COMPETENCY BASED LEARNING MATERIAL

Sector:
AUTOMOTIVE/LAND TRANSPORT SECTOR
Distinctive Area of Competence and Qualifications:
Automotive Servicing NC II
Unit of Competency:
Test and Repair Wiring/Lighting System
Module Title:
TESTING AND REPAIRING WIRING/LIGHTING SYSTEM

Technical Education and Skills Development Authority

HOW TO USE THIS COMPETENCY BASED LEARNING MATERIAL

Welcome to the Competency Based Learning Material / module on Testing and

Repairing Wiring/Lighting Systems. This learning material contains activities for you to
complete.

The unit of competency “Test and Repair Wiring/Lighting Systems” covers the
knowledge, skills and attitudes required for an Automotive Servicing course. It is one of the
modules in the Common Competencies at National Certificate Level (NC II)

You are required to go through a series of learning activities in order to complete each of
the learning outcomes of this module. In each learning outcome, there are Information Sheets,
Resources Sheets and Reference Materials for further reading to help you better understand the
required activities. Follow these activities and answer the self-check. Get the answer sheet from
your trainer to reflect your answers for each self-check. If you have questions, please don’t
hesitate to ask your facilitator for assistance.

Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL)

You may have some or most of the knowledge and skills covered in this learning material
because you have:

 Actual experience on the job

 Already completed training in this area

If you can demonstrate to your trainer that you are competent in a particular skill or skills
talk to him/her about having them formally recognized so you won’t have to do the same training
again. If you have qualification or a Certificate of Competency from previous trainings, show it
to your trainer. If the skills you acquired are still relevant to this module, they may become part
of the evidence you can present for RPL.

At the end of this module is a learner’s diary. Use this diary to record important dates,
jobs undertaken and other workplace events that will assist you in providing further details to
your trainer or assessors. A Record of Achievement is also provided for the trainer to complete
upon completion of the module.

This module was prepared to help you achieve the required competency in performing
shop maintenance. This will be one of the sources of information that will enable you to acquire
the knowledge and skills of this particular trade at your own pace, with minimum supervision or
help from your trainer.

 Talk to your trainer and agree on how you will both organize the training of this
module. Read through the Competency Based Learning Material carefully. It is
divided into sections which cover all the skills and knowledge you need to
successfully complete this module.
 Most probably your trainer will also be your supervisor or manager. He/She is there
to support you and show you the correct way to do things. Ask for help.
 Your trainer will tell you about the important things you need to consider when you
are completing the activities and it is important that you listen and take notes.
 You will be given plenty of opportunities to ask questions and practice on the job.
Make sure you practice your new skills during regular work shifts. This way you will
improve both your speed and memory and also your confidence.
 Talk to more experienced workmates and ask for their guidance.
 Use the self-check questions at the end of each section to test your own progress.
 When you are ready, ask your trainer to watch you perform the activities outlined in
this learning material.
 As you work through the activities, ask for written feedback on your progress. Your
trainer keeps feedback/pre-assessment reports for this reason. When you have
successfully completed each element, ask your trainer to mark on the reports that you
are ready for assessment.
 When you have completed this module and feel confident that you have had sufficient
practice, your trainer will arrange an appointment with registered assessor to assess
you. The results of your assessment will be recorded in your competency
Achievement Record.
QUALIFICATION : Automotive Servicing NC II
UNIT OF COMPETENCY : Test and Repair Wiring/Lighting System
MODULE TITLE : TESTING AND REPAIRNG WIRING/LIGHTING
SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION:

This unit identifies the competence required to: Carry out testing and repair. This
standard only applies to 12/24 voltage systems.

LEARNING OUTCOMES:

Upon completion of this module, you must be able to:

1. Test electrical systems

2. Repair electrical systems

ASSESSMENT CRITERIA:

1. Tests are completed without causing damage to any workplace

property or vehicle.
2. Correct information is accessed and interpreted from
appropriate tools and techniques.
3. Tests are carried out to determine faults using appropriate tools
and techniques.
4. Faults are identified and preferred repair action determined.
5. Electrical systems are repaired without causing damage to any
workplace property or vehicle.
6. Correct information is accessed and interpreted from
appropriate manufacturer specifications.
7. Necessary repairs are carried out using appropriate tools,
technique and materials.

PRE-REQUISITE: COMMON COMPETENCIES

ISUZU

Plain Automobile
Electrical Engineering

“Basic Part”
 Introduction

As the automobile involve, the society demands more and more from them; even more
environmentally harmless, even more commercially, even more safely, and even more
comfortably.
Electrical components used in recent automobiles employ highly advanced technologies
using ICs and they have become more and more compact and lightweight. In consequence,
acquiring that highly advanced knowledge is the urgent necessity for service staff members
involved in maintenance of recent automobiles.
In practice, however, service work on electrical components is thought to be difficult and
seems to b e left to specialist in many cases. After learning basics, understanding electrical
engineering becomes easy by repeating wheat you have learned. Well understanding of electrical
engineering will enhance engineer’s skills, and will broaden a scope of applying their skills.
Plain Automobile Electrical Engineering “Basic Part” provides plain explanations about
basic of electrical engineering. To help general service persons’ understanding of electrical
engineering, the explanations avoid hard-to-understand theories and mathematical formulas.
Authors hope that this book will be used for guidance to electrical components and will
help improve maintenance skills of maintenance service staff.

January 2003
Isuzu Motors Limited
Training Center
 1) Electricity on automobile

1-1 Three effects of electricity

Electricity components on an automobile make a various types as shown in Figure 1-1,

and the effects are divided into the following three; heating, chemical, magnetic. The three are
called three effects of electricity, which are caused by an electric current.

 Heating......Effect of converting electric energy into heat (or optical) energy. (A

current flowing in a conductor with resistance produces heat.

 Chemical....A current flowing in an electrolytic solution causes chemical reaction or

electrolysis.

 Magnetic....Effect of converting electric energy into mechanical energy. Or, reverse,

mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy, or a form or a property of
electrical energy is changed.

The products shown in the different effects are categorized on the basis of primary effects
of the products. Remember that even if a product takes advantage of magnetic effect primarily, it
makes heat as a by-product. The three effects take place at the same time.
 Emission effect (other effect)
If a voltage is applied in a space and is the voltage is raised, finally a
current flows in the space. This is parking discharge, which is used in an
ignition plug of an automobile.

1-2 Types of Currents

Electricity has the following types. Direct current and pulsating current are associated with
electric phenomena of an automobile.

(1) Direct current (DC)

Direct current refers to an electric current that flows at constant magnitude and in constant
direction. This current is represented as DC. Current of an automobile battery and a dry cell is
direct current.

(2) Alternating current (AC)

Alternating current refers to an electric current with changing magnitudes and direction in
a constant cycle. This current is represented as AC. Electricity supplied for home use is this type
of current. The number of those repetitions in one second is called as frequency (Hz or cycle). A
frequency in eastern Japan is 50Hz, and a frequency in western Japan is 60Hz.
(3) Pulsating current
Pulsating current refers to an electric current with changing magnitudes periodically over
time, while a flowing direction is constant.

Root-mean-square value of alternative current

Because an alternative current changes over time, it is a problem what magnitude
to measure as a current value and a voltage or mean values. Let us take a look at the root-
mean-square values.

Instaneous value: Any point on the sine

curve
shown on the right
Peak value: A peak value on the sine curve Figure 1-6 Relation among peak
shown on the right. value and root-mean-square value
Peak value = Peak Value of an alternative
√2 1.414
An amount of heat generated when an alternative current flows in a constant
=0.707 x Peak
resistor equals tovalue
an amount of heat generated when a direct current same as Peak values of
the alternating current. √2

Figure 1-7 The Root-mean-square value

1.3 Units presenting electricity
Strength of electricity is called voltage (E), which is indicated in unit of volt (V).
Flow of electricity is called current (I), which is indicated in unit of ampere (A).
Impediment to electricity is called resistance (R), which is indicated in unit of ohm (Ω).

Name Symbol Unit

Voltage E V (Volt)
Electric current I A (Ampere)
Resistance R Ω (Ohm)
Table 1-1 Symbols and Units
Used in mathematical
formula
and calculations

I : Intensity of current
E : Electromotive
R : Resistance

Units are converted as follows. (Units in Blank are not used in automobile maintenance)

Micro Mill Even Kilo Mega

Millionth Thousandth Even Thousand times Million times
µV mV V
µA mA A
W
Ω kΩ MΩ
Hz kHz MHz
Table 1-2 Conversion of units

Example
0.03A = 30Ma
0.2kΩ = 200Ω
20mV = 0.02 V
1-4 Voltage and Current

(1) Relation among the voltage, potential difference, and current

As shown in Figure 1-8, if two tanks are connected with each other using pipe, water
flows from tank A with a higher water level to tank B with a lower water level.
The following is a direct analog of this to electricity:
Water level: Potential
Water level difference: Potential difference (Voltage)
Water flow: Electric current
In general, a potential difference is called voltage (Figure 1-

If water levels of tank A and B are identical with each other, water does not flow. (Figure
1-10). In the case of electricity, also, no voltage arises when no potential difference exist, and a
current does not flow. Thus, a potential is required for a current to flow.

(2) Reference for potential

A potential is determined on a basis of a reference, which is called ground. A potential of
the ground is defined as 0 (V). The earth (ground) is defined as a ground in general. However, a
negative pole of battery is defined as a ground in an automobile electronics.
“1.5-volt” in a 0.5-volt battery indicates a potential difference between the two poles of a
battery. Because the negative poles is defined as the ground (0V) in automobile electronics, the
above values are the same as potentials of positive poles.

(3) Electromotive force and power supply

An electric power that is required to make an electric current flow continuously in a wire.
To make water flow into tank A continuously as shown in Figure 1-13, a water level
difference must be maintained by some means or another. Similarly, making an electric current
flow continuously requires maintaining a difference of potential, which is voltage, by some
means or another. An electrical force is requires to maintain a potential that makes a current
flow constantly. This force is called “electromotive force”. An electromotive force is indicated
by a voltage, which is represented in unit of volt (V).
A device that produces an electromotive force is called a power supply. Devices such as a
battery and a generator are power supplies.
1-5 Resistance
An effect of interfering with a flow of electric current is called electrical resistance (or
simply “resistance”). Resistance against water depends on a diameter , length, and roughness of
inner wall of a pipe when water flows in a pipe. Similarly, an electrical current flow better in a
conductor wire of larger diameter and flows less in a conductor wire of more length.
Accordingly, a stronger flow indicates lower resistance of a conductor wire and a weaker flow
increased resistance of conductor wire.

Resistance values depends on the following factors:

(1) Cross section of a conductor: Larger cross section leads
to less resistance ......................................... A (cm2)
(2) Length of a conductor: Longer conductor has more resistance Resistance among
................................................................................................................. those factors are as
(3) Material of a conductor f: Copper allows the electric current follows:
flow more than iron ......................................................... ρ (Ω[]cm) R (resistance)
=
(4) Temperature of a conductor: Metals general have higher ℓ
ρ
resistance at higher temperature A

Specific resistance
Above (3) is called a specific resistance ρ (resistivity), which is a
resistance of a cube having a side of 1 cm. “Ω[]cm” is used for a unit.

(1) Electric conductor and insulator

In terms of conductivity of electricity, materials are categorized into the following:
Conductor: Conducts electricity well Resistance is low.
Insulator: Does not conduct electricity Resistance is high.
Semiconductor: Conductivity changes
(2) Conductor
 [1] Specific resistance ρ (resistivity)
Some materials have higher resistances and others have lower resistances.
Silver Copper Brass Aluminum Iron
Conducts electricity well Conducts electricity less
Expensive Inexpensive
In consideration of costs and performances, copper is used for wiring in an
automobile.

[2] Temperature of conductor and resistance

Resistance change depending on temperatures.
When a temperature of a conductor is low, resistance of the conductor is low..
When a temperature of a conductor rises, resistance of a conductor becomes higher.
When a current flows in a light bulb, the filament heats up and a resistance becomes higher.

[3] Contact resistance

If a switch shown in Figure 1-17 is used a long time, the contacts of the switch become to
allow flow of currents somewhat less. This is due to resistance produced by contact. This is called
“contact resistance”. The following relations exists:
Larger containing area Results in lower contact resistance.
Higher contacting pressure Results in lower contact resistance.
Polishing contacts results in a lower contact resistance. Besides, connectors, fuses, and relay
contacts have contact resistances.
Soldering contacts, using washers when tightening terminals, planting terminals, and
cleaning electrical contacts are all performed to reduce contact resistance.

Why resistors are used?

A resistor adjusts a voltage or a current from a power supply and
sends an appropriate voltage and current to a next circuit.
If a high voltage as 12 V is applied directly to a transistor (see page
51), it may cause flowing a current higher than allowed, and may damage
the device. A resistor is inserted to flow an appropriate level of current.
In practice, Isuzu vehicles use QOS III dropping resistor, ECGI
injector dropping resistor and other resistor inserted in series to apply
appropriate voltages to other loads (glow plug and injector).
(3) Insulator
[1] Gas: Primarily, natural air is used for insulator.
Natural air allows insulating a voltage approximately 1000 by a
1-mm gap at room temperatures. The higher an air pressure rises,
the higher an insulating voltage rises.
[2] Fluid: Oil is often used.
[3] Solid Matters: Many types of solid matters are used. Materials are chosen
according to characteristics.
Mica: Resistant to heat and Used for motor
friction (insulation of commutator)
Ceramic: Resistant to high tempe- Spark plug
rature and chemicals
Glass: Transparent Lamp (lens)
Resin: Easy to process and tint Lead wires and tapes
Wood, paper, Cloth: Easy to process and inex- Parts such as relays
pensive.
(4) Semiconductor
Conductivity depends on temperatures, voltages, and the material sometimes acts as a
conductor and sometimes as act as an insulator.
On a semiconductor, relation between temperatures and resistance is opposite of that of a
conductor. A semiconductor has higher resistances when a temperature is low. A semiconductor
has lower resistances when a temperature is high.
Semiconductors are used in diodes and transistors. Details are describe in later sections.
2 Electric Circuit
2-2 Electrical Circuit diagram

An electrical diagram is drawn using specified symbols as shown in the following figure:
When a light bulb is connected as shown in Figure 2-2, a current flows the positive (+)
pole through The conductor wire via the switch, the fuse, and the light bulb, and to th e
negative pole (-). Then the current flows (-) to (+) in the battery.
3 Ohm’s Law and Direct-current Circuit

3-1 Ohm’s law

The following relations exist among voltage, current, and resistance in an electric circuit
shown in Figure 3-1. A current flowing in an electrical circuit is proportional to a voltage
applied to the circuit, ad is inversely proportional to a resistance. This is called the Ohm’s
law, and expressed by the following formula.

E = I • R Indicated by symbol
(V) (A) (Ω) Indicated by unit
Voltage Current Resistance

Because a voltage (E) is the basis of a circuit, it is placed at the top of the figure on the
right. (Figure 3-2). Current (I) and resistance (R) are interchangeable with each other.
 Simply put, the equation means that a current flowing in a circuit becomes lower when a resistance
id high, and a current becomes higher when a voltage is high.

Exercise

Do the following calculations (See the bottom of the page for answers.)
Q.1 A voltage of how many ;volts is required to make a current of 4A (amperes) flow in a
reservoir of 32 Ω (ohm)?

Q.2 A current of how many amperes flows in a 3Ω resistor when a voltage of 12V is applied?

Q.3 How many ohms of resistance is required for a resistor when a current of 4A flows
applying a voltage of 12V?
3-2 Connection of Resistor
The following three connection types are used:
Serial connection
Parallel connection
Serial parallel connection

(1) Serial connection

1) Connecting resistor in series is called serial connection of resistors.
2) Combined resistance of resistors in serial connection is the same as the sum of all
resistors connected.
3) Combined resistance of resistors in serial connection is same as the sum of all resistors
connected.

Answer Q1: 12 V Q2: 4A Q3:3Ω

When compared to a tank, water flow is obstructed if interference increases and total
resistance increases also.

(2) Parallel connection

1) Connecting resistors side by side is called parallel connection of resistors.
2) When resistors are connected on parallel, their combined resistance is lower than any one
of the connected resistors.
3) When resistors of the same resistance are connected in parallel, their combined resistance
equals to a value of one resistor divided by the number of the resistors.
4) A combined resistor connected in parallel equals to reciprocal of a sum of reciprocals of
resistance of each resistor.
 If compared to tanks viewed from above, many pipes connected in parallel make water
flow easier than water flowing in only one pipe. Thus, total resistance is reduced.
(3) Serial parallel connection
If many resistors connected in parallel and in serial are combined, it is called Serial
parallel connection. Calculation of combined resistance of this type of circuit is done by
combining calculations of resistors connected in series and in parallel.

Exercise
Q.4 how high is a combined resistance when resistors of 2Ω and 3Ω are connected in
parallel?

Q.5 How high is combined resistance when resistor of 2Ω, 3Ω and 4Ω are connected in
parallel?

Q.6 As shown in the figure, a current of 20A flew four light bulbs lit up with a 12V battery.
How high was combined resistance when the bulbs lit?

Q.7 As shown in the figure, three resistors are connected in delta. If resistance of each resistor
is 1Ω, how high is a combined resistance between A and B?
Answer

Q.7 The diagram in question is redrawn as shown in the figure below. Since this is a simple
serial parallel connection circuit calculation is done as follows.

3-3 Serial circuit

(1) Serial connection

As shown in Figure 3-10, currents flowing in R1 and in R2 are the same. And if, a break
occurs in any one of the two resistors, a current does not flow in any of the two resistors. This
type of connection is called “serial connection.”

 Current and voltage

(Calculation example : E=12V, R1 = 2Ω, R2 = 4Ω)
Current flows in all resistors at the same level.
 Voltages are applied in accordance with resistance of each resistor.
Voltage applied to resistor R1: E1 = I x R1 = 2 x 2 = 4 (V)
Voltage applied to resistor R2: E2 = I x R2 = 2 x 4 = 8 (V)
Total voltage: E = E1 + E2 = 12V
(The total voltage is the same when it is calculated as E=IR0.)

(2) Parallel connection

As shown in Figure 3-11, an electrical power is supplied to the resistors in parallel, and a
current flows in R2 even if a break occurs in R1. This type of connection is called parallel
connection.

 Current and voltage

(Calculation example : E=12V, R1 = 3Ω, R2 = 6Ω)
Current flows in all resistors at the same level.

Current flowing in resistor

Current flowing in resistor R2:

Total current:
(The total voltage is the same when it is calculated as I=E/R0.)
Combined resistance of parallel connection:

A voltage is applied to all resistors evenly.

3-4 Loads

An item that operates by receiving a current is called load. As shown in Figure 3-12, a
headlight and a horn of an automobile are loads, and are a kind or resistors.

o A load is high (A load is heavy.) Current is large Resistance is low (Wattage is

high.)
o A load is low (A load is light.) Current is small Resistance is high (Wattage is
low.)

3-5 Shorting and open

In general, shorting refers to connecting two points having a voltage between them
directly with a low-resistance, conductor. Because it causes flow of a very large current, shorting
may harm wires and it may cause a fire. To prevent this danger, a fuse is used in may cases. A fuse
is a wire or plate made od an alloy of lead and tin, or made of aluminun. If a fuse is use is inserted
in serial to a circuit, the fuse melts and disconnects the circuit when an excessive current such as
shorting current flows. It keeps safety of the circuit. When placing wires by yourself, the circuit
must include a wire.

A current does not flow if a circuit is disconnected (due to a break or poor contacts.) this condition
is called an open circuit.

3-6 Voltage drop

Resistances between contacts such as those between a fuse and a holder and between
switch contacts, and contacts resistance in connects are useless resistances. Let us consider why
those are useless resistance.
 When turning on the light using a battery, applying the voltage of the battery directly to
the light results in flowing a large current and in lighting up the light brightly. However, if contact
resistance exist between a fuse and a holder as shown in Figure 3-14, a voltage applied to the lamp
drops. The lower voltage is called that “voltage drop occurred due to contact resistance.” The lost
power is due to contact resistance is totally useless.

Internal resistance of a battery

A battery, which is a power supply has also an internal resistance
and it causes a voltage drop. If a battery voltage without loads is 12V and
an internal resistance is 0.02Ω, a flow of 150A current using a starter
causes a voltage drop of “150x0.02=3V.” This causes voltage drop on a
battery terminals into “12.3 = 9V”.

3-7 Heating action of current

(1) Joule’s law

A current flowing in a conductor cases heat. An amount of heat produced in a specified
period of time (t second) is proportional to a product of squares current flowing in the
conductor and a resistance of the conductor. This relation is called “Joule’s law” and the
produced heat is called Joule heat.
 As shown in Figure 3-16, if a current flows in resistor R for a specified period of time (t
second, an amount of heat on resistor R is expressed by the following equation:

Amount of heat generated:

H = Voltage × Current × (current flowing) Time
= E × I × t (1)
Where, according to the Ohm’s law, E = I × R is true.
Substituting E in equation (1) for this:
H=E×I×t
= I2Rt(Joule) ..............(2)
Since 1 joule is 0.24 calorie, equation (2) is expressed
H = I2Rt(calorie) ............(3)
One cal (calorie) is an amount of heat required for raising a temperature of 1g of water by
10C.

3.8 Electrical power and amount of electricity

(1) Electrical power
Actions such as lighting up a light, heating, making chemical decomposition occur, and
rotating a motor are called work of electricity, and those phenomena are called “Electricity
worked.”
Amount of work done by the power in one second is called “electrical power”. A symbol
of electric power is P, and a unit is watt (W).
“1W” is an amount of electric power when 1V of voltage is applied and 1A of current
flew.
Electric power (P) is proportional to a voltage (E) and to a currents (I), and they have the
following relation:
P = IE (W)

This equation is transformed into the following:

P P
Current = I = Voltage = E
E I
Substituting the Ohm’s law for P=IE makes the following equation:

E2
2
P=IR P=
R
(Substitute E=IR) (Substitute I=E/R)
 (2) Amount of electricity
An amount of electricity (WH) refers to an amount of work done by specific electricity in
a specific period of time. An amount of electricity is indicated in unit of WH (watt-hour).
Amount of electricity = Electrical power × Time
(WH) (W) (H)
(3) Lamp capacity
A lamp capacity is usually indicated by wattage, such as 10W and 20W. These indicate
electric power consumed in a lamp when a rated voltage is applied to them lamp. According, a
current that flows when a rated voltage is applied to a lamp is found by the following equation:

P Where P : Capacity of lamp

I=
Exercise E

Q.8 How many watts is power consumed in a 12V light bulb that has a resistance of 2Ω when it is lit
up?

Q.9 What wattage does a light bulb have if the light bulb consumes a current of 6A and has a resistance
of 2Ω when it is lit up?

Exercise
122
Q.8 P = = 72 (W) Q.9 62 × 2 = 72 W
2
4. Magnet and Magnetic Field
Magnetic exist widely in nature and are artificially made using a current. Properties and
phenomena specified to a magnet are explained with virtual lines, which are called magnetic
lines of force. The magnetic lines of force esxist everywhere a magnet or a current exists. The
area where the lines exist is the worlds of magnet, which is the magnetic field.

4-1 Properties of magnets

Certain kinds of minerals (e.g. magnetite) have a property of attracting iron pieces and
iron powder is called magnetism. A material that has magnetism is called a magnet.
A magnet has the following property:
(1) A magnet has a magnetic poles (Figure 4-1)
Parts where magnetism is strongest are called magnetism poles. There are N-pole
and S-pole.

(2) Magnetic lines of force come out of magnetic poles (Figure 4-2)
It is imagined that lines of magnetic force go from the N pole to the S pole. Those
lines called magnetic line of force.

When thinking about a batch of magnetic lines, it is called a magnetic field.

The magnetic lines of force have the following properties:

1. Magnetic lines of force come out of the N pole and reach the S pole.
2. Strength of a magnetic pole is proportional to the number of magnetic lines of force
coming out the magnetic pole.
3. The more magnetic lines of force gather, the stronger a magnetic force becomes.
4. A magnetic line of force has tension similar to that of a rubber a band.

(3) The same magnetic poles against each other, and different magnetic poles are attracted
with each other. (Figure 4-3)
 (4) If a magnetic needle is hang and allowed to move freely, the N pole points the north and
the S pole points the south. (Figure4-4)

(5) A magnet attracts an iron piece. (magnetic induction)

An S pole is generated on the side closer to a magnet, and an N pole is generated on the side
farer to the magnet. (Figure 4-5). Aluminum, copper, lead, which are non-magnetic materials, are
not attracted by a magnet.

P
4-2 Permanent magnet
If some material are magnetized, they become magnets and the magnetism remains on the
materials after magnetizing. This is called residual magnetism, and materials with excessively
strong residual magnetism are called permanent magnet.
o Materials with little residual magnetism :Silicon, soft-iron
o Materials with much residual magnetism: Tungsten steel, cobalt steel
An automobile uses small permanent magnets in a speedometer, tachograph, and
ammeter.
4-3 Forces acting between magnetic poles
As describe earlier, the same poles repulse against each other and different poles
attract with other. With regard to the repulsing and attracting forces, a relation exists in the
forces, which is “strength of a force acting between magnetic poles is proportional to a product
of the strength of two magnetic poles, and is inversely proportional to a square of the distance
between the magnetic poles. This is called “Coulomb’s Law”.

Meanwhile, as shown in Figure 4-7a, some materials pass magnetic flux easily while
other materials do not. For example, as shown in Figure 4-7b, various types of relays use an iron
core. An iron core passes magnetic flux easily and enhances an attracting force of a relay.
Residual magnetism

When a coil is wound around an iron core and a current flow in the coil, a
magnetizing force (magnetic force) is given. The graph in the Figure 4-8 shows
densities of magnetic flux when the magnetizing force is increases gradually. This is
called the magnetization curve.
A magnetization curve shows that a magnetic flux density does not increase
even if a magnetizing force increases, after reaching a certain point. This
phenomenon is called magnetic saturation.
Contrary to this, when a magnetizing force is reduced gradually, a magnetic
density decreases as shown by the dotted line in Figure 4-8. A magnetic flux
remains even after a magnetizing force is completely removed. This is called residual
magnetism
5 Magnetic Field Generated by Current

5-1 Indicating Current

When indicating direction of a current, as shown in Figure 5-1, an electric wire pierces
a piece of paper perpendicularly and a direction of current flowing in the wire is indicated with
symbols  and . A direction of flowing from the front to the back of the paper is indicated by
, and a direction flowing from the back to the front is indicated by . It may be helpful to
remember that symbol  indicates a view of the back of an arrow, and symbol  indicates a view
of the tip of an arrow.

5-2 Corkscrew rule

As shown in Figure 5-2 when iron powder is placed on a cardboard through which an
electric wire passes at the center and an electric current flows through the wire, the iron powder
makes a pattern of concentric circles. Density of the iron powder is higher in areas closer in the
wire, indicating that a generated magnetic field becomes stronger in areas closer to the wire. If a
magnetic needle is placed in this magnetic field, the N pole of the needle indicates a direction of
a magnetic field. As shown in Figure 5-3, when direction of a current is a direction of a current is
a direction of a corkscrew proceeds, a magnetic field is formed in a direction of turning the
corkscrew. This is called corkscrew rule.
5-3 Magnetic field generated by coil

(1) The right hand rule

Almost all electric devices that take advantage of magnetic actions use a coil.
Magnetic fields on a coil are generated in direction as follows:
If an electric current flows in a coil in direction of the four fingers of a right hand, the
direction of the thumb stretched straight is the direction of the magnetic field generated by the in
the coil. (It means that the side of the coil indicated by the thumb is N pole.)
This is called the right-hand thumb rule. (Figure 5-4, Figure 5-5).
 This is considered to be because that, as shown in Fgure 5-6, making small circles of
magnetic lines around an electric wire of the coil result in making a magnetic line of force
moving from bottom to top at the center of the coil. Accordingly, a coil that gathers many lines
of generating magnetic fields in the corkscrew rule and a current flowing in direction of
proceeding corkscrew makes an electric magnet, which has the N pole at the top and the S pole
at the bottom.
(2) Magnetomotive force
Force to the right-hand thumb rule, an electric current flowing in a coil generated a
magnetic force. Where, a product of the number of turns (N) of a coil and a current flowing in
the coil is called “magnetomotive force”. (Unit is AT (ampere-turn). (Figure 5-7).

On the same size of a coil, the higher a current is the stronger a magnetomotive force
becomes, and the larger the number of turns is the stronger a magnetomotive force becomes.
F ∞ N × 1 (Unit is AT)
(∞ is a symbol indicating proportional.)

(3) Combined magnetomotive force

In figure 5-8, magnetomotive forces of coils L1, and L2 have the same direction.
According to the right-hand thumb rule, the left side becomes the N pole. In this case, a
combined magnetomotive force of the coils is found by adding the two forces to each other.

In figure 5-9, on the hand, magnetomotive forces of coils L1 and L2 have the opposite
directions. In this case, a combined magnetomotive force is the difference between
magnetomotive force of two coils. If the two coils have the same magnetomotive forces, a
combined magnetomotive force becomes zero (0) naturally, and the iron core does not show
magnetism even if a current flows in the coils.
 As describe above, coils wound to add magnetomotive forces are called cumulative
compound coils, and coils wound to cancel magnetomotive forces are called differential wound
coils. The combined magnetomotive forces are used in a starter and a magnet switch.

(4) Electromagnet
As shown in Figure 5-10, a material that easily passes magnetism (iron core) placed in
a coil males an extremely strong magnet. This is called an electromagnet.
This is different from a permanent magnet in a respect that an electromagnet in a
respect that electromagnet losses the magnetic field unless an electric current flows. In addition,
positions of magnetic poles depends on direction of a current.

5-4 Fleming’s left-hand rule

As shown in Figure 5-11, when a conductor wire is placed in a magnetic field and an
electric current flows in the conductor wire, the conductor wire is moved by a force. As shown in
Figure 5-13, this is because :The conductor wire with a current flowing in it generates
concentric circles of magnetic lines of force according to the corkscrew law. Then, combined
with the magnetic forces of lines outside the wire, distribution of the magnetic lines of force
becomes sparse at the top and becomes dense at the bottom. The magnetic wires of force are bent
like a strained rubber band, and a force of pushing form dense part to the sparse part is generated.
This force is called an electromagnetic force. Fleming’s left-hand rule defines the relation among
the magnetic lines of force, a current, and an electromagnetic.

Figure 5-12 shows the left-hand rule. Which indicates that if the left hand is held with
the thumb, index finger and middle finger mutually at right angles and a direction of the index
finger is take in direction of magnetic line of force and middle finger is taken direction of the
current, the thumb points a direction of the magnetomotive force. The strength of magnetomotive
force is proportional to a product of magnitude of magnetic lines of force (magnetic flux) and
magnitude of current. The Fleming’s left-hand rule is applicable to a wide range of actions, such
as direction of forces generated in a motor and operations of measuring instruments. Operating
principle of a starter used in an automobile is understood by applying this rule.
5-5 Electromagnetic Induction
Electromagnetic induction is the reverse of the electromagnetic force. It is a
phenomenon that a magnetic change around a conductor wire causes an electromotive force
(induced electromotive force) in the conductor.
A magnetic change is caused by the following two actions:
1. A conductor wire moves across magnetic line of force. (a conductor wire
moves where a magnetic line of force exists.)
2. A change is made in magnetic flux in which a conductor wire is placed.
Figure 5-16 shows an action equivalent to action (2) above. If a magnet comes closer to a coil,
the number of magnetic flux increases and a electromotive force is generated in direction shown
with the solid line. On the contrary, moving the magnet away from the coil reduces the number
of magnetic flux in the coil, and an electromotive with the change of magnetic flux. Thus an
electromotive force is always generated in direction that interferes with a change of the number
of magnetic flux in a coil. (This is called Lenz’s law.)

This is the most important law to understand electromagnetic induction and principle of power
generator.
An electromotive force generated by the electromagnetic induction is called induced
electromotive force and a current generated by the force is called an induced current. A change
in magnetic lines of force in a coil, from a different point of view, is a conductive wire of a coil
crossing a magnetic line of force (which means that a conductor passes through a magnetic line
of force). Thus, it is regarded as that a coil conductor moving across a magnetic line of force
causes generation of electricity in the conductor. In this case, the larger the number of turns in a
coil is the more changes of magnetic lines of force occur, and the shorter a time requires for the
changes of magnetic lines is the larger is, the larger an electromotive force becomes.
This is called Faraday’s law.
 Lenz’s Law
Discussing a little more details, as shown in Figure 5-17, when N pole of a permanent
magnet comes closer to a coil, the coil generates magnetic lines of forces in reverse direction,
interfering with increase of magnetic flux in the coil. (N pole is at the top in Figure 5-17.) Then, a
current (inductive current) flows in direction indicated by the arrows, according to the right-hand
thumb law. When a magnet moves away from the coil, inverse actions occur. (Figure 5-18)

Figure 5-17 When magnet moves in Figure 5-18 When magnet moves out

5-6 Fleming’s right-hand rule

This section describes section (1) in previous page put another way. As shown in
Figure 5-19, a conductor wire moves perpendicular to a magnetic line of force in a magnetic
field., the conductor moves across the magnetic line of force and an electromotive force is
generated in the conductor. A direction of this electromotive force id known easily form the
following Fleming’s tight-hand rule.
As shown in Figure 5-20, Fleming’s right-hand rule deifines that :If the right hand rule
with the thumb, index finger and middle finger mutually at right angles and a direction of
the index finger is taken inn direction of magnetic line of force and the thumb is placed in a
direction of movement, the middle finger is taken in direction of an electromotive force,
which is a direction of current.
In figure 5-19, moving the conductor wire up and down (penpendicular to magnetic
lines of force) generates the largest electromotive force, and moving the conductor wire to
let and right (in parallel to the magnetic lines of force) does not generate any electromotive
force.
Basic of AC generator
In an actual AC generator, the magnet and the coil in Figure 5-16 correspond to the parts
called rotor and stator coil respectively in Figure 5-21. The rotor rotates inside the stator coil,
instead of moving closer and away from the stator coil. When the rotor rotates, the N pole and S
pole come closer and farer alternately, and an alternating current is generated in the stator coil.
6. Self Induction and Mutual Induction
As shown in Figure 6-1, if a battery of approximately 10V is connected to a coil with
many turns and iron core and a current is flowing, turning off the switch causes generation
of an instantaneous spark at the switch.

As shown in Figure 6-1, suddenly interrupting a current flowing in a coil results in

generation of a voltage across the coil, and the voltage is higher than an input current. This
is called a counter-electromotive voltage.
As describe above, an electromotive force in the reverse direction to interfere with the
changes of magnetic lines of force generated by itself (which is called counter-electromotive
force) is called self-induction.
The counter-electromotive force, which is generated by self-induction, has the
following properties:

(1) Direction of counter-electromotive force

An electromotive force is generated in direction to interfere with a change of
current is, the larger an electromotive force becomes.
(2) Magnitude of electromotive force
The larger a change of current is, and the shorter a period require for change of
current is, the larger an electromotive force becomes.
Even if an amount of change in a current is the same, induction varies depending on
the number of turns and shapes of coil (self-inductance).
The more the turns of a coil is, the larger electromotive force becomes.
6-2 Mutual induction
As shown in Figure 6-3, current flowing in circuit A generates magnetic lines of force around the
coil of the circuit. A part of the magnetic lines of force intersect with the coil of circuit B, and the
intersecting magnetic lines of force change to generate an electromotive in the circuit B. In this
case, it is described that mutual indication exists between circuit A and B.

(1) Direction of electromotive force

The same concept that of self-induction is applicable. Figure 6-4 shows direction
of a power.
(2) Magnitude of the electromotive force
In Figure 6-3, a current flowing in a circuit A is, and the shorter the time required
for the current change is, the larger an electromotive force in circuit B becomes.

Even if a change of current in circuit A remains the same, inducing action depends
on the numbers of turns, shapes, and positions of the two coils. (Mutual inductance)
As shown in figure 6-5, an output voltage of the secondary coil is found by the
following equations if the numbers of turns of the primary coil and the secondary coil.
 N2 E1:Input voltage
E2 = E1 E2 : Output voltage
N1 N1 and N2: The number of turns in coils

In the example of an ignition coil, interrupting a current at a point in a distributor

results in generation of a several hundreds of volts of a voltage across the primary coil. If
the number of turns of the secondary coil is a hundred times as many as that of the priamary
coil, a voltage hundred times as high as the several hundreds of volts, that is an ultra-high
voltage of a several tens of thousands of volts is generated on the secondary coil. The high
voltage makes a spark on an ignition plug.
 7 Components in Electric Circuits

7-1 Variable Resistor

A resistor that can be resistance from zero to a certain level is called a variable
resistor, and is used to change current or voltages in an electric circuit.
A potentiometer is a kind of variable resistor. This component, as shown in Figure 7-
2, is devised to detect a total resistance between (1) and (3) and resistance between (1) and (2).
(Contact of terminal (2) moves).

Measurement in variable resistor

Total resistance is resistance between (1) and (3) (across both end
terminals of a potentiometer). If a multimeter is connected to terminals (1)
and (2) as shown in the figure on the right, and the knob is turned as
shown in the figure, resistance changes smoothly from 0Ω to a total
resistance.

7-2 Relay
When a power consumption of a load is relatively large, this relay used to turn on and
off a circuit.
A relay is composed of a coil for generating magnetic force and a moveable contact
that is by the magnetic contact that is moved by the magnetic force. On the other hand, a switch
controlling this relay is required to handle only a low level of electric current. Therefore, the
switch controlling this relay is required to handle only a low level of electric current. Therefore,
the switch contact needs only a small capacity.
 In addition, a relay can prevent a voltage drop as described below

7-3 Lead switch

As shown in Figure 7-7, a lead switch has contacts sealed in a glass tube and the
contacts are opened and closed by external magnetic force. The switch is used for a liquid level
sensor, a vehicle speed sensor, and a temperature switch.
(1) Liquid level sensor
A liquid level sensor detects shortage of liquids such as engine coolant, washer liquid,
and brake fluid, and then operates an indicator lamp.
[1] Sensor for detecting shortage of brake fluid
As shown in Figure 7-7, the magnets mounted on a flat close and opens the
lead switch. The lead switch uses a plate spring of thin metal, and operates securely
with magnetic force in a very short contacting moment. The switch is used for
detecting windshield washer fluid and engine coolant.

Figure 7-8 shows an example of an electric circuit for a fluid level sensor. If a fluid level
drops and the magnet comes close to the lead switch, the contact closes and makes a
ground circuit for the warning lamp, notifying that a fluid level has dropped.

Figure 7-8 Electric circuit of fluid level sensor

(2) Vehicle speed sensor switch

The vehicle speed sensor switch in Figure 7-9 is made by combining a rotating
magnet and a 7-9 is made by combining a rotating magnet and a lead switch. As the
magnet rotates, the magnet attracts and repulses the lead in the lead switch. The switch
generates on and off signals four times while the shaft makes one turn.
 As shown in Figure 7-10 when the N and S poles are away the contacts, the magnet
poles of top and bottom contacts are different from each other. Thus, the contacts attract
each other and the switch is closed and turned on.

Meanwhile, as shown in Figure 7-11, when N pole or S pole comes closer to the
contacts, the same magnet poles are made in the two contacts and the contacts repulse
each other. Thus, the switch is open and turned off.

(3) Heat-sensitive switch (thermal switch)

Figure 7-12 shows a thermal switch.
 A thermal ferrite element is a special kind of alloy, in which a magnetic permeability
suddenly drops when a certain level of temperature is reached. A thermal switch ferrite element
sandwiched by a ring-shape permanent magnet and has a lead switch inside the ring. Under a
specified temperature, the thermal ferrite element act as ferromagnetic to turn off the lead switch.
When a temperature rises, magnetic flux changes and the lead switch is turned on.
This is used for a sensor to turn on and off “preheating” on the QOSII.
Other type of thermal switch for warming-up system, which has somewhat different
structure, turns on the switch at lower temperature and turns off the switch at higher temperature.

7-4 Capacitor
As shown in Figure 7-13, when electricity is applied to two plates insulated from
each other, electrons of  and θ gather in the plates and attract each other.

Therefore, electricity is charge in the plates after a power supply is removed.

A volume of charging electricity is called capacitance, which is measured by a unit
“farad”. Farad is indicated be character “F”.
 Function of capacitor
In figure 7-14, a capacitor allows electricity flow while charging electricity when a
direct current voltage is applied by turning on the switch. Then, capacitor does not make
electricity flow anymore. (Charging is completed.) Figure 7-15 shows those actions of
charging

Taking an example of a water tanks, water flows from tank B into tank A when a
weight is placed on tank B (when voltage is applied). Then, when a difference of water;
level balances with the weight, the water flow stops. The same thing happens in the
circuit.

Then as shown in Figure 7-18, turning off the switch makes the capacitor discharge
electricity to the resistor (in a tank, it is similar to removing the weight). When the
capacitor runs out of potential, discharging stops. (Discharging is completed.

Figure 7-19 shows the actions of discharging.

 A capacitor acts as a kind of resistor against an alternating current.
Resistances are higher at low frequencies and become lower if a frequency becomes
higher.
Those properties of a capacitor are used to prevent burning of points in a distributor,
reducing noises on radio, and choosing alternating current of a desired frequency among
those of various frequencies.

Actual capacitor
Removing an aluminum case of an actual paper-in-oil capacitor shows rolls of three thin paper
sheets sandwiching two aluminum foils. The paper sheets dampened with oil are sticky. Two lead wires
are connected to each aluminum foils
8 Semiconductor

From appoint of viewpoint of electricity, materials are categories into conductors that
conduct electricity under specific conditions. Figure 8-1 dhows categorization of those materials
by specific resistances (also called resistivity).

Semiconductors have specific resistances in midway between conductors and insulators.

The properties of conducting electricity depends on temperatures. And applying heat, light, or
voltage makes a great change in electrical properties (primarily specific resistances) according
to the ways that those conditions are given.
To understand semiconductors, it is necessary to discuss atoms.
A material is, as shown in Figure 8-2, is collection of extremely small particles called
molecules, which keep the properties of the materials. If you divide the molecules further, it
finally reaches atoms, which are ultimately minute particles that compose a material.

(1) Atom and electron

An atom is made of a nucleus carrying electrical charge of (+) at the center and
electrons circulating around the atom and carrying electrical charge of (-). The number
of electrons differs depending on materials. As shown in Figure 8-2 (1), a hydrogen
atom has only one electron, and an aluminum atom has 13 electrons.
On a stable atom, the (+) charge of the nucleus balances with a total (-) charge of
electrons circulating around the atom. Therefore, electrical charge of the whole atom is
+0.
 As shown in Figure 8-2 (2), electrons circulate on specific orbits around a nucleus.
The number of orbits of electrons and alignment of atom has organized rules.
Any atom is chemically stable if the outermost orbit has the specified number of
electrons. However, if the number of electrons is smaller than specified, the atom
becomes chemically active being ready for giving excessive electrons to other atoms, or
receiving lacking electron, be chemically stable again.
Electrons composing the outermost orbit of an atom are important in deciding
properties of the atom. Those electrons are called valence electrons. Germanium and
silicon has four valence electrons, and silver and copper has one valence electron.
(2) Function of valence electron
If any one valence electron jumps out of an atom, the atom becomes
electrically not neutral. If one valence electron jumps out of an atom, (-) electric charge
for one valence electron is lost and the atom loses balance, having (+) electric charge.
Meanwhile, if an atom receives one valence electron, it has (-) electric charge.
Because valence electrons have the longest distance from a nucleus, it jump
out of the outermost orbit to be a free electron if energy stronger than a gravity of
nucleus, such as voltage, heat, or light.
Action of the free electrons cause electric currents and chemical reactions.

Chemical bond occurs due to actions of valence electron (most outer-shell electron).
The following two types of chemical bond exist:
(a) Ionic bond
An atom that has 1 or 2 valence electrons and an atom that has 6 or 7 valence
electrons give and receive electrons to each other and make ions of stable
arrangement of electrons. The ions are bonded by electronic gravity.
(b) Covalent bond
Atoms share 1 to 3 pairs of electrons and makes electrically stable
arrangement with each other. Non-metal material and chemical compound expressed by
a molecular formula have covalent bond.

As shown in Figure 8-5, a silicon atom which has 4 electrons on the outermost
orbit, shares outer-shell electrons with a next atom and has a 8 electrons. This is called
covalent bond, which is stable with a strong bonding force.
 A semiconductor like this, containing little of other electrons is called
intrinsic semiconductor like this, containing a little of other electrons is called an
intrinsic semiconductor.

8-1 P-type semiconductor

(1) N-type semiconductor (Negative Meaning Minus)
Since antimony has 5 valence electrons on outermost orbit, as shown in
Figure 8-6, if antimony (Sb) is added to purified silicon, it makes a weak-bonding
crystalline with one excessive valence electron.
The valence electron easily becomes a free electron and moves in the
crystalline if a slight external energy is applied. The free electron increases
conductivity, and the added impurity makes an N-type semiconductor with excessive
(-) electron.

Figure 8-6 N-type semiconductor

 (2) P-type semiconductor (Positive: Meaning plus)
Since indium (In) has only 3 valence electrons, as shown in Figure 8-7,
indium added to purified silicon makes a covalent bond wanting one valence
electron. This shortage of electron makes a hole (a positive hole), resulting in
production of P-type semiconductor.

8-2 Diode (p-n junction)

P-N junction diode is generated in the course of producing a diode, instead of

connecting P-type semiconductor and N-type semiconductor made separately. This is
usually called “ diode” simply.

(1) Rectification
Figure 8-8 (a) shows a model of positive holes and free electrons with no voltage
applied.
Figure 8-8 (b) shows movement of positive holes and free electrons when  is
applied to P-type semiconductor and ө is applied to N-type semiconductor.
 As shown in the figure, electrons on N side pass through the joint to go to P side,
and to the  pole. The positive holes on P side pass through the joint to go to N side, and
to ө pole. Since electrons and positive poles are supplied from the power supply, the
electric current flows continuously. This type of connection to a power supply is called
forward direction connection.
On the other hand, as shown in Figure 8-8(c), connecting ө pole to P-type
semiconductor and connecting  pole to N-type semiconductor makes the positive hales
in P side be attracted by ө poles, and makes electrons in N side be attracted by  pole.
Therefore, electric current does not flow through the junction. This type of connection to
a power supply is called reverse direction connection. As described above, a diode has
capability of rectification that allows current flowing in forward direction connection and
disallow current flowing in reverse direction.

(2) Structure
A diode has the structure shown in Figure 8-9. There are discrete type device (a)
and (b) type device, which is the packed diode (rectifier) with three chip diodes soldered
on  electrode and ө electrode respectively. This is built in an AC generator.
(3) Properties
Figure 8-10 shows properties of a diode. The device does not let an electric
current flow unless it has a voltage of approximately 0.3 to 0.5 volts. (As shown in
Figure 8-11, it requires a certain force.) Once a voltage is reached, however, a current
starts to flow. Little current flows in reverse direction even if a voltage is applied.
However, a certain level of voltage is reached, the device suddenly lets a current flow.
This voltage level is called a breakdown voltage, a reverse withstand voltage, or a
puncture voltage.
8-3 Zener diode

As shown in Figure 8-12, a Zener diode shows characteristics similar to usual

diodes when a voltage is applied in forward direction. However, when a voltage higher
than a certain level is applied in reverse direction, the device suddenly lets a current flow.
Then, if the voltage in reverse direction drops below a certain level, it blocks a current
again. The voltage at which suddenly a current flows is called a Zener voltage (4 to 30V
in general). Zener diode is also called a voltage-regulator diode.

In Figure 8-13 (b), taking a reverse direction voltage applied to the whole circuit
as E and taking a Zener voltage as Ez,

A current does not flow when: E < Ez

A current flows when: E > Ez Potential difference across a Zener diode is
Ez.

8-4 Light-emitting diode (LED)

A diode that lets a current flow when a voltage is applied in forward direction and
emits lights is called a light-emitting diode (LED).
There are various types of light- emitting diodes. Some emit visible light (visible
radiation) and others emit invisible light (such as infrared ray, etc.).
When a voltage is applied in reverse direction, the LED does not let a current flow and
does not emit light either.
 Equipment such as radio set has a pilot lamp to notify that the power is turned on.
While a midget light bulb consumes 0.5W of power, a light-emitting diode requires only a
voltage lower than 2V and a power of 0.02W, consuming significantly low electricity.
A rated forward direction voltage of a light-emitting diode is 1.8V to 2V. Therefore, the
diode requires those levels of voltages to emit light. However, it may be damaged if a voltage
higher than a rated level is applied. For this reason, a resistor is connected in series. As shown
in Figure 8-15. (A resistor of approximately 1k is connected for a 12V battery.

Figure 8-16 shows voltages across parts in the circuit.

8-5 Photodiode

As opposed to the light-emitting diode, photodiode allows a current flow in forward

direction when it is exposed to a light. This is used for a sunlight sensor on an automatic air
conditioner.

Application circuit of photodiode

Detecting sunlight
A photodiode is used for a sunlight sensor of an automatic air conditioner.
It is installed on top of a dashboard panel. Since the diode is very sensitive to
sunlight and is does not receive influence of temperatures, it accurately detects
sunlight and sends information to the computer. Currents flowing in the circuit
are proportional to the amount of light.

8-6 Transistor

While a diode is made of P-type semiconductor and N-type semiconductor, a

transistor is composed an additional element besides the two. A transistor has two types:
One is PNP type transistor, which sandwiches one N-type semiconductor with two P-type
semiconductors, and other is NPN type transistor, which sandwiches one P-type
semiconductor with two N-type semiconductors. A semiconductor that is sandwiched in
between is called the base (B), one sandwiching part is called the emitter (E), and another
sandwiching part is called the collector (C).
 A transistor has 3 terminals, and currents flowing each terminal are called
emitter current (IE), base current (IB), and collector current (IC) respectively. The
currents flow in direction of the arrow of emitter.
An arrow indicates an emitter.

(1) Operating principle of transistor

[1] PNP type

Figure 8-21 shows operating principle of a PNP type transistor. In Figure (a). no
voltage is applied and, positive holes and free electrons exist in emitter, collector, and
base respectively. Then, as shown in figure (b), if  is applied to base and ө is
applied to collector, electrons in base are attached by  pole and positive holes in
collector are attracted by ө pole just as the non-conducting status of a diode. The
junction between base and collector does not conduct electricity and no current flows.
 Then, as shown in figure (c), if  is applied to emitter and ө is applied to base,
positive holes in emitter are attracted by ө pole applied to base and moves to base,
and free electrons in base flow to emitter respectively. This makes conditions of
conducting electricity. Since the base layer is thin and density of positive holes is
higher in emitter than that in base, the positive holes coming from emitter to base do
not disappear in base. Most of the positive holes are attracted by ө pole applied to the
collector and move to the collector. As a result, continuity is made between emitter
and collector. At this point, only 2% to 3% of the positive holes in emitter are bonded
with electrons in base, and remaining approximately 98% of the positive holes reach
collector. (Refer to Figure 8-23).

[2] NPN type

Figure 8-22 shows operating principle of a NPN type transistor. In Figure (a), no
voltage is applied. Then, as shown in figure (b), if ө is applied to base and  is
applied to collector, positive holes in base are attracted by ө pole and electrons in
collector are attracted by  pole just as the non-conducting status of a diode. The
junction between base and collector does not conduct electricity and no current flows.
Then, as shown in figure (c), if ө is applied to emitter and  is applied to base,
electrons in emitter are attracted by  pole applied to base and moves to base, and
 positive holes in base flow to emitter respectively. This makes conditions of
conducting electricity. In NPN-transistor, voltages are applied differently than those
in PNP type transistor.

(2) Current flowing in transistor

Currents flowing in the terminals of a transistor have the following relations: A sum of
base current (IB) and collector current (IC) is emitter current (IE).
 IE = I C + I B
Therefore, base current IB is expressed as the following:
IB = I E - I C
Base current

A base current, as shown in Figure 8-24, corresponds to an exciting current for a usual
relay unit. Just like an exiting current flowing in a relay closes contacts to make a circuit, a base
current flowing in a transistor makes continuity between collector and emitter which
corresponding to contacts in a relay, and makes a circuit.
(3) Amplification

If an electrical signal is applied to a transistor terminal as an input, a magnified signal of

the input signal is output from an output terminal. This is called amplification by a transistor.
As shown in Figure 8-28, if a signal is input to base and an output signal is taken from
collector, changes of base current IB are amplified and appear as larger changes of collector
current IC.
 Here, a ratio of collector current IC to base current IB is called a current amplification
factor, which is indicated as .
Current amplification factor  =

(4) Switching

A transistor does not let their emitter current IE or collector current IC unless a base current
IB does not flow.
Therefore, turning on and off a base current turns on and off emitter current IE and
collector current IC.
This action of a transistor is called switching.
As shown in Figure 8-30, if a switch is installed downstream of a base, turning the switch
on makes a base current IB flow from emitter to base. The base current IB flow makes a collector
current IC flow and the lamp is turned on.
 Making the base current IB flow to cause flow of collector current IC is called “transistor
is turned on.”
If comparisons are made with a relay, a transistor does not have contacts while a relay
has contacts, although both can control a large current using a small current.

(5) Examples of transistor circuits

Reading indications on transistor
There are various types of transistors and some of them look like each other. Before
starting practice of inspection, let us take a look at appearances and indications.

8-7 Thermistor

Although resistance of conductors such as metals increase as temperature rises, resistance

of semiconductors decrease as temperature rises.
Thermistor takes full advantage of this negative temperature coefficient, and is used for
temperature sensor and correcting changes of resistors due to temperatures.
 Thermistor is familiar to us in a clinical thermometer, a thermometer, and a fire detector.
Components familiar to us in daily operations include a water temperatures sensor and an intake
air temperature sensor.

In a circuit shown in Figure 8-34, a thermistor is connected in serial with resistor

R. Since resistance of a thermistor decreases as a temperature rises, the combined
resistance of the two components does not change even if temperatures change. In other
words, the thermistor corrects the combined resistance.

Inspecting thermistor
As shown in Figure 8-35, resistance of a thermistor changes due to changes of
temperatures. As shown in the figure, measure a resistance in resistance meter position and then
heat or cool the thermistor to check changes of resistance.
Because a thermistor has no polarity, interchanging test probes does not change a
resistance.
Application example of thermistor
If a resistance of a thermistor drops, base current of transistor Tr1 increases
and Tr1 is turned on. Then the relay is turned on and air conditioner compressor starts
operation.
9 Integrated Circuit (IC)

IC means “a circuit with integrated components “ or “a circuit crammed with

components.” Transistors, diodes, resistors, and capacitors are formed and a circuit is built on a
semiconductor substrate (chip). An IC has the following features:
o Ultra miniaturization is possible.
o Reliability is high.
o Signal processing is fast
o Power consumption is low
o Cost reduction is possible by volume production

Several pieces to several tens of thousands of transistor circuits are formed on a chip of
silicon about one-quarter of several-millimeter square. A device is built in a ceramic or plastic
package, and has an appearance as shown in Figure 9-1 in general.

Various types of ICs exist, and the devices are categorized as listed in the table by the
number of integrated circuit elements.
By applications meanwhile, ICs are categorized into analog ICs and digital ICs.

9-1 Analog IC

An analog IC amplifies and controls signals that change in a continuous manner over
time (analog signals).

Analog IC is used for amplifier circuits of audio and television system.

9-2 Digital IC

A digital IC, which integrates logical circuits, processes signal that change intermittently over
time (digital signals). Digital IC is used for microcomputers.
Digital ICs are primarily used on an automobile. The following sections describe the
logic circuits that compose a digital IC.
In digital IC, as shown in Figure 9-4(B), a signal level exceeding a specified voltage is
regarded as “1,” and a level below a specified voltage is “0.” Accordingly, if a significant
difference is set between a voltage for “1” and a voltage for “0” (e.g. “1” = 5V and “0” = 0V), it
is a very stable signals.
A digital signal can express only two conditions, “1” and “0”, and is not capable of expressing
various types of signals. Therefore, various signals are expressed by combining several digital
signals.

Analog and digital

As shown in the table on below, electric signals are divided into two types, analog
digital signals.
o Analog signal: signal that changes in a continuous manner over time.
o Digital signal: signal that changes intermittently over time.
With regard to characteristics of circuits, outputs of an analog circuit changes in
proportion to input voltages. Meanwhile, outputs of a digital circuit change suddenly when
an input signal reaches a certain level.
Thus, analog signals are continuous amounts, while digital signals are
discontinuous amounts.
Logic circuit
A digital circuit uses two levels of signals, one is high (present) and other is low
(absent).
It is a rule to express those two signals by “1” and “0”.
For example, as shown in Figure 9-6, ECE (voltage between collector and emitter)
is 12V when the transistor is off, and the voltage of this status is set as “1.” Meanwhile,
ECE is 0V when the transistor is on, and the voltage of this status set as “0.”
Thus, unlike analog signals, digital signals express various types of information by
combination of two states, “presence” and “absence” of signals.

An IC has circuits formed with numerous elements such as transistors, and the
electronic circuits are extremely complicated.

When inputting some signals of 1 and 0, some circuits output “1” or “0” in
accordance with the combination of the input signals. These types of circuits are called
logic circuits.

Basic logic circuits are AND circuit, OR circuit, NOT circuit, and NOR circuit.

(1) AND circuit

AND circuit, in principle, as shown in Figure 9-7 (1), is a circuit composed of two
switches connected in series.
This is a circuit that lights up the lamp Q when both switch A and switch B are turned on.
In other words, an AND circuit outputs signal “1” when all input signals are “1.”
Figure 9-7 (2) shows a symbol and a table o truth value for this circuit.
(2) OR circuit

OR circuit, in principle, as shown in Figure 9-8, is a circuit composed of two switches

connected in parallel.

This is a circuit that lights up the lamp Q when either of switch A or switch B is turned
on.
In other words, an OR circuit output an signal “1” when any one of input signals is “1.”
(3) NOT circuit

NOT circuit, in principle, as shown in Figure 9-10, is a circuit including a relay with
normally closed contact.

If switch A is turned on, the relay contact breaks and lamp Q goes off. On the contrary,
turning off switch A makes lamp Q light up.
In other words, a NOT circuit outputs a signal “0” when an input signals is “0,” and
output a signal “1” when an input signals is “0,” reversing an input signal when outputting. A
NOT circuit is also called an “inverter” (inverting circuit).

(4) NAND circuit

NAND circuit is an AND circuit with a NOT circuit attached behind. It is called NAND
circuit, by attaching N meaning “NOT” to the head.
 Outputs of NAND circuits are reverse output of AND circuit.

(5) NOR circuit

NOR circuit is an OR circuit with a NOT circuit attached behind. It is called a NOR
circuit, by attaching N meaning “NOT” to the head.
Outputs of NOR circuit are reversed outputs of OR circuit.
 10. Measuring Current, Voltage, and Resistance

There are two types of circuit testers:

(1) Meter indicating values with a needle:…………………………………………Analog system
(2) Meter indicating values digitally on LCD or LED:……………………………Digital system
Although either of the two systems above has advantages and drawbacks respectively,
digital type is suitable for experiments on a sensor. That is because a digital tester is provided
with built-in amplifier circuit, which is useful for handling minute signals such as output from a
sensor.
Disadvantage of a digital tester is that measurement is impossible in some cases, because
response of the tester is slow in comparison to an analog system. (e.g. Fast preheating voltage on
QOSIII at water temperature above 45oC)

10-1 Structure of analog circuit tester

Needle of an ammeter, a voltmeter, or a circuit tester, as shown in Figure 10-1, is held at

a position where a magnetic force generated by a current flowing in a coil balances with a
controlling force of a spiral spring.
Viewing from side, pivots are provided below and above the coil as shown in Figure 10-
2. The minimize rotating friction, the tips are sharpened.
Therefore, a shock given to a meter may cause deformation of tips (causing errors) or
removal of coil (pivot) from bearing (made of jewellery).

10-2 Connecting ammeter

(1) To measure a current flowing in a circuit, insert a meter in the middle of a circuit. (Connect in
series to circuit.)
(2) Connect (+) terminal where a current flows in, and connect (-) terminal on the other side.
[Ammeter]
 A resistance of ammeter (internal resistance) is extremely low, which is nearly 0.
Therefore, connecting an ammeter in parallel to a circuit as shown in 10-3 results in a
flow of large current, which destroys the ammeter.
 Use thick wires to connect an ammeter.
 An electric shunt is connected in parallel to the meter, and most of current flows in this
electric shunt. Reducing a resistance of the electric shunt into half makes measuring a
current approximately twice as large possible.

10-3 Connecting voltmeter

(1) Connect a meter across terminals to measure a voltage.

(2) Connect (+) terminal to a higher side of voltage ((+) side of the battery).

[Voltmeter]
 A resistance of voltmeter (internal resistance) is extremely high.
 Thin wires can be used to connect a voltmeter.
 A multiplier is connected in parallel to the meter. Doubling a resistance of the multiplier
allows makes measuring a voltage approximately twice as high possible.
 10-4 Measuring resistance with circuit tester

(1) Before measuring, be sure to make zero-ohm adjustment by contacting two probes
with each other as shown in Figure 10-6 (a).
(2) As shown in Figure 10-6 (b), be sure to remove a measuring item from a circuit for
measurement.

 A circuit is able to measure voltages , currents, and resistances by changing

functions with a switch. When measuring resistances, the meter operates with a
battery inside.
* (+) side of the battery inside is connected with (-) terminal of the tester.
* The tester contains many electric shunts, multiplier, and diodes to convert
alternating current into direct current.

(3) Checking diode

Using the function of continuity test, checking of a diode using in a generator is made
possible. As shown in Figure 10-9, a diode allows a current to flow in one direction and
disallows a current to flow in another direction.
Therefore, select a x10 or x100 measurement range on the circuit tester and measure a
resistance across a diode. Then, exchange the probes of the tester side by side, and measure a
resistance of the diode again. If the diode has continuity in one direction and has no continuity in
another direction, the diode is normal. Be sure to exchange the probes when measuring for a
second time.
10-5 Using analog tester

A circuit tester is a universal tester that can measure a voltage of direct current, current of
a direct current, and a resistance.

(1) Notes on using analog tester

1. Securely insert the red probe plug to the positive terminal and insert the black probe plug
to the negative terminal. Doing this prevents errors in polarity when measuring a direct
current. Check for normality of joints of the probes.
2. Make sure a measurement range before each measurement. Attempt of measuring a
voltage in a resistance range or a current range may destroy the circuit inside the tester.
3. If a voltage or a current to be measured is not known in advance, be sure to make
measurement in a higher range and then switch to a lower range in which measurement
can be made around the center of the scale.
 4. When changing measurement range during measurement, be sure remove the probes from
a circuit. (Otherwise it may damage the rotary switch.)
5. Place the range selection switch at OFF position after completing measurement.

(2) Zero-adjustment of needle

Place the tester level and check that the needle points “0” on the left end of scale. If the
needle deviates from “0,” turn the zero position adjustment screw gently to adjust the needle.

Figure 10-10 Mechanism of zero-adjustment

(3) Measuring direct current voltage (DC-V)

Insert the red probe plug to the positive terminal and insert the black probe plug to the
negative terminal, and make a measurement in a range higher than an expected voltage range.
Since this measurement, select a range in which more accurate reading is possible. Use a 25V
range for a 12V circuit, and use a 50V range for a 24V circuit, for example.
Connect the tester in parallel to a measuring part.
Values indicated on the range switching lever indicate smallest marks in scale.
Place the range selection switch at OFF position after completing measurement.
(4)Measuring DC current (DC-A)
To measure a current of a circuit using a DC current, remove the circuit to
measure DC current, remove the circuit to measure and connect the positive probe to
the power supply, and connect the negative probe to the load, connecting the tester in
series.
To measure a 2ADC, insert the red probe to “+DC20” jack.
The DCA 250mA range is used for minute currents, and cannot measure
normal load current (such as currents flowing lamp). However, it can measure
currents flowing in a coil of relay, or a current in 3W pilot lam.
Before measurement, make sure estimation of an approximate current value
using ohm’s law.
(5)Measuring resistance
In the resistance measurement range, the meter is operated using a battery inside the
tester. Be sure to make a zero-ohm adjustment before making measurement. (Adjust the meter
electrically.) procedures: Select an appropriate resistance measurement range and make a short
circuit by contacting the two probes with each other. Then the needle swings to the right end.
Then turn the zero-ohm adjustment knob to fit the needle to “0” on the scale. This operation is
required every time a selection level is place in a position of measuring resistance.
 After making zero-ohm adjustment, contact the points to measure with the probes and
read resistance values.
Be sure to make measurement after turning off the power and disconnecting a unit form
the circuit.
 Use “x1Ω range” for continuity test.

(6) Testing diode

When ready, select a range of measuring highest resistance and contact the diode leads
with the test probes as shown in Figure 10-14. Because the battery inside the tester is connected
as shown in Figure 10-8, an electric current flows from the black (negative) probe to the red
(positive) probe. If the needle jumps (a current flows) when the probes are connected as shown
in Figure 10-14 (a) (forward direction), and the needle does not move when the probes are
connected as shown in Figure 10-14 (b).
In forward direction, the needle seems to point almost zero (resistance is zero). However,
if the needle points zero, the diode is faulty. A normal diode has a slight level of resistance as
shown in Figure 10-15.
10-6 Using digital circuit tester
1. Feature of operating panel
*Features may be different depending on models

3. Measuring procedures
[1] Select a measuring function (turn on the power). To select diode test, continuity
check, or measuring AC current, press “/”, “Ω/” or “/-(A)” switch to select.
[2] Connect the test lead lines. Connect the red test lead line to “V---“ terminal, and
connect the black test lead line to “COM” terminal. Only when selecting DC/AC 10A
measurements, connect the red test lead line to “10A” terminal.

4. Special functions
[1] Range hold switch “RANGE”
This is used to cancel automatic range selection and hold a desired range. Upon
turning on the device, the automatic range selection is specified and measurement in an optimum
range is made possible. If holding a range is required, however the range moves to the lowest
range after the highest range.
Holding down the switch for 1 second or longer makes the device return to the automatic
range mode.
[2] Data hold switch “DATA-H”
This switch holds data of current measurement. Pressing this switch once hold the
data of current measurement, and the display does not change even if input signals change. (the
data is held after disconnecting test lead from a circuit.) To cancel holding the data, press the
switch again.
 Self Check Unit Test and Repair Wiring/Lighting Systems
No. 1 Module Testing and Repairing Wiring/Lighting Systems

Basics of electrical components review test Dealer name

Examinee Name
1. Ohm’s Law and Laws of power and resistance
Find currents and voltages (calculation)

2 Read the voltage using DC (direct current) voltage range on a circuit tester. (0 or 12v).
assume that ground terminal (black probe) of a tester is connected directly to (-) terminal
of battery.

3 Read the voltage using DC (direct current) voltage range on a circuit tester
 Electricity and electrical components Basic

Introductory test Basic electricity

Q1. How much is voltage between A and D?

Q2. How much is voltage between A and B?

Switch closed Answer_____________
Switch open Answer_____________
Q3. How much is voltage between B and C?
Switch closed Answer_____________
Switch open Answer_____________
Q4. How much is voltage between C and D?
Switch closed Answer_____________
Switch open Answer_____________

Q5. Complete a wiring diagram for a lamp-driver circuit using a relay.

 Electricity and electrical components Basic

1. How much is resistance between C and D? Answer ________________

2. How much is resistance between A and B? Answer ________________
3. How high is a voltage between A and B to make a current of 1mA flow across an 8kΩ
resistor? Answer ________________
4. How high is a voltage between A and B required to make voltage across a 1kΩ resistor to
be 1V? Answer ________________
 Electricity and electrical components Basic

Q1. Enter a current value.__________________A.

Q2. Enter a current value. _________________A.

Q3. Enter a current value. _________________A.

Exercise of calculation
1. There is an 8-Ω resistor. How much is a resistance of a resistor with the same material,
the same length, and a diameter twice as much as that?

2. How much is the combined resistance between A and B?

3. How much is a combined resistance between A and B?

4. What are the values of I1 and I2 ampere when ammeter A indicates 10A in the following
circuit?

5. A and B are electric heaters in the following single-phase circuit. Find voltages Va and Vb
when a power supply voltage is 101V.
6. How much is (in W) consumed in the 80Ω resistor in the following circuit?
QUALIFICATION : Automotive Servicing NC II
UNIT OF COMPETENCY : Test and Repair Wiring/Lighting System
MODULE TITLE : TESTING AND REPAIRNG WIRING/LIGHTING
SYSTEMS

Learning Outcome #1: Test electrical systems

Learning Outcome #2: Repair electrical systems

ASSESSMENT CRITERIA:

1. Tests are completed without causing damage to any workplace

property or vehicle.
2. Correct information is accessed and interpreted from
appropriate tools and techniques.
3. Tests are carried out to determine faults using appropriate tools
and techniques.
4. Faults are identified and preferred repair action determined.
5. Electrical systems are repaired without causing damage to any
workplace property or vehicle.
6. Correct information is accessed and interpreted from
appropriate manufacturer specifications.
7. Necessary repairs are carried out using appropriate tools,
technique and materials.

Resources:

 A vehicle with adjustable headlight

 Portable headlight aiming kit
 Hand tools
Information Unit Test and Repair Wiring/Lighting Systems
Sheet
No. 1 Module Testing and Repairing Wiring/Lighting Systems

LO1: Test electrical systems

LO2: Repair electrical systems

The lighting system provides power to both exterior and interior lights. It consist of the
headlights, parking lights, marker lights, taillights, courtesy lights, dome/map lights, instrument
illuminator or dash lights, coach lights (if so equipped), headlight switch, and various other
control switches (Figure 20 – 1). Other lights, such as vanity mirror lights, the underhood light,
are used on some vehicles and are also part of the lighting system.

Figure 20-1 Automotive lighting systems.

Other lights that are not usually in the main lighting system are turn signal, hazard
warning, backup, and stop retractable headlight covers found on some vehicles, are operated by
separate control circuits and are covered later in this chapter.

SHOP TALK
Lighting systems are largely regulated by federal laws, so the
systems are similar among the various manufacturers. However,
there are many variations. Before attempting to do any repairs on
an unfamiliar systems, you should always refer to the
manufacturer‘s service manual
LAMPS
A lamp generates light as current flows through the filament. This causes it to get very hot. The
changing of electrical energy to heat energy in the resistive wire filament is so intense that the
filament starts to glow and emits light. The glass enveloped that encloses the filament is
evacuated so that the filament “burns” in a vacuum. If air enters the envelope, the oxygen would
cause the filament to oxidize and burn up.
It is important that any burned-out lamp be replaced with the correct lamp. You can
determine what lamp’s standard trade number, usually present on the lamp’s housing. Lamps are
normally one of two types: a single filament (Figure 20 – 2) or a double filament (Figure 20 -3).
Double-filament bulbs are designed to serve more than one function. They can be used as the
lone bulb in the stop light circuit, taillight circuit, and the turn signal circuit.

Figure 20-2 A single-filament

Figure 20-3 A double-filament bulb

HEADLIGHTS
Headlights light the road ahead during darkness or at other times when normal visibility is poor.
Headlight designs and construction have been influenced by the changes in technology. In the
past, all cars had two or four round headlights. Now headlights are an integral part of vehicle’s
overall design (Figure 20-4). The headlights of today’s vehicles are based on sealed-beam,
composite, or high intensity discharge lamps.
 Figure 20-4 Today’s headlights are an integral part of the appearance of vehicles.

Sealed-Beam Headlights
The standard sealed-beam headlight is an air-tight assembly with a filament, reflector, and lens
fused together. The parabolic reflector is sprayed with vaporized aluminum and the inside of the
lamp is typically filled with argon gas. The reflector intensifies the light produced by the
filament, and the lens directs the light to form the required beam pattern. The lens is designed to
produce a broad flat beam. The light from the reflector is passed through concave prism in the
glass lens.
Today, the most commonly used sealed-beam-light is the halogen type. A halogen lamp
typically consists of a small bulb filled with iodine vapor. The bulb is made of high-temperature-
resistant glass and it surrounds a tungsten filament. The halogen-filled inner bulb is then installed
in a sealed glass or plastic housing (Figure 20-5). With the halogen added to the inner bulb, the
tungsten filament is capable of withstanding higher temperature than that of standard sealed-
beam lamps. Because it can withstand higher temperatures, it can burn brighter.

Figure 20-5 A halogen sealed-beam headlight with an iodine vapor bulb.

Halogen is the term used to identify a group of chemically related nonmetallic elements.
These elements include chlorine, fluorine, and iodine.
 SHOP TALK
Because the filament is contained in the inner bulb, cracking or
breaking of the housing or lens does not prevent a halogen bulb from
working. As long as the filament envelope has not been broken, the
filament will continue to operate. However, a broken lens results in
poor quality and the lamp assembly should be replaced.

Low-and-high-beam filaments are placed at slightly different location, relative to the

reflector, determines how light passes through the bulb’s lens (Figure 20-6), which in turn,
determines the direction in which the light shines. In a dual filament lamp, the lower filament is
used for the high beam and the upper filament is used for the low beam.

Figure 20-6 Filament panels controls the projection of the light beam.

Various methods are used to identify sealed-beam headlights, such as 1, 2 and the
“halogen” or “H” marking molded on the front of the headlight lens. A type 1 has high beam
only and has two electrical terminals on its back. The type 2 has both low and high beam and
three terminals. When the type 2 is switched to low beam, only one of its filaments is lit. When
high beam is selected, the second filament lights in addition to the low beam.
If a sealed-beam headlamp has condensation on the lens or inside the assembly or if it is
cracked, the headlamp will not work and can only be repaired by replacing it.

Composite Headlights
Many of today’s vehicles have halogen headlight systems that use a replaceable bulb (Figure 20-
7). These systems are called composite headlights. By using the composite headlight system, the
manufacturers are able to produce any style of headlight lens they desired. (Figure 20-8), which
improves the aerodynamics, fuel economy, and styling id the vehicle.
Many manufacturers vent the composite headlight housing due to the intense heat
developed by these bulbs. Because the housing are vented, the condensation may developed
inside the lens assembly. This condensation is not harmful to the bulb and does not affect
headlight operation. When the headlights are turned on, the heat generated by the halogen bulb
dissipates the condenstation quickly. Ford uses integrated novented composite headlights. On
these vehicles, condensation is not considered normal. The assembly should be replaced.
 Figure 20-7 The mounting of a replaceable halogen bulb.

WARNING!
Whenever you replace a composite lamp, be careful not to
touch the lamps envelope with your fingers. Staining the bulb
with the skin oil can substantially shorten the life of the bulb.
Handle the bulb only by its base. Also dispose the bulb
properly.

HID Headlamps
High-intensity discharge (HID) or xenon headlamps use gas-discharge lamps and are
electronically controlled. These lights are recognizable by the blue-white color of their light
(Figure 20-9). They have this color because the light spectrum is much closer to daylight than
that of the halogen bulb.

Figure 20-9 HID (xenon)headlights are readily identifiable by their bluish light.
 Instead of using a filament, an electrical arc is created between two electrodes that excite
a gas (usually xenon) inside the headlamp (Figure 20-10), which in turn vaporizes metallic salts
that sustain the arc and emit light. The presence of an inert gas amplifies the light given off by
this arcing.

Figure 20-10 A xenon light bulb.

More than 15,000 volts are used to jump the gap between the electrodes. To provide this
voltage, a voltage booster and controller is required. Once the high voltage bridges the gap, only
about 80 volts are needed to keep current flowing across the gap. When the headlights are
switched on, it takes approximately 15 seconds for the lamp to reach maximum intensity.
However, even during ignition these lamps provide more than adequate light for sale driving.
Xeon headlights illuminate the area to the front and side of the vehicle with a beam that is
both brighter and much more consistent than that the light generated by the headlamps. The great
light output of these lamps allows the headlamp assembly to be smaller and lighter. Xenon lights
also produce significantly less heat.
Xenon headlights produce about twice as much light as comparable halogen headlights
(Figure 20-11) and make night driving safer and less tiring for the driver’s eyes. Xenon
headlamps also use about two-thirds less power to operate and will last two or three times as
long.

Bi-Xenon Lights some vehicles have bi-xenon headlamps that provide xenon light for how low
and high beams. These may also be fitted with halogen lights that are used for the flash-too-pass
feature. Bi-Xenon lights rely on a mechanical shield plate, or shutter, that physically obstructs a
portion of the overall light beam emitted by the arc. When the driver selects the high beams, the
shutter reacts and allows the headlights to project the complete, unobstructed light beam.
Figure 20-11 a comparison of the light pattern and intensity between the halogen (left) and a xenon
(right) headlamp.

Headlight Switches Headlight switches are either mounted on the dash panel or are part of a
multifunction switch on the steering column. The headlight switch controls most of the vehicle’s
lighting systems. The most common style of headlight has three positions: OFF, PARK, and
HEADLIGHT. A headlight switch normally allows the light circuits to be operated without
having the ignition switch in the RUN or ACC (accessory) position.
When the headlight switch is in the OFF position, the open contacts prevent battery
voltage from continuing in the lamps (Figure 20-12A). When the switch is in the PARK
position, battery voltage is applied to the parking instrument panel lamps (Figure 20-12B). This
circuit is usually protected by the headlight circuit.
When the switch is in the HEADLIGHT position, battery voltage is applied to the
headlights. The lamps lit by the PARK position remain on (Figure 20-12C). Normally, a self-
resetting circuit breaker is installed between the battery feed and the headlights. The circuit
breaker is designed to reset itself. If a problem causes the breaker to open, the lights will go off
until the breaker resets. Then the lights will come back on. If there is a serious problem in the
circuit, the headlights might flash as the breaker cycles. Some vehicles have a separate fuse for
the headlight on each side of the vehicle. This allows one headlight to operate if there is a
problem in the circuit for one side of the vehicle.
Figure 20-12 A headlight switch (A) in the OFF position; (B) in the PARK position; (C) in the
ON position.

The instrument pane; lights come on whenever the headlight switch in the PARK or
HEADLIGHT position. The brightness of these lamps is adjustable. A rheostat is used to allow
the driver to control may be part of the headlight switch, in which the case the driver simply
rotates the headlight switch knob to adjust the panel light. Not all headlight switches are
designed to control the instruments panel lights. Many vehicles have a separate unit on the dash
to control the panel lights (Figure 20-13).
 Figure 20-13 An instrument panel light control system

Headlight switches are basically one of the three designs. A common switch setup is the
rotary switch. Turning the knob of the switch to the PARK or HEADLIGHT position energizes
the appropriate lights. The switch’s knob also serves as the dimmer control for the instrument
panel lights. Some vehicles also a push-button switch. The driver merely pushes a button for the
desired set of lights. When this type switch is used, there is a separate instrument panel light
control. There is also a separate panel light control panel when vehicles are equipped with a
steering-column-mounted headlight switch (Figure 20-14). To select the desired lighting mode,
the driver turns the knob at the end of the switch.

Dimmer Switches
The dimmer switch provides a way for a way for the driver to switch between high and low
beams. A dimmer switch is connected in series with the headlight circuit and controls the current
path to the headlights. The low-beam headlights are wired separately from the high-beam lamps.
Man years ago the dimmer switch was located on the floor. To switch between low and
high beams, the driver used his or her foot to press the switch. This type switch worked, but it
was subject to damage because of rust and dirt. Newer vehicles have the dimmer switch on the
steering column. This prevents early switch failure and increases driver’s accessibility.
 Figure 20-14 A headlight switch mounted on the steering column.

Headlight Circuits
The composite headlight circuit consists of the headlight switch, dimmer switch, high-beam
indicator, and the headlights. When the headlight switch in the HEADLIGHT position, current
flows to the dimmer switch (Figure 20-15). If the dimmer switch is in the low position, current
flows through the low-beam filament of the headlights. When the dimmer switch is in the HIGH
position, current flows to the high beam headlights (Figure 20-16).

Figure 20-15 A headlight circuit indicating current flow with the dimmer switch in the low-
beam position
Figure 20-16 A headlight circuit indicating current flow with the dimmer switch in the high-
beam position.

The headlight circuits just discussed are designed with switches that control battery
voltage and the bulbs have a fixed ground. In this system, battery voltage is present at the
headlight switch. The switch must be closed to have voltage present at the headlights. Many
manufacturers use a system that relies on a groundside switch to control the headlights. In these
systems, voltage is always available at the headlights. A closed headlight completes the circuits
to ground and the headlights turn on. In this system, the dimmer switch is also a ground control
switch.

Daytime Running Lights

Canadian law requires that all new vehicles be equipped with daytime running lights (DRL) for
added safety. This feature is also standard equipment on all new GM vehicles sold in North
America. The system normally uses the vehicle’s high-beam lights. The control circuit is
connected directly to the vehicles’s ignition switch so the lights are turned on whenever the
vehicle id running. The circuit is equipped with a module that reduces 12-volt battery voltage to
approximately 6 volts. This voltage reduction allows the high beams to burn with the less
intensity and prolongs the life of the bulbs. When the headlight switch is moved to the
HEADLIGHT position, the module is deactivated and the lights work their normal intensity and
brightness. Applying the parking brake also deactivates the DRL system so the lights are not on
when the vehicle is parked and the engine is running.
Concealed Highlights
Although not as common as they were a few years ago, concealed highlights are still found on
some cars. Manufacturers use a concealed headlight system to improve the vehicle’s
aerodynamics. Today, low profile headlight assemblies are being used instead of concealed
headlights. However there are cars out there with pop-up headlights.
When the headlight switch is moved to the HEADLIGHT position, the entire headlamp
bulb and adjuster assembly pivots upward. These headlights are controlled by electric or vacuum
motors.
Vacuum systems have headlight switch and vacuum motors attached to the headlight
assembly. With the headlight switch OFF position, engine vacuum is applied to the motors to
keep the headlight doors closed. When the headlight switch is moved to the HEADLIGHT
position, the vacuum distribution valve vents the vacuum that is held in the vacuum motors,
which allows springs at the doors. These systems are also equipped with a bypass valve that
allows the doors to manually open in case the system fails.
Typically, electrically controlled systems use a torsion bar a single motor to open both
doors or have a separate motor for each headlight door. When the headlight switch is moved to
the HEADLIGHT position, current id sent to the motors. This current turns on the motors and
causes the doors to open or close. Limit switches stop current flow to the motors when they are
completely open or closed (figure 20-17). Electrically operated headlight doors also have a
provision for manually opening the doors in case a system failure.

Figure 20-16 Most limit control switches operate off a cam on the motor.

Flash to Pass
Most steering-column-mounted dimmer switches have an additional feature called flash to pass.
This circuit illuminates the high-beam headlights even with the headlight switch in the OFF or
PARK position. When the driver activates the flash to pass feature, the contacts of the dimmer
switch complete the circuit to the high-beam filaments.

Automatic Light Systems

These provide light-sensitive, automatic on-off control of the light controlled by the regular
headlight switch. It consists of a light-sensitive photocell sensor/amplifier assembly and a
headlight control relay. Turning the regular headlight switch on overrides the automatic system.
In other words, automatic operation is not possible until the regular headlight switch is turned
off.
In normal operation, the photocell sensor/amplifier, which is usually mounted under a
group of perforated holes in the upper instrument panel pad or slotted holes in the defroster grill
panel, is exposed to ambient light. As the light level decreases, the light sensor’s resistance
increases. When the resistance increases to the present amount, the amplifier applies power to the
headlight relay coil. The headlight, exterior light, instrument illumination lights turn on. The
light remains on until the system is turned off or the system is turned off or the ambient light
level increases.
Some systems have two sensors to monitor the ambient light. The light sensors monitor
the intensity of the ambient light at an extended angle above the vehicle an in a narrow angle tp
the front of the vehicle.
An automatic headlight dimmer system is also available on some vehicles. These systems
automatically switch form the high beams to low beams when the intensity of light as its
photocell increases. The source of light could be the environment, the headlight of an
approaching vehicle, or the taillights of a vehicle. Typically the driver is able to set the
sensitivity of the photocell to meet the current driving conditions.
Most automatic light systems have a headlamp delay system as well. This system allows
the headlamps to stay the ignition switch is turned off. A variable switch (Figure 20-18) allows
the driver to set the amount of time the headlights should remain on after the ignition id turned
off. The system can typically be adjusted to keep the headlights on for up to three minutes after
the ignition is turns off. Of course, the driver can turn off the delay system and the headlamps
will shut off as soon as the ignition if turned off.

Figure 20-18 A headlight switch, an instrument panel light control, and an auto lamp control.

CUSTOMER CARE
If the customer’s car is equipped with an automatic light control
system, point out the location of the perforated holes or slots. Warn
the customer not to place any items that may block light from the
sensor/amplifier assembly. Blockage causes erratic operation of
the system. The photocell must be always be exposed to an outside
light to function properly.
Adaptive Headlights
Adaptive headlights systems swivel the base of the head-lamps to illuminate any curve in the
road (Figure 20-19). The system responds to signal from a steering wheel angle sensor and
swivels the headlamps with smell bidirectional motors (Figure 20-20). Adaptive headlights are
able to rotate up to 15 degrees to the right or to the left. The headlight on the side of the vehicle
that is opposite of the direction of the turn swivels about half a distance as the headlamp leading
into the curve. The system responds in real time by responding to the car’s current steering angle,
its yaw rate, and road speed.

Figure 20-19 A comparison of how the road id lit up with a conventional (top) headlamp system
and an adaptive (bottom) system.
 Figure 20-20 A headlamp assembly for an adaptive headlight system.

Adaptive headlights can be additionally controlled by global positioning system (GPS)

satellites navigation and digital road maps. Plotting the road ahead supplies the information
needed by the control unit to anticipate road curves and to enable the adaptive headlamps to
illuminate curves with optimum brightness and light intensity even before the driver starts to run
the steering wheel.

HEADLIGHT SERVICE
When there is a headlight failure, it is typically caused by a burned-out bulb or lamp, especially
if only one lamp fails. However, it is possible that the circuit for that one lamp has an open or
high resistance, check for the voltage present, the circuit needs work and the original bulb may
still be good. If more than one lamp (including the rear lights) is not working, carefully check the
circuit. A problem is there much more likely than having a number of burned-out bulbs. Of
course, if the charging system is not being regulated properly, the high charging system id not
being regulated properly, the high voltage will cause lamps to burn out prematurely.

Headlight Replacement
There can be slight variations in procedure from one model to another when replacing
headlights. For instance, on some models the run signal light assembly must be removed before
the headlight can be replaced. Overall, the procedure does not differ much from the following
typical instructions.
Make sure the replacement bulb is the same type and part number as the one being
replaced. (Figure 20-21).
 Figure 20-21 Comparing the old and replacement headlamps.

SHOP TALK
Because of the extreme high voltages involved, any work on
xenon lighting should be done carefully and according to the
manufacturer’s recommendations

PROCEDURE
Replacing headlights

STEP 1 Remove the headlight bezel-retaining screws. Remove the bezel. If necessary,
disconnect the turn signal lamp wires.
STEP 2 Remove the retaining ring screws from one or both lights.
STEP 3 Remove the retaining rings.
STEP 4 Remove the light from the housing. Disconnect the wiring connector from the back of
the light.
STEP 5 Push the wiring connector onto the prongs at the rear of the new light.
STEP 6 Place the new light in the headlight housing. Position it so the embossed number in the
light lens is on the top.
STEP 7 Place the retaining ring over the light and install the retaining ring screws. Tighten
them slightly.
STEP 8 Check the aim of the headlight and adjust it, if necessary.
STEP 9 Install the headlight bezel. Secure it with the retaining screws. Connect the turn signal
lamp wiring (if it was disconnected).

SHOP TALK
Some manufacturers recommend coating the prongs and base
of a new sealed beam with dielectric grease for corrosion
protection. Use an electrical lubricant approved by the
manufacturer
Headlight Adjustments
Headlights must be kept adjustment to obtain maximum illumination. Properly adjusted sealed
beams cover the correct range and afford the driver the proper nighttime view. Headlights that
are out of adjustments can cause other drivers discomfort and sometimes create hazardous
conditions.
Before adjusting or aiming a vehicle’s headlights, however, make the following
inspections to ensure that the vehicle is level. Anyone of the adverse conditions listed here can
result in an incorrect setting/
If the vehicle is heavily coated with snow, ice, or mud, clean the underside with high-
pressure steam of water. The additional weight can alter the riding height.
Ensure that the gas tank id half full. Half a tank of gas is the only load that the gas is the
only load that should be present on the vehicle.
Check the condition of the springs or shock absorbers. Worn or broken suspension
components affect the setting.
Inflate all tires to the recommended air pressure levels. Take into consideration cold or
hot tire conditions.
Make sure the wheel alignment and rear axle tracking path are correct before adjusting
the headlights.
After replacing the vehicle in position for the headlight test, bounce the vehicle to settle
the suspension.
To properly adjust the headlight, headlight aim must be checked first. Various types of
mechanical headlight aiming equipment are available commercially (Figure 20-22). These
aimers use mirrors with split images, like split image-finders on some cameras, and spirit levels
to determine the exact adjustment. When using any mechanical aiming equipment, follow the
instructions provided by the equipment manufacturer. Where headlights aiming equipment is not
available, headlight alignment can be checked by projecting the upper beam of each on a screen
or chart at a distance of about 25 feet ahead of the headlight (Figure 20-23). The vehicle must
be exactly perpendicular to the chart.

Figure 20-21 A typical headlight aiming kit.

 Figure 20-23 Acceptable beam patterns on a wall screen.

The chart should be marked in the following manner. First, measure the distance between
the centers of the matching headlights. Use this measurement to draw two vertical lines on the
screen with each line corresponding to the center of a headlight. Then, draw a vertical centerline
halfway between the two vertical lines. Next, measure the distance from the floor to the centers
of the headlights. Subtract 2 inches from this height and then draw a horizontal line in the screen
at this new height.
With headlights on high beam, the hot spot of each projected beam pattern should be
centered on the point of intersection of the vertical and horizontal on the chart. If necessary,
adjust headlight vertically and laterally to obtain proper aim.
Headlight adjusting screw is provided to move the headlight within its shell assembly to
obtain correct headlight within its shell assembly to obtain correct headlight aim. Lateral or side-
to-side adjustment is accomplished by turning the adjusting screw at the side of the headlight
(Figure 20-24). Vertical or up-and-down adjustment is accomplished by turning the screw at the
top of the headlight. Adjustments can be made without removing headlight bezels.
 Figure 20-24 An example of headlight adjustment screws.

Some vehicles are equipped with indicators to help in the adjustment process. One such
setup is used in Hondas. The system uses horizontal indicator gear. (Figure 20-25) at each
headlamp assembly. Prior to making any adjustments to the headlights, Honda recommends that
the horizontal indicator gear be at zero (0). A Philips screwdriver is used to bring the gear back
to zero. After this has been done, the headlamps can be fine adjusted to specifications.

Figure 20-25 Honda’s adjustment indicator.

 Chrysler’s headlamps are equipped with a bubble level to aid vertical headlamp
alignment. A horizontal gauge and magnifying window is located next to the bubble level to aid
in horizontal alignment (Figure 20-26). The vertical bubble level is used to compensate for
vehicle ride height changes due to heavy vehicle loads. The bubble level is calibrated to the
earth’s surface. Therefore the vehicle must be on level ground when the headlights are aimed. If
the headlight beam projection appears high to the oncoming traffic, check the headlight
alignment using the alignment screen method. If the beam pattern is above or to the left of the
specified location on the screen adjust the headlights and then recalibrates the bubble level and
magnifying window. Ideally, if the headlights are aligned, the bubble level and magnifying
window will be centered. Never change the calibration of the magnifying window or bubble
level of the headlights is out of alignment.
A properly aimed headlight normally does not need to be re-aimed after installation of a
new bulb.

Autoleveling Headlamps Some vehicles, primarily those equipped with xenon headlamps, have
an automatic headlamp leveling system that keeps headlight range constant regardless of the
current conditions. This feature keeps the headlights in position for optimal lighting of the road
ahead and prevents glare that could blind oncoming traffic.

Figure 20-26 Calibrating the bubble level and horizontal gauge.

The aim of the headlights changes each time the vehicle is accelerated or the brakes are
applied, as well as when weight is added or subtracted from the vehicle. The automatic leveling
system continually monitors and re-aims the headlights to compensate for any change due to
passenger or cargo weight even the constantly changing quantity of fuel. The system also adjust
the lamps in response to a change of angle caused be acceleration or braking.
Suspension-mounted sensors monitor variations in the spring comprehension rates at the
front and rear of the vehicle. An electronic control unit processes theses two rates to calculate the
instantaneous longitudinal pitch of the vehicle. The system also monitors signals from the
vehicle’s speed sensors, which allows the control unit to recognize braking and acceleration.
Based on these inputs, the control unit determines the optimal headlight angle for the
current condition. It then orders electric motors to adjust the inclination of the headlights.

INTERIOR LIGHT ASSEMBLIES

The types and numbers of interior light assemblies used vary significantly from one vehicle to
another (Figure 20-27). Following are the more common ones.

Figure 20-27 Full interior illuminator is available with this light setup.

Engine Compartment Light Operating the hood causes the engine compartment light mercury
switch to close and light the underhood area.
Some pickup trucks and SUVs are equipped with an underhood retractable magnetic base
lamp mounted on a reel. The lamp can be used anywhere around the vehicle.

Glove Box Light Opening the glove box door closes the glove box light switch contract and the
light comes on.

Luggage Compartment Light The light is mounted in the underside of the trunk deck lid in the
luggage compartment.
Trunk Lid Light Lifting the trunk lid causes the light mercury switch or both to close and the
light comes on.

Vanity Light Pivoting the sun visor downward and opening the vanity mirror cover causes the
vanity light switch contacts to close and the light come on.
Courtesy Lights There are several types of courtesy lights that are in the door trim panels, under
each side of the instrument panel, and in the center of the headlining. These are illuminated when
one of the doors is opened, by rotating the headlight switch to full counterclockwise position, or
by depressing the designated switch. Figure 20-28 is a wiring diagram of a typical courtesy light
circuit. The courtesy lights are also turned on by illuminated entry or keyless entry systems, if
the vehicle is equipped with one or both of these.
Front compartment foot well courtesy lights are mounted on the lower closeout panels at
both ends of the instrument panel. The bulbs are accessible from under the instrument panel for
replacement without removing other parts.
Some courtesy lights are a combination of map lights located on each side of the dome
light housing. The map lights are located at each map light housing. The dome light is actuated
by turning the headlight switch control knob fully counterclockwise.
Power supplied from the fuse block to the courtesy or dome/map light. The ground for
the light is controlled by the position of the door switch. That is, these door switches are held in
open position and do not provide for a ground circuit. When the door is opened, a spring pushes
the switch closed to ground the circuit, and the dome/map or courtesy lights come on.

Figure 20-28 A typical courtesy light circuit.

Illuminated Entry System this system assists vehicle entry during the hours of darkness by
illuminating the door lock cylinder so it may be easily located for key insertion. The vehicle
interior is also illuminated by the courtesy lights.
The system consists of four main components: electronic module, illuminated door lock
cylinder, door handle switch, and wiring harness.
Activation of the system is accomplished by raising the outside door handle or by
processing a code button in the keyless entry system. This action momentarily closes a switch
mounted on the door handle mechanism, which completes the ground circuit of the electronic
actuator module and switches the system on. The vehicle interior lights turn on, and both front
door lock cylinders are illuminated by a ring of light around the area where the key enters. This
illumination remains for an approximately 25 seconds, then the automatically turns off. During
this 25 –second period, the system can be manually deactivated by turning the ignition switch to
the run position.
The system is activated every time the vehicle is locked or not. Opening the doors from
the inside of the vehicle does not activate the system. If the outside door handle id held up
indefinitely so the handle switch is continuously closed, the system operates as normal and turns
off after 25 seconds. At the completion of this cycle, if the door handle is still in the raised
position, the system remains off. It is impossible to activate the system from the other front door
handle until the raised handle is returned to its normal position. This function is built into the
logic circuitry of the system to prevent battery discharge should the outside door handle be
intentionally propped up or become jammed in any way.
Interior lights all basically operate in the same way. Whether the courtesy lights are on
the door, under the seats, under the instrument panel, or on the rear interior quarter panels does
not change how they are controlled. Also, whether the illumination lights are just behind the
instruments panel or are also used in center consoles or door arm rests does not affect their
operation. The only difference is the number of lights and variances in electrical wiring.
Interior and courtesy lights rarely give any trouble. However, if they do not operate,
check the fuse, bulb, switch, and wiring.

REAR EXTERIOR LIGHT ASSEMBLIES

The rear light assembly includes the taillights, turn signal/stop/high-mounted stop lights, rear
side maker lights, backup lights, and license plate lights (Figure 20-29). Taillights operated
when the parking lights or headlights are turned on.
 Figure 20-29 The rear lights on a late-model car.

Turn, Stop and Hazard Warning Light Systems

Power for the turn (directional signal), stop, and hazard warning light systems is provided by the
fuse panel (Figure 20-30). Each system has a switch that must close to turn on the lights in the
circuit. Hazard lights are commonly referred to us as 4-way flashes because the lights are four
corners of the vehicle will flash when the circuit is turned on.
 Figure 20-30 The turn signal circuit for a two-bulb system.

The turn signal and hazard light switches on many current vehicles are part of a
multifunction switch. When the turn or directional signal switch is activated, only one set of the
switch signal is closed-left or right. However, when the hazard switch is activated, all contacts
are closed and all turn signal lights and indicators flash together and at the same time.
The power of the turn signals is provided through the fuse panel, but only when the
ignition switch is on. The hazard lights are also powered through the fuse panel; however, they
have power at all times regardless of ignition switch position.
Some cars are equipped with concerning side lights, which are generally fed from the
multifunction main switch. When the turn signal switch is activated, the concerning light on the
appropriate side burns with a steady glow.
Side markers are connected in parallel with the feed circuit (from the headlight switch)
that feeds the minor filaments of the front parking lights and rear taillights.
What a multifunction switch control depends on the make, model, a year of the vehicle.
Some control the directional signals and serve as the dimmer switch. Others control the turn and
hazard signals and serves as the headlight, dimmer, windshield wipe, and windshield washer
switch (Figure20-31).

Figure 20-31 Atypical multifunction switch.

This switch is not repairable and must be replaced if defective. Photo Sequence the
typical procedure for removing a multifunction switch. Some of the steps shown in this
procedure may not apply to all types of vehicles; always refer to the service manual before
removing this switch. Also carefully study all the procedures beforehand and identify any special
warnings that should be adhered to, especially those concerning the air bag.

Flashers Flashers are components of both turn and hazard systems. They contain a temperature-
sensitive bimetallic strip and a heating element (Figure 20-32). The bimetallic strip is connected
to one side of a set of contacts. Voltage from the fuse panel is connected to the other side. When
the left turn signal switch is activated, current flows through the flasher unit to the turn signal
bulbs. This current causes the heating element to emit heat, which in turn causes the bimetallic
strip to bend and open the circuit. The absence of the current flow allows the strip to cool and
again close the circuit. This intermittent on/off interruption of the current flow males all left turn
signal lights flash. Operation of the right turn is the same as the operation of the turn signals.

Figure 20-32 A typical turn signal flasher.

 Turn signal flashers are installed on the fuse panel on current car models and most
current car models and most current truck models (Figure 20-33). However, on earlier models
this is not true. Hazard flashers are also mounted in various locations. Refer to the service
manual for locations on the models being serviced.

Figure 20-33 A common location for the flashers in the fuse panels.

A testlight can be used to determine in which flasher is used for the turn signals and
which is used for the hazard warning light. An easier way to turn both the directionals and the
hazards. This activates both flasher units. By removing one of the flashers, the affected circuit no
longer flashes. Therefore, that flash unit controls that particular circuit. If the turn signals fail to
operate and the fuse is good, the flasher has probably failed.
Occasionally, the flasher dot once does not flash as fast as once did, or it flashes faster.
This is also cause for a replacement. If it flashes too slowly or not at all, check for a burned-out
bulb first.
A flasher features two or three prongs that plug into a socket. Just pull the flasher out of
the socket and replace it with a new one.
Flashers are designed to operate a specific number of bulbs to give a specific
candlepower (brightness). If the candlepower on the turn signal bulbs is changes, or additional
bulbs are used (if a vehicle is hooked up to a trailer; for instance), a heavy-duty flashers must be
used. This is usually fits the socket without modifications. Although heavy-duty flashers will
operate additional bulbs, they have one big disadvantage and should not be used unless it is
necessary. These flashers will not cause the turn signals to flash slower if a bulb burn out. When
a turn signal bulb fails, the driver has no idea that did.

WARNING!

The flasher unit for turn signals should be switched with a

flasher unit for the hazard lights.
Some newer vehicles have a combination flasher unit that controls the flash rate of both the turn
signals and the hazard lights. Theses combination flashers are electronic units (Figure 20-34).
The actual turning off and on of the lights is cause by the cycling of a transistor. This type flasher
also sense when the bulbs on that side to flash faster. Because this flasher is an electronic device
it cannot be tested with normal test equipment. The only test of the flasher is to substitute t with a
known good one. If the lights flash normally, the original flasher unit was bad and needs to be
replaced.

Figure 20-34 A typical electronic combination flasher unit.

Brake Lights
The brake (stop) lights are usually controlled by a stop light switch that is normally mounted on
the brake pedal arm (Figure 20-35). Some cars are equipped with a brake or stop switch
mounted on the master cylinder, which closes when hydraulic pressure increases as the brake
pedal is depressed. In either case, voltage is present at the stop light switch at all times.
Depressing the brake pedal causes the stop light switch to close. Current can run then floe to the
stop light filament of the rear light assembly. These stay illuminated until the brake pedal is
released.
 Figure 20-35 The location of brake light circuit main components.

In addition to the stop lights at the rear of the vehicle, all late-model vehicle have a center
high-mounted stop light that provides an additional clear warning signal that the vehicle is
braking. Federal studies have shown the additional stop light to be effective in reducing the
number and severity of rear collisions. The high-mounted stop light id activated when current is
applied to it from the stop light switch. It stays illuminated until the brake pedal is released.
When its contacts are closed, the stop light switch can also provide current to the speed control
amplifier, antilock brake control module, and the electric brake controller connector.

LED Lights
Some vehicles use neon lamps and/or LEDs for tail, brake, and turn signal lights. Neon lights are
more energy efficient and turn on more quickly than regular lights (Figure 20-36). Because neon
bulbs have no filaments, the neon bulb will last longer than a conventional light bulb.
 Figure 20-36 Neon lamp used for the third brake light.

Whereas conventional bulbs take around 200 milliseconds to reach their full brightness,
neon bulbs turn on within 3 milliseconds. The importance of this time difference is that it gives
the driver behind athe vehicle an earlier warning to stop. This early warning can give the
approaching driver 19 more feet for stopping when driving at 60 miles per hour.
LEDs offer the same advantages as neon bulbs and turn on even quicker because they do
not need to heat to illuminate (Figure 20-37). LEDs achieve their full output in less than one
millisecond. Several LEDs are places behind the lens and are activated at the same time to give a
bright illumination of the light assembly. LEDs also require a much smaller space so they are
much less intrusive in the trunk. LEDs have a long operating life and provide a more precise
contrast and signal pattern, thus, attracting attention much more effectively.

Figure 20-37 LEDs are used in the taillight assembly.

 Using the same basic technology as LEDs, laser-lit-taillights consume seven times less
power than incandescent sources. These savings are extremely important for electric vehicles.
The light waves of a laser light beam move in the same direction and the light is all the same
color. When used with rear exterior light, fiber optics carry red light from a diode laser to a series
of mirrors, which sends the beam across a thin sheet of acrylic material.

Adaptive Brake Lights This system can select one or two available brake light areas for
illumination: Moderate braking activates the standard brake lights incorporated within the
taillight assemblies as well as the center high-mount brake light. Under the intense braking and
during all braking maneuvers with active ABS intervention, additional lamps are lit, thereby
changing the size of the brake and their intensity (Figure 20-38). By increasing the brake lights’
illuminated surface area, the system alerts drivers of following vehicles that the vehicle in front
has started braking and decelerating at a rapid rate. This warning allows the driver of the
following vehicle to react more quickly and reduces the danger or the rear impact.

Figure 20-38 (Left) Normal illumination of the brake lights; (right) illumination during hard
stops.

An electronic control unit processes signals supplied by the speed sensor and the antilock
brake system. It then uses these data to calculate the intensity of the braking as reflected by the
vehicle’s rate of deceleration.
 USING SERVICE MANUAL
In addition to the taillight system, the rears of vehicles have many other lighting
circuits. Most cars have brake lights, run lights, turn signal, and backup lights. Let us
look at these circuits (Figure 20-39) and see that their diagnosis is very simple once
you are aware of how they appear in the service manual. Start with the brake lights.
The easiest circuit to look at first is the three-bulb circuit found on many vehicles.
The drawing shows a typical taillight circuit, which contain three separate filaments
for each side of the rear of the vehicle. There is a separate filament for each function:
brake, turn, and run. A constant source of fused B+ is made available to the brake
switch. The brake switch is usually located on the brake pedal. B+ is now available to
the bulbs, wired in parallel, at the rear of the vehicle. Releasing the brake pedal
allows the spring-loaded normally opens (NO) switch to open and turn the brake
lights off. This is a simple circuit that requires only a 12-volt testlight or a voltmeter
for diagnosis.
The most common cause of failure is bulbs that burn out. Testing for B+ and
ground at the bulb socket should be verify the circuit. If B+ is not available at the
socket, test for power at each connector, moving back toward the switch until it is
found. Repair the open. Do not forget that the circuit is only hot if the brake pedal is
depressed.

Backup Lights When the transmission is placed in reverse gear, backup lights are turned on to
illuminate the area behind the vehicle and to let drivers know that the vehicle is in reverse. The
major components in the system are the backup light switch and the lights.
Power for the backup light system is provided by the fuse panel. When the transmission
is shifted to reverse, the backup lights switch closes and power flows to the backup lights. That
is, anytime the transmission is in reverse, current flows from the fuse panel through the backup
light switch to the backup lights. On many vehicles, the fuse that protects the backup light
system also protects the turn signal system.

Figure 20-39 A typical three-bulb taillight circuit.

 In general, the vehicles with a manual transmission have a separate switch. Those with an
automatic transmission use a combination neutral start/ backup light switch. The combination
neutral/backup light switch used with automatic transmission is actually two switches combined
in one housing. In park or neutral start switch, current form the ignition switch is applied through
the neutral start switch to the starting system. In reverse, current from the fuse panel is applied
through the backup light switch to the backup lights.
The backup light system is relatively easy to troubleshoot. On that use one fuse can be
checked. If the backup lights are not working, check turn signal operation. If they work, the fuse
is good. Check for power at the backup light switch input and outlet with the transmission in
reverse. (Make sure the parking brake is set.)
If the switch is okay, or there is no power to the switch, check the wiring-especially the
connectors. If the backup lights stay on when the transmission is not reverse, suspect a shosrt in
the backup light switch.

LIGHT BULBS
Besides headlight bulbs, there are several different types of light bulbs used in modern vehicles.

Other Bulbs
Bulbs used in most other lighting fixtures fit into sockets and are held in place by spring tension
or mechanical force (Figure 20-40). Bulbs are coded with numbers for replacement purposes.
Bulbs with different code numbers might appear physically similar but have different wattage.

Figure 20-40 Common types of automotive bulbs.

Light systems normally use one wire to the light, making the use of the car body or fame
to provide the ground back to the battery. Since many of the manufacturers have gone to plastic
socket and mounting plates (as well as plastic body parts) to reduce weight, many light must now
use two wires to provide the ground connection. Some double-filament bulbs have two contacts
and two hot wires and a third ground wire. That is, double-filament bulbs have two contacts and
two- connections to them if grounded through the base. If not grounded through the base of the
bulb, a filament bulb has three contacts and three wires connected to it. Single-filament bulbs
may be single- or double-contact types have two wire-one live and the other a ground.
When replacing a bulb, inspect the bulb socket. If the socket is rusty or corroded, the
socket or light assembly base should be replaces. Also, inspect the lens and gasket for damage
while the lens is removed and replace any damage.
There are two basic construction designs for exterior lights: those in which the lens is
removed and then the bulb removed from the front, and those in which the light assembly must
first be removed, then the socket from the back of the assembly, and finally the bulb from the
socket. Removing the les from the latter type assembly could cause serious type of damage to the
reflector due to dust and other contaminants. Wiping the reflector surface to clean it can also
seriously reduce the light’s brightness. Therefore do not remove the lens from the light
assemblies in which the socket and bulb are removed from the back of the assembly.
The bulbs are held in their sockets in a number of ways. Some bulbs are simple pushed
into and pulled out of their sockets, and some are screwed in and out. To release a bayonet-style
bulb from its socket, the bulb is pressed in and turned counterclockwise. The blade-mount style
is removed by pulling the bulb of the mounting tab, then turning the bulb and removing it from
the retaining pin.

Auxiliary Lights
While the car’s headlight are adequate in normal driving circumstances, some customers desire
auxiliary lights for special conditions such as fog or extended night driving. In addition to the
standard auxiliary fog, driving and passing lights, there are off-road lights, working, rooflights,
decklights, deckbars, and handheld spot lights.

Driving Lights Driving lights put out more than the best factory headlights, affording the driver
an additional margin of safety. Driving lights typically use an H3 or H4 quartz halogen bulb and
a high quality reflector and lens to project an intense, pencil-thin beam of light far down from the
road.
Proper aiming of the auxiliary light is extremely important, driving lights are used to
supplements the high beams for greater distance and width. They should be used only in
conjunction with the high beams. That is, driving lights should be wired do they are off when the
high beams are off.

SHOP TALK
When adding auxiliary lights, make sure the AC generator and wiring
are heavy enough to handle the increased wattage. Installing a higher-
output AC generator may be recommended, especially if other electrical
accessories are also being installed. The choice of wires size should be
based on the load of the wire will be powering.

Fog Lights ordinary headlights do not penetrate fog well. Focus a powerful beam of light at the
fog and all the driver gets back is a powerful glare. To deal with that problem, the fog light used
the same bulb but, instead of trying to pierce the darkness, they attempt t sneak a flat, wide beam
of light under the blanket of fog. This makes it important to mount them low and to aim them
low and parallel to the road. Fog light should only work with the low-beam headlights.
While some vehicles have OEM fog lights, most are auxiliary lighting add-ons. Their
circuits, however, are basically the same as driving lights. They involve a relay switch and the
lights themselves. A relay is used because the amount of current that fog lights require,
especially halogen ones, can be quite high. It is not unusual that they require as much as 25
amperes.
The dash switch controls the current to one side of the relay’s coil. A direct ground is
supplied to the other side of the relay coil. With both battery voltage and ground applied, current
flows through the coil and a magnetic field closes the contact in the relay. One side of the
contacts is connected to a fused source of battery voltage. The other side is connected to the fog
lights, which are wires in parallel. Each filament has its own remote ground connection.
Driving and fog lights tremendous output and have corresponding high electrical
requirements. This means the car should have an efficient charging system and a heav-duty
battery.

SHOP TALK
When replacing fog light bulb, avoid touching the glass part of the new
bulb assembly. Skin oil, present on even recently washed hands, will be
deposited on the glass. This oil prevents the bulb from dissipating heat.
The increased heat inside the bulb causes the filament to burn
prematurely.

LIGHTING MAINTENANCE
In addition to replacing all burned-out lights and bulbs, when a vehicle comes in for servicing,
periodically check to see that all wiring connections are clean and tight, that light units tightly
mounted to provide a good ground and that headlight are properly adjusted. Loose or corroded
connections can cause a discharged battery, difficult starting, dim lights, and possible damage to
AC generator and regulator. Often moisture gets into the bulb socket and causes corrosion of the
electrical contacts and the bulb. Corrosive conditions can be repaired by using sand paper on the
affected area. For severe cases, replace the socket and bulb. After any repair, always attempt to
waterproof the assembly to prevent future problems. Cracked or broken assemblies are easily
placed. They are secured by attaching hardware that is normally readily accessible to the
technician.
Another common electrical lighting problem is flickering lights (going on and off). The
cause of this is usually a loose electrical connection or a circuit breaker that is kicking out the
because of a short. If all or several of the lights flicker, the problem is in a section of the circuit
common to those lights. Check to see if the lights flicker only when the headlight is on high
beam, check the components and wiring in the high-beam section of the circuit. If only one light
flickers, the problem is in that section of the circuit. Check the bulb socket for corrosion. Also,
make sure the bulb terminals are not worn. This could upset the electrical connection. If
necessary, replace the bulb socket and bulb.
 Look at the turn signal diagram in Figure 20-41A. The diagram shows the inside of a turn
signal switch for a two-bulb system. The turn signal switch determines whether one of the bulbs
is used for turning or brake lighting. The regular bars on the diagram are stationary contracts that
the circuit wires connect to. Each contact has one wire connected to it. The top connection is
from the brake switch and is B+ if the brakes are applied. The middle row connections are for
rear combination lights (combination brake/turn signal). The bottom row connections is for the
front lights, including dash indicators, and the B+ coming from the flasher. The triangles drawn
over the bars are a set of three movable conductive pads that connect the different bars together
depending on the position of the switch. They are drawn in the no turn or neutral position. This
allows B+ from the brake switch to activate both rear lights at the same time. Figure 20-41B
shows the same time switch in a left turn. Notice that the conductive pads or triangles have move
to the right. This allows the brake switch to power only the right taillight, while the flasher
connection is now in contract with the left rear taillight and the left front/indicator light. The
right taillight is being operated as a brake light, while the left one is in a turn signal operation.
Figure 20-41C shows the same switch to the left taillight, while the right is now powered off the
turn signal flasher. This style is usually mechanical rather than the electrical. As the vehicle is
driven around the corner, the canceling mechanism must put the switch back into a neutral
position so that both taillights can be used for brake warning. When this canceling does not take
place, the turn signal switch is normally replaced to correct the problem.
Figure 20-41 A turning signal switch (A) not in use, (B) with a left turn indicated, and (C) with a
right turn indicated
 Operation Unit Test and Repair Wiring/Lighting Systems
Sheet
No. 1 Module Testing and Repairing Wiring/Lighting Systems

LO1: Test electrical systems

LO2: Repair electrical systems

REMOVING A MULTIFUNCTION SWITCH

The tools required test and remove a Place the fender covers over the fenders of
multifunction switch are fender covers, the vehicle.
battery terminal pliers and pullers, assorted
wrenches, Torx driver set, and an ohmmeter

Loosen the negative battery clamp bolt and Remove the shroud retaining screws and
remove the battery clamp. Place the cable remove the lower shroud from the steering
where it cannot contact the battery column.
Loosen the steering column attaching nuts. Lower the steering column just enough to
Do not remove the nuts. remove the upper shroud.

Remove the turn signal lever by simply Peel back the foam shield from the turn
rotating the outer end of the lever. Then signal switch.
pull it straight out.

Disconnect the turn signal switch electrical Remove the screws that attach the switch
connectors. to the lack cylinder assembly.
Disengage the switch from the lock
assembly.
When the switch is in the low-beam
position, the circuit should be open between
the high-terminals.
With the switch in the high-beam position,
there should be continuity across the high-
beam circuit. Also check for continuity
across the other circuits that should be open
when the switch is in the high-beam position.
Use an ohmmeter to test the switch. Check
for continuity when the open between the
high-beam terminals.
Also check the other terminals and circuits
that should be open when the dimmer
switch is in the low-beam position.
When the dimmer, switch is placed in the
flash-to-pass position, there should be
continuity across those designated terminal
and an open across the others.
 Self Check Unit Test and Repair Wiring/Lighting Systems
No. 2 Module Testing and Repairing Wiring/Lighting Systems

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Name the three types of headlight switches

2. When is the taillight assembly activated?
3. Most headlamps either have a replaceable light bulb or they are ______ _______, which
must be replaced as a unit.
4. An underhood lamp is typically controlled by ________
a. the headlight switch
b. a momentary contact switch
c. the courtesy light switch
d. a mercury switch

5. The rear light assembly includes the _________.

a. rear side marker lights c. license plate light
b. taillights d. all of the above

6. Circuits that can energize both the high and low beams even if the headlight switch is off are
known as ________ circuits.
a. flash to pass c. dimmer
b. mercury d. retractable

7. The _______ _______ provides a means for the driver to select between high- or low-beam
headlight operation.

8. Which of the following is not a true statement about LED-based lights?

a. LEDs achieve their full output in about than 200 milliseconds.
b. LEDs require a much smaller space so they are much less intrusive in the trunk.
c. LEDs have a long operating life.
d. LEDs provide a more precise contrast and signal pattern, thus attracting attention much
more effectively.

9. Why do some manufacturers protect the headlight circuit with a circuit breaker instead of a
fuse?

10. What kind of headlight does not have a filament?

 CASE STUDY
The customer complains that the turn signals on his vehicle
do not operates as they are supposed to, and they seldom cancel
out properly.
Turn signal circuits are frequent sources of difficulties.
Their diagnosis, however, is not difficult and can usually
accomplished with just a 12-volt light or a voltmeter. Look at the
common circuits, starting first with the flasher. The flasher is
actually a type of circuit breaker, which is an overload protection
device designed to open the circuit because of heat developed from
excessive in the fuse box and made up of a fixed contact and a
movable bimetallic contact.
 Job Unit Test and Repair Wiring/Lighting Systems
Sheet Module Testing and Repairing Wiring/Lighting Systems

Aiming Headlights

Name _____________________________ Station _________________________ Date _______

Objective
Upon completion of this job sheet, you will have demonstrated the ability to Service and Repair
Wiring/Lighting System. You must know how to perform this task in order to pass the
Competency Assessment in Service and Repair Wiring/Lighting System.

Tools and Materials

A vehicle with adjustable headlights
Portable headlight aiming kit
Hand tools

Protective Clothing :
Safety goggles or glasses with side shields
Steel-toed shoes

Description of Vehicle:
Year______________________ Make_________________ Model__________________
VIN______________________ Engine Type and Size____________________________
Mileage _______________________

Describe the general operating condition:

______________________________________________________________________________

PROCEDURE

1. Test electrical systems

______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

2. Repair electrical systems

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Problems Encountered
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Instructor’s Comments
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Institutional Unit Test and Repair Wiring/Lighting Systems
Assessment Module Testing and Repairing Wiring/Lighting Systems

WRITTEN TEST

1. List three circuits that may be controlled by a typical multifunction switch:

a. _________________________________________________________________________
b. _________________________________________________________________________
c. _________________________________________________________________________

2. What are the four basic types of headlights used in today’s vehicles?
a. _________________________________________________________________________
b. _________________________________________________________________________
c. _________________________________________________________________________
d. _________________________________________________________________________

3. What causes most lamp failure?_________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

4. What is the purpose of the rheostat in the headlight switch?___________________________

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

5. Technician A says some bulbs have a glass envelope that enclosed the filament and if air
enters the envelope, the oxygen would cause the filament to oxidize and burn up. Technician
B says a standard sealed-beam headlamp does not surround the filament with its own glass
envelope; instead, the inside of the lamp is typically filled with argon gas. Who is correct?
a. Technician A c. Both a and B
b. Technician B d. Neither A nor B

6. Technician A says it is normal to see some condensation on the inside of a composite

headlight assembly. Technician B says skin oil on a halogen light bulb’s glass envelope can
shorten the life of the bulb. Who is correct?
a. Technician A c. Both a and B
b. Technician B d. Neither A nor B

7. True or false? The circuit for DRLs normally contains some kind of module that reduces the
voltage applied to the headlights. _____________

8. How many wire connections are needed in a four-headlight system?

______________________________________________________________________

9. How many filaments are in each headlight in a two-headlight system?

______________________________________________________________________
10. Only one backup light works. Technician A says to check the backup light switch.
Technician B says to check the bulb that is not burning. Who is correct?
a. Technician A c. Both a and B
b. Technician B d. Neither A nor B
 Self Check Unit Test and Repair Wiring/Lighting Systems
No. 2 Module Testing and Repairing Wiring/Lighting Systems

ANSWER KEY

1. The pull-out design, push-button design, and turn-signal-mounted rotary switch

2. The taillight assembly is activated under the following conditions: (1) when the brake pedal
is depressed, (2) when the turn signals are activated, (3) when the hazard lights are activated,
and (4) when the headlights or park light are on.
3. sealed and beams
4. d. a mercury switch.
5. b. taillights
6. a. flash to pass
7. dimmer and switch
8. a. LEDs achieve their full output in about than 200 milliseconds.
9. The use of a circuit breaker to protect the headlight circuit allows for illumination of the
headlights parts of the time when there is a problem.
10. High-intensity discharge (HID) lights do not have a filament; instead, an electric are is
created between two electrodes that excite a gas, such as xenon, inside the headlamp.
Institutional Unit Test and Repair Wiring/Lighting Systems
Assessment Module Testing and Repairing Wiring/Lighting Systems

ANSWER KEY

1. a. turn signals
b. headlight flashers
c. headlight low/high beam control
d. windshield wipers and washers
e. horn
2. a. High-intensity discharge bulbs
b. sealed beams
c. halogen bulbs
d. composite bulbs
3. Vibration
4. To dim instrument lights, turn on interior light
5. c
6. c
7. True
8. Six total, one for each filament plus a common ground at each side
9. Two
10. b
 Self Check Unit Test and Repair Wiring/Lighting Systems
No. 1 Module Testing and Repairing Wiring/Lighting Systems

ANSWER KEY

1. 16 
2. 25.33
3. 7.22
4. 2.4A, 1.2A, 6.4A
5. Va = 0.5V, Vb = 0.5V = 100V
6. 8 kw