UNIT 11 CHALCOLITHIC AND EARLY

IRON AGE -11

Structure
11.0 Objectives
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Early Farming Settlements
11.2.1 Cultural Phases
11.2.2 Subsistence Economy
11.2.3 Material Culture
11.2.4 Burial Practices
11.3 Neolithic Surface Finds
11.4 Iron Age in South India
11.4.1 Megalithic Cultures
11.4.2 Origins of the Megalithic Cultures
11.4.3 Material Culture
11.4.4 Subsistence Economy
11.5 L e t u s s u m u p
11.6 Keywords
11.7 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

This unit deals with the early farming communities and the subsequent Iron Age in
the region of South India. After reading this unit, you will be able to know about:
the successive phases of the early farming culture of southern India and their
salient features,
the nature of settlements, economy and other traits of these cultures, and
the characteristic features of the Early Iron Age in this region.

11.1 INTRODUCTION
By now you mwt be well familiar with the evolution of human beings h m
hunter-gatherers into settled agricultural wmmunltia, You have also learnt about
the &tence of the Harappan Civilhation and the various upectn relatgd to it. In the
preview unit you have wnn how different cultura emerged ibllowing the decline of
the HBtBppan CivUiaation, covering the time span from the m d millannilun B.C.
to flrst millennium B.C. In this' unit, we will review the developments in south India
during the same period. The focus of the eNdy will be on the nature of the change8
that came about in thie period in material culture, in settlement patterns and social
organisation.

11.2 EARLY FARMING SETIZEMENTS

Settlements of the early farming communities in south India make a rather sudden
appearance in the third millennium B.C.There is no evidence to discem a gradual
evolution (as in West Asii) from a hunting-gathering economy to a food producing
economy. The evidence for this region indicates some sort of colonization of
favourable habitats in the Godavari, Krishna, Tungabhadra, Penneru and Kaveri
river systems. These settlements, in majority of the cases, are scattered in the
semi-arid, low rain fall and sandy loamy regions which are suitable for dry farming
and pastoralism (cattle, sheep and goat). The distinguishing features of these
settlements are:
i) Sedentary village settlements with semi-permanent to permanent structures, the
latter consisting of wattle and daub.
ii) Stone axes (made of Bard rocks like dolerite and basalt) manufactured by
 grinding and polishing. Because of this technique the stone tool industry of these
early farming cultures is referred to as the polished stone axe industry.
iii) Long and thin blades made of h e grained rocks like chert, jasper, chalcedony
and agate. These artefacts have a sheen on the cutting edge, indicating that they
were used for harvesting crops.
iv) Pottery which is hand made in the early stages and wheel made ih the later
stages.
v) An economy based on millet farming, and cattle and sheep/goat pastoralism.
The economy, thus, is basically ago-pastoral.
vi) The dietary needs are supplemented by wild game.

Important Neolithic-Chalcollthie sitee in South India

11.2.1 Cultural Phases

c On the basis of the overall evidence, we can distinguish three broad phases in the
growth of the early farming communities in south India.

I Phase I: The earliest settlements of these farming communities represent this phase.
I * These were made on tops of granitoid hills, or on levelled terraces on hill sides, or in
1 the valleys between two or more hills. The material culture consists of a polished
stone axe industry, blade industry and handmade pottery.
1

In pottery, grey or buff-brown ware is most common. A ware, which is less common,
has a black or red burnished slip, often with purple painted decorations. These
earliest settlements are associated with ash mounds some of which were excavated.
,,,.IT --,., 6-2 ,
,
L ,
-
.
.-
A -:A^- 1:1_- T ~ L - _ _ - v___--1 TI- >-l.-l n-11- -.a .1 I
Evolotlon of Euly hd&n Maski and Brahmagiri have all revealed the first phase of settlements of these
Sodely: 2400 B.C. to
1000 B.C.
agro-pastoral communities. This phase can be ascribed between 2500-1800 B.C. on
the basis of radiocarbon dates.

Phase II: The settlement pattern of Phase-I continues without any change:
settlements were still made on top of granitic hills, or on levelled surfaces on the
hillsides. Nonetheless, there are some important developments. The settlements had
circular hutments of wattle and daub on wooden frames with mud floors. SomC of
the larger pits at Nagarjuna-Konda (in coastal Andhradesa) which are circular, oval,
oblong and irregular, with post holes are interpreted as semi-subterranean pit
dwellings. Pit dwellings were also found at Paiyampalli and Veerapuram. In this
phase new pottery types like the perforated and spouted vessels appeared. The
discovery of such pottery types reveals contacts with regions in the north as similar
pottery types have been found there. The technique of roughening the outer surface
of pottery during this phase is reminiscent of technique employed in the early
Harappan period.

The polished stone axe and Made industries proliferated in this phase. Copper and
bronze objects were also discovered for the first time and their numbers increased
towards the end of this phase. Some of the sites where the Phase-I1 settlements were
discovered are Piklihal, Brahmagiri, Sanganakallu, Tekkalakota, Hallur and T.
Narsipur. The available radiocarbon dates for this phase suggest a timespan covering
1800-1500 B.C.

Phase III: The important development in this phase is the increase in the number of
copper and bronze tools. Such an increase is seen at Tekkalakota, Hallur, Piklihal,
Sanganakallu, Brahmagiri and Paiyampalli. The stone axe and blade industries
continue. In pottery a new grey and buff ware with a harder surface becomes
common.

Another ceramic type which is wheel made, unburnished and with purple paint also
appears. This ware has affinities to the chalcolithic Jorwe ware of Maharashtra. On
these grounds this phase can be ascribed to the period 1400-1050 B.C.
1
These three phases reveal how gradually the early farming-cum-pastoral settlements
in south India emerged and expanded. There is continuity of occupation from Phase I
to Phase 111 (as revealed at some sites in the excavations) and with no significant
change in the economy. The only important difference is the absence of
copper/bronze tools in Phase I. As the occupation of Pham I1 and I11 have yielded
these metal tools, they are designated as Neolithic-Chalcolithic.

From the distribution of these settlements, it can be seen that the preferred landforms'
are low hill ranges away from major watersheds but in proximity to streams; the soil
zones are tropical black clays, tropical red and black sandy loams, sandy or sandy
loamy fermginous tropical soils, and deltaic alluvium. The average annual rainfall in
which these settlements are located, as at present, falls in the range of 600-1200 mrn. ,
These sites are commonly dispersed in the castlellated hills and the habitations are
usually on the tops of hills or at the foot of hills.

11.2.2 Subsistence Economy

In view of the location of the sites in relation to physiography, it would appear that
areas which were suited largely for gravity flow irrigation were generally colonised.
However, there are some sites like Veerapuram on the bank of Krishna, H a h on r
the Tungabhadra, T. Narsipur at the codhence of the Kaveri and Kapila and those
in the alluvial zones of the Krishna, where there is scope for water management
through canal irrigation.

The available archaeobotanical evidenc~,indicates that millets and pulses were the
main cultivated crops. These are various kinds of millet, horse gram, green gram and
 4
. .

black gram. Hyacinth bean and barley have been recently identified at Ramapuram.

Coming to the fauna, almost all the excavated Neolithic-Chalcolithic sites yielded
remains which belong to both domesticated and wild species.

The domesticated species consist of cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat, pig, dog and fowl.
Cattle predominate at the majority of the sites indicating its importance in the
economy of these communities. For instance in the Neolithic levels at Veerapuram,
the faunal remains of which were subjected to meticulous study, cattle represent
48.68% of the domesticated animals whereas sheep/goat form only 5.4.9'0. If such
was the case at Veerapuram situated on the right bank of the Krishna with potential
for irrigation agriculture, then one should expect cattle pastoralism to have played a
major role in the scores of sites located in the uplands. As the economy of these
communities was a combination of agriculture and &al husbandry (cattle
predominantly and sheep/goat to some extent), it can be termed agro-pastoral.

In addition to these domesticated species these settlements have also yielded remains
of wild game.These wild species are porcupine, black naped hare, nilgai, chinkara,
blackbuck, sarnbar and chital. This would indicate that their meat requirements were
supplemented by wild game.

11.2.3 Material Culture

The material remains of this period include pottery, stone artefacts, copper/bronze
object and other objects.

i) Pottery
Pottery in Phase I (2500-1800 B.C.) was predominantly handmade, grey or
buff-brown. This grey ware is characterized by the use of bands of red ochre, applied
after firing. What is interesting is that some of these pottery forms have applied ring
feet and hollow pedestals which recall the pre-Harrappan types known from Amri
and Kalibangan. The other ceramic type of Phase I had a black or red burnished slip,
with a purple painted decoration.

In Phase I1 (1800-1500 B.C.) the red and black slipped wares disappear and new
, types occur, These new are perforated vessels, and vessels with spouts. In ceramic
. manufacture, the technique of roughening the outer surface of vessels is used, and
this recalls the one employed in the pre-Harappan levels of Baluchistan.

In Phase 111 (1400-1050 B.C.) new ceramic types occur:

a) a grey and buff ware with a harder surface and
b) a wheel thrown unburnished ware with purple paint. This latter type displays
affinities with the Jorwe type of Maharashtra, thus indicating cultural contacts
between the southern Deccan and the northern Deccan. The pottery forms are
various kinds of bowls (bowls with lips, lugs and spouts), handled and hollow
footed bowls, jars, dishes on stand, perforated vessels, and spouted vessels.

ii) Stone Tools and Bone Artefacts

The stone blade industry consists of long and thin parallel sided blades, some of
which are finished into other forms by retouch. These finished forms are crescents,
triangles, trapezes, serrated blades etc. Some of the parallel sided blades show a gloss
on the cutting edge which is due to their use in harvesting activities.

Many stone tools were also polished. The most common type of the polished or
ground stone axe industry is the triangular axe with a pointed buff and oval cross
section. The other forms are adges, scrappers, wedges, chisels and pointed tools
(termed as picks).
Evolution of Earty ~adlrn
Society: 2000 B.C. to
1000 B.C.

I P ~ L I S H E DAXE 2.CHISEL 3.A D Z E

arru ~oturro4x17

Besides these the other stone objeets comprise hammerstones, sling balls, &dbg
stones, rubbing stones and querns.The latter were used in foodgrain processing.

Among the Bone artefacts, worked bone, horn and occasionally antler and shell
have been found at some of the excavated sites. The most common artefacts are a
variety of points and chisels. One site (Pallavoy) has yielded bone axes, made from
cattle scapulae finished by grinding at the worked edge.

iii) Metal Objects

As noted earlier, copper and bronze tools appear in Phase I1 and increase in
Phase 111. The most important of these are flat axes and chisels which are reminiscent
of those of Malwa and Mahatashtra. The other interesting find is the antenna sword
found at Kallur (discussed in Unit 10 in the context of Copper Hoards).

The other items of copper/btonze, which are known from various excavated sites are
bangles, spiral ear rings and antimony rods. A fish hook has been recovered from
Hallur. The site Tekkalakota has yielded a spiral ear ring of gold.

iv) Beads and Temcotta figurines

Beads made of semi-precious stones have occasionally been found at some of the
excavated sites. For example circular disc beads of paste and steatite were discovered
at Nagarjunakonda.
Terracotta figurines, predominantly of humped cattle, have been recovered from
excavated sites like Piklihal.
These, seen in the context of paintings, of cattle around the settlements at Kupgal,
Maski, Piklihal etc. are suggestive of the significance attached to cattle in their
culture. These paintings show cattle, singly and in groups, and depict humped bulls
and long homed cattle. Some show cattle with decorated horns.

11.2.4 Burial Practices

The dead were commonly buried within the houses. Adult burial practices include
extended inhumation.
Infants were buried in urns. Excavations at Tekkalakota revealed (in Phase 111)
multiple pot burials, which recall the Jorwe burials of Maharashtra. A Neolithic
cemetery is reported at Nagarjunakonda. The offerings for the dead (grave goods)
usually consisted of pots, including spouted vessels, and in some cases stone axes and
stone blades.

11.3 NEOLITHIC SURFACE FINDS

Apart from being found in habitation sites, polished stone axes occur in small
isolated assemblages, in forested regions. Such occurrences are common in south
India, and often, there is a habitation site nearby. What do such occurrences
indicate? Such findspots probably represent activity loci. This is to say considering
the functional use of the tools (axes for tree felling) these findspots indicate
vegetation clearance in the hilly forested zones for dry farming operations.
Such isolated Neolithic stone axe clusters are common in the wooded hill ranges of
Tamil Nadu: Slevory, Javadi and Tirumalai hilly zones. Such a distribution of
Neolithic axe clusters from the wooded uplands of the southern extensions of the
'Yestern Ghats to the lowland Tamil plains, is suggestive of shifting cultivation
1)radices,which was prevalent till recently in the southern part of the Western Ghats.
The south Indian Neolithic is also associated with ash mounds which are distributed
i n the semi-arid parts of the Bhima-KrishnpTungabhadradoab. More than 60 ash
mounds are known and some of them are quite extensive. It was suggested by some
archaeologists that thcse mounds wete produced by the burning of cow dung by the
Neolithic communities, and that they were the sites of cattle pens where dung was
allowed to accumulate, Raymond Wchin in the light of evidence t c obtained from
his excavations at Utnw (an a b mound site) concluded that they were associated
with forat cattle stations of the Neolithic people and that the bwqing probably had
ritualistic significance.
As mentioned earlier, there is no evidence to prove the evolution of village fanning
communities from the preceding hunting-gathering economy, in south India. As we
have seen a sudden spurt in the emergence the village settlements started from
around the middle of the third millennium B.C. in these areas. How did these
farming settlements come into existence? According to some archaeologists, the grey
ware exhibits broad similarities with that found at sites like Hissar, Turang Tepe and
Shah Tepe in north east Iran; and the red and black painted pottery has affinities
with the pre-Harappan pottery of Baluchistan and the Indus system. On the basis of
these similarities, and considering some other features, they have suggested that the
origin of south Indian Neolithic cultures may have had links with some centres in the
Indo-Iranian borderlands.

Check Your Progress 1

1) Read the following statements and mark right (J)or wrong (X).
i) It is not possible to divide the material culture of the settlements in South
India in various phases.
ii) Among the domestic species, cattle played a very important role in the
economy of the early farming communities of south India.
iii) The burial practices were the same for the infants as well as the grown ups.
iv) We get no evidence of any bone artefacts from any of the excavated sites.
 Write ten lines on the cultural phases of the early farming communities in South
India.

.............................................................................................................................................
3) Can the economy of the farming communities of South India becharacterised as
Agro-pastoral? Write in five lines.

.............................................................................................................................................
'

4) What did the ash mounds discovered at various sites signiiy? write &five lines.

11.4 IRON AGE IN SOUTH INDIA

The use of iron in South India bepn
- sqmetime around 1100 B.C.This date has been
 suggested on the basis of the radiocarbon analysis of objects found at Hallur. h l cEU
c i ~ I ~ ~ U taod
Iron Age
However, at some of the other sites discussed earlier, we find that the
Neolithic-Chalcolithic cultural horizons overlap with Iron Age levels. In Northern
Deccan (Maharashtra) also the occupations at several chalcolithic settlements
continue into the Iron Age and it is the same case at sites like Brahmagiri, Piklihal,
Sanganakallu, Maski, Paiyampalli, etc. in southern Deccan.

The earliest phase of Iron Age in south India is recovered in the excavations at
Piklihal and Hallur and possibly by the burial pits at Brahmagiri. ~ h e s e hburials
l~
yielded the first iron objects, black-and-red ware, and a matt painted buff and red
ware. To some extent the latter is similar to the Jorwe ware. Similar evidence has
been recorded in the burials at Tekwada (Maharasetra). At some sites, in the
habitations, stone axes and blades continued to be used. The succeeding phase is
characterised by a predominance of burnished unpainted black-and-red ware, and
red or black wares.

11.4.1 Megalithic Cultures

C, 1 /

1 TOPIKAL-CAPSTONE
+ I A
+----- A
.

2 MENHIR 3 DOLMEN

4 STONECIRCLE 5 STONE CIQCLE 6 S4C?COpN&SHUS

PIT BURIAL C I S 7 BURIAL

i
Megalithic B U M Types In Sooth In&
I
I

I
Most of the information abour the iron age in south India comes from the
excavations of the megalithic graves. The megaliths usually refer to burials amidst
stones in graveyards away from the habitation area. In south India this kind of

I elaborate burial came with Iron Age. Megalithic burials have been reported in large
numbers from Maharashtra (around Nagpur), Karnataka (sites like Maski), Andhra
Pradesh (Nagatjunakonda),Tamil Nadu (Adichanallur) and Kerala.

The megalithic burials showed a variety of methods for the disposal of the dead. In
some cases bones of the dead were collected in large urns and buried in a pit. The pit
was marked by a stone circle or a capstone or both. The pits and the win also
r.nnin;nr.A n r n x m n r w l n I n o n m a nthar e n e m a .vr++a-, nnrrr\-hnni Cnn L n fnm.nA In 17
Evolution of ffirly Indian other cases pit &cles have k n formed with stones for burying the dead. Cist graves
Society: 2000 B.C. to made with granite slabs have also been reported. In Kerala rock cut chambers have
1000 B.C.
been made for burial. Yet another kid of megalithic burial is stone alignment
comprising rows of standing dories set in diagonal or square plan.

Iron Implements from South Indian, Megalithic Graves. 1. Arrowhead; 2. Daggers; 3. Sword;
4. Spearhead; 5. Trident; 6. Battle me; 7. Hoes; 8. Plough Share; 9. Sickles; 10. Stirrup;
11. Laddies; 12. Tripod; 13. Lamp.

11.4.2 Origins of the Megalithic Cultures

m~hemegaliths emerged around the end of the sc-,and and beginning of the first
millennium B.C. and this practice continued for many centuries subsequently. Some
scholars are of the opinion thaf megaliths cannot be associated with a single cultural
group and that the south Indian graves appear as a developing complex with several
streams of influences combining in them. Firstly, some 04 the megalithic burials are
reminiscent of those of Central Asia, Iran or the Caucasus, and might represent
traditions introduced from these areas by Indo-European speaking immigrants.
Secondly, some appear as developments of the indigenous Neolithic-ChalNthic Chalcolithic nod Early
Iroo Age-It
burial customs of the Deccan.

Scholars have variously identified the megalithic complex with the remains of the
Aryans or Dravidians. However, these claims are not acceptable. What seems certain
is that these burial complexes emerged in a situation of greater interaction among
various communities in south and north India. As pointed out earlier, a large number
of ago-pastoral groups existed in these areas prior to the introduction of iron. Many
of the burial customs of some of these communities continued in the Iron age. The
pottery burial was already practised in Chalcolithic Inamgaon. Other features of the
megalithic burials might have developed as local cultural innovations. However, some
of the objects found in the graves indicate contacts with the areas to the north-west of
India. Particular kinds of pottery like bowl on stand found in these graves are very
similar in shape to those of some earlier graves found in north-west India and Iran.
Similarly, the finding of bones of horses and implements used for horses indicates
that horse riding people had arrived in these areas. Horses could have been brought
from Central Asia only because wild horses are not found in India. Horse burial has
been reported from Junapani near Nagpur. In place like Maski and Piklihal rock
paintings show groups of horse riders carrying metal axes. All this is indicative of
greater contact with communities to the north-west of India. So, Iron age burial
indicate a combination of indigenous and foreign influences.

11.4.3 Material Culture

As earlier, the material remains of the Iron Age are represented by pottery with
certain specificities, besides iron and other metal objects.

i) Pottery
The pottery that we discover from all the excavated graves is the black-and-red ware.
The characteristic types are shallow tray bowls and deep bowls, both with a rounded
base, conical lids with knobs or loops on the apex, pottery ring stands and larger
water pots with rounded bases, etc.

ii) Iron and other metal objects

Iron objects have been found universally in all the megalithic sites right from
Junapani near Nagpur in Vidharbha (central India) down to Adichanallur in the
south: a distance of nearly 1500 km.They show use of identical tools. There are an
array of iron objects: flat iron axes often with crossed iron bands for hafting, different
types of flangkd spade, hoe, and spud orpick axe, sickles, bill hooks, wedges,
cowbars, spears, knives, chisels or adzes, iron tripods, pot rests, saucers, hooklamps,
many armed lam-pendants, daggers, swords (some with oranamental bronze hilts),
arrowheads and spearheads with hollow sockets, ceremonial scalloped axes, iron
tridents etc. In addition to these, there is a special group of objects which consists of
horse furniture such as snaffle bits and two simple bar-bits with looped ends (which
were recovered from Junapani), a kind of bar-bit with loopd nose-and-mouthpiece
(known from Sanur), etc. Among other metal object., the most numerous are bells of
copper or bronze, which might have served either as horse or cattle bells. Beads of
semi-precious stones and gold objects have also been reported.

11.4.4 Subsistence Economy

Excavated habitation h e s of the Iron Age are few. So it is d i c u l t to form a clear
picture of the economy of the south Indian megalith builders. Some of the excavated
sites have yielded remains of sheep/goat and cattle, and also millets and pulses.

An important feature of the iron objects which are grave goods recovered from the
excavated burials is the uniformity in types. Such a wide distribution of identical
types of iron objects right from Junapani (near Nagpur) to Adichanallur in the south,
testifies to the movement of a fairly tightly knit group of iron workers. According to
one scholar the megalithic people of Tamil Nadu and Karnataka were proficient in
tracing iron ore deposits and in the madfacture of a varierty of iron objects.They
were trading in these items, and gradpally took to settled life. Yet another scholar has
put forward the view that these groups were nomadic pastoralists with a greater
reliance on sheep/goat herding.
Evolution of E u l y Indian The settlements found near the megalithic complexes have very thin debris of
SoeieIy: 2000 B.C. to
1000 B.C.
occupation. This would indicate that these people were living in one area for very
short time. May be with the knowledge of iron they could colonize new areas. Thus,
some of the population was nomadic and some settlements might indicate
colonization of new areas. Where the settlements continue from the preceding
period, people continued to live in their old ways. Use of iron tools enabled them to
use granite stones for their graves It is these agro-pastoral groups that enter the
historical phase in the early centuries of the christian era. They have mentioned in the
Sangam literature. Some of the graves have yielded Roman Coins which suggests
their entry into history and their participation in trade networks spread over a large
area.

ChecLYour Progress 2 -

1) Write in about 100 words about the Iron Age in South India.

.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
2) Write five lines on the economy of the South Indian Megalith builders. - .
.............................................................................................................................................

11.5 Lm us SUM UP
Farming communities emerged in South India around the middle of the third
millennium B.C. A large number of pastoral nomadic communities also came into
existence in this period. The agriculturists'grew various kinds of millet, grain and
barley. The pastoral communities tended cattle, sheep and goats. Around the
beginning of the second millennium B.C. these communities started using copper and
bronze tools. Some of these bronze tools show parallels with the tools found in
north-western India. Iron was introduced in this area towards the end of the second
millennium B.C. This period also saw the beginning of 'megalithic burials. This
introduced a change in settlement pattern for some of the communities because they
started burying their dead away from the habitation areas. However, the farmers
continued to grow the same crops and pastoralist continued with their old life style.
This phase merged into the early historic south India when the literate tradition
began.

11.6 KEY WORDS

Aryp: The people who composed the Vedas and who spoke the Indo-European
~~~guages-
Burnishing: A form of pottery decoration in which the surface of the pot is polished
before firing.
Dravidian: The people who spoke Dravidian languages.
Dry Farming: A system of tillage in dry countries, surface soil being kept constantly
loose, so as to retain scanty rains and reduce evaporation.
Jorwe Ware: A late second millennium red painted pottery first identified in Jorwe,
Maharashtra.
Sedentary: Communities living in settled villages.

11.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress 1
1) i) X
ii) J
iii) X
iv) X
2) See Sub-sec. 11.2.1
3) Since the economy depended on a combination of agriculture and grazing of the
cattle, it can be characterised as ago-pastoral. See Sub-sec. 11.2.2.
4) Your answer should include the following: these mounds were originally the sites
for cattle pens where dung accumulated; they were created bebuse of the
burning of cow dung; and that this burning was perhaps a part of the rituals
performed by the neolithic communities. Also see Section 11.3
Check Your Progress 2
1) See Sub-sec. 11.4.1. Write the characteristics which distinguish one phase from
the other.
2) See Sub-sec. 11.4.3