge processes, there is no so-called

oxidation reduction reaction, rather lithium ions are transported
from one electrode to other through electrolyte (Li salt in organic
solvent)

 Simply, during discharging the Li-ion is transfers from anode

(Graphite) to cathode (LiCoO2) through electrolyte during
discharging as a result the electron flows through the external
circuit to balance the positive charge of Li+.

 During charging cycle, due to external voltage forces electrons

through the external circuit and causes the Li-ion moves from
LiCoO2 electrode to graphite electrode.
93
 Li- ion Electrolyte

cathode Graphite anode

Li-Ion battery Principle

Lithium Ion Cells
Solar cells:
A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell (PV), is an electrical device that converts the energy
of light directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect, which is
a physical and chemical phenomenon.

Solar cells are described as

being photovoltaic irrespective
of whether the source
is sunlight or an artificial light.

Made up of two layers of semi-conducting materials such as Silicon (Si). Each layer is
duped with tiny amount of different impurities (usually phosphorus or boron) which
produce an electrostatic field between the two layers.

New semiconducting material like gallium arsenide, indium phosphite and cadmium
telluride provide more efficiency to PV cells
Photovoltaic cell is used to produce
a) Geothermal energy
b) Solar energy
c) Hydro energy
d) Wind energy
Chemistry in recreation:

Reading assignment
below-(slide 99-104)
Chemistry and Sports:

Rugby ball, football, helmets, running

shoes, skates etc. all use polymer plastic,
ceramics, alloys and paint coatings

Tennis racquets, golf club and finishing rods are made from graphite-reinforced epoxy
resins.
Golf balls are products of a superior synthetic rubber.
Racing cars and boats are made of fiber glass-reinforced polyester plastics.
Tents and camping use polymers and plastic equipments.
Chemical disinfectants are used in swimming pools to keep healthy atmosphere.
Deep ocean divers are supplied a mixture of Helium and oxygen instead of air for
breathing.

Air proves harmful when the diver goes deep into water.

On coming back on surface again bubbles of free gas collect at the joints and causes
pain.
Chemistry in Swimming pool:

Chlorine is used as a bactericide in pools because of its cheapness and also as an

algaecide.
The use of chlorine lowers the pH of the water so alkali must be added to maintain the
pool water at pH 7.2 to 7.8, or slightly alkaline.
To kill algae in pools, a mixture of CuSO4 and citric acid. (as a chelating agent to keep
copper in solution).
Photography:
Silver Iodide and silver bromide crystals become sensitized when struck by light,
it reduced them.

When an image is focused on a thin colloidal dispersion of AgBr and AgI which
are activated corresponding to the intensity of the light.

No sign is visible untill the film is treated with developer (a strong reducing
agent). Which converts the sensitized grain to free black silver.

The unchanged AgX is still light-sensitive and is removed by dissolving it away in

“Hypo” (sodium thiosulphate solution, fixer)
 Photography:

Areas where most intense light fall have the highest

density of black silver grain as compared to the area
receiving least light

The image is recorded just opposite to negative.

The negative is converted to a positive print with more AgX (on paper) and light
by developing and fixing.

In colour photograph 3 layers of light sensitive emulsion are used.

Top layer is sensitive to blue light, middle to green and bottom to red.

Dyes are produced by an redox reaction.

Ag ions from sensitized grains oxidize the developer to a product that react
with coupler to for dye. Dye in each layer shows their colour.
Thank you
Unit-4
 Chemistry of cosmetics

Cosmetics are substances used to enhance the

appearance or odor of the human body
 Types of Cosmetics
1. Perfumes and Essential oils (Fragrances)
2. Cosmetic formulation, skin care, hair care
3. Deodorants and anti perspirants
4. Colour cosmetics and sun protections
Perfumes and Fragrances
 Perfume
• Perfume takes its name from Latin word
perfumare, means to fill with smoke

• Perfume is a mixture of fragrant essential

oils and aroma compounds, fixatives, and
solvents used to give the human body,
objects, and living spaces a pleasant smell.
 Constituents of perfumes
• Constituents of perfumes are:
– Odoriferous elements
– Extenders
– Fixatives
– Vehicles or solvents
A) Odoriferous elements (Odorants -Essential
oils)
There are five types:
– concretes
– absolutes
– tinctures.
– distilled and fractionally distilled oils
– expressed oils
• Concretes
Concretes are the purest of the natural
odorants. They are obtained by using a
hydrocarbon solvent to dissolve the essential
oils out of the plant.
B) Extenders
Extenders are the oils used with the most
expensive oils to make the blends affordable while
at the same time respecting the notes of the
precious oils.

C) Fixatives
Enable perfume to evaporate slowly and emit
odors longer. Example-Coal tar, mosses, resins, or
synthetic chemicals. Alcohol and sometimes water
are used to dilute ingredients in perfumes
• Type of Fixatives
– animal secretions
– resinous products
– essential oils.
– synthetic chemicals

• Animal Fixatives
– Civet –soft fatty acid obtained from civet cat
– Musk – dried secretion of the preputial glands of male
musk deer found in Himalayas.
• Resinous fixatives
– Hard resins – gums
– Soft resins – labdanum
– Oily materials – terpenes

• Essential oil fixatives

A few essential oil are used for their
fixative properties as well as their odor
– Lemon grass oil
– Sandalwood
– Menthol
• Synthetic fixatives

These are replace of costly imported animal

fixatives

– Ethyl phthalate
– Benzyl benzoate
– Courmarin
– Indole
D) Vehicles
• Solvents used for blending and holding
perfume materials
– e.g., ethyl alcohol and water at different ratios –
depend on solubility of the oils employed
• It is volatile nature and helps to project the
sent it carries
• It is fairly inert to solute and not too
irritating to human skin
 How perfumes are made
• All perfumes generally came from plants or
animals). The material could be used directly
or extracted in some way.

• The challenge was how to remove the

essential oils from the plant material without
changing the composition.
 Extraction process
• Enfleurage
• Distillation/Fractional Distillation
• Extraction with volatile solvents
• Maceration/Solvent extraction
• Microwave extraction
• Supercritical solvent extraction
• Expression
 Enfleurage
• Enfleurage is a special method for making
concretes and absolutes. The petals are pressed
onto a coating of pure fat.

• After several days, the fat has dissolved the

released essential oils.

• The essential oils are then removed from the fat

with alcohol.

• After extraction, the fat is used to make soaps

etc.
 Steam Distillation
• Steam distillation (or codistillation with water) is
another gentle and widely used process.

• Much less expensive than enfleurage.

• The oils are insoluble and when the steam-oil

mixture is condensed, the oil can be removed.
The most volatile compounds come over first and
some fractionation is observed.
 Fractional distillation

• Fractional distillation (without water)

separates the components by boiling point

• Both steam distillation and fractional

distillation of essential oils are much cheaper
than enfleurage, but different mixtures of
compounds are obtained and heat causes
some rearrangements and changes in
structure of the essential oil components.
 Expressed oils
• Expression is useful for things like lemon and
lime peels.

• For most plants, the oils are contaminated

with too many other undesirable compounds
to make the method practical.

• The compounds are not changed by heat,

however, and in some instances are better
quality than steam distilled or fractionally
distilled.
Process:

 Essential oil obtained

 Perfumes are made at various temperature
and pH for guarantee stability of the desired
odor.
 Perfume oil is dissolved in a solvent
(Ethanol)
 The %age of essential oils in the mixture
determines whether it is a perfume (20-30%),
cologne (8-15%) or aftershave (1-3%)
Many fragrance are made into perfumes originates from plants
Different plants parts used for origination of fragrance are such as
flower (roses)
seeds (cardamom)
roots (angelica)
wood (sandalwood)
Bark (cinnamon)
Peels (lemons, oranges)

These fragrances are extracted from the

plants in form of essential oils.
Essential oil contains variety of molecules in complicated
mixtures

Aromatic aldehydes
Ketones
Heterocyclics
Terpenes

Terpenes: A group of acyclic molecules that are common to

many essential oils

Eg: Citral, responsible for odour in lemon, orange, lime and

lemon grass
Menthol, present in the oil of peppermint
Nose can detects 7 primary odours:

 Camphorous
 Musky
 Floral
 Pepperminty
 Ethereal
 Pungent
 Putrid
 Perfumes and Fragrances Used in various products such as

 Shampoos
 Soaps
 Detergents
 Food
Thank You
Unit-4
 Cosmetic Formulations
Scientifically compounded, prepared and their
components intended to be applied to human body for
cleansing, beautifying, smelling better or altering its
appearances (face powder, eye shadow, mascara).

Cosmetics are available in various forms for various use:

Emulsions
Powders
Suspensions
Sticks
Aerosols
Application Area of Cosmetic

Skin care
Hair care
Teeth, mouthwash & toothpaste
Nail
Eye and Face make-up
Creams
Lotions
Bath products
Deodorants
Components of Cosmetics

Surfactant
Water
Emulsifier
Active Ingredient
Thickener
Colour
Fragrance
Preservative
The basics of most cosmetics and toiletries are an emulsion of an
oil in water, or water in oil
Stabilizers are used to stabilize the emulsions
Stabilizer can be surfactant, hydrocolloids or finely divided
powder

 Thickening ingredients:
Sodium chloride (electrolyte)
Polysaccharides
polyacrylates, polyurethanes and polyamides (polymeric
thickeners)
Silicates and gums
Skin Care Cosmetics
Design to solve the problems regarding:
 Dry skin
 Oily Skin
 Wrinkles
 Sun burn
 Pimples
 Irritation, etc.
Skin Care Cosmetics Constituents
Lactic acid swells and soften the epidermis (top layer of skin). It also
reduces the fine line and wrinkles on the skin
Ceramide-3 when applied to the skin, make it looks younger and softer
Anti-Cellulite cosmetics are being used to counter cellulite effect
Oils (Glycerides and mineral oils) are used to clean and soften skin
Lanonin is used to soften skin.
 Oil based cleaners (cold cream and hand lotion based on semi-solid
emulsion with water) used against dryness and used to make skin softer
Vanishing cream (oil in water emulsion) is used as
hand/foundation cream, it penetrate the skin without leaving an oily
surface film. These cream should be pearlaceous, soft and spread
readily on the skin.
 These creams are soluble in water and are made up of fatty acids
such as stearic acid, palmitic acid and oleic acid.
 Propylene, glycol, glycerin & sorbitol in water phase act to check
drying out of the cream thus having moisturizing effect on the skin.
Foundation creams are used as powder base sometime having
pigments or oil soluble dyes to match the skin colour.

Skin bleaching creams contains active ingredients of

ammoniated mercury, sodium perborate and zinc peroxide.
Emollient cream (softening) are designed to soften dry skin,
these includes mineral oils, petroleum, lanolin oil, propylene, glycol,
glycerine, sorbitol, isopropyl myrisate, isopropyl palmitate and small
amount of lecithin.
 Can be used as massage cream.
For boys and girls of age 3-5 skin care product feature a fruity
fragrance, gentle formulas and delightful packing.
 Reduced potential irritants, chemical reactions and tear-free
formula are kept in mind before producing baby care products.
 Ingredients include natural antioxidants found in vitamins,
moisturizers (almond oil), nutrient-rich milk protein and aloe.
Hair Care Cosmetics
Hair care is an overall term for parts
of hygiene and cosmetology involving the hair on the human head.
Hair care will differ according to one's hair type and according to
various processes that can be applied to hair. All hair is not the
same; hair is a manifestation of human diversity.
Hair Products:
Shampoos
Hair coloring
Hair conditioner
Hair gel
Hair serum
Hair spray
Hair tonic
Hair wax
Shaving cream
 Shampoos
Are liquid detergents, clean hairs
Modified with additives to give luster
and softness to hairs
 Combat dandruff
Remove grease, oil etc, to help to
remove the dirt particle.
Shampoo with water wet the dirt thus
lowers the surface tension to allow the
shampoo solution to displace grease
 Ingredients of Shampoos

Surfactants: Provide foam

Mixture of surfactants (an ethoxylate, an amphoteric surfactant

and an alkanolamide.)
 Eg: Ammonium, Magnesium, Sodium and triethanolamine (TEA)
alkyl (lauryl) ether sulphate.
 Primary surfactant are generally used to produce foam
 Sodium lauryl sulphate produce creamier foam, so mixture of this
with low foaming alkyl ether sulphate provides a balance
 Secondary surfactants: Betaines (quaternary ammonium or
phosphonium cation)
Stabilizers: stabilize the foam and improve its texture
Coconut fatty acid
 diethanolamide

Anti-dandruff agent: to remove dandruff

 zinc pyrithione

Effects of Shampoos:

Pearlescent effect
Aesthetic effect (by suspending stearate crystals in the liquid)
 Conditioner
 Conditioner is used to making hair soft,
shiny and easy to comb
Ingredients:

Surfactants:
Cationic surfactants, such as stearalkonium chloride were the
earliest conditioning agent
 Silicones & protein in combination with cationic surfactant are
used now a days

Hair thickening/tensile increasing agent:

 Pro-vitamin B5 (pantothenyl alcohol) improve tensile strength of
hair, makes hair lookthicker by promoting water uptake.
 Hair Colour
 Hair coloring is the practice of changing
the hair color.
The main reasons for this practice
are cosmetic: for example,
 to cover gray hair
 to change to a color regarded as
more fashionable or desirable,
 to restore the original hair color after
it has been discolored by
hairdressing processes or sun bleaching.
 Types: permanent
Semi-permanent
temporary
Hair colouring agent:

Hair colour is modified by bleaching with hydrogen peroxide

(H2O2)
Dyes (alkaline solution of paraphenylene diamine)
 Hair darkners, combination of Lead (Pb), silver (Ag) and Copper
(Cu) salts.
 Developing solutions (of metal oxide and sulphides)
Process:
 Dyes with H2O2 are used to apply on hairs
 After colour development, mixture is washed
 Under the influence of light and air the hair darkner develop
insoluble oxide and sulphides which gives colour to hairs.
 Varying the conc. And combination of metal salts develop
different shades.

Hair Remover: Calcium thioglycolate

Unit 4
 Hair Waving
 Process of changing the shape of hair so that the new shape
continue through several shampoos. This may be permanent and
temporary

 Types:
Heat waving
Cold waving
Heat waving preparation contains:
• Sodium and Potassium sulphite
• mono ethanolamine
• Potassium carbonate
• Ammonium Carbonate
• Sodium borate
• Water

Process:
• Solution are applied to hair at 90-104°C
• Rinse with a neturalizer (dilute acid or oxidising agent)
Cold waving preparation contains:

•Ammonium thioglycolate

Process:
•Hair is treated with oxidizing agent after treatment.
1. Heat waving preparation does not contain
a. Sodium and Potassium sulphite
b. Mono ethanolamine
c. Potassium carbonate
d. Alumina
2. Heat waving solution must be applied at temperature
a. 90-104°C
b. 190-204°C
c. 19-20°C
d. none of above
3. Cold waving preparation contains
a. KNO3
b. Ammonium thioglycolate
c. AuCl
d. AgNO3
 Hair Spray
It is a solution of polymer in a very volatile solvent

Ingredients:
Polymer:
• Polyvinylpyrrolidine (also used to glue layer of plywood)
• copolymers with vinyl acetate & maleic anhydride
• Natural polymers: vegetable gums (gum arabic or gum
Tragacanth)
Solvents: Alcohols and hydrocarbons

Process:
Spraying deposit a stiff layer of the polymer on
the hair after the solvent evaporates
 Shaving creams
Ingredients:
 Water
 palmitic acid
 triethanolamine
 Aloe vera gel
 Stearyl alcohol
 Mineral oil
 Imidazolidinyl urea
 Methylparaben
 Propylparaben
 Fragrance
 DEODRANTS & ANTIPERSPIRANTS
Odour is produced by the breakdown (by bacteria) of organic
fractions of sweat and sebum from the natural skin.

Two problem arises as a result

Removal of unpleasant body odours
Control of excessive sweating

These problem are suppressed or removed with the help of some

chemical known as: DEODRANTS & ANTIPERSPIRANTS
DEODRANTS
A deodorant is a substance applied to the body to prevent body
odor caused by the bacterial breakdown of perspiration in different
areas of the body.

Deodorants are often alcohol-based. Alcohol initially excite

sweating, but may also temporarily kill bacteria.

Other active ingredients in

deodorants include
sodium stearate,
sodium chloride
stearyl alcohol.

Available in form of powder, lotions, creams, aerosols, sticks

and gels.
ANTIPERSPIRANTS
A subgroup of deodorants, antiperspirants, affect
odor as well as prevent sweating by affecting sweat
glands.

They serve to suppress sweating or perspiration,

body odour & the amount of water on the skin.

Usually contain antibacterial agents to hinder growth of odour-

producing micro-organism

Almost all antiperspirants contain aluminum salts, some in

combination with Zirconium salts.
Principle antiperspirant material:
aluminium chlorhydrate,
aluminium zirconium chlorhydrate
aluminium zirconium glycine.
1. active ingredients in deodorants does not include
a. sodium stearate
b. sodium chloride
c. stearyl alcohol
d. Tartaric acid

2. Principle antiperspirant materials do not include

a. aluminium chlorhydrate,
b. aluminium zirconium chlorhydrate
c. aluminium zirconium glycine
d. stearyl alcohol
Side Effects:
Aluminum toxicity: capable of
causing DNA damage
Cancer: Parabens can cause cancer
Aerosol burns and frostbite: If aerosol
deodorant is held close to the skin for long
enough, it can cause an aerosol burn—a form
of frostbite
COLOUR COSMETICS
Colour cosmetics are used by human to enhance their beauty. Most
powdered colour cosmetics are based on talc (magnesium silicate),
whether they are face powder, eye shadow or blusher

Zinc Oxide and Kaolin (Al₂Si₂O₅(OH)₄), and various type of starch

are the main ingredients of these colour cosmetics
Face Powder:
Are tend to coloured with Iron oxide, sand, titanium dioxide

Some powder are sold loose, most which are sold packed in them
powder is mixed with a liquid binder and dry gum (carboxymethyl
cellulose) which hold it together when compressed.

 Formulators (lanonin mixed with mineral oil and isopropyl myristate)

are added to the product.
 Branched chain esters like isostearyl neopentanoate are being used
which are less allergic.

Blushers:
Red lake (pigment)

Eye Shadow:
Iron blue, carmine, ultramarine and chromium oxide
Lipstick:

 Skin of lips are covered by very thin corneal layer which is free
from fat and consequently dries out.
 Besides being a beauty aid, lipstick can be helpful under harsh
condition that tend to dry lip tissue
 Solid waxy material mixed with non-volatile oil is
predominantly present.
 This composition help the lipstick to spread easily and to remain
stiff in the tube

 Composition: bee wax-castor oil or carnauba wax

 Now a days: Solid silicone material with polyethylene solidifier.
Dyes:

Different pigment are used which are to be insoluble in water so as

the colour last long.
Soluble dyes are first “laked” by converting them to insoluble
particle, by treatment with metal oxide.
Eosin is commonly used red dye in lipsticks.
For effective adhere, texture and suitable melting point the lipstick
are added with ester of fatty acids (myristates).

Flavoring and perfume is done so that the taste and smell must
be acceptable to user.
Dyes:

By modifying the colour content various type of lipstick can be

obtained.
Natural lipstick are those which contain stain dye but no pigment.
The stain confer very little colour to the stick, but on application it
develop pink colour gradually.
Black lipstick are obtained when very dark red lipstick are added
with oil soluble dyes without any pigment.
White lipstick are pigmented with titanium dioxide.
Mood lipstick are present which change colour with diet, stress,
physical activity, menstrual cycle etc., as these factors affects the
pH (acidity or alkalinity) of skin.

Side Effects:
There should be no systemic or local toxic effect of lipstick as it
is liable to be ingested.
Lead present in lipstick can cause learning, language and
behavioural problems.
Reduced performance and increase aggression
Cause infertility and miscarriage
Rouge:
Rouge (/ˈruːʒ/; French: red), also called blush or blusher, is a
cosmetic typically used by women to redden the cheeks so as to
provide a more youthful appearance, and to emphasize the
cheekbones.
Ingredients:

It is marketed in liquid, cream, paste and powdered form

Used seldom so packed in a small container
Oil, fats and waxes are suitable ingredients, but colour used are
non-staining pigments.
 Liquid rouge may be formulated as
dispersion or a fluid emulsion
containing slow drying or non-drying
ingredients like glycerine, propylene
glycol or sorbitol.
 liquid rouge may also prepared as a
colour staining fluid emulsion of the oil
in water type.
Cream rouges may be of emulsified cream or the paste cream types
with a texture such that an adequate amount can be picked by a finger
and spread smoothly over skin.

Solid emulsified cream rouges may be of oil in water or water in oil

type
Eye Cosmetics
Eye make up is integral part of daytime makeup.
These should be pure, non-toxic and non-irritant.
Materials used for eye make up composed of:
 oils, fats and waxes
Pigments or Dyes

Mascara
Mascara is formulated as an
emulsified cream or solvent
suspended liquid or pressed or
moulded cake
Use -Wets the eyelashes
Ingredents- Wax, oils, fat, water and
hygroscopic materials
Preparation – Emulsion prepared (Oil
in water)
Eye Shadow:-
is formulated as an emulsified cream or paste cream, a moulded stick,
liquid emulsion or liquid suspension.
Preparation – Emulsion prepared (Oil in water)
Compound used:- Lanolin with propylene glycol, Glycerine and fatty
acids.

Eyebrow pencils:-
Presented as movable leads in propelling pencils or a fixed lead in
wooden casings. May be soft or hard depending on use.
Sun Protection
Protection against harmful radiation(UV rays)

Sunrays develop skin cancer, sun

burn, wrinkles

Sun protection formula (SPF) is

used to protect from UV-A, UV-
B and hence above problems can
be ceased.
 Cosmetics required for protection against
radiation actively divided into two classes
a. Inorganic sun blockers (Zinc oxide or
titanium dioxide)
b. Organic sun Blockers absorber
(Benzophenones and
octylmethoxycinnamate).

Both a and b have tendency to absorb,

reflect or scatter UV.

Generally combination of inorganic and

organic blockers with organic absorbers
used for sun protection.
 Unit-4

Story of microplastic in our daily lives!!!

Polymers

Polymers are constructed from relatively small molecular

fragments known as monomers that are joined together.

Polymers are high molecular weight compounds.

Monomer are low molecular weight compounds

The monomer could be of one or more type from which the

polymers are synthesized.
Polymerization:

The process of combination

of monomer to form large
molecules (polymer) is
called polymerization

1. Degree of polymerisation
2. Functionality of a monomer
(n monomers)

n
Higher polymers are substances of very high molecular weight they
occurs naturally (natural polymers) or may be synthesized
(synthetic polymers)

Eg.: Starch, Cellulose, Silk, Wool, DNA, Protein, etc. (Natural)

Bakelite, Polyethene, PVC, Polystyrene, Polypropylene, etc. (Synthetic)

PVC

PE
Types of Polymerisation
Addition (chain Growth) Polymerisation:

• Addition of monomers
• No byproduct is formed
• usually in presence of free radical initiator

n H2C CH2 * CH2 CH2 *

n
Main features:
• Only olefinic/vinyl compounds undergo this polymerisation
• Double bond provide required bonding sites
• Rapid addition of monomer takes place
• Elemental composition remains same for both reactants and product
Condensation (Step Growth) Polymerisation:

• Bi-functional/Polyfunctional monomer
• Intermolecular condensation
• Continuous elimination of byproduct
• usually in presence of free radical initiator

n HOOC-(CH2)4-COOH
+ [-OC-( C H2)4-CO-NH-(CH2)6-NH-]n + 2n H2O
n H2N-(CH2)6-NH2

Main features:
• Polymerisation is catalysed by acids/alkalis
• Polymerisation is slow & stepwise
• Elemental composition is different for both reactants and product
Applications of polymers
Natural Polymers:

Food and Clothing: Cellulose, Starch, silk, wool

Body building: Protein
Industrial application: Natural rubber (polyisoprene)
Plastics
Plastic refers to a class of high polymer, which leads themselves to
molding into article by heat and pressure.

These are synthetic, hence also called synthetic resins.

Plastic is a material consisting of any of a wide

range of synthetic or semi-synthetic organics that
are malleable and can be molded into solid objects
of diverse shapes.

Plastics are typically organic polymers of

high molecular mass, but they often contain other
substances.
 Types of Plastics
On the basis of thermal behaviour plastic can be classified as:

Thermoplastic: Melts on heating and reforms and gains a structure on

cooling

Thermosetting: Do not soften on heating and can’t be re structured

Application/Use of synthetic polymers
Industrial used: All synthetic polymers
Nylon: Tooth brush bristles, clothes
Polyester: Clothes
Terylene: Clothes
Melamine: Crockery, plastic dishes
Synthetic rubber: Shoe sole
Teflon: Non stick pan
Why plastics are such useful?

Light weight
Can be colored as desired
May be fabricated flexible or rigid
Inexpensive to manufacture
Electrically insulator
Heat resistive
Recyclable
Can be molded in any desired shape
Bakelite
It is a thermosetting phenol
formaldehyde resin, formed from
a condensation
reaction of phenol with formaldehyde.

First synthetic plastic

OH OH OH
OH

CH2OH HOH2C CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH

+ HCHO

CH2 OH
Uses
Electrical insulating materials
Cycle and automobile parts
Radio and television set bodies
Celluloid
Celluloids are a class of compounds created from nitrocellulose and camphor, with
added dyes and other agents.

Cellulose nitrate was developed into the first synthetic resin for a plastic, known as
celluloid,

Usage:Guncotton, or nitrocellulose (also known as trinitrocellulose and cellulose

nitrate) is a mild explosive, used in rockets, propellants, printing ink bases, leather
finishing, and celluloid (a mixture of nitrocellulose and camphor; first used to
manufacture billiard balls).
Uses:
making photographic films
frames for spectacles
containers and toys
Polyethylene/Polyethene

Monomer: Ethylene

Types:
HDPE (High Density Polyethene)
LDPE (Low Density Polyethene)
 LDPE (Low Density Polyethene)

 Linear polymer with branching

 High pressure (1K-3K atm) &

temperature (80-350 0C) required

 Initiator such as benzyol peroxide or oxygen

are used

 Process may be continuous or batch wise

Properties:
 White, waxy & translucent, with low density
 It melts in 107-1200C. Tg is -1200C
 Flexible & tough over wide range of temperature
 Chemically inert
 Resistive against acids/bases
 High impact strength, low brittleness, transparency and electrically insulated

Applications

 Transparent film (Plastic Bags)

 Squeeze bottle (flexible bottle)
 Paper coating
 wrapping
 table clothes
 Container & sheets
 Telephone & electric Cable wire &
insulation
HDPE (High Density PE)
 Linear polymer with little or no branching
 Low pressure required, low temp (< 100 0C)
 Ziegler-Natta catalyst (Al(C2H5)3 .TiCl4) used, coordination polymerization
occurs (Philip process)
Properties

 High density
 Melt in temp. range of 130-138 0C, Tg is -20 0C
 Higher rigidity than LDPE
 Better chemical resistance
 more stiff, tough, tensile strength, hardness, heat resistant
 Opaque, less impact strength, but better barrier properties

Applications

 Toys
 Dustbin
 Milk bottle
 cans
 drums
 containers
 fuel tanks
 Water pipes (irrigation)
 cable insulation
PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride)
 Free radical polymerisation
 Needs 50-75 oC
 Most versatile due to its blending ability with plasticizers, stabilizers &
different additives

As it is naturally transparent, can be produced in any colour

Properties:

 Colorless, odorless, non-flammable, chemically inert

 Resistant to water. Grease, oil, petrol, light, Oxygen, acids & alkali (corrosive
chemicals)
 Offers greater stiffness compared to PE
Applications

 building & construction

 pipes, flooring & vinyl siding
 Water hose
 Gloves, toys, raincoat, gumboots
 Table cloth & shower curtain
 wire, cable insulation
 Compounded PVC for long playing
gramophone
 Packaging
 Flexible films, pool lining
 artificial leather, wall covering
 Electrical outlet boxes, automotive
bumpers
PS (Polystyrene)
 Lightest plastic material known
 Produced by polymerization of styrene
 Polystyrene foam is known as Thermacol
 Free radical polymerisation
 Applications
Properties
 foam padding
 Rigid, transparent, thermoplastic
 Injection molded objects
 Amorphous polymer
 Wrapping material
 Offers stiffness & dimension less
 Insulating foam
stability
 Thermacol (insulating material)
 Moisture resistant
decoration, disposable glass etc.
 Electrical insulator, good colorability
 Household wares
& moldability
 combs, toys
 Radio, TV parts
 Video cassettes
 refrigerator parts
 Electric insulation material
PP (Polypropylene)
 Linear polymer
 Hard & tough plastic
 Low pressure required
 Ziegler-Natta catalyst (Al(C2H5)3 TiCl4) used, coordination
polymerization occurs
 Obtained from byproducts in the gasoline refineries
Properties

 High density, light weight

 Melt in temp. range of 165-170 0C
 Electric properties are same as PE
 Low cost polymer
 Inert to water & microbes (resist water & rot)
Applications

 Fiber
 light weight automotive component/appliance components (refrigerators), radio
& TV
 Indoor & out door carpets
 Packaging containers
 colored furniture
Water bucket
 Toys
 Pressure sensitive tape
 Revertible pouches
 Shrink films
Novel Plastics
Plastics: bad conductor and are used for making electric switches,
plugs & sockets, wire coaters.

However polymer (plastic) like polyacetylene conducts

electricity (conducting polymers)

High temperature resistant (>=900 oC) polymers are produced.

Nomex is a plastic fiber blended with glass wool for making
fireproof clothing for firemen.
Kevlar is a plastic having only 1/5th the density of steel but more
stronger than steel, hence used for making bullet proof jackets.

Jackets are made up of several layers of Kevlar & each layer is less
than a millimeter in thickness.

A jacket made of eight layer can stop a 0.38 bullet fired from
revolver.
A new transparent plastic as strong as steel and as thin as paper
was develop in 2007 using clay and non-toxic glue. This composite
plastic is biodegradable & requires very little energy to produce.

Biochemical engineer are working to make available implantable

artificial heart, kidney, eyes, ears & other body parts and organ
from specialized plastic material
Thank you
Unit 5
Structure and function of
Hemoglobin
 Hemoglobin
• Iron- containing oxygen-transport metalloprotein in the red
blood cells of vertebrates and the tissues of some
invertebrates.

• It carries oxygen from the lungs to the body's tissues and

returns carbon dioxide from the tissues back to the lungs.

• Hemoglobin is made up of four protein molecules (globulin

chains) that are connected together.
Structure of Heme

Heme is a complex of protoporphyrin IX and ferrous iron (Fe2+).

The iron is held in the center of the heme molecule by bonds of

the four nitrogens of the protoporphrin ring.

Heme Fe2+ can form two additional bonds, one on each side of
the porphyrin ring. One of these positions is coordinated to the
Side chain of histidine residue of the globin molecule, whereas the
other position is available to bind oxygen.
• Hemoglobin is found exclusively in RBCs.

• Hemoglobin (Hb), protein constituting 1/3 of

the red blood cells
• Two parts
• Heme
• Globin

Various types of globin combines with heme to from different

hemoglobin
Hemoglobin is made from two similar proteins
that "stick together".

Both proteins must be present for the

hemoglobin to pick up and release oxygen
normally.

One of the component proteins is called alpha,

the other is beta.

Before birth, the beta protein is not expressed.

• The alpha chain and the beta chain are made in
precisely equal amounts.

• The protein chains join in developing red blood

cells, and remain together for the life of the
red cell.
 Haemoglobin structure
So functional Hb is always a heterotetramer there must be 2 Beta
and 2 Alpha for oxygen carrying function

Alpha- Beta-
type type

Heme

Beta- Alpha-
type type
Functions of Haemoglobin
• Its main function is to transport oxygen
from lungs to the tissues & carbon dioxide &
hydrogen protons from tissues to lungs.
• Gives red blood cells their colour
• Can carry up to 4 molecules of O2
• Associates and dissociates with O2
• Contains iron (Fe)
When there is a high concentration of oxygen e.g in the alveoli
haemoglobin combines with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin.
When the blood reaches the tissue which have a low concentration
of oxygen the haemoglobin dissociates with the oxygen and the
oxygen is released into body tissues
 Oxygen delivery to the tissues
 Reaction of Hb & oxygen
 Oxygenation not oxidation
 One Hb can bind to four O2 molecules
 Less than .01 sec required for oxygenation
 b chain move closer when oxygenated
 When oxygenated 2,3-DPG (2,3-diphosphoglycerate)
is pushed out
 b chains are pulled apart when O2 is unloaded,
permitting entry of 2,3-DPG resulting in lower affinity
of O2
Oxy & deoxyhaemoglobin
 Synthesis of Haemoglobin (Hb)
• Haem & globin produced at two different sites
in the cells

• Haem in mitochondria
• Globin in polyribosomes
 Effect of Carbon Monoxide (CO)
•CO combines Hb at the same point as does O2, and can displace
O2 from hemoglobin.
•CO is “competitive inhibitor” of O2.
•Affinity is 250 times greater than that of O2.
•CO also inhibits unloading O2 of in tissues.
•In the presence of CO (low concentration), the affinity of
hemoglobin for O2 is enhanced
 Carbaminohemoglobin
Formation
• Carbon dioxide molecule reversibly attaches to
an amino portion of hemoglobin.

CO2 + Hb HbCO2

18
 Carbonic Acid Formation
• The carbonic anhydrase stimulates water
to combine quickly with carbon dioxide.

CO2 + H2O H2 CO3

19
Bicarbonate Ion Formation

• Carbonic acid breaks down to release a

hydrogen ion and bicarbonate.

H2 CO3 H+ + HCO-3
 Summary

• Normal structure including the proportion of globin

chains are necessary for the normal function of
haemoglobin

• Reduced haemoglobin in the red blood cells due to

any abnormality of any of its constituents result into
a clinical situation called anaemia

• Metabolic & other abnormalities result into

abnormal oxygen supply to the tissue
Thank You
Unit 5
 Chlorophyll
• The photosynthetic path way of green plants
may be regarded as an example of electon-
transfer chain.

• Green plants harvest light energy and convert

it to electrical energy through excitation of
chlorophyll.
 Chlorophyll
• Chlorophyll is a green pigment found in all plants, algae and
cyanobacteria (blue-green algae). Vital for photosynthesis,
chlorophyll allows plants to obtain energy from light by
converting the sun's rays into chemical energy.

• Chlorophyll is a magnesium complex derived from porphyrin ring.

• It is green because it absorbs red and blue light whilst

transmitting or reflecting green light.
Chlorophyll Structure
 Carbohydrates
• Carbohydrates are made of carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen atoms.
• Carbohydrates (glycans) have the following
basic composition:
I
(CH2O)n or H - C - OH
I
Source of Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are found in a wide array of both

healthy and unhealthy foods—bread, beans, milk,
popcorn, potatoes, cookies, soft drinks, corn, and cherry
pie. They also come in a variety of forms.

The most common and abundant forms are sugars,

fibers, and starches.
 Type of Carbohydrates
 Monosaccharides - simple sugars with multiple OH
groups. Based on number of carbons (3, 4, 5, 6), a
monosaccharide is a triose, tetrose, pentose or hexose.

 Disaccharides - 2 monosaccharides covalently linked.

 Oligosaccharides - a few monosaccharides covalently
linked.
 Polysaccharides - polymers consisting of chains of
monosaccharide or disaccharide units.
 Disaccharides are pairs of monosaccharides, one of which is
always glucose

 Condensation reactions link monosaccharides together.

 Hydrolysis reactions split molecules and commonly occur during

digestion.

 Maltose consists of two glucose units. It is produced during the

germination of seeds and fermentation.

 Sucrose is fructose and glucose combined. It is refined from

sugarcane and sugar beets, tastes sweet, and is readily available.

 Lactose is galactose and glucose combined. It is found in milk

and milk products.
Disaccharides:
(+)-maltose, “malt sugar” two glucose units (alpha)

(+)-lactose, “milk sugar” galactose & glucose

(+)-sucrose, “table sugar” glucose & fructose

Thank you
Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids are the third class of biopolymers (polysaccharides
and proteins being the others)

Two major classes of nucleic acids

 DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid, carrier of genetic information

 RNA: Ribonucleic acid, an intermediate in the expression of

genetic information and other diverse roles
The distribution of nucleic acids in the cell

 DNA is found in the nucleus with small amounts in

mitochondria and chloroplasts

 RNA is found throughout the cell

Structure of Nucleic Acid
The monomeric units for nucleic acids are nucleotides Nucleotides
are made up of three structural subunits

1. Sugar: Ribose in RNA and Deoxyribose in DNA

2. Heterocyclic base

3. Phosphate
Spot the difference
 NUCLEOTIDE STRUCTURE

PHOSPATE SUGAR BASE

PURINES PYRIMIDINES
Ribose or
Deoxyribose Adenine (A) Cytocine (C)
Guanine(G) Thymine (T)
Uracil (U)

NUCLEOTIDE
 phosphate

sugar base

phosphate phosphate

sugar base
sugar base sugar base

phosphate
nucleoside nucleotides
sugar base

nucleic acids
 Hydrogen bonds
P
G C
DNA IS MADE OF P
TWO STRANDS OF P
C
POLYNUCLEOTIDE G
P
P
C G
P
P
A T
P
P
T A
P
P
T A
P
 DNA IS MADE OF TWO STRANDS OF
POLYNUCLEOTIDE
• The sister strands of the DNA molecule run in opposite
directions (antiparallel)
• They are joined by the bases
• Each base is paired with a specific partner:
A is always paired with T
G is always paired with C
Purine with Pyrimidine
• This the sister strands are complementary but not
identical
• The bases are joined by hydrogen bonds, individually
weak but collectively strong
Watson & Crick Base pairing
RNA STRUCTURE
 Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a polymeric molecule implicated in
various biological roles in coding, decoding, regulation,
and expression of genes.

The basic components of RNA are the same than for DNA, with
two major differences.
The pyrimidyne base uracil
replace thymine and ribose
replace deoxyribose.

Adenine and Uracil for a base

pair formed by two hydrogen
bonds.

RNA molecules play an

active role within cells by
catalyzing biological reactions,
controlling gene expression, or
sensing and communicating
responses to cellular signals.
 protein synthesis, a universal function wherein mRNA molecules
direct the assembly of proteins on ribosomes.

Types:

transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules to deliver amino acids to the

ribosome

ribosomal RNA (rRNA) then links amino acids together to form

proteins.

 messenger RNA (mRNA) to convey genetic information (using

the letters G, U, A, and C to denote the nitrogenous
bases guanine, uracil, adenine, and cytosine) that directs synthesis of
specific proteins.
Functions of nucleic acids are:

The main functions is store and transfer genetic information.

To use the genetic information to direct the synthesis of new protein.
The deoxyribonucleic acid is the storage for place for genetic information in the
cell.
DNA controls the synthesis of RNA in the cell.
The genetic information is transmitted from DNA to the protein synthesizers in
the cell.
RNA also directs the production of new protein by transmitting genetic
information to the protein building structures.
The function of the double helix of the DNA is that no disorders occur in the
genetic information if it is lost or damaged.
m-RNA takes genetic message from RNA.
t-RNA transfers activated amino acid, to the site of protein synthesis.
r-RNA are mostly present in the ribosomes, and responsible for stability of m-
RNA
The genetic-code is the set of rules by which information
encoded within genetic material (DNA or mRNA sequences)
is translated into proteins by living cells.

 Biological decoding is accomplished by the ribosome, which

links amino acids in an order specified by m-RNA, using transfer
RNA (t-RNA) molecules to carry amino acids and to read the mRNA
three nucleotides at a time.

The genetic code is highly similar among all organisms and can be
expressed in a simple way.
The code defines how sequences of nucleotide triplets,
called codons, specify which amino acid will be added next
during protein synthesis.

 A three-nucleotide codon in a
nucleic acid sequence specifies a
single amino acid.

 A codon is defined by the initial

nucleotide from which translation
starts. For example, the string
GGGAAACCC
 Every sequence can, thus, be read in its5' → 3' direction in
three reading frames, each of which will produce a different amino
acid sequence
 With double-stranded DNA, there are six possible reading frames,
three in the forward orientation on one strand and three reverse on
the opposite strand.

The actual frame from which a protein sequence is translated is

defined by a start codon, usually the first AUG codon in the mRNA
sequence.

 three stop codons have been given names: UAG, UGA and UAA.

 Stop codons are also called "termination" or "nonsense" codons.

Drugs
A drug is any substance other than food, that
when inhaled, injected, smoked, consumed, absorbed via a patch on
the skin or dissolved under the tongue causes a physiological
change in the body

 In pharmacology, a pharmaceutical drug or medicine, is a

chemical substance used to treat, cure, prevent, diagnose a disease,
injury or promote well-being.
 Vitamins, hormones, antibiotics, anesthetics, antiseptics and
germicides are all organic products used as drugs or medicines.

 It has increased human life expectancy.

Various medical diagnosis

Microanalysis or blood, serum and

urine
Drug analysis (anti doping)
Identify infectious microorganism by
fingerpriting
 Combination of sophisticated instrument had improved the
separation and identification of biologically important molecules
present in micro-samples of blood, serum and urine

 In case of overdose the presence of drugs in blood level can be

identified.

 radio immuno assay (RIA), X-ray films and Magnetic resonance

imaging (MRI) have revolutionized the diagnostic procedure in the
field of medicine & health care.
Role of Chemistry

Clinical analysis
Diagnostic radiopharmaceuticals
Biomedically important plastic
Medical education and research

Drugs- The chemical compounds

A drug has 3 names:

1. Brand Name (valium)

2. Chemical Name (7, chloro-1,3-dihydro-1-methyl-5-phenyl-2
H-1,4-benzodiazepin-2-one
3. Generic name (diazepam)
paracetamol is a generic name. There are several companies that make this with brand
names such as Panadol®, Calpol®, etc.
Classification
Pain Killers
Antacids
Antibiotics
Hormone Pills
Stimulants and Depressants
Anesthetics
Narcotics
Tranquillizers
Pain-Relieving Drugs
Analgesics
Pain killers

An analgesic or painkiller is any member of the group

of drugs used to achieve analgesia, relief from pain.

Asprin (acetylsalicylic acid) most common commercial pain

killer.
Asprin acts in or as an

analgesic (to relieve pain)

Antipyretic (lowers fever)
Anti-inflammatory (reduce inflammation)
Prevent blood clotting
Prevention of heart attack
Treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (in form of buffered asprin
(Bufferin))
*Bufferin=Asprin + one or more bases like magnesium hydroxide
Mg(OH)2 or magnesium carbonate MgCO3 and aluminum
hydroxide Al(OH)3
These bases increases the rate of disintegration and absorption of
asprin tablet.
 person allergic to asprin found Stomach disorder as a problem.
Acetaminophen (active ingredient of Tylenol) provide relief.
 Ibuprofen ia another drug for treatment of inflammation and
fever
 Antacids-Drugs for stomach upset
An antacid is a substance/chemical which neutralizes stomach
acidity, which in turn relieves heartburn.

Stomach upset and heartburn are

resulted from production of too
much Hydrochloric acid in the
stomach.

Antacids are bases which are

used to nutralize this excess of HCl
which causes heartburn
Aluminum hydroxide and
calcium hydroxide are the
common antacids

Milk of Magnesia (Mg(OH)2)

This medication is used for a short time to treat

occasional constipation. It is a laxative (osmotic-
type) that is thought to work by drawing water into
the intestines.
The laxatives works by either irritating or lubricating the intestine
and these are usually lubricants (mineral oils), feces softner, epsom
salt (magnesium sulphate) and organic compounds (bowl irritants)

Antidiarrhoeals are also used

The toxic material from the intestine are effectively absorbed by

Kaolin clay or charcoal.
 Antibiotic-Drugs to combat infections
Antibiotics, also called antibacterials, are a type
of antimicrobial drug used in the treatment and prevention of
bacterial infection.

They may either kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria. A limited

number of antibiotics also possess antiprotozoal activity.

Antibiotics are not effective against viruses such as the common

cold or influenza, and may be harmful when taken inappropriately.

 In 1928, Alexander Fleming identified penicillin, the first

chemical compound with antibiotic properties (1st natural
antibiotic).
Microorganism caused most of the infectious diseases
Remedies: Synthetic sulpha drugs (sulphanilamide, penicillin,
streptomycin, tetracyclines, tetramycin and aureomycin)
When sulpha-drug gets built into an enzyme, the enzyme cannot
perform its normal metabolic task.

Modern antibiotics are themselves extracted from microorganism

Mode of action:

Penicillin: Prevent formation of bacterial cell wall

Tetracycline & streptomycin: prevent protein synthesis
Actinomycins: interfering with bacterial DNA production
Tranquillizers
These chemicals calm tension and anxiety but doesn’t cause sleep.

The kind of drugs available for treatment of mental pain and its
side effects are the tranquillizers and the antidepressants.

These drugs calm a patient without making the person tired.

Some common

Transquillizers:Librium
Equanil
Miltown
Valium (diazepam)

Antidepressants: Prozac (fluoxentine)

 Stimulants and Depressants
The “Uppers”

Chemicals which can affect the mind and thus the perception of
reality.

Examples: Cocaine, amphetamine, nicotine and MDMA (3,4-

methylenedioxy-methamphetamine, ecstasy)

Functions:
Elevate blood pressure
Suppress appetite
Decrease of fatigue
Increase confidence and alertness
Caffeine:

Alkaloid
Occur in coffee beans and in tea leaves
Stimulates CNS (central nervous system)
Increase sense of awareness

Decaffeinated coffee contains no caffeine

Caffeine is added to cola drinks (35-55 mg per 12-oz bottle)
Nicotine:
Highly poisonous alkaloid present in tobacco leaves
Health hazards due to active and passive smoking

Synthetic amines:
Ephedrine and amphetamine used as decongestants for nose and
sinuses
amphetamine also stimulates CNS
The “Downers”

These depresses the function of brain that control thinking and

coordination

Examples: Ethyl alcohol (Ethanol, alcohol)

Functions:
In high dose produces drowsiness and sleep
Withdrawal system

Alcohol intoxication is responsible for approximately half of the

traffic fatalities around the world
 Amount Effects
(mg alcohol/100ml blood)
50-150 Lack of coordination

150-200 Causes intoxication

300-400 Unconsciousness
500 mg or more May be fatal
 Narcotics
Mind-altering drug that produces stupefying, dulling effect that
induces sleeps and generally numbs the senses.

Alkoloids are basic, bitter-tasting, Nitrogen containing compounds

that are found in plants and that produce physiological reaction of
various kinds and intensity.
Morphine is the major alkaloid of opium contain several
narcotic compounds
Powerful narcotic and cough suppressant but highly addictive

Codeine is opium alkaloid

Less potent analgesic compared to morphine
Cough suppressant
Most common drug used on respiratory system

Pethidine is also used as narcotics

Norcotic are Potent pain killers, but the tolerance and dependence
on them develop frightening effects.

Some more examples; Heroin, marijuana, Indian Hemp and certain

mushrooms
Thank you
 Energy
& Chemistry
Q1. The first natural antibiotic is?
(a) Aspirin
(b) Paracetamol
(c) Penicillin
(d) Streptomycin

Q2. For treatment of mental pain one can be prescribed with

(a) Antibiotics
(b) Anesthetics
(c) Tranquillizers
(d) Antipyretics

Q3. In stimulators which component is present?

(a) Alkaloid
(b) Pyrethroids
(c) Pheromones
(d) Terpenoids
Syllabus for Unit 6
Energy:

What energy is?

Energy and its application

Energy and fuel chemistry

Pollution and energy

Fuel

Substance which when burn produce heat energy for

performing work

Calorific Value: Heat value of fuel

Most common fuel contains high
%age of carbon in them to burn
efficiently and producing
maximum heat.
Complete burning of fuel produces CO2, while incomplete
burning of fuel in insufficient supply of O2 produces carbon
monoxide.

CO is extremely poisonous makes carboxyheomoglobin when

attached to hemoglobin in the blood.

Unburnt carbon in the form of soot block chimneys and

pollutes the atmosphere.
Different fuels used:
Internal combustion engine: Gasoline (Petrol)
and Diesel

Campfire: Wood

Furnaces and water heaters: natural gas

Human: Food

Wood is probably the most used and oldest fuel

used by human
Fossil Fuel:

Most important source of energy

3 major fossil fuel: Oil, coal and natural gas

Fuel is burnt chemical energy is released, depending on

type of fuel heat is generated
Coal is used to generate electricity, in turn we get light,
motive force from electric motor and power for electrical
devices.

Oil gives us mobility in vehicles

Natural gas is primarily used in homes, industries.

Petroleum and oil:

 Mixture of liquid hydrocarbon (compounds having H & C,

along with some impurities like S, N O etc)

 Crude oil: Unprocessed (unrefined) oil, source of most

of the liquid fuels.

 Gasoline (Petrol) and diesel

 Fractional distillation is done to refine the crude oil,

which provide different products (solid, liquid and gas).

More volatile gases include propane and butane, which

are constituent of bottled gas and lighter fuel
Distillation of crude oil with the respected temperature
Less volatile fractions:

Kerosene (paraffin): Fuel for aircrafts and oil stoves

Fuel oil: in factories and ships

Diesel oil: diesel engine

Lubrication oils of various grades

Greases & jellies for lubricating purposes

Paraffin wax

Bitumen (asphalt) for road making

 Coal:

Most abundant fuel resource

Mixture of C, H, O in combination with impurities like N,

S, minerals and moisture

Coal is generally used for generating electricity.

 Some coal is used for making steam for heating and as

coke in steel manufacturing.

Limitation: Dirty fuel and difficult to handle

 Natural Gas:
Highly inflammable hydrocarbon gas

 Main constituent: Methane (CH4)

 Supplied for house hold use

 Found near petroleum deposits.

 Has no odour or colour

 Before use it is mixed with chemical that give strong odour

(like rotten eggs, tert-Butylthiol (t-butyl mercaptan)) , help
in detecting leakage.
 Town Gas: mixture of gases (coal gas, producer gas, oil
gas, natural gas) of fixed heat value.

 Coal gas, gaseous mixture—mainly hydrogen, methane,

and carbon monoxide

Producer gas, mixture of flammable gases (principally

carbon monoxide and hydrogen) and nonflammable gases
(mainly nitrogen and carbon dioxide)
Natural gas is convenient and efficient.

 Used for heat in industry, homes, commercial

areas.

 Used to produce electricity

Pollution free fuel, no smoke or ash on burning

 Expensive than coal

Nuclear Energy

Solar Energy

Wind Energy

Water Energy

Bio Mass Energy

Thank You
Dyes
Dyes are the colored substances used to impart
permanent color to the textiles, foodstuffs, silk,
wool etc.

or

A dye is a colored substance that has an affinity

to the substrate to which it is being applied.
The dye is generally applied in an aqueous solution,
and may require a mordant (dye fixative; inorganic
oxide) to improve the fastness of the dye on the fiber.
All colored substances are not dyes.
The requisite of a true dye are:

It must have a suitable color.

It must be able to attach itself to the material
from the solution.
When fixed, it must be protected from light and
washing.
They must resist the action of water, acid and
alkalis.
• The color of a particular dye is linked with the
nature of wavelengths absorbed and released in
visible region of light (400-700)
• Chromophores are the part of molecules
which are responsible for colour of a particular
dye.
eg: -N=N-, pi-bonds

Absorbs blue, will appear orange.

 Classification of Dyes
• No single class of dye can add colour to all fibers.
• A specific class of dye can only be applied to a given type
of textile fiber.

• In past dyes were mostly obtained from plants e.g. indigo

and alizarin dyes.
• But scientific era has developed many synthetic dyes
which are regarded as better than natural since they can
provide variety of shades in colors.
Classification of dyes:-
Dye can be classified as:

 On the basis of their constitution

 On the basis of their application
 On the basis of their constitution
The organic dyes are generally aromatic or heterocyclic
in nature. They differ in the number of rings as well as
the nature of linkages present.
Types:
Azo dye
Phthalein dye
Triarylmethane dye
Anthraquinone dye
Xanthen dye
Indigo dyes
Azo Dyes
These dyes contain the azo group (-N=N-). These
are formed as a result of coupling reaction.

E.g. orange-1, methyl orange, aniline yellow, Congo red

etc.
Structure of some common azo dyes
• -N=N- (Azo group)

• Methyl orange

• Aniline yellow
Phthalein dyes
• Phthaleins dyes traditionally are used for color change,
and they constitute the major class of pH indicators.
Hence are used in acid-base titration.

• These contain a phthalein group in their structure. E.g.

Phenolphthalein and mercurochrome etc.

• Phthalein group

Phenolphthalein
 Indigoid dyes
• These are one of the oldest dyes known and they
contain indigoid group in their molecules.

• e.g. indigo and tyrican purple.

Indigo Dye
Indigo Dyes imparts blue colour to fabrics
 The primary use for indigo is as a dye for cotton
yarn, which is mainly for the production of denim cloth
for blue jeans.
On average, a pair of blue jean trousers requires 3–
12 g of indigo. Small amounts are used for dyeing
wool and silk.
 Anthraquinone dyes

• Anthraquinone also called anthracene dione or di-

oxoanthracene, is an aromatic organic compound with
formula C14H8O2.

• These dyes contain in them an anthraquinone group

(Quinone group). E.g. Alizarin.

• Anthraquinone group
Anthraquinone acid dyes also contain sulfonic acid or
Hydroxyl groups that render them soluble in water and
substantive for wool and silk.

 they have an affinity for these fibres without the aid of

auxiliary binding agents (mordants).

Alizarin
Triaryl methane (Triphenyl methane) dyes

• These dyes contain triaryl methane group in their

molecules. Malchite green is an important dye in this
class.

• Triphenylmethane

Malachite Green
On the basis of their application

The application of a dye to a particular fiber depends upon the

nature of both the fiber and the dye. The molecule of a dye can get
attached to the fiber through covalent, hydrogen, ionic bonds and
van der wall’s forces.
Depending upon the method of application dye classified
as:-
Acid dyes
Basic dyes
Direct dyes
Disperse dyes
Fibre reactive dyes
Vat dyes
Sulphur dyes
Mordant dyes
Xanthene dyes
 Mordant dyes

• Some dyes do not stick directly to the fiber.

• They need a binding agent between fiber and the dye, which is
called mordant.

• For acid dyes metal ions are used due to their basic nature and for
basic dyes tannic acid or tannin is used.

• Depending upon the nature of mordant used, the same dye can give
different colors.
For example alizarin gives a bright red color with aluminum and a
blue color with barium.
 SULPHUR DYES
• The general disadvantage of the Sulphur dyes that they produce
dull shades & lack a red.

• The main advantage lays in their cheapness, ease of application

& good wash-fastness.

• In their normal state, Sulphur dyes are insoluble in water but are
readily soluble in the solution of Sodium Sulphide.

• In this form they have high affinity to the all cellulose fibers.

• Sulphur dyes is restricted to dull brown, Khaki & Navy shades,

where a good wash but not boil-fastness is required.
 Xanthene dyes
• Xanthene (9H-xanthene, 10H-9-oxaanthracene) is a yellow
organic heterocyclic compound.

• Its chemical formula is C13H10O.

• It is soluble in diethyl ether. Its melting point is 101-102 °C

and its boiling point is 310-312 °C.

• Xanthene is used as a fungicide and it is also a useful

intermediate in organic synthesis.

• Xanthene dyes tend to be fluorescent.