Principles of Physics XI 2020 PDF

Grade XI
Rajendra Pd. Koirala Prajjwal Khanal

Assistant Professor Lecturer of Physics
Central Department of Physics
Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu
Edition: 2077
© Authors
Publishers: Asmita Books Publisher and Distributors (P) Ltd.
Kathmandu, Nepal
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Preface
We are very happy to publish this book entitled Principle of Physics which is prepared so as to
meet the needs of current specifications of grade XI prescribed by Curriculum Development Centre
(CDC).
The primary objective of this book is two folds: to provide the students with clear and logical
explanation of the basic concepts and principle of physics and to strengthen an understanding of
concepts and principles through a broad range of interesting applications to the real world. Besides,
this book focuses on utilization of suitable mathematical models and emphasizes on the
applications of physics together with other science to provide an interdisciplinary approach.
This book is an outcome of years of uninterrupted professional teaching experiences. We have tried
to present the subject matter in an inventive and lucid way keeping in mind the changing trend of
learning system. The theoretical concepts have been explained and illustrated properly with the
proper focus on mathematical formulae, quick reply for physical facts, review for theoretical
concepts and numerical solving ideas and adequate numerical problems for practice. The “Check
points” and numerical examples are included immediately after the physical expression in order to
check the self-understanding. The book also incorporates some fundamental concepts on scientific
research and the mathematical tools that link the mathematical knowledge applied in physics.
While preparing this book, many different persons have shown their involvement in different ways.
We would like to acknowledge their complements and valuable suggestions. In this regard we are
proud involving the innovative idea and valuable time of Mr. Sanjay Kumar Sharma who helped
us to enhance the quality in every aspects of this book. We would also like to thank Mr. Bibek
Tiwari, Mr. Bikash Chauhan, Mr. Prakash Pantha, Bijaya Upadhyaya, Mr. Ganesh Prasad Parajuli,
Mr. Hari Chandra Adhikari, Mr. Tanka Bhusal, Pramod Sah for their complements and
contributions to rectify the errors in this book during the early stages of revision. Mr. Niraj
Bhattarai deserves thanks and appreciations for his outstanding type and setting and layout for this
book. We would also like to thank Mr. Shankar Thapa for wonderfully typing of language and
mathematical expressions.
This edision is the result of the warm encouragement of our seniours, collegues and dear students.
Humbly, we would like to request our esteemed readers to send us kindly the valuable suggestions
for the improvement of the book any errors they might come across while going through it, by
which these will be thankfully acknoweldged and encorporated in the next edition.
Last but not the least we are indebted to our family, Mrs Laxmi Paudel Koirala and Mrs. Shobha
Paudel Khanal for continuously encouraging and supporting us throughout this long project.
In this regard, we have decided to offer reward per error to the first person who reports them to us.
The reward scheme is as follows:
Error type (1), conceptual mistakes – Rs. 500 per mistake
Error type (2), answer mistakes – Rs. 50 per mistake
Error type (3), calculation and printing mistakes – Rs. 25 per mistake
The reward for one error will be provided to one person only on "the first come first basis". The
readers are kindly requested to take this as an effort to improve the quality of this book and remove
the errors as much as possible.
Finally, we would like to thank almighty for their endless blessings and kindness.
October 2020
Authors
Syllabus
Grade: 11 Subject code: Phy. 101
Credit hrs: 5 Working hrs: 160 (T+P)
Course Contents
7.9 Geostationary satellite
Unit 1: Mechanics 45 teaching hours 7.10 GPS
1. Physical Quantities: [3 hrs] 8. Elasticity: [5 hrs]
1.1. Precision and significant figures. Dimensions and 8.1 Hooke’s law: Force constant
uses of dimensional analysis. 8.2 Stress; Strain; Elasticity and plasticity
2. Vectors: [4 hrs] 8.3 Elastic modulus: Young modulus, bulk modulus,
2.1. Triangle, parallelogram and polygon laws of vectors shear modulus
2.2. Resolution of vectors; Unit vectors 8.4 Poisson’s ratio
2.3. Scalar and vector products. 8.5 Elastic potential energy
3. Kinematics: [5 hrs]
3.1 Instantaneous velocity and acceleration Unit 2: Heat and Thermodynamics 26 teaching hours
3.2 Relative velocity 9. Heat and Temperature: [3 hr]
3.3 Equation of motion (graphical treatment) 9.1 Molecular concept of thermal energy, heat and
3.4 Motion of a freely falling body temperature, and cause and direction of heat flow
3.5 Projectile motion and its applications. 9.2 Meaning of thermal equilibrium and Zeroth law of
4. Dynamics: [6 hrs] thermodynamics.
4.1 Linear momentum, Impulse 9.3 Thermal equilibrium as a working principle of mercury
4.2 Conservation of linear momentum thermometer.
4.3 Application of Newton’s laws 10. Thermal Expansion: [4 hrs]
4.4 Moment, torque and equilibrium 10.1 Linear expansion and its measurement
4.5 Solid friction: Laws of solid friction and their 10.2 Cubical expansion, superficial expansion and its
verifications. relation with linear expansion
5. Work, energy and power: [6 hrs] 10.3 Liquid Expansion: Absolute and apparent
5.1 Work done by a constant force and a variable force 10.4 Dulong and Petit method of determining expansivity
5.2 Power of liquid
5.3 Work-energy theorem; Kinetic and potential energy 11. Quantity of Heat: [6 hrs]
5.4 Conservation of Energy 11.1 Newton’s law of cooling
5.5 Conservative and non-conservative forces 11.2 Measurement of specific heat capacity of solids and
liquids
5.6 Elastic and inelastic collisions.
6. Circular motion: [6 hrs] 11.3 Change of phases: Latent heat
11.4 Specific latent heat of fusion and vaporization
6.1 Angular displacement, velocity and acceleration
11.5 Measurement of specific latent heat of fusion and
6.2 Relation between angular and linear velocity and
vaporization
acceleration
6.3 Centripetal acceleration 11.6 Triple point
12. Rate of heat flow: [5 hrs]
6.4 Centripetal force
12.1 Conduction: Thermal conductivity and measurement
6.7 Conical pendulum
6.8 Motion in a vertical circle 12.2 Convection
12.3 Radiation: Ideal radiator
6.9 Applications of banking.
12.4 Black- body radiation
7. Gravitation: [10 hrs]
7.1 Newton’s law of gravitation 12.5 Stefan – Boltzmann law
13. Ideal gas: [8 hrs]
7.2 Gravitational field strength
13.1 Ideal gas equation
7.3 Gravitational potential; Gravitational potential energy
7.4 Variation in value of ‘g’ due to altitude and depth 13.2 Molecular properties of matter
13.3 Kinetic-molecular model of an ideal gas
7.5 Centre of mass and center of gravity
13.4 Derivation of pressure exerted by gas,
7.6 Motion of a satellite: Orbital velocity and time period
of the satellite 13.5 Average translational kinetic energy of gas molecule
7.7 Escape velocity 13.6 Boltzmann constant, root mean square speed
7.8 Potential and kinetic energy of the satellite 13.7 Heat capacities: gases and solids
Unit 3: Waves and Optics 15 teaching hours
14. Reflection at curved mirrors: [2 hrs] 22. Capacitor: [7 hrs]
14.1 Real and Virtual images. 22.1 capacitance and capacitor
14.2 Mirror formula 22.1 Capacitance and capacitor
15. Refraction at plane surfaces: [4 hrs] 22.2 Parallel plate capacitor
15.1 Laws of refraction: Refractive index 22.3 Combination of capacitors
15.2 Relation between refractive indices 22.4 Energy of charged capacitor
15.3 Lateral shift 22.5 Effect of a dielectric Polarization and displacement.
15.4 Total internal reflection. 23. DC Circuits: [10 hrs]
16. Refraction through prisms: [3 hrs] 23.1 Electric Currents; Drift velocity and its relation with
16.1 Minimum deviation condition current
16.2 Relation between Angle of prism, minimum deviation 23.2 Ohm’s law; Electrical Resistance; Resistivity;
and refractive index Conductivity
16.3 Deviation in small angle prism. 23.3 Current-voltage relations; Ohmic and Non-Ohmic
17. Lenses: [3 hrs] resistance
17.1 Spherical lenses, angular magnification 23.4 Resistances in series and parallel,
17.2 Lens maker’s formula 23.5 Potential divider
17.3 Power of a lens 23.6 Electromotive force of a source, internal resistance
18. Dispersion: [3 hrs] 23.7 Work and power in electrical circuits
18.1 Pure spectrum and dispersive power
Unit 4: Modern Physics 15 teaching hours
18.2 Chromatic and spherical aberration
18.3 Achromatism and its applications 24. Nuclear physics: [6 hrs]
24.1 Nucleus: Discovery of nucleus
Unit 4: Electricity and Magnetism 27 teaching hours 24.2 Nuclear density; Mass number; Atomic number
19. Electric charges: [3 hrs] 24.3 Atomic mass; Isotopes
19.1 Electric charges 24.4 Einstein’s mass-energy relation
19.2 Charging by induction 24.5 Mass Defect, packing fraction, BE per
19.3 Coulomb’s law- Force between two point charges nucleon
19.4 Force between multiple electric charges 24.6 Creation and annihilation
20. Electric field: [3 hrs] 24.7 Nuclear fission and fusion, energy released
20.1 Electric field due to point charges; Field lines 25. Solids: [3 hrs]
20.2 Gauss Law: Electric Flux 25.1 Energy bands in solids (qualitative ideas)
20.3 Application of Gauss law: Field of a charge sphere, 25.2 Difference between metals, insulators and
line charge, charged plane conductor semi-conductors using band theory
21. Potential, potential difference and potential 25.3 Intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors
energy: [4 hrs] 26. Recent Trends in Physics: [6 hrs]
21.1 Potential difference, Potential due to a point, Charge, 26.1 Particle physics: Particles and antiparticles,
potential energy, electron volt Quarks (baryons and meson) and leptons
21.2 Equipotential lines and surfaces (neutrinos)
21.3 Potential gradient 26.2 Universe: Big Bang and Hubble law:
expansion of the Universe, Dark matter,
Black Hole and gravitational wave
Contents
Unit I: Mechanics
3.7 Acceleration 55
1. Physical Quantities 3.8 Graphical Representation of Motion 56
3.9 Equations of Motion for Uniform Acceleration 58
1.1 Introduction 3 3.10 Distance Travelled in nth Second 59
1.2 Nature of Physics 3 3.11 Equations of Motion: (Graphical Treatment) 60
1.3 Physical Quantity 4 3.12 Projectile Motion 62
1.4 Measurements and Units 4 3.13 Relative Velocity 69
1.5 Rules of Writing Units 5 • Tips for MCQs 78
1.6 System of Units 5 • Quick Reply 79
1.7 Precision and Accuracy 7 • Review of Theoretical Concepts 80
1.8 Uncertainty in Measurement 9 • Worked out Problems 82
1.9 Rounding Numbers after Decimal 10 • Numerical for Practice 85
1.10 Significant Figures 10 • Exercise 86
1.11 Algebric Operations with Significant Figures 11 • Multiple Choice Questions 91
1.12 Types of Physical Quantities 13
1.13 Dimensions, Dimensional Formula and Dimensional 4. Dynamics
Equation 14
1.14 Uses of Dimensional Formula 15 4.1 Introduction 92
• Tips for MCQs 20 4.2 Newton's First Law of Motion and Inertia 92
• Quick Reply 21 4.3 Linear Momentum and Newton's Second Law of
• Review of Theoretical Concepts 21 Motion 93
• Worked Out Problems 23 4.4 Newton's Third Law of Motion and Conservation
• Numerical for Practice 24 of Linear Momentum 95
• Exercise 24 4.5 Principle of Conservation of Linear Momentum 98
• Multiple Choice Questions 26 4.6 Impulse 100
4.7 Newton's Second Law: Real Law of Motion 101
2. Vectors 4.8 Free Body Diagram 102
4.9 Equilibrium 109
2.1 Introduction 27 4.10 Torque due to Couple 111
2.2 Scalar Quantity 27 4.11 Principle of Moment 112
2.3 Vector Quantity 27 4.12 Friction 114
2.4 Addition of Vectors 29 4.13 Origin of Friction 114
2.5 Triangle Law of Vector Addition 30 4.14 Static and Rolling Friction 115
2.6 Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition 31 4.15 Laws of Friction 116
2.7 Subtraction of Vectors 33 4.16 Verification of Laws of Limiting Friction 116
2.8 Polygon Law of Vector Addition 34 4.17 The Coefficient of Friction 118
2.9 Resolution of Vectors 36 4.18 Pulling with Oblique Angle 120
2.10 Multiplication of Vectors 38 • Tips for MCQs 122
• Tips for MCQs 42 • Quick Reply 124
• Quick Reply 44 • Review of Theoretical Concepts 124
• Review of Theoretical Concepts 44 • Worked Out Problems 127
• Worked Out Problems 46 • Numerical for Practice 129
• Numerical for Practice 48 • Exercise 130
• Exercise 49 • Multiple Choice Questions 135
• Multiple Choice Questions 51
5. Work, Energy and Power

3. Kinematics
5.1 Introduction 163
3.1 Introduction 52 5.1 Introduction 136
3.2 Motion and Rest 52 5.2 Meaning of Work done 136
3.3 Distance 52 5.3 Work done by Variable Force 140
3.4 Displacement 53 5.4 Energy 141
3.5 Speed 53 5.5 Kinetic Energy 141
3.6 Velocity 54 5.6 Work-Energy Theorem 143
5.7 Potential Energy 145 7.7 Expression for Acceleration due to Gravity 191
5.8 Principle of Conservation of Energy 146 7.8 Variation of Acceleration due to Gravity 192
5.9 Conservative and Non-conservative Forces 148 7.9 Variation of g due to Rotation of Earth 194
5.10 Power 149 7.10 Centre of Mass 196
5.11 Collision 150 7.11 Centre of Gravity 198
5.12 Resilience and Coefficient of Restitution 154 7.12 Gravitational Field 199
• Tips for MCQs 155 7.13 Gravitational Field Intensity 199
• Quick Reply 156 7.14 Gravitational Potential and Gravitational
• Review of Theoretical Concepts 157 Potential Energy 200
• Worked Out Problems 159 7.15 Expression for Gravitational Potential Energy 201
• Numerical for Practice 161 7.16 Escape Velocity 202
• Exercise 162
7.17 Weightlessness 203
7.18 Satellite and Principle of Launching of Satellite203
7.19 Total Energy of Satellite 207
6. Circular Motion 7.20 Global Positioning System (GPS) 208
• Tips for MCQs 209
6.1 Introduction 167 • Quick Reply 211
6.2 Rotational Variables 167 • Review of Theoretical Concepts 212
6.3 Relation between Angular Velocity and Linear • Worked Out Examples 213
Velocity 169 • Numerical for Practice 216
6.4 Expression for Centripetal Acceleration 169 • Exercises 216
6.5 Motion in a Vertical Circle 176 • Multiple Choice Questions 220
6.6 Conical Pendulum (Horizontal Pendulum) 178
• Tips for MCQs 179 8. Elasticity
• Quick Reply 181
• Review of Theoretical Concepts 181 8.1 Introduction 222
• Worked Out Problems 182 8.2 Elasticity and Plasticity 222
• Numerical for Practice 185 8.3 Origin of Inter-atomic Force 223
• Exercise 185 8.4 Stress 224
• Multiple Choice Questions 188 8.5 Strain 225
8.6 Elastic Limit 226
7. Gravitation 8.7 Molecular Explanation of Hooke's Law 229
8.8 Variation of Strain with Stress 240
7.1 Introduction 227 8.9 Energy Stored in Stretched Wire 241
7.1 Introduction 189 • Tips for MCQs 245
7.2 Newton's Law of Gravitation 189 • Quick Reply 246
7.3 Gravitational Constant 'G' 190 • Review of Theoretical Concepts 246
7.4 Gravitation and Principle of Superposition 190 • Worked Out Problems 248
7.5 Inertial Mass and Gravitational Mass 190 • Numerical for Practice 251
• Exercise 251
7.6 Acceleration due to Gravity 191
Unit II: Heat

9. Heat and Temperature 10. Thermal Expansion
9.1 Introduction 249 10.1 Introduction 260
9.2 Thermal Equilibrium 250 10.2 Linear Expansion 260
9.3 Zeroth Law 250 10.3 Superficial Expansion 262
9.4 Thermometers and Temperature Scales 250 10.4 Cubical Expansion 263
9.5 Types of Thermometers 253
10.5 Determination of Coefficient of Linear Expansion
• Quick Reply 256 of a Metal Rod by Using Pullinger's Apparatus 266
• Review of Theoretical Concepts 256 10.6 Differential Expansion 270
• Worked Out Problems 257 10.7 Expansion of Liquids 271
• Exercise 258 10.8 Effects of Temperature on Density of Solids
• Multiple Choice Questions 259 and Liquids 272
10.9 Measurement of Absolute Expansivity of a 12.5 Radiation 324
Liquid (By Dulong and Petit's Experiment) 273 12.6 Reflection, Transmission and Absorption
10.10 Anomalous Expansion of Water 274 Coefficients of Heat Radiation 324
• Tips for MCQs 275 12.7 Black Body 325
• Quick Reply 276 12.8 Stefan's Law of Black Body Radiation 326
• Review of Theoretical Concepts 277 12.9 Deducing Newton's Law of Cooling from
• Worked Out Problems 278 Stefan-Boltzmann's Law 328
• Numerical for Practice 282 12.10 Solar Constant 328
• Exercise 283 • Tips for MCQs 329
• Multiple Choice Questions 286 • Quick Reply 330
• Review of Theoretical Concepts 331
11. Quantity of Heat Energy • Worked Out Problems 333
11.1 Introduction 287 • Numerical for Practice 335
• Exercise 336
11.2 Calorimeter 288
11.3 Principle of Calorimetry (The Law of Mixture) 288
11.4 Determination of Specific Heat Capacity of
a Solid by the Method of Mixture 291 13. Ideal Gas
11.5 Newton's Law of Cooling 293 13.1 Introduction 341
11.6 Measurement of Specific Heat Capacity of 13.2 Boyle's Law 343
a Liquid by the Method of Cooling 294
13.3 Charles' Law 344
11.7 Change of Phase 296
13.4 Relation between Volume Coefficient (γp) and
11.8 Latent Heat 297
Pressure Coefficient (γv) 346
11.9 Vapours and Gases 303
13.5 Equation of State for an Ideal Gas 347
11.10 Evaporation and Boiling 304
13.6 Dalton's Law of Partial Pressure 349
11.11 Triple Point 305
13.7 Kinetic Molecular Model of an Ideal Gas 350
13.8 Pressure Exerted by Gas 351
• Quick Reply 308
13.9 Derivation of Gas Laws From Kinetic
Theory of Gases 355
• Worked Out Problems 310
13.10 Degrees of Freedom 356
• Numerical for Practice 312
• Exercise 313
13.11 Law of Equipartition of Energy 357
• Multiple Choice Questions 317 13.12 Specific Heat Capacities of Solids and Gases 357
13.13 Mean free Path 359
12. Rate of Heat Flow • Tips for MCQs 360
• Quick Reply 361
12.1 Introduction 318 • Review of Theoretical Concepts 362
12.2 Conduction 318 • Worked Out Problems 364
12.3 Determination of Coefficient of Thermal • Numerical for Practice 367
Conductivity of a Metal Rod by Searle's Method321 • Exercise 368
12.4 Convection 323 • Multiple Choice Questions 371
Unit III: Geometric Optics

14.7 Object Distance and Image Distance 379
14. Reflection at Curved Mirrors 14.8 Real Object and Virtual Object 380
14.1 Introduction 447 14.9 Real Image and Virtual Image 380
14.1 Introduction 375 14.10 Maximum Size of Mirror to See the Full Image 380
14.2 Reflection of Light 375 14.11 Reflection at Curved Mirrors 381
14.3 Regular Reflection and Diffuse Reflection 377 14.12 Relation Between Focal Length and Radius of
14.4 Relation between Glancing Angle (g) and Angle of Curvature 383
Deviation (δ) 378 14.13 Graphical Methods of Mirrors 385
14.5 Rotation of Light 378 14.14 Spherical Aberration and Parabolic Mirror 387
14.6 Inclined Mirrors 379 14.15 Mirror Formula 388
14.16 Linear Magnification 392
14.17 Newton's Formula 393 • Exercise 430
14.18 Uses of Mirrors 394 • Objective Questions 431
• Quick Reply 395 17. Lenses
• Worked Out Problems 397 17.1 Lenses 432
• Numerical for Practice 399 17.2 Graphical Methods of Lenses 435
• Exercise 399 17.3 Lens Formula 439
• Objective Questions 401 17.4 Linear Magnification 443
17.5 Power of Lens 443
15. Refraction at Plane Surface 17.6 Visual Angle 443
15.1 Introduction 402 17.7 Lens Maker's Formula 444
15.2 Causes of Refraction and Refractive Index 403 17.8 Combined Lens Formula 446
15.3 Snell's Law 404 • Tips for MCQs 447
• Quick Reply 448
15.4 Refractive Index of Different Media 404
15.5 Real Depth and Apparent Depth 406
15.6 Lateral Shift 408
15.7 Technological Applications of Total Internal • Exercise 454
Reflection 413
• Objective Questions 456
• Quick Reply 415 18. Dispersion
• Worked Out Problems 417 18.1 Introduction 457
• Numerical for Practice 418 18.2 Pure and Impure Spectrum 458
• Exercise 419 18.3 Angular Dispersion 459
• Objective Questions 420 18.4 Dispersive Power 459
18.5 Chromatic Aberration 460
16. Refraction through Prisms 18.6 Achromatic Combination of Lenses and
16.1 Prism 421 Achromatism 461
16.2 Refraction Through Prism 421 • Tips for MCQs 464
• Quick Reply 465
16.3 Deviation of Light from Small Angled Prism 424
• Quick Reply 427
• Exercise 467
Unit IV: Electrostatics and DC Circuits

19. Electric Charges • Quick Reply 482
19.1 Introduction 471 • Exercise 484
19.2 Electric Charge 471 • Multiple Choice Questions 485
19.3 Conductor, Insulator and Semiconductor 473
19.4 Theory of Electrification 473 20. Electric Field
19.5 Charging of a Body 474
19.6 Conduction 474 20.1 Introduction 486
19.7 Induction 475 20.2 Electric Field Intensity 486
19.8 Charge Distribution on a Surface 478 20.3 Electric Field intensity due to Several Point
19.9 Coulomb's Law in Electrostatics 478 Charges 487
19.10 Superposition Principle 480 20.4 Electric Lines of Force 489
19.11 Effects of Permittivity on a Medium 481 20.5 Electric Flux 490
19.12 Relative Permittivity 481 20.6 Gauss's Law in Electrostatics 491
• Tips for MCQs 497 22.11 Charging and Discharging of a Capacitor
• Quick Reply 498 • Through Resistor 535
• Review of Theoretical Concepts 499 • Conceptual Tips 538
• Worked Out Problems 500 • Tips for MCQs 539
• Numerical for Practice 502 • Quick Reply 539
• Exercise 503 • Review of Theoretical Concepts 540
• Multiple Choice Questions 504 • Worked Out Problems 542
21. Potential, Potential Difference • Exercise 545
and Potential Energy
21.1 Introduction 505 23. Direct Current Circuits
21.2 Electric (or Electrostatic) Potential 505
23.1 Introduction 549
21.3 Potential Difference 507
23.2 Electric Circuit 549
21.4 Electric Potential Energy 508
23.3 Electric Current 550
21.5 Electric Workdone 509
23.4 Metallic Conduction and Drift Velocity 553
21.6 Electron Volt (eV) 510
23.5 Ohm's Law 556
21.7 Equipotential Surface 510
23.6 Resistance and Resistivity 557
21.8 Potential Gradient and Electric Field 511
23.7 Variation of Resistance with Temperature 561
• Quick Reply 513 23.8 Colour Code for Resistors 562
• Review of Theoretical Concepts 513 23.9 Sensors 564
• Worked Out Problems 515 23.10 Combinations of Resistors 566
• Numerical for Practice 517 23.11 Voltage Divider Circuit 570
• Exercise 518 23.12 Current Divider 571
• Multiple Choice Questions 519 23.13 Joules Law of Heating 572
23.14 Electric Energy and Power 573
22. Capacitors 23.15 Electromotive Force 575
23.16 Terminal Potential Difference 575
22.1 Introduction 520 23.17 Internal Resistance of a Cell 576
22.2 Capacitor and Capacitance 520 23.18 Relation of emf, Terminal Potential Difference
22.3 Types of Capacitor 522 and Internal Resistance of a Cell 576
22.4 Combination of Capacitors 524 23.19 Combination of Cells 577
22.5 Energy Stored in a Charged Capacitor 527 • Tips for MCQs 580
22.6 Redistribution of charge and Common • Quick Reply 583
Potential 529 • Review of Theoretical Concepts 583
22.7 Loss of Energy on Sharing of Charges • Worked Out Problems 587
between Capacitors 530 • Numerical for Practice 591
22.8 Dielectrics and Effect of Dielectrics 531 • Exercises 593
22.9 Molecular Theory of Induced Charge 532 • Multiple Choice Questions 598
22.10 Effect of Dielectric in Electric Field 533
Unit V: Modern Physics

24.11 Particle Annihilation 609
24. Nuclear Physics 24.12 Mass Defect 611
24.1 Introduction 603 24.13 Packing Fraction 611
24.2 Nucleus of an Atom 603 24.14 Binding Energy 612
24.3 Constituents of a Nucleus 604 24.15 Nuclear Reaction 613
24.4 Nuclear Density 605 24.16 Nuclear Fusion Reaction 618
24.5 Atomic Number and Atomic Mass 605 • Tips for MCQs 619
24.6 Representation of a Nucleus of an Atom 606 • Quick Reply 621
24.7 Isotopes, Isobars, Isotones 606 • Review of Theoretical Concepts 621
24.8 Einstein's Mass-Energy Relation 607
24.9 Atomic Mass Unit 608
• Exercises 624
24.10 Pair Production: Creation of Particle-Antiparticle • Multiple Choice Questions 626
Pair 609
25. Solids
25.1 Introduction 628 26.10 Quarks 642
25.2 Band Theory of Solids 628 26.11 Bosons 643
25.3 Semiconductors 630 26.12 Hadrons 643
25.4 Charge Carriers in Semiconductor 631 26.13 Mesons 644
25.5 Types of Semiconductor 631 26.14 Baryons 645
• Tips for MCQs 634 26.15 Three Generations of Quarks and Leptons 646
• Quick Reply 634 26.16 Universe 647
• Review of Theoretical Concepts 635 26.17 Big Bang 647
26.18 Expanding of Universe 648
26. Recent Trends in Physics 26.19
26.20
Hubble's Law
Critical Density
648
650
26.1 Particle Physics 638 26.21 Dark Matter and Dark Energy 650
26.2 History of Elementary Particles 638 26.22 Gravitational Wave 652
26.3 Particles and antiparticles 639 • Tips for MCQs 653
26.4 Annihilation 640 • Quick Reply 653
26.5 Pair Production 640 • Review of Theoretical Concepts 654
26.6 Concept of Spin 640 • Worked Out Problems 655
• Exercises 656
26.7 Classification of Elementary Particles 641
26.8 Fermions 641
26.9 Leptons 641
Z Fundamentals on Research 658

Z Mathematical Tools in Physics 664
Z Bibliography 671
Z Appendix 672
UNIT 1
MECHANICS
The main aim of this section is to develop the skill on quantitative measurement of
physical quantities and apply to study the dynamics of objects, specifically, linear motion
and circular motion. To fulfill this aim, the major objectives are put forth in this unit.
1. Physical Quantities: Make the learners to know on basic concepts of
measurements with appropriate units and significant figures.
2. Vectors: Make understand about the effects on direction of vector quantities, their
quantitative measurements and applications.
3. Kinematics: Provide the concepts on linear motion with real life applications like
projectile motion and relative velocity; and interpret them in analytical and graphical
methods.
4. Dynamics: Convey the learners about the applications of laws of motion,
conservative nature of linear momentum, conditions of equilibrium, force calculation
through free body diagram and effect of friction on motion.
5. Work and Energy: Provide the basic knowledge on work done by constant and
variable forces, types of mechanical energy and their conservative nature,
conservative and non-conservative forces, Power dissipation on plane and inclined
surfaces, elastic and inelastic collision with daily life examples.
6. Circular Motion: Provide the fundamental concepts on centripetal force with
suitable real life applications
7. Gravitation: Convey the concepts on quantitative knowledge on gravitational force,
planetary motion, application of centripetal force on geostationary satellite, energy
required to set the satellite in the space, and GPS
8. Elasticity: Provide the knowledge on elastic and plastic substances, their
measuring parameters, and apply them to solve the real life problems.
2 Principles of Physics - I
Approved by Curriculum Development Centre (CDC), Nepal

Physical Quantities |Chapter 1| 3
PHYSICAL
QUANTITIES
1.1 Introduction
Physics is a branch of natural science which deals with nature and formulates the natural
phenomena in mathematical forms. Many other fields like Biology, Poetry, and Religion also study
the nature in their own ways; however physics has a unique way of thinking about the physical
nature. It is a quantitative science. It makes use of various mathematical concepts to explain the
natural laws and experimentally observed facts. Mathematics is a major tool to explain the natural
laws in physics, but physics itself is not mathematics, it uses mathematics, as many other subjects.
1.2 Nature of Physics

The laws of physics are based on the naturally and experimentally observed facts. When a theory is
developed or proposed, its validity is checked through a series of experiments but can't be accepted
as a universal fact. The theories put forth though seems to satisfy certain observed facts, can be
unable to explain the facts when the circumstances change. Sometimes a theory proposed might not
address observed facts or the theorist might have narrowed his research over a particular subject
matter only. So, in due course of time, the theory has to be modified so as to incorporate different
field of studies under different circumstances. In this sense we can say that, the nature of physics is
dynamic. For example, in the beginning, electric and magnetic fields were treated as a separate and
complete field of study. On this basis, Coulomb's law, Gauss law, and Faraday’s law were explained.
Later on, Maxwell developed the electromagnetic theory which disclosed the association of electric
and magnetic fields. Then, were Coulomb, Gauss and Faraday wrong? Not at all, these theories were
incomplete.
In another prospect, the nature of physics is somehow philosophical. Many laws explaining the
nature and natural phenomenon cannot be tested experimentally and seems to be mythological. For
example, cosmologists have different views regarding the “Origin of the universe”. Although most
of the cosmologists believe in the Big Bang Theory, there are many who believe a different view. So,
we can conclude that the study of physics goes is old as the universe, and the laws of physics can
have different forms with the change of time. So, the physical laws are incomplete unless they
completely address all natural phenomena. The field of physics is usually divided into many
branches such as Mechanics, Optics, Heat, Electricity and so on.

4 Asmita's Principles of Physics
1.3 Physical Quantity

The quantity which is measurable by some physical means is known as physical a quantity. Physical
quantity obeys the physical laws. We can measure the weight of man but it is impossible to measure
his ‘love’ to his family members. So, his weight is a physical quantity but his love is not a physical
quantity. For example, mass, length, time, area, density etc., are physical quantities. All physical
quantities are measurable and they have both magnitude (numerical value, N) and unit (U). The
magnitude is expressed in terms of numerical value. If you walked 500 m distance, 500 is numerical
value (N = 500) and metre is unit (U). So, a physical quantity is expressed as;
Physical quantity = Numerical value (N) × unit (U)
All physical quantities are broadly divided in two sorts: (i) Fundamental quantity and (ii) Derived
quantity
Fundamental Quantity
The basic physical quantity which is taken as standard to measure other physical quantities is known as
fundamental quantity. The consideration of physical quantity is arbitrary yet is universally accepted.
In general, seven physical quantities are considered as fundamental quantities. They are length,
mass, time, luminous intensity, temperature, electric current and amount of chemical substance. In
addition, there are two sub-fundamental quantities viz; plane angle and solid angle. The units of
fundamental quantities are called fundamental units.
Derived Quantity
A quantity obtained from fundamental quantities is called a derived quantity. Area, volume, density, speed,
electric intensity, magnetic potential are some examples of derived quantities. The derived quantities
are expressed in terms of fundamental quantities. The units of derived quantities are called derived
units.
1.4 Measurements and Units

The measurement of physical quantities consists of two parts: numerical value and unit. For
example, a child is 15 kg, the number 15 is numerical value and kg is unit.
Units are basically divided into two types: (i) fundamental units and (ii) derived units. The units of
fundamental quantities like kilogram, metre, second, kelvin, candela, ampere, and mole are
considered as the fundamental units. The units of derived quantities are called derived units. For
example, the unit of acceleration is derived from unit of displacement and time. i.e., the unit of
acceleration is metre per square second (m/s2). Therefore, m/s2 is an example of a derived unit.
If we want to express derived quantities into fundamental quantities, we should expand the formula
until the fundamental quantities will be reached. For example, if we want to obtain the relation of
work done with fundamental quantities, following procedure is done:
Work done (W) = force × displacement
= mass × acceleration × displacement
velocity
= mass × time × displacement
displacement
= mass × × displacement
time × time
(displacement)2
= mass × (time)2
1.5 Rules of Writing Units

There are some important rules in writing the units. They are listed below:
Rules Incorrect writing pattern of unit Correct writing pattern of unit
n N (unit of force)
1. Name of Scientist a. Newton
Newton newton
j J (unit of energy)
b. Joule
Joule joule
w W (unit of power)
c. Watt
Watt wattt
2. Representation of multiplication N.m or Nm
3. Representation of division kg/m/s2 a. m/s or ms–1
b. kg/ms2 or kgm–1s–2
4. Not in plural 2 kgs, 5 ms 2 kg, 5 m, etc.
1.6 System of Units

If you are asked how long your pen is, your answer is correct whether you say it is 20 cm long or 0.20
m long. The difference is that they are expressed in different sets of unit, which we call the system of
units. Different systems of units may be used in different society to express the value of same
physical quantity. Suppose, Asian people use degree Celsius as the unit of temperature for general
understanding, but American people generally use Fahrenheit. Some important systems of units are
described below:
i. FPS System: In this system, length is measured in foot, mass in pound and time in second. This
system was developed in Great Britain and is also referred as imperial system of units. This
system is still famous in many countries. Here, F → foot, P → pound and S → second.
ii. MKS System: In this system, length is measured in metre, mass in kilogram and time in second.
This system was developed in France. Here, M → metre, K → kilogram, and S → second.
iii. CGS System: In this system, length is measured in centimetre, mass in gram and time in
second. This system was developed in France. Here, C → centimetre, G → gram, and S →
second.
iv. SI System: To overcome difficulties regarding the system of unit among the countries, the
General Conference on Weights and Measures in USSR in 1971 developed a world wide
accepted unit, called international system of unit. This system is known as the SI system. In SI
system of unit, seven fundamental units and two supplementary units were proposed. These
units are written below.
Fundamental Quantities S.I. Units Symbol
Length metre m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Temperature kelvin K
Luminous Intensity candela cd
Electric Current ampere A
Amount of chemical substance mole mol

Some Supplementary Quantities

Supplementary quantities S.I. Units Symbols
Plane Angle radian rad
Solid Angle steradian sr
Plane Angle and Solid Angle

Plane Angle: Plane angle is the angle between two line meeting at the vertex.
Plane angle is 2- dimensional angle.
arc dl
Plane angle (dθ) = radius = r
For total plane angle, the value of arc becomes 2πr. (i.e., circumference)
2πr
∴ Total plane angle (θ) = r = 2π radian
Total plane angle of a circle is equal to 2π radian.

Solid angle: Solid angle is a three dimensional analogue of an angle, such
as that suspended by a cone or formed by planes meeting at a point. It is
measured in steradian. It is 3-dimensional angle.
We cut a small part PQ of area dA on the surface of a sphere of radius r
which subtends angle dω at the centre of the sphere called solid angle.
Area cut dA
Solid angle (dω) = radius2 = r2
For total solid angle, the value of dA becomes 4πr2

i.e., A = 4πr2
4πr2
∴ ω = r2 = 4π steradian
Total solid angle is equal to 4π steradian.
Prefixes for Power of Ten

The speed of light is 3 lakh kilometre per second. It means the speed is 300000 km/s equivalently
300000000 m/s. Writing such large quantity in whole number term is not scientific. So, this quantity
is usually written as 3 × 108 m/s. In the field of physics, its study level ranges from nuclear level to
size of universe. Therefore, such very small (microscopic) and very large (macroscopic) quantities are
expressed in power of number 10. Some of the important prefix multiplies are tabulated below:
Prefix for positive power factor symbols
Fundamental unit 100 = 1
deca- 101 da
hecto- 10 2 h
kilo- 10 3 k
mega- 10 6 M
giga- 10 9 G
tera- 1012 T
peta- 1015 P

exa- 1018 E
zetta- 10 21 Z
yotta- 10 24 Y
Prefix for negative power factor symbols
deci- 10 –1 d
centi- 10–2 c
milli- 10 –3 m
micro- 10 –6 µ
nano- 10 –9 n
pico- 10–12 p
femto- 10–15 f
atto- 10–18 a
zepto- 10–21 z
yocto- 10–24 y
Examples
1 kilometre = 103 metre 1 megametre = 106 metre
1 gigawatt = 109 watt 1 centimetre = 10-2 metre
1 micrometre (1 μm) = 10-6 metre 1 nanosecond = 10-9 second
1 femtometre (1 fm) = 10-15 metre
1.7 Precision and Accuracy

Precision is the degree to which the observed values are least scattered. It means how close the different
measurements are.
When we measure diameter of a thick wire with devices of different least counts, the diameters may
be like 5.2 cm or 5.18 cm or 5.176 cm. The values after decimal point are different, so we may get
confused about the true diameter. 5.176 cm is recorded with micrometer screw gauge whose least
count is 0.001 cm. Similarly, if we use vernier calipers it can record just two digits after decimal place
because its least count is 0.01 cm. So, 5.176 cm is viewed as 5.17 cm when recorded using vernier
calipers. Similarly, if that diameter is measured by meter ruler the value is recorded as 5.2 cm as its
least count is 0.1 cm. Among these values we take 5.176 cm as more precise value because the
precision of micrometer screw gauge is more among the three instruments. In a single measurement
precision can show how smaller the least count is. If we measure a quantity with an instrument
which has smaller value of least count, readings will be close to each other that means readings will
be precise.
Fig. 1.3: Micrometer screw gauge Fig. 1.4: Vernier calipers

No. of observation
No. of observation
Value Value
Fig. 1.5:As the data are least scattered Fig. 1.6:Scattering is more
the values are precise so precision is less
Suppose the length of a pencil is measured with vernier calipers. The set of values is recorded as 89.1
mm, 89.0 mm, 89.3 mm, 89.2 mm. If we take the range, it is found to be 89.3 – 89.0 = 0.3 mm. As the
least count of vernier calipers is 0.1 mm, these values are not precise within range of least count (0.3
mm > 0.1 mm). However, if we set the tolerance at 0.5 mm we can assume these values as result of
precise measurement.
Similarly, during measurement the quality of data depends upon its accuracy. Accuracy is the
degree to which the observed value approaches the true value.
No. of observation
No. of observation
No. of observation
True value True value True value
Fig. 1.7: Precise but not accurate Fig. 1.8: Accurate but not precise Fig. 1.9: Accurate and precise
Two students A and B are determining acceleration due to gravity (g) in physics laboratory. The set
of values recorded by A in m/s2 are 8.45, 8.46, 8.45, 8.45, 8.46 and that by B are 9.31, 9.81, 9.76, 9.84,
10.31.
Analysis for set of values determined by A:
Range of scattering = 8.46 – 8.45 = 0.01 m/s2
Mean value = 8.454 m/s2. As only two values after decimal place is desired, so we round off
and the mean value is 8.45 m/s2.
Analysis for set of values determined by B:
Range of scattering = 10.31 – 9.31 = 1.00 m/s2
Mean value = 9.806 m/s2 and is rounded off as 9.81 m/s2.
The data recorded by A has less scattering but the mean value is far from the true value of 'g'. So, this
set is precise but not accurate, whereas, the data recorded by B has more scattering but the mean
value is near to true value. So, this set is accurate but not precise.
During experimental work, we desire precise set of data.
Precision is not the same as accuracy. A cheap digital watch that gives the time as 10:35:17 A.M. is
very precise (the time is given to the second) but if the watch runs several minutes slow, then this
value is not very accurate. On the other hand, a grandfather clock might be very accurate (that is
display the correct time) but if the clock has no second hand, it isn't very precise.
A high-quality measurement like those used to define standards is both precise and accurate.
There are four factors which limit the precision with which any measurement may be made:
(i) the limitations in the constancy of the quantity being measured.
(ii) the limitations of human observation.
(iii) the limitations of the instrument being used.
(iv) error of calibration of the instrument itself is also a possible source of error.
EXAMPLE 1: A student measured the diameter of steel ball using a micrometer screw gauge in physics laboratory. In five
different observations, he measured the diameter, 6.25 mm, 6.28 mm, 6.23 mm, 6.27 mm and 6.24 mm. Another student
measured the same steel ball by the same device and measured 6.00 mm, 6.04 mm, 6.12 mm, 6.08 mm, and 6.21 mm. In fact,
the correct value of the given steel ball is 6.10 mm. Compare their measurements in terms of precision and accuracy.
SOLUTION
(i) Observations of first student are, 6.25 mm, 6.28 mm, 6.23 mm, 6.27 mm, and 6.24 mm.
The range of observed data = 6.28 − 6.23 = 0.05 mm.
6.25 + 6.28 + 6.23 + 6.27 + 6.24
The average of observed data = 5 = 6.25 mm.
(ii) Observations of second student are, 6.00 mm 6.04 mm, 6.12 mm, 6.08 mm, and 6.21 mm.
The range of observed data = 6.21 − 6.00 = 0.21 mm
6.00 + 6.04 + 6.12 + 6.08 + 6.21
The average of observed data = 5 = 6.09 mm
Comparing the above two observations; the range of observed data is smaller for first student
than the second one. Hence, the observations of the first student are more precised than the
second student. However, the average value of second student is very close to the true value. So,
we conclude that the measurement of second student is more accurate than the first one.
1.8 Uncertainty in Measurement

Measuring devices have certain measuring limitations. They can determine the value of
measurement upto a certain digit. Due to their limitations, physical measurement possesses some
error.
Suppose, a student measures the length of a rod as 8.2 cm by using a metre scale of least count
0.1 cm. In such measurement, he cannot write the length 8.20 cm because the scale can measure the
value only one digit after the decimal. The value 8.20 cm depicts that the scale can measure least
value upto two digits after the decimal, which is practically impossible in the given scale. Now, if the
student measures the length of same rod with vernier calipers of vernier constant 0.01 cm, he may
find it 8.23 cm. Similarly, if he measures the rod with a micrometre screw gauge of least count 0.001
cm, the measured value contains three digits after the decimal place. He may find the length as 8.231
cm.
In the above three observations of same rod, the metre scale can measure upto single digit after
decimal, vernier calipers can measure upto two digits after decimal and the micrometre screw gauge
can measure upto three digits after decimal. In comparison of these three devices, micrometre screw
gauge can measure the most accurate value, however it is not error free measurement. If there is an
another device of least count 0.0001 mm, the measured value can have four digits after decimal
place. Likewise the measurement runs several possible counts after the decimal place. Thus, the last
digit of the measurement still carries some error which is called the uncertainty in measurement.
Obviously, the measurement does not have the 100% accuracy, there might be certain error
associated with the observed value. It means, we can increase the accuracy but we cannot eliminate
the error. Hence, the observations are always expressed in limit of accuracy. The above observations
are usually written in the following forms:

(i) Using metre scale, the length of rod is (8.2 ± 0.1) cm, i.e., the accurate value lies between 8.1 cm
and 8.3 cm.
(ii) Using vernier calipers, the length of rod is (8.23 ± 0.01) cm, i.e., the accurate value lies between
8.22 cm and 8.24 cm.
(iii) Using micrometre screw gauge, the length of rod is (8.231 ± 0.001) cm, i.e., the accurate value
lies between 8.230 cm and 8.232 cm and so on.
1.9 Rounding Numbers after Decimal

If uncertainty in a measurement lies on nth number after the decimal, the nth number after the
decimal is written by rounding in accordance with the following rules.
(i) If (n +1)th number after decimal is greater than 5, the nth number is added by 1. For example, if a
number 25.2465032 is rounded to hundredth (second place after the decimal), the equivalent
number is 25.25.
(ii) If (n +1)th number after decimal is smaller than 5, the nth number is written as it is. For example,
if a number 7.32253 is rounded to hundredth (second place after the decimal), the equivalent
number is 7.32.
(iii) If (n +1)th number is 5 and other number follows it, the nth number is added by 1. For example, if
a number 67.45513 is rounded to hundredth (second place after the decimal), the equivalent
number is 67.46.
(iv) If (n +1)th number is 5 and there is no other number after this number, the rounded numbers is
written considering the following rules.
(a) If nth number is odd, it is written adding 1. For example, if 56.275 is rounded to hundredth
(second place after the decimal), the equivalent number is 56.28.
(b) If nth number is even, it is written as it is. For example, if 65.365 is rounded to hundredth
(second place after the decimal), the equivalent number is 65.36.
Suppose a student measured the diameter of a tube by using a vernier calipers of vernier constant
0.01 cm. He records four values: 2.31 cm, 2.33 cm, 2.30 cm, and 2.34 cm. Then, he calculated the
average diameter of the tube as,
2.31 + 2.33 + 2.30 + 2.35
d= 4 = 2.3225 cm
However, the measuring device, vernier calipers have the precision limit 0.01 cm. So, the
calculated value is not reasonably correct, because vernier calipers can only measure upto the value
two digits right from decimal point. So, the value must be rounded and written as 2.32 cm.
1.10 Significant Figures

In physics, there are limits to the accuracy of measurement. An experimenter who makes a
measurement must estimate its reliability. The simple way of expressing this reliability or accuracy is
by writing the proper number of digits about which we are reasonably sure. The numbers of digits in
a measurement about which we are reasonably sure are called significant figures. In another way, the
digits (figures) in a given number which can be realized are called significant figures (s.f.).
It helps us to know about the extent of uncertainty in a measurement. The number of significant
digits depends on the least count of the instrument used. But, it does not depend on the system of
units used.

For example, we suppose that the diameter of a rod is measured and its value is found to be 0.004
mm. Here we feel that 4 is a reasonable value but we are not sure of the next figure. So, we have
indicated only one significant figure.
Some rules of indicating significant figures are tabulated below. The underlined numbers are
significant.
Given Number indication
Rules Explanation
number (s.f.)
1. All non-zero digits are 123, 1 2 3 (3), All digits are non-zero
significant figures. 7697, 7 6 9 7 (4),
77554 7 7 5 5 4 (5)
2. All zeros between two 205, 2 0 5 (3), All zeros lie between non -
non-zero digits are 88005, 8 8 0 0 5 (5), zero digits. In this case,
significant figures. 25209, 2 5, 2 0 9 (5), regular zero may come
6390708 between non-zero digits, for
6 3 9 0 7 0 8 (7)
e.g. in 88005, two zeros lie
between 8 and 5, so, both are
significant.
3. All zeros to the right of 2500, 2 5 00 (2), All numbers are non-decimal
the last digit in non- 330500, 3 3 0 5 0 0 (4), and contain zeros right of the
decimal number are not 49507000 4 9 5 0 7 0 0 0 (5) last digit.
significant figures.
4. All zeros to the right of a 9277.00, 9 2 7 7. 0 0 (6), Zeros are after the decimal.
decimal point are 8782.0900 8 7 8 2 .0 9 0 0 (8)
5. All zeros to the left of 0053, 0 0 5 3 (2), Beginning zeros are omitted in
non-zero digits are not 0123, 0 1 2 3 (3), counting significant figures.
significant. 0.00092 0.0 0 0 9 2 (2)
6. Power of 10 are not 2.30 × 109, 2 .3 0 × 109 (3), We do not certain power of 10
significant. 5.624 × 10 −7 −7
5.6 2 4 × 10 (4) in significant figures.
7. Universal constants have π 22 π, c and NA are universal

π⎛= 7⎞,
infinite significant c ⎝ ⎠ constants.
figures. NA c(= 3 × 108 m/s),
NA (= 6.023 × 1023)
1.11 Algebric Operations with Significant Figures

(i) Addition and subtraction: In addition and subtraction, final result should retain as many
decimal places as there are with minimum number of decimal places in the given quantities.
Following basic rules are used in addition and subtraction.
(a) Count only the number of significant figures in the decimal portion of each number in the
problem.
(b) Add or subtract in normal fashion.
(c) Your final answer may have no more significant figures to the right of the decimal than the
LEAST number of significant figures in any number in the problem.
"In addition or subtraction, care only the number right from decimal place."
For example:
1. 2.5
+ 21.352
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
23.852 ←⎯⎯ normal addition
23.9 ←⎯⎯ addition with correct significant figures
2. 100.53
+ 1.925
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
102.455 ←⎯⎯ normal addition
102.46 ←⎯⎯ addition with correct significant figures
3. 47.912
− 9.22
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
38.692 ←⎯⎯ normal subtraction
38.69 ←⎯⎯ subtraction with correct significant figures
4. 126.72
− 56.296
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
70.424 ←⎯⎯ normal subtraction
70.42 ←⎯⎯ subtraction with correct significant figures
(ii) Multiplication and division: In multiplication or division, the final result should retain as
many significant figures as there are in the original number with the least significant figures.
Following basic rules are used in multiplication and division:
(a) Count the total number of significant of each number in the problem.
(b) Multiply or divide in normal fashion.
(c) Your final answer must have no more significant figure than the LEAST number of
significant figures in any numbers in the problem.
"In multiplication and division, care all the numbers in the problem (not only after or before the decimal
point)."
For example:
(i) 1.234
× 2.0
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
2.468 ←⎯⎯ normal multiplication
2.5 ←⎯⎯ multiplication with correct significant figures
In this example, first factor has four significant figures and the second has two significant figures.
The factor with the least number of significant figures is the second one has a total of two significant
figures. The uncertainty number is written by rounding the product.
Some more examples:

Addition or subtraction:
(a) 1 + 1.0 = 2 (b) 1.0 + 1.1 = 2.1
(c) 26.8 + 1.234 + 0.67 = 28.7 (d) 67.6 + 3.3 + 5.2 = 76.1
(e) 25.6 – 9.2 = 16.4 (f) 3.23 – 2.1 = 1.1
–19 –19 –19
(g) 1.61 × 10 – 0.40 × 10 = 1.21 × 10 (h) 15.57 × 10–7 + 12.31 × 10–7 = 27.88 × 10-7

Multiplication or division:
(a) 5.30 × 3.225 = 17.1. Here, the first term (i.e., 5.30) has only three significant figures. So, the
answer also must be in three significant figures.
(b) If any number is multiplied by pure number (not obtained from measurement), there is no
consideration of significant figures in their multiplication. For example: 2 × 4.325 = 8.650.
(c) In some truth: In the conversion of 5 minutes into seconds, 5 × 60 = 300 = 3.00 × 102 s. It
does not matter the first number (5) contains only one significant figure.
EXAMPLE 2: The diameter of a circle is 1.625 m. Calculate its area with due regard for significant figures. Given π = 3.142
SOLUTION
Here, π = 3.142 and d = 1.625 m
πd2
Now, area of the circle, A = 4
π × (1.625)2
= 4 = 2.074 m2 (rounding)
1.53 × 0.9995
EXAMPLE 3: Calculate the following with due regard for significant figures: 1.592 .
SOLUTION
1.53 × 0.9995
The ordinary calculation gives as, 1.592 = 0.9605747
However, in multiplication and division, the answer must be expression in terms of figures of
least significant figures in the given terms. In the given calculation, 1.53 has the least significant
figures (i.e., s.f. = 3). Hence, the answer also must be written in least significant figures. So, the
answer must be 0.961.
1.53 × 0.9995
i.e., 1.592 = 0.961.
Rules of most significant digits and least significant digits

(i) The left most non-zero number is the most significant digit. For examples:
(a) The number 5 is the most significant digit in number 56232.
(b) The number 6 is the most significant figure in number 0.069230.
(ii) If there is no decimal point, the right most nonzero digit is the least significant digit. For
examples:
(a) The number 5 is the least significant digit in number 9235.
(b) The number 4 is the least significant digit in number 2340.
(iii) If there is a decimal point, the rightmost digit, whether zero or non-zero, is least significant
digit. For examples:
(a) The number 6 is the least significant digit in number 2345.6.
(b) The number 0 is the least significant digit in number 52.320.
(iv) All digits including most and least significant digits are significant figures.
1.12 Types of Physical Quantities

Physical quantities can be variables or constants. They may have dimension or dimensionless. They
are categorized as follows:

Physical quantities Explanation Examples

1. Dimensional variables They don't have fixed magnitude velocity, force, workdone etc.
and have dimensions.
2. Dimensionless variables They don't have fixed magnitude angle, strain, specific gravity etc.
and have no dimensions.
3. Dimensional constant They have fixed magnitude and speed of light, gravitational
have dimensions. constant, universal gas constant
4. Dimensionless constant They have fixed magnitude but π, natural numbers
have no dimensions.
1.13 Dimensions, Dimensional Formula and Dimensional Equation

As explained previously in this chapter, the derived units are based on the seven fundamental
physical quantities. Let us consider a physical quantity "work done" and analyze them how it is
related to fundamental quantities as shown in tree diagram below.
Mass Ö Displacement Ö
Force Velocity
Workdone Acceleration Time Ö

Displacement Ö Time Ö
This shows that workdone can be expressed in mass, displacement and time. When we analyse ()
sign fundamentally in the above example, workdone is derived from mass (one time) displacement
repeats (two times) and time repeats (two times). It means workdone depends on mass,
displacement and time with different values of their powers (indices). Usually, any physical
quantities are expressed in term of power raised on basic fundamental quantities, which are called
dimensions of such quantity. Therefore, the dimensions of a physical quantity is defined as the powers
raised to the fundamental quantities which are involved in derived physical quantities.
An expression which shows how and which basic quantities are involved in the derived quantity is
called dimensional formula of that quantity. It is generally written in square bracket [ ]. An equation
obtained by equating a physical quantity with its dimensional formula is called dimensional
equation of the physical quantity.
The basic quantities with their symbols in square brackets are as follows:
[Length] = [L] [Mass] = [M] [Number of moles] = [N]
[Time] = [T] [Luminous intensity] = [J]
[Temperature] = [K] or [θ] [Electric current] = [A] or [I]
Example: In the above tree diagram, the dimension of 'workdone' is written in terms of mass, length
and time. The dimensional equation is [ML2T-2], but how? It will be explained in later part of this
chapter.
Some more examples are as follows:
displacement⎤ ⎡L⎤
(i) [Velocity] = ⎡ -1 -1
⎦ = ⎣T⎦ = [LT ] = [M LT ]
0
⎣ time
SI unit: ms-1, CGS system: cms-1

-1
velocity ⎡LT ⎤
(ii) [Acceleration] = ⎡ time ⎤ = T = [LT-2] = [M0 LT–2]
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
SI unit: ms-2, CGS system: cms-2
(iii) [Force] = [ma] = [MLT-2]
SI unit: kgms-2 which is called newton.
CGS system: gcms-2 which is called dyne.
(iv) [Area] = [length × breadth] = [L2 ]
2 -2
(v)
Q
[Specific heat capacity] = ⎡m∆T⎤ =
⎡ML T ⎤ = [M0L2T-2K-1]
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ MK ⎦
(vi) [Charge] = [current × time] = [IT]
Arbitrary Basic Quantities

Fundamental physical quantities are not universal, they are the considerations. So, we can choose a
quantity as a basic quantity in arbitrary manner. Therefore, the dimensional formula of a quantity
can be expressed in a new system having basic units different than we have assumed in the previous
part of our study. The dimensional formula of mass can be derived taking force, velocity and time as
the basic units.
EXAMPLE 4: Derive the dimension of mass considering the basic quantities as force, velocity and time.
SOLUTION
To find the dimension relation we consider, Using equation (ii) into equation (iii), we get,
mass = [M] b = –1
force = [F] and substituting a and b in equation (iv)
velocity = [V] –2 + 1 + c = 0
and time = [T]
∴ c=1
To derive the dimensional relation, we
Using the values of a, b and c in equation (i),
consider as,
we get,
[M] = [F]a [V]b [T]c …(i)
[M] = [MLT ] [LT ] [T]
–2 a –1 b c [M] = [F]1 [V]–1 [T]1
FT
[M1L0T0] = [Ma La+b T–2a–b+c] ∴ [M] = V
Comparing the dimensions of both sides, we
get, Therefore, the dimensional formula of mass
a=1 …(ii) is [FV–1T].
a+b=0 …(iii)
and –2a − b + c = 0 … (iv)
 Check Point: Considering force (F), length (L) and time (T) the fundamental quantities, express
dimensional formula of density in terms of given quantities. Ans: [FL–4T2]
Principle of homogeneity of dimension: The physical relations must obey the principle of
homogenity. According to this concept, every term in a physical relation must have the same dimension.
1 1
Suppose in physical relation, s = ut + 2 at2, there are three terms: s, ut and 2 at2. All the terms must
1
have the same dimension, i.e., [s] = [ut] = ⎡2 at2⎤ , to obey the principle of homogeneity.
⎣ ⎦
1.14 Uses of Dimensional Formula

Following are the uses of dimensional formula:
(i) To check the correctness of a physical equation: The most important requisite of physical
equation to be correct is, it must be dimensionally correct, however dimensionally correct

equation may not be physically correct. But, dimensionally incorrect equation is never correct
physically. So, a physical equation is said to be dimensionally correct if and only if dimensions
of each term on either side of an equation are same.
EXAMPLE 5: Check whether the physical equation v2 = u2 + 2as is dimensionally correct or not.
SOLUTION
Given formula,
v2 = u2 + 2as
[L.H.S.] = [v2] = [LT –1]2 = [L2T-2] … (i)
[R.H.S.] = [u2+2as] = [u2] +[2as]
= [LT-1]2 + [LT -2 L] = [L2T -2] + [L2T -2]
Since, the number ‘2’ is dimensionless,
[R.H.S.] = [L2T -2] + [L2T -2] … (ii)
From equations (i) and (ii), we have,
[L.H.S.] = [R.H.S.]
Hence, the given equation is dimensionally correct.
 Check Point: Check whether the physical equation, s = ut + at2 is dimensionally correct or not.
Ans: dimensionally correct but physically incorrect
(ii) To derive the relationship between different physical quantities: Dimensional method is also
used to derive the relationship between different physical quantities. However, this method
cannot determine the value of physical constant that arrives in the physical formula. If we want
to derive the dimensional relation of the time period of pendulum with mass of pendulum bob,
effective length of pendulum and acceleration due to gravity, following procedure (example 6)
can be done.
EXAMPLE 6: Derive the dimensional relation of time period of pendulum with mass, length and acceleration due to gravity.
SOLUTION
It is assumed that, a = 0, b + c = 0 and –2c = 1
a b c
t ∝ m l g ... (i) 1 1
∴ c = –2 and b = 2
where, t = time period of simple pendulum
l = length of pendulum Inserting these values in equation (ii), we get,
and g = acceleration due to gravity t = k m0 l1/2 g–1/2
Equation (i) becomes, l
=k g
∴ t = k ma lb gc ... (ii)
where, k is a dimensionless constant. k is experimentally found to be 2π. So, we
Writing the dimensional formula of various can write,
quantities in equation (ii), we get, l
t = 2π
[T] = [Ma][L]b [LT–2]c g
= [MaLb + c T-2c] This is the required relation. It is to be noted
Applying the principle of homogeneity of that the time period of simple pendulum
dimensions, we get, does not depend on the mass of the bob.
 Check Point: When the particle revolves in circular path the centripetal force is derived in terms of
mass, velocity and radius of the path. Find the physical formula of given physical quantities.
mv2
Ans: F =
r
(iii) To convert a unit from one system into another: The dimensional method is very useful to
convert one system of unit to another system of unit.

In the first system,
X = N1 × U1
= N1 [Ma1 Lb1 Tc1] … (1.1)
where, a, b, and c are the dimensions of mass, length, and time respectively.
In another System,
X = N2 × U2
∴ X = N2 [Ma2 Lb2 Tc2] … (1.2)
From equations (1.1) and (1.2), we get,
N1 [Ma1 Lb1 Tc1] = N2 [Ma2 Lb2 Tc2]
N1 [Ma1 Lb1 Tc1]
or, N2 =
[Ma2 L2b T2c]
M1 a L1 b T1 c
∴ N2 = N1 M  L  T  … (1.3)
 2  2  2
Using this relation, we can convert a unit from one system into another. Some conversions are
presented in the following example (example 7).
EXAMPLE 7: Convert 10 dyne into newton.
SOLUTION
Let 10 dyne = N2 newton
where, dyne is the unit of force in CGS system and newton in SI unit and dimensional formula of
force is as,
-
[Force] = [M1L1T 2]
Dimensions of force are, a = 1 in mass, b = 1 in length and c = -2 in time.
CGS System S.I. System Putting the above values in this equation,
N1 = 10 N2 = ? we get,
M1 = 1 g M2 = 1 kg 1 g 1 1 cm 1 1 s –2
N2 = 10 ⎡1 kg⎤ ⎡ 1 m ⎤ ⎡1 s⎤
L1 = 1 cm L2 = 1 m ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
T1 = 1 s T2 = 1 s 1 1 –2
= 10 ⎡ 3 ⎤ ⎡ 2 ⎤ ⎡1 s⎤
1 g 1 cm
The conversion formula, we have, is ⎣10 g⎦ ⎣10 cm⎦ ⎣1 s⎦
a b c
M L T
N2 = N1 ⎡M ⎤ ⎡L ⎤ ⎡T ⎤ = 10 × 10-3 × 10-2 × 1 = 10-4
1 1 1
⎣ 2⎦ ⎣ 2⎦ ⎣ 2⎦ Hence, 10 dyne = 10-4 newton.
 Check Point: Convert 50 erg into joule. Ans: 5 × 10−6 J
(iv) To find the dimension of constants in a physical relation: Dimensional method is very useful
to find the dimensional formula of many physical constants given in physical formula.
EXAMPLE 8: Find the dimensional formula of η (coefficient of viscosity) from the following relation,
dv
F = η A dx
dv
Where, F = viscous force, A = surface area, dx = velocity gradient
SOLUTION
From principle of homogeneity, the dimension of each term in an expression is same,
F
From given relation, η = dv ... (i)
Adx

Now, dimensional formula of F = [MLT–2]
dimensional formula of A = [L2]
dv LT–1
dimensional formula of dx = ⎡ L ⎤ = [T–1]
⎣ ⎦
Using the dimension of each quantities in equation (i), we get,
[MLT–2]
[η] = [L2] [T–1] = [ML–1T–1]
∴ Dimensional formula of η is [ML–1T–1].

 Check Point: What are the dimensional formula of constants A and B in the given equation, μ = A +
B
2 , where μ is refractive index of a medium and λ is the wavelength of a wave?
λ
Ans: A = dimensionless, [B] = [L2]
Limitations of Dimensional Formula

Some important limitations of dimensional formula are given below:
Dimensional formula is very important tool to confirm whether the newly derived equation is
physically valid or not. However, it has many limitations, they are:
i. The dimensionally correct relation may not be physically correct. The formula, v2 = u2 + as is
dimensionally correct, however, it is physically wrong. The physically correct relation is v2 = u2
+ 2as.
ii. It is very difficult to derive the dimensional relation between more than three physical
quantities.
iii. The value of dimensionless quantity and constants appearing in a physical equation cannot be
determined by this method.
iv. Dimensional method is not appropriate for trigonometric, exponential and logarithmic
functions.
v. This method can’t be used to derive the physical formula that involves addition or subtraction
operator between two or more terms.
Table of Units and Dimensions of Physical Quantities

Fundamental Physical SI Unit of Physical
S. No. Dimensional Formula
Quantity Quantity
1. Mass [M] kilogram
2. Length [L] metre
3. Time [T] second
4. Temperature [K] or [θ] kelvin
5. Electric current [I] or [A] ampere
6. Amount of substance [N] mole(mol)
7. Luminous intensity [J] candela(cd)
Derived Physical Quantities

Relation with other
S. No. Physical Quantity Dimensional Formula SI Unit
Physical Quantities
0 2 0
1. Area length × breadth [M L T ] m2
0 3 0
2. Volume length × breadth× height [M L T ] m3
mass
3. Density
volume [M1 L–3 T0] kg m–3

distance
4. Speed or velocity
time [M0 L1 T–1] m s–1
velocity
5. Acceleration
time [M0 L1 T–2] m s–2
6. Momentum mass × velocity [M1 L1 T–1] kg m s–1

7. Force mass × acceleration [M1 L1 T–2] N (newton)
force N m–2 or
8. Pressure
area [M1 L–1 T–2]
Pa(pascal)
9. Work force × displacement [M1 L2 T–2] J (joule)
Energy (mechanical,
10. work [M1 L2 T–2] J
heat, light, etc.)
work
11. Power
time [M1 L2 T–3] W (watt)
Gravitational constant force × (distance)2

12.
(mass)2 [M–1 L3 T–2] N m2 kg–2
(G)
13. Impulse force × time [M1 L1 T–1] Ns
force
14. Surface tension
length [M1 L0 T–2] N m–1
Coefficient force Nsm–2 or daP

15.
area × velocity gradient [M1 L–1 T–1]
of viscosity (decapoise)
arc
16. Angle Dimensionless rad
radius
17. Moment of inertia mass × (distance)2 [M1 L2 T0] kg m2
moment of inertia ×
18. Angular momentum [M1 L2 T–1] kg m2 s–1
angular velocity
force × perpendicular
19. Torque or couple [M1 L2 T–2] Nm
distance
1
20. Frequency
second [T–1] Hz
energy
21. Specific heat
mass × temperature [M0 L2 T–2 K–1] J kg–1 °C–1
energy
22. Latent heat
mass [M0 L2 T–2] J kg–1
Q
23. Entropy [M1 L2 T–2 K–1] JK–1
θ
PV
24. Gas constant (R)
nT [M1 L2 T–2 N–1K–1] J mol–1 K–1
Coefficient of thermal Qx
25.
A(θ2 – θ1)t [M1 L1 T–3 K–1] Wm–1K–1
conductivity
26. Magnetic moment [M0 L2 T0 I1] Ampm2

Magnetic field, μo I dl sin θ J

27. magnetic flux density B= [M1 T–2 I–1] Tesla, Am2
4π r2
(B)
28. Magnetic susceptibility χm = μr –1 [M0 L0 T0] no units
amp sec or
29. Electric charge I×t [M0 L0 T1 I1]
coulomb
work
30. Electric potential
charge [M1 L2 T–3 I–1] volt
work
31. Electromotive force
charge [M1 L2 T–3 I–1] volt
q
32. Electric capacity
V [M–1 L–2 T4 I2] farad
V ohm (Ω) or
33. Electric resistance
I [M1 L2 T–3 I–2]
volt/amp
RA
34. Resistivity (ρ)
L [M1 L3 T–3 I–2] ohm m (Ω-m)
35. Permittivity (ε) ε = εrε0 = (1 + χ) ε0 [M–1 L–3 T4 I2] farad/m

dI weber/amp or
36. Self Inductance (L) V = L dt [M1 L2 T–2 I–2]
henry
energy
37. Boltzmann's constant
temperature [M1 L2 T–2 K–1] J/K
Q
38. Stefan's constant
Atθ4 [M1 L0 T–3 K–4] Wm–2K–4
39. Planck's constant E = hf [M1 L2 T–1] J.s (or) eV.s

The reciprocal of the
focal length of a lens in
40. Power of lens (P) metres is called power [L–1] dioptre
1
of a lens; P = f
Tips for MCQs
Quantitative Tips
1. Relation between different types of units:
(i) Distance (ii) Volume
1 inch = 2.54 cm 1 litre = 1000 cm3 = 10–3 m3
12 inch = 1 foot 1 gallon = 3.788 litre
3 feet = 1 yard
5280 feet = 1 mile
1760 yard = 1 mile
1 mile = 1.609 km
1 AU = 1.5 × 1011 m (AU = Astronomical unit)
1 light year = 9.5 × 1015 m
1 Parsec = 3.26 light year (Parsec = parallactic second)
2. To find the numerical value of a system using another system of units, we use,
M 1 a L 1 b T1 c
N2 = N1 ⎡M ⎤ ⎡L ⎤ ⎡T ⎤
⎣ 2⎦ ⎣ 2⎦ ⎣ 2⎦
Conceptual Tips
1. Physics is the subject of measurement. It deals about the laws of nature. It does not create the law,
rather it studies the law of nature.
2. In addition and subtraction, the digits right from the decimal point are taken into consideration for
3. In multiplication and division, all digits are taken into consideration for significant figures.
4. The value of physical quantity is the product of a numerical value N and the unit (U). If N1 and N2
are the numerical value of a given physical quantity and U1 and U2 be the units respectively in two
different systems of units, then N1U1 = N2U2.
5. Physics and technology are related to each other. Sometimes technology gives rise to new physics; at
other time physics generates new technology. Both have direct impact on society.
Quick Reply
1. How many significant figures are there in the following numbers: (i) 230 (ii) 552 (iii) 2.05 (iv) 129.000
(v) 7042 (vi) 0.0023 (vii) 5.90 × 107
 The corresponding significant figures are as:
(i) 230 (2 s.f.) (ii) 552 (3 s.f.) (iii) 2.05 (3 s.f.) (iv) 129.000 (6 s.f.)
(v) 7042 (4 s.f.) (vi) 0.0023 (2 s.f.) (vii) 5.90 × 107 (3 s.f.)
2. Is dimensionally correct equation necessarily physically correct? What about dimensionally wrong
equation?
 No. An equation dimensionally correct needs not be physically correct but the converse must be true.
For example,
s = 2ut + at2
This equation is dimensionally correct but it is not physically correct. However, dimensionally wrong
equation are never physically correct.
3. What is the dimension of constant a in equation v = ax2, where v is velocity and x is displacement?
 In equation v = ax2
Dimension of v = [LT–1]
Dimension of x = [L]
[v] [LT–1]
∴ [a] = [x2] = [L2] = [L–1T–1]
∴ Dimension of a is [L–1T–1].
4. What is order of magnitude in physics?
 The order of magnitude of a number is the power of ten closest to that number. For example, the
order of magnitude of Avogadro number is 1023, although its accurate value is 6.023 × 1023.
Review of Theoretical Concepts

1. What type of observations are the most reliable observation?
 To be most trusted observation, the measurements must be highly precised and highly accurate. If
the value is accurate but not precise, the measurement is not reliable. This may be the coincidence of
accuracy. On the other hand, more precised and less accurate value is, obviously, deviated from the
true value.

2. Kamal has written observations of length of a cylinder as 7.231 cm, 7.17 cm, 6.955 cm, 6.962 cm, and
7.13 cm by using vernier callipers of vernier constant 0.01 cm. Did he write the observations
correctly?
 Here, the vernier constant of vernier callipers is 0.01 cm. It means the uncertainty of the observations
lies on two digit right from the decimal. However, in many observations, Kamal has written
uncertainty number in three digits right from the decimal. Hence, he didn't write the observations
correctly.
h
3. Find the dimensions of Planck's constant 'h' from the given equation: λ = p ; where λ is wavelength
and p is the momentum of photon.
h
 The formula for Planck's constant is given as λ = p or, h = λp, where λ is wavelength and p is
momentum. Here,
[λ] = [L]
[p] = [M L T–1]
[h] = [λp] = [λ] [p]
[h] = [L] [M L T–1] = [M L2 T-1]
∴ Dimensions of Planck's constant (h) are 1 on M, 2 on L and – 1 on T and the dimension formula is
[M L2 T-1].
4. Taking force, length and time to be fundamental quantities, find the dimensional formula for the
density.
 Dimension of density (ρ):
Mass Force F
Since, ρ = Volume = Acceleration × Volume = a × V
[F] = [F]
[a] = [LT-2]
[V] = [L3]
[F]
[ρ] = [LT–2 ] [L3 ] = [FL–4 T2]
Hence, the dimensions of ρ are 1 in F, –4 in L and 2 in T and the dimensional formula is [FL–4 T2].
5. Find the dimensions of the constants a and b in the Van der Waal’s equation of state of a real gas
⎛P + a2⎞ (V – b) = RT, Where, P = pressure, V = Volume, R = universal gas constant, T = absolute
⎝ V⎠
temperature.
 Using principle of homogeneity of
or, ⎡Force ⎤ = ⎡ a6⎤
dimensions, we have ⎣ Area ⎦ ⎣L ⎦
a
[P] = ⎡V2⎤ and [V] = [b] ⎡M L2T ⎤ = ⎡ a6⎤
1 1 –2
⎣ ⎦ or,
⎣ L ⎦ ⎣L ⎦
Therefore, or, [M1L–1T–2 × L6] = [a]
3
[b] = [V] = [L ] ∴ [a] = [M1L5T-2]
a Therefore, the dimensional formula of a is [M1L5T−2]
Also, [P] = ⎡V2⎤
⎣ ⎦ and dimensional formula of b is [L3].
6. Write the dimensions of dimensional variables ω and k in the following equation. y = a sin (ωt – kx)
where t and x are time and distance respectively.
 The given formula is, 1
[ω] = ⎡ t ⎤ = [T–1]
y = a sin (ωt – kx) ⎣⎦
Since, the trigonometric ratios are and [kx] = [1]
dimensionless and so, their argument in total. 1
[k] = ⎡x⎤ = [L–1]
[ωt] = [1] ⎣⎦
Worked Out Problems

1. Add or subtract with correct significant figures.
(i) 2.1 + 5.2 (ii) 3.52 + 8.1 (iii) 76.6 + 2.3 + 4.2
−19 −19
(iv) 37.2 − 8.2 (v) 2.61 × 10 1.4 × 10
SOLUTION
(i) 2.1 (ii) 3.52
+ 5.2 8.1
⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
7.3 11.62 ← normal addition
11.6 ← addition with correct significant figures
(iii) 76.6 (iv) 37.2
2.3 − 8.2
+ 4.2 ⎯⎯⎯⎯
⎯⎯⎯⎯ 29.0
83.1
(v) 2.61 × 10−19
− 1.4 × 10−19
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
1.21 × 10−−19 ← normal subtraction
1.2 × 10 19 ← subtraction with correct significant figures
2. Find the value of 60 joule/minute on a system which has 100 g, 100 cm, and 1 minute as fundamental
units.
SOLUTION
In the given value, 60 joule/minute, time is L1 = 1 m L2 = 100 cm
written in two different systems; minute and T1 = 1 s T2 = 1 min.
second (lies in joule, 1 J = 1 kg m2s−2). So, first Now, we have,
of all, we express both systems in same
M1 a b
⎡L1⎤ ⎡T1⎤
c
system. To do so, we express minute into N 2 = N 1 ⎡M ⎤
second (s). Therefore,
⎣ 2⎦ ⎣L2⎦ ⎣T2⎦
1 kg 1 1 m 2 1 s −3
60 kg m2 s−2 = 1⎡100 g⎤ ⎡100 cm⎤ ⎡1 min.⎤
60 J/min. = min. ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
1000 g 2 −3
=
60 kg m2 s−2
= 1 kg m2 s−3 = 1⎡ 100 g ⎤ ⎡100 cm⎤ ⎡1/60 min.⎤
60 s ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ 100 cm⎦ ⎣ 1 min. ⎦
The dimensional formula of this quantity is = 10 × 1 × (60)3
[ML2T−3]. So, we can write, a = 1, b = 2 and c = 2.16 × 106
= −3. Therefore, the magnitude in fundamental
Given system fundamental system system is 2.16 × 106.
N1 = 1 N2 = ?
M1 = 1 kg M2 = 100 g
3. A sphere of radius 'r' moving through a fluid with velocity 'v' experiences a retarding force 'F' given
by F = Krxρyvz, where K is non-dimensional coefficient, ρ is density of the material of sphere. Use the
dimensional method to find the value of x, y and z.
SOLUTION
The given equation is,
F = Krxρyvz ...(i)
Writing dimensions of quantities in equation (i),
x y z
[MLT−2] = [L] [ML−3] [LT−1]

or, [MLT−2] = [Lx−3y+z My T−z] and, −z = −2

or, −2
[MLT ] = [My Lx−3y+z T−z] ∴ z=2
Equating the powers of M, L and T, Also, x − 3 × 1 + 2 = 1
we get, x−1=1
y=1 x=2
or, x − 3y + z = 1 ∴ The value of x = 2, y = 1, z = 2.
Numerical for Practice

1. Starting with the definition, 1 in = 2.54 cm, find the number of kilometers in 1.00 miles. Ans: 1.61 km
2. How many nanoseconds does it take for light to travel 1.00 km in vacuum? Ans: 3.34 × 103 ns
3. The most powerful engine available for the classic 1963 chevrolet corvette sting ray developed 360
horsepower and had a displacement of 327 cubic inches. Express this displacement in litres (L) by
using only the conversion 1L = 1000 cm3 and 1 in = 2.54 cm. Ans: 5.36 L
4. The Concorde is the fastest airliner used for the commercial purpose. It cruises at 1450 mi/h. (a)
What is the cruise speed of the Concorde in km/h? (b) What is it in m/s? Ans: 2330 km/h, 648 ms–1
5. The gasoline consumption of a small carisadvertise is 15.0 km/L. How many miles per gallon is this?
Ans: 35.3 mil/gallon
Exercise
Very Short Questions
1. Write the following factors of unit into SI unit:
(i) 1 μm (ii) 1 pm (iii) 1 mm (iv) 1 fs (v) 1 ps
2. Write the correct significant figures of the numbers 2031, 00.005, 2.305, 52000, 9.1 × 10−31
3. Define dimensions of a physical quantity.
4. Give dimensional formula for force, potential difference and specific heat capacity.
5. Write the following units in SI system.
(a) 1 μs (b) 1 ps (c) 1 nm (d) 1 fm
6. Can two or more than two quantities have the same dimensions?
7. Is dimensionally correct equation necessarily physically correct? What about dimensionally wrong
equation?
8. Can there be a physical quantity which has no unit and dimension? Can a quantity have a unit
without dimensions?
9. Express 72 km/h into ms–1.
10. The density of mercury is 13600 kgm–3. Express it in g cm–3.
11. What is the difference between mN, Nm and nm?
12. What is light year?
13. What is the significant figure in 3.75 × 10–7?
14. What types of data are considered as most reliable?
15. Can a physical quantity have different dimensions in different system of units?
16. If we write the dimension of equation, v = u + at, the dimension is, [LT–1] = [LT–1] + [LT–1]. How can
you justify, two same dimension added in RHS is equal to dimension in LHS?

Short Questions
1. What is the difference between accurate and precise measurement?
2. If y = a + bt + ct2, where y is the distance and t is the time. What is the dimension and unit of c?
3. Write dimensional formula of gravitational constant and latent heat.
4. Check the correctness of the formula v2 = u2 + 2as using dimensional analysis.
5. The escape velocity of a body is ve = 2gr . Check the correctness of the formula using dimension.
6. In the equation y = Aeαt; y is displacement and t is time. Find the dimension of α.
7. Find the solid angle made by a part of surface 2 cm2 of a sphere of radius 4 cm.
8. Can more precised observations be more accurate?
9. The diameter of a steel rod is given as 56.47 ± 0.02 mm. What does it mean?
2T cos θ
10. Check the correctness of the relation h = , where symbols have usual meaning.
rρg
11. Obtain dimensions of specific heat capacity and gravitational constant.
R
12. A student writes 2GM for escape velocity. Check the correctness of the formula by using
dimensional analysis.
13. Check the correctness of formula t = 2π m/k where t be the time period, m is the mass and k is the
force per unit displacement.
14. Write the dimensions of dimensional variables ω and k in the following equation. y = a sin (ωt – kx)
where t and x are time and distance respectively.
15. In one of the printed documents the unit of universal gravitational constant is given as Nmkg–2.
Check its correctness from dimensional analysis.
16. The force F is given in term of time (t) and the displacement (x) by the equation
D A
F = A cos Bx + C sin Dt. Find the dimensions of B and C .
Long Questions
1. Define dimensions of physical quantities. Explain the uses of dimensions.
2. The viscous force depends on the coefficient of viscosity, radius of sphere and terminal velocity. Find
the expression for the viscous force. Given that the value of dimensionless constant is 6π.
3. The centripetal force depends on the mass of body, angular velocity and radius of circular path. Find
the expression for the centripetal force.
4. The time period of a bob of a simple pendulum depends on the length of the pendulum, mass of bob,
and acceleration due to gravity. Find their relation dimensionally.
Self Practice Numerical Problems

1. Add 17.35 g, 25.6 g and 8.498 g. Ans: 51.5 g
2. Subtract 50.9 m from 59.51 m. Ans: 8.6 m
3. Multiply 4.8 and 0.255 with correct significant figures. Ans: 1.2
4. Convert 10 erg into joule.
4 Ans: 10–3 J
5. The density of mercury is 13.6 g/cm . What is this value in kg/m ?
3 3 Ans: 13600 kg/m3
6. Find the value of 10 joule/minute on a system which has 100 g, 10 cm and 1 min as fundamental
units. Ans: 3.6 × 107
7. In CGS system, the value of Stefan’s constant σ is 5.67 × 10 erg s cm K . Write down its value in
–5 –1 –2 –4
international system of units. Ans: 5.67 × 10–8 J s–1 m–2 K–4

8. The value of plank’s constant in SI is 6.62 × 10–34 kg m2 s–1. Write down its value in CGS system.
Ans: 6.62 × 10 – 2 g cm 2 s – 1
9. Find the value of 100 J in a system based upon cm, kg and min as fundamental units.
Ans: 36 × 10 8 units
10. Convert a velocity of 72 km/h with the help of dimensional analysis. Ans: 20 m/s

11. A student writes an expression of the force causing a body of mass (m) to move in a circular motion
with a velocity (v) as F = mv2. Use the dimensional method to check its correctness.
Ans: dimensionally correct
12. Convert 10 erg in joule. Ans: 10 erg = 10–6 J
13. Check the correction of the equation, the height h through which a liquid rises in a capillary tube is
2T cos θ
given by h = . Ans: dimensionally correct
rρg
14. Multiply or divide with correct significant figures.
22.7
(i) 1.6105 × 2.90 × 5.5 (ii) 8.1 Ans: 2.8
15. Assuming that frequency (n) of a vibrating string depend upon load applied (T), length of string (l)
1 T
and mass per length (m), prove that: n = 2l m
Multiple Choice Questions

1. The dimensional formula of angular momentum are
a. MLT-1 b. ML2T-1
c. ML-1T d. MLT2
2. The dimensional formula of torque is
a. ML2T–2 b. MLT-1
c. M2L2T-1 d. M0L2T-1
3. The unit of relative permittivity is
a. Farad b. Farad/meter
c. Henry/meter d. Unit less
4. Planck's constant has the dimensions of
a. Energy b. Mass
c. Frequency d. Angular momentum
5. The strength of electric repulsion between electrons is larger than the gravitational attraction between
them by an order of
a. 1042 b. 1039
c. 1036 d. 109
6. Which of the following have same dimension?
a. power and energy b. linear momentum and torque
c. linear momentum and impulse d. torque and power
7. The unit of ∈0, the absolute permittivity of free space is
a. CV-1 m-1 b. CA-1 m-1
c. C-2 m d. F1m
8. "Light year" is the unit of
a. Length b. Velocity
c. Time d. Momentum
ANSWERS
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (d) 5. (b) 6. (c) 7. (a) 8. (a)


VECTORS
2.1 Introduction
In the pervious chapter, we discussed that a physical quantity is measured by a numerical value
assigned with a proper unit, called the magnitude of the quantity. In physics, we come across many
physical quantities that are not completely defined by magnitude but also are required to be
specified with positions in space measured with respect to fixed origin, which we usually call
direction. For example, a police team is deployed to catch a bank robber. The security guard at bank
informed the police that the robber is on a bike whose speed is nearly 60 km/h. With this
information only, there is much less chance of the robber being caught. But, if the guard had given
the direction in which the thief flew along with this speed, the police would catch him by moving
along the same direction with a greater speed. To describe such situations, we require physical
quantities assigned with direction in addition to the magnitude. These quantities which require both
magnitude and direction for their complete specification are called vectors. All physical quantities
can be broadly classified into two categories: scalar quantity and vector quantity.
2.2 Scalar Quantity

The physical quantities which have magnitude but not direction are called scalar quantities or scalars. The
magnitudes of such physical quantities are specified by a numerical value with unit. For example, 10
kg mass and 25ºC temperature are sufficient to specify the mass and temperature respectively, but
not the directions associated with them. Some examples of scalars are: distance, speed, mass, time,
density, energy, temperature, volume, pressure, electric charge, gravitational potential and electric
potential, etc.
2.3 Vector Quantity

The physical quantities which possesses magnitude as well as direction are called vector
quantities or vectors. A vector is graphically represented by a straight line with
arrow at one end. The direction of arrow represents the direction of the vector
and length of the line represents the magnitude of the vector. A vector is Fig.2.1: A vector
represented in Fig. 2.1.
If a body starts moving from O and reaches to A after a certain time, the displacement is represented
by the directed line segment OA.
Length of OA = | OA | = magnitude of displacement

Some examples of vectors are: displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, area, weight, electric field,
magnetic field, gravitational field, momentum, torque, etc.
There are several types of vectors:
Types Definition Figure
Any vector of unit magnitude is called unit
vector. If A is a vector, its unit vector is
^ This A
represented by A. ^ is read as (A cap or A A
^
A
i. Unit vector hat). Unit vector of A is written as,

^ A
A= 
| A|
Any vector which has direction but no
magnitude (i.e., magnitude is zero) is known as
ii. Null vector
null vector. The initial point and terminal point
of a unit vector coincide (i.e., same).
Those vectors whose initial points are same, such A
iii. Co-initial  
vectors are called co-initial vectors. OA , OB ,
O B
vectors 
and OC are co-initial vectors.
C
Those vectors whose end points are same, such A
 
iv. Co-terminal vectors are called co-terminal vectors. AP , BP ,
 B P
vectors and CP are co-terminal vectors.
C
Two or more vectors that have equal magnitudes A
v. Equal and same direction are called equal vectors. B
vectors C
Negative vector of a given vector has the same A

vi. Negative
vector magnitude but the opposite direction.
–A
Two or more vectors lying on the same plane are
called as coplanar vectors.
vii. Coplanar A
B
C
vectors
Two or more vectors are said to be collinear

viii. Collinear A
vectors, when they are along the same lines or
vectors B
parallel lines or antiparallel lines.
The vectors having same direction, irrespective of A A
ix. Like and B B
their magnitude, are known as like vectors and
Unlike
those having opposite directions with respect to
vectors Like Vectors Unlike Vectors
each other are called as unlike vectors.

Vectors | Chapter 2 | 29
Difference between Scalars and Vectors

Scalars Vectors
1. The physical quantities which have only 1. The physical quantities which have
magnitude are known as scalars. magnitude as well as direction are known
as vectors.
2. Scalar quantities explain one-dimensional 2. Vector quantities can explain multi-
quantities. dimensional quantities.
3. Scalar quantity changes only when there is 3. Vector quantity changes with the change
a change in its magnitude. in magnitude, direction or both.
4. Ordinary rules of algebra are followed by 4. Vector quantities obey the vector algebra
scalar quantities. rules.
5. Scalar quantities can be divided by scalars. 5. Vector quantities can not be divided by
B vectors.
For example A = m is valid,
→
A
where all A, B and m are scalar quantities. For example, → is invalid.
B
Y
Position Vector P (x, y)
A vector which defines the position of a point with reference to the origin of the →
r
coordinate system is called position vector.
The straight line drawn from the origin O to the point P is called the position
θ X
vector for a particle at P. O is the reference point in the plane with respect to O
→ → Fig. 2.2: Position vector
which other positions can be measured. A position vector (OP = r ) in two
dimensional plane can be as shown in Fig. 2.2.
2.4 Addition of Vectors

Vector addition is the operation of adding two or more vectors together to find a resultant (result).
Vector addition of two or more physical quantities is influenced by the direction of such quantities at
the position of combination. It is denoted by 'plus' sign.
Vector Addition Scheme:
→ →
To add B to A
B
A
→ → (iii) Draw an arrow from the

(i) Draw A (ii) Place the tail of B at
→ →
→ tail of A to the top of B .
A
the tip of A .
→ →
A This is vector A + B .
B
A B
A+
B

     
The addition of three vectors A, B and C are represented by A + B + C. In the vector addition
  
representation, the addition appears as direct addition, like. A + B + C, however you should be
  
careful that the addition is always influenced by direction. You always think why, A + B + C, A + B
+ C? May not be equal to. There are two rules in vector addition of two vectors: (i) triangle law of
vector addition and (ii) parallelogram law of vector addition. Whatever the rules used, the resultant
will be the same. The vector addition is also called the composition of vectors. For more than two
vectors, polygon law of vector addition is used.
2.5 Triangle Law of Vector Addition

This law states that, "If two vectors acting simultaneously at a point are represented both in magnitude and
direction by two sides of a triangle taken in the same order, the third side of the triangle taken in opposite order
represents the magnitude and direction of resultant vector".
Analytical Treatment of Triangle Law of vector addition

→ →
Let A and B be two vectors acting simultaneously on a particle, represented by sides OP and PQ of
→ →
a triangle OPQ as shown in Fig. 2.3(ii). Let θ be the angle between these vectors A and B . The
→ → →
vector R represents the magnitude and direction of resultant of vectors A and B .
B Q
R
B
q b q
A O
P N
(i) A
(ii)
Fig. 2.3: Addition of two vectors using triangle law
Magnitude
To find magnitude, we draw perpendicular QN from Q to meet the line OP at point N when
produced.
In right angled triangle PNQ,
PN PN
cos θ = PQ = B
∴ PN = B cos θ … (2.1)
QN QN
sin θ = PQ = B
∴ QN = B sin θ … (2.2)
In right angled ΔQNO,
OQ2 = ON2+ QN2 = (OP + PN)2 + QN2
∴ OQ2 = OP2 + PN2 + 2 OP. PN + QN2 … (2.3)
→ → →
From Fig. 2.3, in right angled triangle QNO, OQ = | R |, OP = | A | and PQ = | B |
Now, by using equation (2.1) and (2.2), equation (2.3) can now be written as,
R2 = A2+ B2 cos2 θ + 2AB cos θ + B2 sin2 θ
= A2 + B2 (cos2 θ + sin2 θ) + 2AB cos θ
= A2 + B2 + 2AB cos θ
R = A2 + B2 + 2AB cos θ … (2.4)
→ →
This gives the magnitude of the resultant of vectors A and B .
Direction
→ →
Let the resultant R makes angle β with vector A .
In right angled triangle QNO,
QN QN
tan β = ON = OP + PN
Since, OP = A, PN = B cos θ and QN = B sin θ
Then, we get,
B sin θ
tan β =
A + B cos θ
B sin θ ⎞
∴ β = tan–1 ⎛ … (2.5)
⎝A + B cos θ⎠
→ → → →
This gives the direction of resultant R of vectors A and B with A .
2.6 Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition

This law states that, "If the two vectors acting simultaneously at a point are represented both in magnitude
and direction by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram drawn from a point, then their resultant is
represented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram passing through that point."
Analytical treatment of parallelogram law of vector addition

→ →
Suppose, two vectors A and B inclined to each other
S A Q
at angle θ are represented in magnitude and direction
by the sides OP and OS of the parallelogram OPQS as
shown in Fig. 2.4. R
B B
According to the parallelogram law of vector addition,
the diagonal OQ of the parallelogram OPQS q b q
→ → O
A P N
represents the resultant of A and B both in
Fig. 2.4: Parallelogram law of vector addition
magnitude and direction.
Magnitude
A perpendicular QN is drawn from Q to meet the line OP at point N when produced.
From right angled triangle QNP
PN PN
cos θ = PQ = B
∴ PN = B cos θ … (2.6)
QN QN
sin θ = PQ = B
∴QN = B sin θ … (2.7)

OQ2 = ON2+ QN2

∴ OQ2 = (OP + PN)2 + QN2
= OP2 + PN2+ 2 OP. PN + QN2 … (2.8)
→ → →
From right angled ΔONQ, OQ = | R | = R, OP = | A |= A and PQ = | B |= B
Therefore, by using equation (2.6) and (2.7), equation (2.8) can be written as,
R2 =A2 + B2 cos2 θ + 2AB cos θ + B2 sin2 θ
= A2 + B2 (cos2 θ + sin2 θ) + 2AB cos θ
= A2 + B2 + 2AB cos θ
R = A2 + B2 + 2AB cos θ … (2.9)
→ →
This gives the magnitude of the resultant of vectors A and B .
Direction
→ →
We suppose the resultant R makes angle β with vector A .
QN QN
tan β = ON = OP + PN … (2.10)
Since, OP = A and PN = B cos θ and QN = B sin θ

From equation (2.10), we get,
B sin θ
∴ tan β = … (2.11)
A + B cos θ
→ →
This gives the direction of resultant R of vectors A and B .
It is to be noted that triangle law and parallelogram law of vector addition are solely the alternative
methods.
Special Cases
Case A: When θ = 0 i.e., when two vectors act parallel, we have,
R = A2 + B2 + 2AB cos 0°
= A2 + B2 + 2AB
= (A + B)2
∴ R =A+B
B sin 0° B (0)
and, tan β = = =0
A + B cos 0° A + B(1)
or β = 0°
Thus, when two vectors act along the same direction (θ = 0°), the resultant has magnitude equal to
→ →
the sum of magnitude of two vectors and acts along the direction of A and B .
Case B: When θ = 90° i.e., when two vectors act perpendicularly. Under this condition, we have,
R = A2 + B2 + 2AB Cos 90°
= A2 + B 2
B sin 90° B(1) B
and, tan β = = =
A + B cos 90° A + B(0) A
B
The direction of R is β = tan–1 ⎛A⎞
¤
⎝ ⎠
Case C: When θ = 180° i.e., when two vectors act anti-parallel.
R = A2 + B2 + 2AB cos 180°
= A2 + B2 + 2AB (–1)
= A2 + B2 – 2AB = (A – B)2
∴ R = ± (A – B)
So, R = (A – B) or (B – A)
A sin 180° B (0)
and, tan β = = A + B (–1) = 0
A + B cos 180°
or, tan β = tan 0° or tan 180°
or, β = 0° or 180°
So, when two vectors act along opposite direction (θ = 180°), the resultant has magnitude equal to the
→ →
difference of their magnitudes and acts along the direction of A (for β = 0) or the direction of B (for
β = 180°).
Note: The magnitude of resultant of two vectors is maximum when they act along the same direction and minimum
when they act along opposite direction.
EXAMPLE 1: A vector of magnitude 12 units is added to another vector of 14 units at an angle of 30º to each other.
Calculate the magnitude and direction of resultant vector.
SOLUTION
→ →
Let A and B be the two given vectors. Then, we are given,
A = 12 units
B = 14 units
Angle (θ) = 30º
Resultant magnitude (R) = ?
Direction (β) = ?
We have,
R = A2 + B2 + 2AB cos θ
= (12)2 + (14)2 + 2 × 12 × 14 cos 30º = 25.12 units
The direction of resultant vector,
B sin θ ⎞ 14 sin 30º ⎞
β = tan–1 ⎛ –1⎛
⎝A + B cos θ⎠ = tan ⎝12 + 14 cos 30º⎠
β = 16.18º
 Check Point:
a. Two forces 10 N and 15 N are applied anti-parallel in a plane. What is the magnitude and
direction of resultant force?
b. Two forces 25 N and 15 N are applied at an angle 60º to each other for a body. Now, find out
the magnitude and direction of resultant force.
Ans: a. 5 N along the direction of 15 N; b. 35 N, 21.78º
2.7 Subtraction of Vectors

 
Subtraction of vectors is just special case of addition of vectors. Subtraction of two vectors A and B
   
is represented by A – B . The vector A – B is also written as,
   
A – B = A + (– B )
Vector Subtraction Scheme:
 
To subtract B from A
B
A
  (iii) Draw an arrow from the

(i) Draw A (ii) Place the tail of − B
  
A at the tip of A. tail of A to the tip of − B .
 
This is vector A − B .
–B
–B
–B
A
A
A
Q
 
Let A and B be two vectors originating at point O as shown in Fig. 2.5.
 
If from point O, a negative vector of B is drawn and is denoted by – B .
B
Then, we can apply parallelogram law as,
q
  A
Here, OP = A P
 
OQ = B R=A–B
–B
 
OS = – B
 
OT = R S T
Fig. 2.5: Subtraction of vectors
2.8 Polygon Law of Vector Addition

Polygon law of vector addition states that, "if a number of vectors acting simultaneously at a point are
represented completely by the sides of a polygon taken in a order, then their resultant is fully represented by the
closing side of the polygon taken in opposite order."
Polygon law is an extension of earlier two laws of vector addition. It is successive application of
 
triangle law for more than two vectors. A pair of vectors A and B is added in accordance with
  
triangle law. The resultant vector A + B is then added to third vector C. Again, successively all
vectors are added obeying the similar process, as shown in Fig. 2.6.
Z
C B
D C
C
W Y
B +
D
A +
C+
A B
+
O A
B +
B
A +
O X
D A
(i) (ii)
Fig. 2.6: Polygon law of vector addition
Proof:
   
Consider four vectors A, B , C and D which are to be added to find the resultant vector as shown in
Fig. 2.6 (i). In such situation, these vectors are added forming a polygon as shown in Fig. 2.6 (ii).

 
Here, OX = A
 
XY = B
 
YZ = C
 
ZW = D
 
OW = R
Applying the triangle law, we have,
  
OY = OX + XY
Also,
  
OZ = OY + YZ
  
= OX + XY + YZ
  
=A+B+C
Then,
  
OW = OZ + ZW
   
= OX + XY + YZ + ZW
    
R =A+B +C+D … (2.12)
    
Here, R is the resultant of vectors A, B , C, and D.
Properties of Vector Addition

→ → →
(i) Vector addition follows commutative law. If A , B , C are three vectors, then
→ → → → → → → → →
A+ B +C=C+A+ B = B +A+C
(ii) Vector addition follows distributive law.
→ → → → → →
m ( A + B + C ) = m A + m B +m C
where m is a scalar
(iii) Vector addition follows associative law.
→ → → → → →
(A + B ) + C = A + ( B + C )
Unit vector
A unit vector is a vector which has a magnitude of 1. It is usually used to represent the direction of a
vector. In order to make the calculation easier, a vector is written in terms of its magnitude and unit
→ ^ ^
vector as r = rr, where r represents the magnitude and r represents the direction (a unit vector). A
unit vector is represented with a cap or a hat on top of it.
Unit vector has magnitude unity. It is determined by dividing a vector by its magnitude. i.e,
→
^ A
A=
→
|A|
→ ^ ^ ^
For A = i Ax + j Ay + k Az
→ 2 2 2
and | A | = Ax + Ay + Az

^
The unit vector (A) is,
^ ^ ^
^ i Ax + j Ay + k Az
A= 2 2 2
Ax + Ay + Az
^ ^ ^
EXAMPLE 2: Find the unit vector of 3 i + 4 j – k.
SOLUTION
 
Let A = 3 î + 4 ^j – ^
k | A| = 9 + 16 + 1 = 26 units
 Now,
Comparing with A = Ax î + Ay ^j + Az ^
k,
Ax = 3¸ Ay = 4 and Az = –1
¤ ∧ ∧ ∧
∧ A 3i + 4 j – k
Also, A =  =
| A| 26

| A | = A2x + Ay2 + A2z 3 ^ 4 ^ 1 ^
= i + j – k
 26 26 26
| A | = 32 + 42 + (–1)2
∧ ∧ ∧
 Check Point: Find the unit vector of a vector i – 2 j + 3k .
1 ∧ 2 ∧ 3 ∧
Ans: i – j + k
14 14 m
2.9 Resolution of Vectors

Components of Vectors
Y P
Consider a cable car traveling along an inclined cable making an angle θ
with the x-axis as shown in Fig. 2.7. Suppose the car travels from a pole
at point O to another pole at point P in time t. In such condition, the car
OP sin q
travels a certain distance (OP cos θ) along x-axis and a certain distance
(OP sin θ) along y-axis. These two distances OP cos θ and OP sin θ along
x-axis and along y-axis respectively are called the components of the q
→ O OP cos q X
vector OP . A vector can also be resolved into three or more directions.
Fig. 2.7: Resolution of vectors
A vector can be broken into two or more parts, in which the sum of their
parts does not alter the value of the original vector. These parts of a vector are called its components.
In a plane, a single vector can be changed in an equivalent set of two component vectors at right
angle to each other. The process of determining the components of a vector is called its resolution.
Similarly, a vector can also be resolved into more than two components.
Resolution of a Vector
The splitting up of a vector into two or more mutually perpendicular components is called resolution
of a vector. Every component of the vector is right angle to each other. In two dimensional plane, a
vector is usually resolved into x- and y- components. Similarly, in three dimensional space, a vector
is usually resolved into x-, y- and z- components.

Let A be a vector in two dimensional plane that forms an angle θ with x-axis as shown in Fig. 2.8.

Suppose Ax and Ay be the components of the vector A along X- and Y- axes respectively.
  
In Fig. 2.7, OP = A, | A| = A
Also, ON = Ax

OM = Ay Y
and ∠PON = ∠OPM = θ

M P
Now, from right angled ΔPNO, we have,
A
ON Ax Ay
cos θ = OP = A
q
X
∴ Ax = A cos θ … (2.13) O Ax N
Similarly, in right angled ΔPMO, we have, Fig. 2.8: Rectangular
components of vectors
OM Ay
sin θ = OP = A
∴ Ay = A sin θ … (2.14)
Squaring and adding equations (2.13) and (2.14), we get,
Ax2 + Ay2 = A2 cos2θ + A2 sin2θ
∴ Ax2 + Ay2 = A2
∴ A= Ax2 + Ay2 … (2.15)
Rectangular Representation of a Vector

→ →
Let OP = A be a vector inclined at an angle θ with X-axis. A perpendicular PM is drawn on OY as
shown in Fig. 2.8.
In ΔOMP, from triangle law of vectors, we have,
→ → →
OP = OM + MP
→ → → → →
or, A = Ay + Ax =Ax + Ay … (2.16)
→ → → → ¤
where, OM = A y and MP = A x are resolved parts of A along Y-axis and X-axis which are called
Y-component and X-component respectively.
ON Ax
cos θ = OP = A
∴ Ax = A cos θ (Component along X-axis)
PN Ay
Also, sin θ = OP = A
∴ Ay = A sin θ (Component along Y-axis)

^ ^
Let i and j be the unit vectors along X and Y-axes, respectively.
Then, the components of vectors in terms of unit vectors
are:
 ^  ^
A x = i Ax and A y = j Ay
  
and A = A x + A y
^ ^
= i Ax + j Ay
^ ^
Here, i and j represent the directions and Ax and Ay
represents the magnitude of components. So,
 ^ ^
A = i A cos θ + j A sin θ
The magnitude of vector is derived as, A = Ax 2 + Ay 2

Similarly, a vector can be resolved in three mutually perpendicular components as shown in Fig. 2.9
^ ^ ^
for three dimension. i , j and k are unit vectors along Cartesian axes as shown in Fig. 2.8.
→ ^ ^ ^
or A = i Ax + j Ay + k A z
→
∴ | A | or A = A2x + A2y + A2z
→ →
EXAMPLE 3: Find the sum A + B of two vectors.
SOLUTION
→ ∧ ∧ ∧ → → ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧
A = 2 i + 3 j + 5k A + B = (2 i + 3 j + 5k ) + (3 i – 2 j – 8k )
→ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧
B = 3 i – 2 j – 8k = 5 i + j – 3k
Now, the sum of these vectors,
→ ^ ^ ^ → ^ ^ ^ → →
 Check Point: If A = 2i + 3j + k and B = 2i – 3j + k. Find the magnitude of (a) A + B
→ →
(b) A – B Ans: 20 units, 6 units
2.10 Multiplication of Vectors

As scalar quantities, two or more vector quantities can be multiplied, but with different rules. In case
of scalars, when they are multiplied, the product will always be scalar. But, when two vectors are
multiplied, the product can either is a scalar or a vector quantity. To distinguish whether the product
is a scalar or vector, two different signs are used. If the product is a scalar, a dot (•) sign is used as the
multiplication sign, and if the product is a vector, a cross (×) sign is used as the multiplication sign.
(i) Scalar product or dot product (•) (ii) Vector product or cross product (×).
Scalar Product
The multiplication of two vectors in which the result is a scalar quantity is known as scalar product. It is also
known as dot product.
→ →
Let A and B be two vectors and θ be the angle between these vectors. The scalar product of two
→ → →
vectors A and B is defined as the product of magnitude of a vector (say A ) and scalar component of
→ →
next vector (Here, B ) along the direction of first vector B only the Q
→ → →
direction of A is B cos θ, then scalar product of vectors A and B is
B
defined as,
→→ → →
A . B = | A | | B | cos θ = AB cos θ q
O P
A
Properties of scalar product
1. The scalar product (or dot product) of two vectors obeys commutative law. i.e.,
→ → → →
A.B = B .A
→ →
If you take A . B = A(B cos θ) = AB cos θ
→ →
or, B . A = B(A cos θ) = AB cos θ

→ → →
2. The scalar product of two vectors obeys distributive law. For vectors A . B and C ,
→ → → → → → →
A . (B + C ) = A . B + A . C
→ → →
3. The scalar product of a vector with itself gives square of its magnitude. For vector A , A . A =
AA cos 0° = A2.
Special Cases
Vectors Angle Multiplication Result
→ → θ = 0º → → Dot product of parallel vectors is
Parallel vectors A , B A . B = AB cos 0° = AB
equal to the product of their
magnitudes.
Perpendicular vectors θ = 90° → → Dot product of perpendicular
A . B = AB cos 90° = 0
→ → vectors is equal to zero.
A, B
Mutually ∧.∧ ∧.∧ ∧.∧ Dot product of similar unit
perpendicular unit i i = j j =k k=1 vectors is unity and dot product
∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ of mutually perpendicular unit
vectors i , j , k i . k = 0, j . k = 0, k . i
vectors is zero.
=0
Magnitude and direction in scalar product

¤ ¤
The dot product of two vectors A and B is
¤ ¤ ¤ ¤
A . B =|A | | B | cos θ … (2.17)
¤ ¤
The vectors A and B are written in three dimensional components as,
¤ ∧ ∧ ∧
A = Ax i +Ay j + Az k
¤ ∧ ∧ ∧
and B = Bx i +By j + Bz k
¤ ¤
Then, A ⋅ B = Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz
¤ ¤
¤ ¤ A.B
The angle between A and B is given by, cos θ = ¤ ¤
| A| | B |
Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz
= ¤ ¤
| A| | B |
¤ ¤ 2 2 2
Magnitude of A, |A| = Ax + Ay + Az
¤ 2 2 2
Magnitude of B, | B | = Bx + By + Bz
Examples
→ → → →
(i) Work is the dot product of force ( F ) and displacement ( s ) i.e., W = F ⋅ s
→ →
(ii) Power (P) = F . v
EXAMPLE 4: The magnitude of two vectors are 3 and 4, and their scalar product is 6. What is the angle between them?
SOLUTION
→ →
If | A| = 3 and | B | = 4 are magnitudes of two vectors and θ is angle between them, then their
scalar product is,

→.→
A B = AB cos θ = 12 cos θ … (i)
and the magnitude of their product is
→.→
A B =6 … (ii)
Using (ii) in (i), we get,
12 cos θ = 6
or, cos θ = 1/2 = cos 60° ⇒ θ = 60°
Thus, the angle between two vectors is 60°.
 Check Point: The magnitude of two vectors are 5 and 6 and their product is 8.5. What is the
angle between them? Ans: 73.5º
A´B
Vector Product
The multiplication of two vectors in which the result is also a vector is called vector
product. It is also known as cross product.
→ → B |A ´ B|
If A and B be two vectors and θ be the angle between them, the vector
q
→ →
product (or cross product) is represented by A × B . Now, cross product of A
→ → Fig. 2.10: A Vector product
vectors A and B is defined as, of two vectors
→ → → →
A × B = | A | | B | sin θ ^ n = AB sin θ ^ n, where, ^ n is unit vector.
→ → → →
Which is perpendicular to both vectors A and B . The direction of cross product (i.e., A × B )
∧
is shown by unit vector n.
→ → → →
The result is also a vector which is perpendicular to both A and B or the plane containing A and B as
shown in Fig. 2.10.
Area of parallelogram
Properties of vector product
(i) Here (AB sin θ ^ n) is a vector, so the cross
product of vectors is always a vector.
→ →
i.e., A × B represent a vector quantity.
(ii) Cross product of two vectors does not obey
commutative law i.e., Area of parallelogram = PQ . ST
→ → → → PS
A× B ≠ B ×A = PQ . ST . PS
→ → → →
But, A × B = – ( B × A ) ST
= PQ . PS . PS
(iii) The vector product of two vectors obeys
distribution law. i.e., = PQ . PS . sin θ
→ → → → → → → ⎯→ ⎯→
A × (B+ C) = A × B + A × C = | PQ × PS |
(iv) The vector product of a vector with itself is → →
=|A × B |
→ →
zero, i.e., A × A = A A sin 0°^
n = 0. ∴ Cross product of two vectors can give the area of a
(v) The magnitude of the vector product of two parallelogram.
vectors is equal to the area of the
parallelogram formed by the two vectors (as shown in fig. 2.9).

Special Cases
Vectors Angle Multiplication Result
Parallel vectors θ = 0º → → Cross product of parallel vectors
A × B = AB sin 0° ^
n
→ → is equal to zero.
A, B →
=0^n = 0
Perpendicular θ = 90° → → Cross product of perpendicular
A × B = AB sin 90° ^
n
→ → vectors is equal to the product of
vectors A , B = AB n^
their magnitudes.
Mutually ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ The cross product of two
perpendicular unit i × i = j × j =k×k=0 mutually perpendicular vectors
∧ ∧ ∧ taken in a cyclic order gives
∧ ∧ ∧ i × j =k
vectors i , j , k another unit vector.
∧ ∧ ∧
j × k= i
∧ ∧ ∧
k× i = j
∧ ∧ ∧ ∧
i × j =– j × i
∧ ∧ ∧ ∧
j ×k =–k× j
∧ ∧ ∧ ∧
k× i =– i ×k
¤ ¤
The cross product of two vectors A and B in same coordinate system is,
¤ ∧ ∧ ∧ i
A = Ax i +Ay j + Az k
¤ ∧ ∧ ∧
and B = Bx i + By j + Bz k j
k
¤ ¤ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧
A × B = (Ax i +Ay j + Az k) × (Bx i +By j + Bz k)
∧ ∧ ∧
= (AyBz – Az By) i + (Az Bx – Ax Bz) j + (AxBy – Ay Bx) k
This expression is easier to express in determinant form as follows,
¤ ¤  i
 ∧ ∧
j
∧ 
k 
A×B= A A A … (2.18)
 x y z 
 Bx By Bz 
Examples
(i) In circular motion, linear velocity is defined as cross product of angular velocity and position
→ → →
vector. i.e., v = ω × r
→ ¤ ¤
(ii) Angular momentum L = r × p
→ → →
(iii) Torque = Position vector × force vector, τ = r × F
¤ ^ ^ ^ ¤ ^ ^ ^ ¤ ¤ ¤ ¤
EXAMPLE 5: Given: r = i – 2 j + 2 k and p = i – 4 j – 3 k. Calculate | L |. Given: L = r × p
SOLUTION
⎪ ∧ ∧j ∧ ⎪
¤ ¤ ¤ ⎪ i k ⎪
L = r ×p = 1 –2 2 = î (6 + 8) + ^j (2 + 3) + ^
k (–4 + 2) = 14 î + 5 ^j – 2 ^
k
⎪ ⎪
⎪ 1 –4 –3 ⎪
¤
| L | = 142 + 52 + (–2)2 = 16.9 units
→ →
 Check Point: Show that the magnitude of vector product of two vectors A and B is zero.
→ ^ ^ ^ → ^ ^ ^
Given, A = i + 2j + 3k and B = 2i + 4j + 6k.
Differences between Scalar Product and Vector Product

Scalar Product Vector Product
1. It produces a scalar result. 1. It produces a vector result.
2. The scalar product of perpendicular 2. The vector product of parallel vectors is
vectors is zero. zero.
   
3. For two vectors A and B , the scalar 3. For two vectors A and B , the vector
   
product of them is represented by A ⋅ B product of them is represented by A × B
such that such that
    ^ ^
A ⋅ B = AB cos θ A × B = AB sin θ n, where, n is unit vector
directed perpendicular to the plane
 
formed by A and B .
4. It is also called dot product. 4. It is also called cross product.
5. It obeys commutative law for two vectors 5. It does not obey commutative law
         
A and B i.e., A ⋅ B = B ⋅ A. A × B = – B × A.
Multiplication of a vector by a scalar

If a vector is multiplied by a scalar quantity, its magnitude and direction can be changed. The
 
multiplication of a vector A by a scalar λ is λ A. Such that
(i) If λ is positive real number, magnitude can be changed but direction is not changed.
(ii) If λ is negative real number, both magnitude and direction can be changed.
Tips for MCQs
Quantitative Tips
¤ ¤
1. The magnitude of resultant of two vectors A and B is given by, R = A2 + B2 + 2AB cos θ
¤ ¤
where, θ is angle between vectors A and B .
¤ ¤ ¤ ¤
2. The direction (β) of resultant vector R of two vectors A and B with respect to vector A is,
B sin θ ⎞
β = tan–1 ⎛
⎝A + B cos θ⎠ .
¤ ¤
3. The scalar product of two vectors A and B is,
¤.¤ ¤ ¤
A B = |A| | B | cos θ.
¤ ¤
4. The components of two vectors A and B are
¤ ∧ ∧ ∧
A = Ax i +Ay j + Azk
¤ ∧ ∧ ∧
and, B = Bx i +By j + Bzk
¤ ¤
Then A . B = Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz.
¤.¤
A B Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz
and angle between them, cos θ = ¤ ¤ = ¤ ¤
| A|| B | | A|| B |
¤ 2 2 2
|A| = Ax + Ay + Az
¤ 2 2 2
| B | = Bx + By + Bz

¤ ¤
5. Vector product of two vectors A and B is,
¤ ¤ ¤ ¤ ∧
A × B =|A| | B | sin θ n
∧ ¤ ¤
where, n is the unit vector perpendicular to the plane containing A and B .
¤ ¤
6. The components of two vectors A and B are
¤ ∧ ∧ ∧ ¤ ∧ ∧ ∧
A = Ax i +Ay j + Azk and B = Bx i +By j + Bzk
⎪ ∧ ∧ ∧ ⎪
¤ ¤ ⎪ i j k ⎪
∴A× B = A A A
⎪ x y z ⎪
⎪ Bx By Bz ⎪
7. In vector resolution as shown aside
|Ax| = A cos θ
|Ay|= A sin θ
8. The dot product of mutually perpendicular vectors,
Unit vectors ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧
i j k i j k
∧ 1 0 0 ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧
i j i.i i.j i .k
∧ 0 1 0 ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧
j 0 0 1 j i.j j.j j .k
∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧
k k k.i k. j k.k
9. The cross product of mutually perpendicular vectors,
Unit vectors ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧
i j k i j k
∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧
i i×i i×j i ×k i 0 k –j
∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧
j i×j j×j j ×k ⇒j –k 0 i
∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧
k k× j j ×k k×k k j –i 0
10. Important information to solve vector problems:
S.N. Conditions Angles
1. → → → → θ = 90°
|A + B | = |A – B |
2. → → → → θ = 45°
|A . B | = |A × B |
3. → → θ = 0°
|A + B | = A + B
4. → → →
A + B = R and A + B = R θ = 0°
Conceptual Tips
1. The vector is a Latin word which it means 'carrier'.
2. The physical quantities which have no specified direction and have different values in different
directions are called tensors. For example: moment of inertia.
¤ ¤
3. The magnitude or length of a vector is called its modulus. Modulus of vector A = |A| = A.
4. While adding two vectors with the help of parallelogram law of vectors, we have to ensure that the
two vectors act either towards a point or away from a point.
5. The magnitude of the resultant of two vectors is maximum, when the vectors act in the same
direction. However, the magnitude of the resultant of two vectors is minimum when the vectors acts
in the opposite directions.
6. As 'θ' increases from 0° to 180°, the magnitude of the resultant vectors decreases from (A + B) to
(A – B).

Quick Reply
1. If the scalar product of two vectors is equal to the magnitude of their vector product, find the angle
between them.
→ → → → → →
 If A and B are two vectors and θ is angle According to question, we have: A . B = | A × B |
between them, then their scalar product is: or, AB cos θ = AB sin θ
→.→
A B = AB cos θ … (i) ⇒ tan θ = 1 = tan 45°
and the magnitude of their vector product is ∴ θ = 45°
→ → Thus, the angle between two vectors is 45°.
| A × B | = AB sin θ ... (ii)
2. Is it possible that the resultant of two vectors be smaller than the smaller of the two vectors? If so,
under what condition?
 Yes, it is possible that the resultant of two vectors be smaller than the smaller of the two vectors. This
happens when the angle between two vectors is an obtuse. As an example, the resultant of 3 N and 2
N acting at an angle of 180° to each other is 1 N.
→→
3. Show that A .A = A2.
→
 The scalar product of A with itself is,
→→ → →
A .A = |A | |A | cos 0°
→
Since, the direction of A with itself is zero, so,
→→
A .A = A2 cos 0°
= A2
4. How many components can be realized of a vector?
 The number of components of a vector depends on the number of dimensional space where the
vector should be resolved. So, a vector can be resolved into infinite components.
5. What does modulus of a vector represent?
 The modulus of a vector represents the magnitude of that vector. It is a scalar quantity. Modulus of
→ →
vector A = |A | = A.
6. What happens when a vector is multiplied by a real number?
 If a vector is multiplied by real number, the magnitude of the vector is changed. If the real number is
positive, the resultant vector has same direction of original vector. But, the direction of new vector is
reversed, if the real number is negative.

1. The magnitude of two vectors are 3 and 4, and their product is 6. What is the angle between them?
→ → →.→
 If | A| = 3 and | B | = 4 are two magnitude of A B = AB cos θ = 12 cos θ … (i)
vectors and θ is angle between them, then and the magnitude of their product is
their scalar product is: →.→
A B =6 … (ii)
According to question, we have
cos θ = 1/2 = cos 60° ⇒ θ = 60°
→.→
A B ⇒ 12 cos θ = 6 Thus, the angle between two vectors is 60°.

→ → → → →
2. Two vectors A and B are such that A − B = C and A – B = C. Find the angle between them.
→ → → Also, C = A – B
 Suppose A and B are two vectors so that A
→ → ⇒ C2 = A2 + B2 – 2AB … (ii)
– B = C and A – B = C. If θ be the angle Comparing Equation (i) and (ii), we get
between them, then
cos θ = 1 ⇒ θ = 0°
→ → → → →
C = A – B = A + (– B ) → →
Thus, the angle between two vectors A and B
⇒ C2 = A2 + B2 – 2AB cos θ ... (i) is 0°.
    
3. If A and B are non zero vectors, is it possible for A × B and A . B both to be zero? Explain.
 →
 No, it is not possible. If A and B are two non zero vectors, then their cross and dot products are
→ → → →
A × B = AB sin θ ^ n If θ = 0°, A × B = 0 and
→.→
A B = AB cos θ = AB ≠ 0 (θ = 0°)
Similarly,
→.→ → →
A B = AB cos θ and if θ = 90º, A . B = 0
→ →
∴ A × B = AB cos 90° ^ n ≠ 0 (θ = 90°)
Since two vectors cannot be simultaneously parallel and perpendicular to each other, it is not
→ → → →
possible for A × B and A . B both to be zero.
     
4. The angle between two vectors A and B is θ. Find the magnitude and direction of A × B and A . B .
     
 Let the angle between two vector A and B is θ , then, its cross product is A × B = | A || B | sinθ ^n
     
Magnitude of A × B is, | A × B | = | A || B | sin θ A´B
   
Direction of A × B is perpendicular to the direction of plane made by A and B .
B
Again, the scalar product is
 .   |A ´ B|
A B = | A || B | cos θ
q
It is scalar product, so, it has only magnitude but not direction. A
¤ ^ ^ ^
5. A force (in Newton) expressed in vector notation as F = 4 i + 7 j – 3 k is applied on a body and
¤
produces a displacement (in meter), D = 3î – 2^j – 5^
k in 4 seconds. Estimate the power.
 Given,
→
Fore ( F ) = 4 î + 7 ^j – 3 ^
k
→
Displacement ( D ) = 3î – 2^j – 5^
k
Time taken (t) = 4 s
→ →
Work done (W) = F . D = (4 î + 7 ^j – 3 ^
k) . (3î – 2^j – 5^
k) = 12 – 14 + 15 = 13 J
W 13
Power (P) = t = 4 = 3.35 watt.
6. Can two vectors of different magnitude be combined to give a zero resultant? What about in three
vectors?
→ → → →
 The minimum value of combination of two vectors, A and B , is |A − B | = A − B. If A ≠ B, the
magnitude A − B can not be zero. This concludes that the combination of two vectors of different
magnitudes cannot be combined to give zero resultant. But, three unequal vectors can be combined
→ → →
to give zero resultant. For three unequal vectors A , B and C , the resultant to be zero is,
→ → →
A + B +C =0
→ → →
C = − (A + B )
This shows that if the vector sum of any two vectors is equal in magnitude and exactly opposite in
direction with the third vector, the resultant of sum of three unequal vectors is zero. However, to
satisfy such condition, all three vectors must be coplanar.
7. Under what condition will the sum of two vectors of equal magnitude have magnitude equal to
either vector?
→ →
 Let x be the magnitude of two equal vectors A and B . Also θ be the angle between these two vectors.
→ → →
Also, the given condition says that, |A | = | B | = | R | = x
We have, θ 1
∴ cos 2 = 2
R = A2 + B2 + 2AB cos θ
or, x = x2 + x2 + 2x . x cos θ θ
cos 2 = cos 60°
= x 1 + 1 + 2 cos θ
θ
= x 2 + 2 cos θ ∴ 2 = 60°
or, 1 = 2(1 + cos θ) ∴ θ = 120°
or, 1 = 2.2 cos2 θ/2 To satisfy the given condition the angle
or, 1 = 2 cos θ/2 between two vectors must be 120°.
8. Can the walk of a man be an example of resolution of vector?

R sin θ R
 Yes. When a man walks, he presses the ground slantingly backwards. The ground
offers a reaction. This reaction can be resolved into two components: vertical θ
component (R sin θ) and horizontal component (R cos θ). While the vertical
component balances the weight (mg) of the man, the horizontal component helps R cos θ
him to walk. A illustration is shown in the figure aside.
Worked Out Problems

1. Calculate the area of the parallelogram when adjacent sides are given by the vectors:
¤ ^ ¤
A = i + 2 ^j + 3 ^
k and B = 2 î – 3 ^j + ^
k.
SOLUTION
The area of the parallelogram is equal to the
= î (2 + 9) + ^j (6 –1) + ^
k (–3 –4)
magnitude of the vector product of given
^ ^
= 11 i + 5 j – 7k^
vectors.
Again,
¤ ¤ ⎪ i
⎪ ∧ ∧j ∧ ⎪
k ⎪ ¤ ¤
So, A × B = 1 2 3 | A × B | = 112 + 52 + (–7)2 = 195
⎪ ⎪
⎪ 2 –3 1 ⎪ = 13.96 sq. units.
2. A spelunker is surveying a cave. She follows a passage 180 m straight west, then 210 m in a direction
45° east of south, and 280 m at 30° east of north. After the fourth unmeasured displacement, find
herself back where she started. Find the magnitude and direction of fourth displacement.
SOLUTION
Given, θ'' = 270° + 45 = 315°
The figure for the required condition is shown θ''' = 90° – 30° = 60°
below: To solve this problem, we find the net
¤ displacements along x and y components.
Here, | A| = 180 m (along west)
¤ Here, to calculate resultant displacement along
| B | = 210 m (along east of south) x-axis,
¤
| C| = 280 m (along east of north) Ax = 180 cos 180° = –180 m
θ' = 180° Bx = 210 cos 315° = 149 m

Cx = 280 cos 60° = 140 m = (109)2 + (94)2 = 143.93 m

∴ Rx = Ax + Bx + Cx = –180 + 149 + 140 = 109 m Now, direction,
Also, to calculate resultant displacement along Ry 94
y-axis, tan θ = R = 109
x
Ay = 180 sin 180° = 0 θ = 40.8°
By = 210 sin 315° = –149 m This shows that
Cy = 280 sin 60° = 243 m the magnitude of
∴ Resultant along y-axis displacement is
143.93 m and is
Ry = Ay + By + Cy = 0 – 149 + 243 = 94 m
directed 40.8°
Now, resultant distance (R) = Rx2 + Ry2 with x-axis.
3. A ship is travelling due east at 30 km/h and a boy runs across the deck in a south west direction at 10
km/h. Find the velocity of the boy relative to sea.
SOLUTION
Here,
A ship is travelling due east with a velocity (vS) = 30 kmh–1
A boy on the ship runs south west with a velocity (vB) = 10 kmh–1
Let R be the resultant velocity, vS = 30 km/h
i.e., velocity relative to a sea (R) = ? b
Using parallelogram law of vector addition, q

/h
2 2
10 km
R = vS + vB + 2vSvB cos (90° + 45°)

R
1
vB =
= 900 + 100 – 2 × 10 × 30 ×
2
= 23.99 = 24 kmh–1
Let β be the angle made by vS with R
10 sin θ 10 sin 135º
tan β = =
30 + 10 cos θ 30 + 10 cos 135º
θ = 17º south of east
¤ ¤
4. For the vectors A and B in the given fig, use the method of
Y
components to find the magnitude and direction of (a) the vector
¤ ¤ ¤ ¤
sum A + B (b) the vector sum B + A (c) the vector difference B(18.0 m)
¤ ¤ ¤ ¤
A – B (d) the vector difference B – A . A(12.0 m) 37.0o
X
O
SOLUTION
Given,
The required figure is referred to question,
¤ ¤
| A|= 12.0 m, | B |= 18.0 m, θ = 37.0°
Using the method of component,
Ax = A cos 180° = –12.0 m
Ay = A sin 180° = 0
Also,
Bx = B cos 37° = 18 cos 37° = 14.4 m
By = B sin 37° = 18 sin 37° = 10.8 m
Rx = Ax+ Bx = –12.0 + 14.4 = 2.4 m
Ry = Ay + By = 0 + 10.8 = 10.8 m
¤ ¤ ¤
(a) | A + B | = | R|
= (Rx)2 + (Ry)2
= (2.4)2 + (10.8)2 = 11.1 m
Ry
and θ = tan–1 ⎛R ⎞
⎝ x⎠
10.8
= tan–1 ⎛ 2.4 ⎞ = 77.5°
⎝ ⎠
¤ ¤
(b) | B + A| = Rx2 + Ry2
=
(2.4)2+ (10.8)2 = 11.1 m
R
and θ = tan–1 ⎛R ⎞
y
⎝ x⎠
10.8
= tan–1 ⎛ 2.4 ⎞ = 77.5°
⎝ ⎠
¤ ¤ ¤
(c) | A – B | = | R| = (Ax – Bx)2 + (Ay – By)2
= (–26.4)2 + (– 10.8)2 = 28.5 m
Ay – B y –10.8
and θ = tan–1 ⎛ A – B ⎞ = tan–1⎛–26.4⎞
⎝ x x⎠ ⎝ ⎠
( )
..
θ = 22.2° . Ax and Bx are negative
in third question
total angle = 22.2° + 180° = 202.2°

¤ ¤
(d) | B – A| = (Bx – Ax)2 + (By – Ay)2
= (26.4)2 + (10.8)2 = 28.5 m
Ry 10.8
θ = tan–1 ⎛R ⎞ = tan–1 ⎛ 2.4 ⎞ = 22.2°.
⎝ x⎠ ⎝ ⎠

¤ ¤ ¤
1. Compute the x and y- components of vectors A, B and C in the given figure.
Y
A(12.0 m)
37.0o
o
X
60.0o 40.0
B(15.0 m)
C(6.0 m)
Ans: A X = 7.22 m, A Y = 9.58 m, B X = 11.5 m,

B Y = –9.64 m, C X = –3.00 m, C Y = –5.200 m
2. Find the magnitude and direction of the vectors represented by the following pairs of components:
(a) AX = – 8.60 cm, Ay = 5.20 cm (b) Ax = – 9.70 m, Ay = – 2.45 m (c) Ax = 7.75 km, Ay = – 2.70 km.
Ans: 10.05 m, 122.04°, 10.0 N, 194.2°, 8.21 m, 109.2°
3. A disoriented physics professor drives 3.25 km north, then 4.75 km west, and then 1.50 km south.
Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant displacement, using the method of components.
Ans: 5.06 km, 20.2° north of west

Exercise
1. How is a vector quantity represented graphically and symbolically?
¤
2. What is the negative of a vector A?
¤ ¤ ¤ ¤
3. At what condition, A+ B = A– B ?
4. Can subtraction of two vectors follow commutative law?
5. Find (î × ^j) × ^

k, where î, ^j and ^
k are the unit vectors along x–, y– and z– directors?
¤ ^ ^ ^
6. In a vector A = 5 i – 3 j + 4k, what is the magnitude of z-component?
7. Does it have any sense that vector has zero magnitude?
8. Torque and force are two different physical quantities, can they be added?
10. Can we add 5 J and 105 erg?
11. Can addition of two vectors be zero?
Short Questions
1. Illustrate graphical representation of vectors.
2. What are the conditions for maximum and minimum sum or resultant of two vectors?
3. Is pressure a vector?
¤ ¤ ¤ ¤ ¤ ¤
4. Can two vectors P and Q satisfy the condition, P + Q = P − Q?
5. What is the scalar product of a vector with itself? What about vector product?
6. What does the negative of a vector mean?
7. If two vectors of unequal magnitude are combined, can they give zero resultant?
8. The sum and difference of two vectors are equal in magnitude. Prove that these vectors are
perpendicular to each other.
9. Is it possible that the resultant of two vectors be smaller than that of two vectors? If so, under what
condition?
10. If B is added to A, under what condition does the resultant vector have a magnitude equal to
A + B? Under what conditions is the resultant vector equal to zero?
→ → → → →
11. Two vectors A and B are such that A − B = C and A – B = C. Find the angle between them.
→ → → →
12. If A . B = 0, what is angle between A and B .
¤ ¤ ¤ → → →
13. C is the vector sum of A and B i.e. C = A + B , and for C = A + B to be true, What is the angle
¤ ¤
between A and B ?
    
14. If A and B are non zero vectors, is it possible for A × B and A . B both to be zero? Explain.
     
15. The angle between two vectors A and B is θ. Find the magnitude and direction of A × B and A . B .
   
16. What does A . A , the scalar product of a vector with itself gives? What about A × A , the vector
product of a vector with itself?
¤
17. A force (in Newton) expressed in vector notation as F = 4 î + 7 ^j – 3 ^ k is applied on a body and
¤
produces a displacement (in meter), D = 3î – 2^j – 5^
k in 4 seconds. Estimate the power.
18. Can three vectors not lying in a plane give zero resultant?

Long Questions
1. State triangle law of vector addition. Obtain the expression for the resultant of two vectors P and Q
inclined at an angle θ.
2. State parallelogram law of vector addition. Derive the expression for the magnitude and direction of
the resultant of two vectors inclined at an angle θ from each other.
3. Define resolution of vector. Express a vector in the form of mutually perpendicular vectors.

4. Explain the multiplication of vectors. Find the scalar product and vector product of two vectors A

and B .

LEVEL I
1. Two forces of 30 N and 40 N are inclined to each other at an angle of 60o. Find their resultant. What
will be the resultant if the forces are inclined at right angles to each other?
Ans: 60.83 N, 34.6 o , 50 N, 53.06 o
2. Calculate the angle between a two dyne and a three dyne force so that their sum is four dyne.
Ans: 75.52 o
¤ ∧ ∧ ¤ ∧ ∧
3. Given a = 2 i + 4 j and b = 3 j + 4 k. Calculate the magnitude of the resultant. Ans: 8.602 units
4. Find the vector product and scalar product of two vectors 5 units and 3 units with angle of
inclination 60°. Ans: 13 units, 7.5 units
5. The velocity of 20 m/s has its x-component 12 m/s. What is its y component? Find the angle at which
the velocity is inclined with the x axis. Ans: 16m/s, 53o
LEVEL II
1. The magnitudes of two vectors are equal and the angle between them is θ. Show that their resultant
divides the angle θ equally.
⎯→ ⎯→ π
2. At what angle the two forces (P + Q) and (P – Q) act, so that the resultant is 3P2 + Q2 . Ans:
3
3. A man rows a boat with a speed of 18 km/h in the north-west direction. The shoreline makes an
angle of 15° south of west. Obtain the component of the velocity of the boat along the shoreline and
perpendicular to the shoreline. Ans: 9 km/h, 15.59 km/h
4. A rocket fires two engines simultaneously. One produces a thrust of 725 N directly forward, while
the other gives a 513 N thrust at 32.4º above the forward direction. Find the magnitude and direction
of the resultant force that these engines exert on the rocket. Ans: 1190 N, 13.4° above the forward direction
¤ ∧ ∧ ∧ ¤ ∧ ∧ ∧
5. Find the scalar and vector products of the two vector, a = 3 i – 4 j + 5 k and b = –2 i + j –3 k.
∧ ∧ ∧
Ans: 7 i – j – 5 k
¤ ∧ ∧
6. Calculate the area of the parallelogram when adjacent sides are given by the vectors: a = i + 2 j + 3
∧ ¤ ∧ ∧ ∧
k and b = 2 i – 3 j + k. Ans: –25, 13.96 sq. units
¤ ∧ ∧ ¤ ∧ ∧
7. Given two vectors A = 4.00 i + 3.00 j and B = 5.00 i – 2.00 j , (a) find the magnitude of each vector;
¤ ¤
(b) write an expression for the vector difference A – B using unit vectors; (c) find the magnitude
¤ ¤ ¤ ¤ ¤ ¤
and direction of the vector difference A – B (d) in a vector diagram show A , B and A – B and
also show that your diagram agrees qualitatively with your answer in part (c).
∧ ∧
Ans: (a) 5.00, 5.39; (b) –1.00 i + 5.00 j ; (c) 5.10, 101.3°
 
8. Given: a = 2 î + 4 ^j and b = 2 ^j + 4 ^
k and are linear to each-other, find the magnitude of resultant.
Ans: 7.48 units


1. A man can swim in still with a velocity of 4 ms-1. He crosses a river directly perpendicular to the river
when he heads 30° with the normal to the riverbank. The velocity of the river is
a. 2ms-1 b. 2 3 ms-1 c. 4 3 ms-1 d. 4/ 3 ms-1
2. Magnetic moment is
a. a scalar quantity b. a vector quantity c. a universal constant d. tensor
3. Two vectors have a sum A and a difference B. If A = B then, the angle between the two vectors is
a. 0° b. 45° c. 120° d. 90°
4. Which one of the following group of three forces will not produce acceleration in a body acted by the
forces?
a. 4 N, 7 N, 15 N b. 4 N, 7 N, 10 N c. 4 N, 7 N, 12 N d. 4 N, 7 N, 14 N
¤ ¤ ¤ ¤ ¤ ¤
5. If A, B and C have magnitude 6, 8 and 10 respectively, A + B = C, angle between A and B is
a. 0° b. 90° c. 45° d. 180°
6. Three forces of magnitude 1 N, 3 N and 2 N are acting at angles of 0°, 90° and 120° with +ve X–axis
respectively, then the resultant will act along the
a. positive X–axis b. positive Y–axis c. negative X–axis d. negative Y–axis
7. Five equal forces of 10N each are applied at one point and all are lying in one plane. If the angle
between them are equal, the resultant force will be
a. Zero b. 10 N c. 220 N d. 10 2
¤.¤ ¤ ¤
8. If P Q = 0 then angle between P and Q is
a. 0° b. 90° c. 120° d. 180°
¤ ¤ ¤ ¤
9. What is the angle between P × Q and Q × P?
π π
a. 0 b. π c. 2 d. 4
1 ∧ ∧
10. The expression ( i + j ) is a
2
a. unit vector b. null vector c. vector of magnitude d. scalar
ANSWERS
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (b) 5. (b) 6. (b) 7. (a) 8. (b) 9. (b) 10. (a)


KINEMATICS
3.1 Introduction
In physics, it is important to measure various changes that take place in a body as time goes on. One
of the simplest changes to observe is the instantaneous change in position of the body as a function
of time which we usually call motion. The branch of physics that deals with the study of motion of
an object without taking in consideration of its cause is called kinematics. We now discuss various
terms associated with it.
3.2 Motion and Rest

A body is said to be in the state of motion if it changes its position relative to an observer. If the body
does not change its position relative to an observer, then it is said to be in the state of rest. Motion
and rest are the relative terms which can be described only in relation to an observer. Surprisingly,
every object from the tiniest particles such as electrons, protons, etc., to massive bodies such as
planets and even our galaxy is in the state of continuous motion. Even though the trees, mountains,
buildings, etc., seem to be stationary to us, they are moving along with earth as it revolves round the
sun.
So, if there are only two moving objects in this universe, it is very difficult to say which one is
moving. To an observer on body A, the body B seems to be moving and to an observer on
body B, body A seems to be moving. So, motion and rest are not absolute rather they are the relative
terms which depend on the observer's position.
3.3 Distance
Let a body is travelling from point A to B. While doing so, it can move through any of the paths I, II
or III as shown in Fig. 3.1.
The length of the actual path followed by a body while travelling
between any two points (initial and final positions) is called
distance. The distance between two positions is not constant. It
can take any values depending on the path through which a body
travels. Suppose, the length of paths I, II and III are 15 km, 10 km
and 17 km respectively.
The distance traveled by a body is 15 km if it travels through path I, 10 km if it travels through path
II and 17 km if it travels through path III. However, the shortest distance between A and B is path II
(as it is a straight line). The distance traveled by a body is a positive scalar quantity whose SI unit is
metre (m).
Kinematics |Chapter 3| 53
3.4 Displacement
The physical quantity that measures the change in position in a
specified direction is called displacement. It is actually the
shortest length of the imaginary line joining the two points in
specified direction, the direction being along the direction of
motion. Since it possesses both magnitude and direction, it is a
vector quantity.
The displacement provides a simple comparison of the new position with initial position as a straight
line between the two points, which is shown by drawing an arrow as shown in Fig. 3.2. This arrow is
called the vector representation of displacement. Suppose, a body moves from O to Y along the path
¤
OXY as shown in Fig. 3.2. When the body is at Y, its displacement from O is a vector OY. The
magnitude of the displacement is simply the length OY. This is quite clearly less than the path length
OXY (called distance), illustrating that magnitude of displacement of a body need not necessarily be
equal to the distance the body has actually moved. Remember, the displacement of a particle
between two points is a unique path which can take the particle from its initial to final position. The
displacement of a particle between two points does not exactly tells, how the particle has actually
moved between these points and can be positive, negative or zero. For example, when a body is
thrown vertically upward, it comes back to the same point after sometime. During its upward
motion, the displacement is positive where as it is negative during its downward motion, so that the
net displacement is zero. However, the total distance travelled is 2H, where H is the maximum
height to which body rises.
Notes:
What factors distinguish displacement from distance?
(i) Displacement has direction but distance does not have direction.
(ii) The magnitude of displacement can be both positive and negative. But distance is always positive. It never
decreases with time.
(iii) Distance ≥ |Displacement|
3.5 Speed
Speed is the rate of change of distance per unit time. This can be written in the simplest possible term
as,
Change in distance
Speed = Change in time
Speed is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is m/s. The speed of a particle may or may not be constant
(same) at all points throughout its motion. So, it is better to define the average speed of the particle. It
is defined as the total distance travelled by the particle divided by total time taken.
Total distance travelled
i.e., Average speed = Total time taken
The average speed does not tell anything about the different speeds and the variation that may have
taken place during the trip. So, if we are interested in the speed of the particle at any instant of time,
we define instantaneous speed. For example, if you drive 400 km in 8 hours, we say that,
400 km
Average speed = 8 h = 50 km/h

But, it is unlikely that you are travelling at a speed of 50 km/h at every instant. Instantaneous speed
is the speed of the particle at any instant of time. Remember, instant does not indicate a short interval
of time rather it has no duration at all; it refers to a single value of time (for example: velocity of the
particle at 7th second).
3.6 Velocity
The rate of change of displacement per unit time is called velocity, or the rate of change of distance in
a given direction is called velocity.
Displacement
i.e., Velocity (v) = Time
It is a vector quantity which points in the same direction as displacement. In general, the magnitude
of velocity is less than or equal to speed in the same path. The unit of velocity is m/s in SI System.
The velocity of a body may not remain constant throughout its motion. It may change its magnitude
or direction or both. If the body changes its magnitude or direction or both, then it is said to have a
non-uniform velocity. However, if the magnitude of the velocity of the body remains constant in a
given direction of motion then it is said to have a uniform velocity. A body moving with uniform
velocity undergoes equal displacement in equal interval of time irrespective of the size of the time
interval.
Notes:
Facts about uniform velocity:
(i) For a linear motion, it is on a straight line and always in the same direction. (What about circular motion?)
(ii) Magnitude of velocity is equal to speed.
(iii) The average velocity is equal to instantaneous velocity.
(iv) Acceleration is zero. Net force is zero.
Average Velocity
The average velocity in any interval is defined as the ratio of displacement (change in position) to the
time taken by object to cover that displacement.
Suppose a particle is at position x1 at time t1 and at position x2 at time t2. The change in position of the
particle is Δx = x2 – x1 and time interval Δt = t2 – t1.
x2 – x1 Δx
Then, Average Velocity (vav) = t – t =
2 1 Δt
If the velocity of the body is not uniform but changing uniformly, i.e., accelerating, the average
velocity is defined as the arithmetic mean of initial and final velocity. If u and v are initial and final
velocities respectively then,
u+v
vav = 2
Like displacement, average velocity in any interval depends only on the initial and final position of
the particle during that interval. It does not depend on whether it speeds up or slows down or even
reverses direction during the interval. Especially, if the particle returns to its starting position, then
average velocity is zero.
Instantaneous Velocity
The average velocity is quite insufficient in describing the details of motion especially when velocity
of a body is continuously changing at each point of its motion. In such situation, it is more useful to

have a mathematical function that gives the velocity at every point during the motion. This is the
instantaneous velocity and is defined as the velocity of an object at a particular instant or at a
particular point of its path.
Mathematically, it is defined as the limiting value of the change in displacement per unit time when
the time interval tends to zero or simply, it is the limiting value of average velocity.
lim Δx dx
∴ Instantaneous Velocity (vins) = = dt
Δt → 0 Δt
3.7 Acceleration
Motion at constant velocity is the natural state of a body and can only be changed by the action of
external force. Anybody that is experiencing change in its velocity either in magnitude or direction or
both is said to be accelerating.
Thus, acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity. This can be written in its simplest form
as,
Change in velocity
Acceleration (a) = Change in time
It is a vector quantity which can have positive or negative value. The negative acceleration is
sometimes called retardation or deceleration and represents the rate at which the velocity of a
particle decreases. The SI unit of acceleration is m/s2 and its dimensional formula is [M0LT-2].
As mentioned before, an external force changes the velocity of an object. The change here refers to
change in magnitude or direction or both. If this velocity changes at uniform rate i.e., if the velocity
of the body changes by equal amounts in equal intervals of time, irrespective of the time interval,
then the body is said to have uniform (constant) acceleration. When a body moves with uniform
acceleration, the magnitude and direction of acceleration will always be same throughout the motion
and hence the motion is one dimensional. Some examples of uniformly accelerated bodies are: bodies
falling under gravity, a ball rolling down an inclined plane, etc. The acceleration may be nonzero,
even though the magnitude of velocity remains constant. For a body moving in a curved both, its
speed may be constant but its direction is changing continuously. So, the rate of change of velocity is
not zero.
However, if the rate of change of velocity is non-uniform i.e., if the velocity changes by unequal
amount in equal interval of time, then it is said to have non-uniform acceleration or variable
acceleration. The motion of particle moving with variable acceleration may be one, two or three
dimensional.
Average Acceleration
Average acceleration of a body moving with variable acceleration is defined as a ratio of change in
velocity to the time interval during which the change has taken place.
Change in velocity
Average acceleration (aav) = Change in time
If v1 and v2 be the velocities of a particle at time t1 and t2 respectively then,
v2 – v1 Δv
aav = t – t =
2 1 Δt
However, if the acceleration of the body is not uniform but changes uniformly, then the average
acceleration is defined as the arithmetic mean of its initial and final acceleration. Hence, average
acceleration is given by,
ainitial + afinal
aav = 2

Like average velocity, average acceleration also does not tell anything about how the acceleration has
changed along its path of motion.
So, if we are interested in finding the acceleration of a body at any point in its path, we define
instantaneous acceleration.
Instantaneous Acceleration
The instantaneous acceleration of a body is the acceleration at any instant of time during its motion
and is defined as the limiting value of the average acceleration of the particle in a small time interval
round that instant, when the time interval approaches to zero.
lim Δv dv
i.e., Instantaneous acceleration (ains) = = dt
Δt → 0 Δt
Notes:
(i) When a moving particle returns to its initial point:
(a) Displacement is zero. (b) Average velocity is zero.
(c) Distance is not zero. (d) Average speed is not zero.
(ii) Unless otherwise specified, the motion of the body is understood to be taking place in space.
(iii) In uniformly accelerated motion, average velocity over any interval of time is not equal to the instantaneous
velocity.
(iv) Speed may increase or decrease with time in non-uniform motion.
(v) Decreasing speed is not negative speed.
EXAMPLE 1: You normally drive on the freeway between San Diego and Los Angeles at an average speed of 105 km/h and
the trip takes 2 h and 20 min. On a Friday afternoon, however, heavy traffic slows you down and you drive the same
distance at an average speed of only 70 km/h. How much longer does the trip take?
SOLUTION
Given, For second travel,
For first travel v2 = 70 km/h
Average velocity (v1) = 105 km/h t2 = ?
(normal day) since the displacement is same
20 s2 = s1 = 245 km
Time (t1) = 2 h 20 min = 2 + 60
s2 = v2t2
1 7 245 = 70 t2
=2+3 =3 h
245
t2 = 70 = 3.5 = 3 + 0.5 × 60 = 3 h 30 min
∴ Displacement (s1) = v1 × t1
7 The time difference (Δt) = t2 – t1
= 105 × 3 =245 km
= 3 h 30 min – 2 h 20 min = 1 h 10 min
3.8 Graphical Representation of Motion

(a) Distance-Time (x–t) Graph: Velocity
A plot of distance against time is called distance-time graph. The velocity of a particle at any point
can be found from the graph through its position as a function of time. For a uniform motion, the
distance-time graph is a straight line as shown in Fig. 3.3 (i) whereas for non-uniform motion, it is as
shown in Fig. 3.3 (ii).

Fig. 3.3: Displacement-time graph: x represents the distance and t represents the time
The distance-time graph is used to determine the
(i) position of a body at any time.
(ii) distance covered by a body in any interval of time.
(iii) speed of the body at any instant of time.
The slope of x–t graph at any point gives the instantaneous velocity of the body.
(b) Velocity–Time (v–t) Graph: Acceleration

A plot showing the variation of velocity as a function of time is called
velocity-time (v–t) graph.
The velocity-time graph for a body moving with constant speed in a
straight line is a straight line parallel to the time axis as shown in Fig.
3.4.
The velocity-time graph for a body moving with a constant
acceleration having initial velocity zero is a straight line passing
through origin as shown in Fig. 3.5 (i). However, for a body having
non-zero initial velocity, the v–t graph looks like in Fig. 3.5 (ii).
Fig. 3.5: (i) Constant acceleration (for u = 0) (ii) Constant acceleration (for u > 0)
The velocity-time graph for a body moving with non-uniform acceleration is as shown in Fig. 3.6.
The v–t graph can be used to determine the acceleration of the body at
any instant of time. Referring to Fig. 3.6, if we have to find the
acceleration at point P, we draw a tangent AB at point P. The slope of
BC
the tangent, i.e., ⎛AC⎞ gives the acceleration. Similarly, this graph can
⎝ ⎠
be used to find the velocity of body at any instant of time. Also, the area
cover under the velocity time graph gives the displacement of moving
body.
We know, from the definition of instantaneous velocity,
dx
v = dt … (3.1)

This equation can be inverted to find the displacement in the same

interval of time.
i.e., dx = vdt
t2
or, Total displacement (x) = t vdt … (3.2)
1
The geometrical meaning of equation (3.2) is that it gives area under v –

t curve in the interval Δt = t2 – t1 (referring to Fig. 3.7) The shaded
region represents the displacement of body in the time interval
Δt = t2 – t1.
3.9 Equations of Motion for Uniform Acceleration

Let us consider a body moving with uniform acceleration 'a' covers a distance 's' in time 't'. Let 'u'
and 'v' be the initial and final velocities of the body respectively.
Therefore, from the definition of acceleration,
Displacement-time equation
Change in velocity v – u
a = Time taken = t Displacement of a body when taken as the
function of time, we write as an example,
or, at = v – u
x = ct2 + bt + a
∴ v = u + at … (3.3)
Where, a, b and c are arbitrary constants.
Again, for uniformly accelerated body, the average velocity
is given by, Then,
v+u dx
Velocity (v) = dt = 2ct + b
vav = 2
dv d2x
The distance (s) travelled in time (t) is given by, and, acceleration, a = dt = dt2 = 2c
s = vav × t
This equation gives the uniformly
v+u
s=⎛ 2 ⎞t accelerated motion.
⎝ ⎠
Using equation (3.3) in above equation, we get,
(u + at) + u⎞ ⎛2u + at⎞ 1 2
s =⎛
⎝ 2 ⎠ t = ⎝ 2 ⎠ t = ut + 2 at
1
∴ s = ut + 2 at2 … (3.4)
Finally, squaring equation (3.3), we get,

v2 = (u + at)2
1
= u2 + 2uat + a2t2 = u2 + 2a (ut + 2 at2)
1
But, ut + 2 at2 = s. So,
∴ v2 = u2 + 2as … (3.5)
Equations (3.3), (3.4) and (3.5) represent the uniformly accelerated motion. For uniformly
decelerating motion, these equations would be
v = u – at
1
s = ut – 2 at2
v2 = u2 – 2as
For uniformly accelerating bodies under the effect of gravity, the equations of motion can be
obtained by replacing 'a' by 'g' in the equations (3.3), (3.4) and in equation (3.5), i.e.,
v = u + gt
1
s = ut + 2 gt2
v2 = u2 + 2gs
However, if the body is moving against gravity (in upward direction), then equations of motion
would be
v = u – gt
v2 = u2 – 2gs
1
s = ut – 2 gt2
EXAMPLE 2: A football is kicked vertically upward from the ground and a student gazing out of the window sees it moving
upward past her at 5.00 ms–1. The window is 12.0 m above the ground. You may ignore air resistance. (a) How high does the
football go above the ground? (b) How much time does it take to go from the ground to its greatest height?
SOLUTION
Given, u = 16.1 ms-1
At displacement (s) = 12.0 m v2 – u2
Now, maximum height, s = 2g
Given velocity (v) = 5.00 ms-1
↑ 5.00 ms–1
u=? 0 – (16.1)2
∴ h = s = 2 × (–9.8)
g = – 9.8 ms–2
We have, 12 m ∴ h = 13.2 m
v – u = 2gs
2 2 ii. Time to reach the greatest height
52 – u2 = 2 × ( –9.8) × 12 ↑u
v–u 0 – 16.1
t= g = – 9.8 = 1.64 s
u2 = 260.2
 Check Point: A car travelling with a constant velocity of 15 ms–1 passes a school crossing corner,
where the speed limit is 10 ms–1. Just as the car passes, a police officer in the motorcycle stopped at
the corner starts of in pursuit with constant acceleration of 3 ms–2. (a) How much time does elapse
before the officer catches up with the motorcycle? (b) What is the officer's speed at that point?
(c) What is the total distance each vehicle has travelled at that point? Ans: 10 s, 30 ms–1, 150 m
3.10 Distance Travelled in nth Second

Let a body moving with uniform acceleration 'a' has an initial velocity 'u'. Let 'sn' be the distance
travelled by the body in (n) seconds. Then,
1 ⎛... s = ut + 1
sn = un + 2 an2 at2 ⎞
⎝ 2 ⎠
Similarly, the distance travelled by the body in (n – 1) seconds is
1
sn - 1 = u(n – 1) + 2 a(n – 1)2
∴ Total distance travelled in nth second is given by,

snth = sn – sn – 1
1 1
= un + 2 an2 – ⎡u(n – 1) + 2 a (n – 1)2⎤
⎣ ⎦
1 1
= un + 2 an2 – un + u – 2 a(n – 1)2

1
= u + 2 a[n2 – (n – 1)2]
1
= u + 2 a(n2 – n2 + 2n – 1)
1 1
= u + 2 a × 2n – 2 a
1
= u + an – 2 a
2n – 1⎞
snth = u + a ⎛ … (3.6)
⎝ 2 ⎠
EXAMPLE 3: A car is running on a straight road with accelerating motion. It travels 10 m distance in 3rd second after the
start and 12 m in 5th second. Now, what distance does it travel in 8th second after its start.
SOLUTION
Given,
Distance traveled in third second (s3rd) = 10 m
Distance traveled in fifth second (s5th) = 12 m
Distance traveled in eighth second (s8th) = ?
1
The distance traveled by the car in nth second is, snth = u + 2 a (2n – 1)
For 3rd second, Solving equation (i) and equation (ii), we get,
1 or, u = 7.5 ms–1
10 = u + 2 a (2 × 3 – 1)
or, a = 1 ms–2
or, 2 × 10 = 2u + 5a Now, for 8th second,
20 = 2u + 5a … (i) 1
s8th = u + 2 a (2 × 8 – 1)
For 5th Second,
1 1
12 = u + 2 a (2 × 5 – 1) = 7.5 + 2 × 1 × 15 = 7.5 + 7.5 = 15 m
or, 2 × 12 = 2u + 9a ∴ The car travels 15 m distance in 8th second.
or, 24 = 2u + 9a … (ii)
 Check Point: A body covers 4 m in 3rd second and 12 m in 5th second. If motion is uniformly
accelerated, how far will it travel in next 3 s? Ans: 60 m
3.11 Equations of Motion: (Graphical Treatment)

We can use graphical method to determine equations of uniformly accelerated system.
Let us consider a body moving with uniform acceleration a on 'a' straight line has initial velocity 'u'
at time t = 0 and 'v' be the velocity of the body after time t. The v–t graph for such motion is as shown
in Fig. 3.8.
In Fig. 3.8,
OA = ED = u
OC = EB = v
OE = AD = t
(i) v = u + at
We know,
Acceleration of body = Slope of line AB

BD EB – DE
or, a = AD = OE
v–u
or, a= t
∴ v = u + at
1 2
(ii) s = ut + 2 at
DB DB
From Fig. 3.8, Acceleration (a) = AD = t
∴ DB = at
We know, the area under velocity-time graph for a given
interval represents the displacement in the given interval. So,
Displacement (s) = Area of trapezium OABE
= Area of triangle ADB + Area of rectangle OADE
1
= 2 DB × AD + OA × OE
1
= 2 at × t + u × t [... DB = at]
1
= 2 at2 + ut
1
∴ s = ut + 2 at2
(iii) v2 = u2 + 2as
Displacement of the object in time interval t is,
s = Area of trapezium OABE
1
= 2 (EB + OA) × OE
1
= 2 (EB + ED) × OE [... OA = ED]
DB
Again, acceleration (a) = slope of AB = AD
EB – ED
= OE
(EB – ED)
or, OE = a
1 (EB – ED)
or, s = 2 (EB + ED) × a
1 1
= 2a (v + u) (v – u) = 2a (v2 – u2)
∴ v2 = u2 + 2as
Notes:
(i) The most important problem to which the equations of accelerated motion can be applied is the problem of free
fall of objects near the earth. The accepted convention is to use the symbol g for the magnitude of the
acceleration due to gravity. Whether g is to be taken as positive or negative it depends upon the sign
convention adopted.
(ii) All the kinematic equations discussed here hold good only for uniformly accelerated motion.
(They are not to be used in the case of variable acceleration).

Some of the graphs give the wrong information, which are impossible in the real life.
i. ii.
A particle cannot remain in two different positions at a

time. For example, A and B are two positions of a particle A particle cannot have two different directions of motion
at the same time. at a same time, like instantaneous velocity in the region
of A and B.
iii. iv.
Speed is always positive, so it cannot be represented Path length of a moving body never be negative.
below origin O.
3.12 Projectile Motion

We have so far discussed one dimensional motion of particle. We
now extend our description to more general case of motion in two
dimensions, i.e., when the motion of the particle is confined to a
plane. In this type of motion, the position of a particle is described by x
B P(x, y)
two variables. For example, to describe the position of particle, we
might choose the distance x from Y–axis and distance y from X–axis
y
where X and Y are perpendicular axes which intersect at origin O as
in Fig. 3.9. Alternatively, we can specify the same position by giving q
the distance r from origin and angle θ made by X–axis with the line O A
from origin to the point. Fig. 3.9: Motion in a plane
An important special case of motion in two dimensions occurs when
acceleration is constant in both magnitude and direction. An example of motion with constant
acceleration is that of projectile near the surface of earth if air resistance is neglected.
A projectile is any body projected in space with an initial velocity which then follows a path entirely
by the gravitational acceleration alone. Here, we neglect the air resistance. The path followed by a
projectile is called its trajectory. It may be noted that to throw a projectile into space, an engine or
fuel of some kind may be used but after being thrown, it should move under the effect of gravity
alone. Some examples of projectile are: a bullet shot from rifle, a football kicked, bomb dropped from
aeroplane, etc. A projectile motion is always confined to a vertical plane determined by the direction
of initial velocity. This is because the acceleration due to gravity is purely vertical; gravity can't move
the projectile side way. So, the projectile motion is a two dimensional motion.
In the absence of air resistance, the motion of the projectile is considered as the combination of
following two independent motions.
(i) Motion along horizontal path with uniform velocity.
(ii) Motion along vertical path with uniform acceleration equal to acceleration due to gravity g.
Projectile Fired Parallel to Horizontal

Let us consider, a projectile is fired from the top of a tower of height 'H' with certain initial velocity
'u' parallel to horizontal i.e., its initial vertical velocity is zero.
As it moves, it covers distance along horizontal due to the velocity of projection (which is along
horizontal) and along vertical in downward direction due to velocity it attains under the effect of
gravity. Let P be the position of projectile at any instant of time 't' during its fall and 'x' and 'y' be the
distance travelled along horizontal and vertical direction respectively as shown in fig. 3.10.
Y
O u
y
x vx
P a
H
vy vr
g
vx
X
O'
R
vy
Fig. 3.10: Projectile motion thrown horizontally from a height
Along horizontal direction

Initial horizontal velocity (ux) = u
Acceleration along horizontal (ax) = 0 ⎡Since no force acts along horizontal,⎤

⎣ horizontal acceleration is zero. ⎦
Distance travelled along horizontal (sx) = x
1
Using, sx = uxt + 2 axt2, we get,
1
x = ut + 2 × 0 × t2
or, x = ut
x
∴ t=u … (3.7)
Along vertical direction

Initial vertical velocity (uy) = 0
Acceleration along vertical (ay) = g
Distance travelled along vertical (sy) = y
Therefore, we have,
1
sy = uyt + 2 ayt2
1
or, y = 0 × t + 2 gt2
1
or, y = 2 gt2 … (3.8)

Using equation (3.7) in equation (3.8), we get,

1 x2
y = 2 g u2
1 g
or, y = ⎛2 u2⎞ x2
⎝ ⎠
1 g
∴ y = kx2, where, k = 2 ⎛u2⎞ is constant.
⎝ ⎠
Above equation represents the equation of parabola symmetrical about Y–axis. So, a projectile fired
along horizontal follows a parabolic path.
Time of Flight (T)

This is the total time for which the projectile remains in air. When the projectile hits the ground, the
total vertical distance travelled by it is equal to the height (H) of the tower. If 'T' be the time of flight,
1
then using sy = uyt + 2 gt2, we get,
1
H = 2 gT2 (initial vertical velocity uy = 0)
2H
∴ T = g
Thus, we see that time of flight is independent of the mass of the projectile. Furthermore, neglecting
air resistance;
(i) The time of flight of a projectile depends only in vertical height, but does not depend on the
path followed by it.
(ii) If two objects of different masses are dropped from
same vertical height at same instant, they reach the A bag dropped from a plane.
ground at the same time. If a bag is dropped from a plane in flight
along the horizontal direction with uniform
Horizontal Range (H)
velocity, the bag remains just beneath the
The horizontal range is the horizontal distance covered by plane until it reaches on ground.
the projectile during the time of flight.
1
So, using sx = uxt + 2 axt2 with sx = R, ux = u, ax = 0 and t =
T, we get,
R = uxT
2H
or, R=u g
Velocity at any Instant (vr)

Let vx and vy be the components of velocity at point P in horizontal and vertical direction
respectively at any time t. Then,
Resultant velocity (vr) = vx2 + vy2
Since, horizontal velocity is constant, we have, vx = u
But, vertical velocity vy = uy + gt
or, vy = gt [∵ Initial vertical velocity (uy) = 0]
∴ vr = u2 + g2t2
If 'α' be the angle made by resultant velocity vr with horizontal, then,
vy gt
tan α = v = u
x
gt
∴ α = tan-1 ⎛ u ⎞
⎝ ⎠
EXAMPLE 4: A military helicopter on a training mission is flying horizontally at a speed of 60.0 m/s and accidentally drops
a bomb (fortunately not a arm) at an elevation of 300 m. You can ignore air resistance. (a) How much time is required for the
bomb to reach the earth? (b) How far does it travel horizontally while falling? (c) Find the horizontal and vertical
components of its velocity just before it strikes the earth. (d) If the velocity of the helicopter remains constant, where is the
helicopter when bomb hits the ground?
SOLUTION
Given, c. The horizontal and vertical components of
Initial velocity (u) = 60.0 ms-1 its velocity just before it strikes the earth,
Height (H) = 300 m vx = ?, vy = ?
a. Time of flight (t) = ? vx = u = 60.0 ms-1
2H 2 × 300 vy = uy + gt = 0 + 9.8 × 7.82 = 76.6 ms-1
t = g = 9.8 = 7.82 s d. The bomb hits the ground at 469 m away
b. Horizontal range, R = ? from the dropping point.
2H
R =u g = 60.0 × 7.82 = 469 m
 Check Point: Two tall buildings face each other and are at a distance of 100 m from each other.
With what velocity must a ball be thrown horizontally from a window 55 m above the ground in one
building, so that it enters a window 10.9 m above the ground in the second building? Ans: 60 ms–1
Projectile Fired at an Angle with Horizontal

Suppose a projectile is fired from ground with initial velocity 'u' making an angle 'θ' with the
horizontal. The velocity of projection can be resolved into the following two components as shown in
Fig. 3.11.
(i) ux = u cos θ along horizontal and
(ii) uy = u sin θ along vertical.
Y
uy
v
vx
x P
vx g
uy u
y H
q vx
x
O ux a
R
v
vy
Fig. 3.11: Projectile thrown at certain angle with horizontal
As the projectile moves, it covers distance along horizontal due to the horizontal component
u cos θ of the velocity which remains constant throughout the motion. Also, it covers distance along

vertical due to the vertical components u sin θ which increases at a uniform rate so that it falls with
constant acceleration equal to g.
Let P(x, y) be the position of the projectile at any instant of time 't'. Then,
Motion along horizontal

Initial horizontal velocity (ux) = u cos θ
Acceleration along horizontal (ax) = 0
Horizontal distance travelled (sx) = x
1
Using, sx = uxt + 2axt2, we get,
1
x = ut cos θ + 2 0 t2
or, x = ut cos θ
x
∴ t= … (3.9)
u cos θ
Motion along vertical

Initial vertical velocity (uy) = u sin θ
Acceleration along vertical (ay) = –g
Vertical distance travelled (sy) = y
1
Using, sy = uyt + 2 ay t2 , we get,
1
y = u sin θ t + 2 (–g) t2
x 1 x2
= u sin θ – g [Using equation (3.9)]
u cos θ 2 u2 cos2θ
g
∴ y = x tan θ – x2 … (3.10)
2 u2cos2θ
Above equation represents the equation of parabola. So, we see that path followed by the projectile is
parabolic.
Time of ascent
The time taken by a projectile to attain the maximum height is called time of ascent.
At maximum height,
Vertical velocity (vy) = 0
Using, vy = uy + ayt with uy = u sin θ and ay = – g, we get,
u sin θ = gt
If t = t' be the time of ascent, then,
u sin θ
t' = g
Time of flight
Since, time required to reach maximum height = time required to reach the ground from the
maximum height, we can write,
2u sin θ
Time of flight (T) = 2t'= g

Maximum height attained
It is the greatest height to which the projectile rises above the ground.
2 2
Using, vy = uy + 2aysy with sy = H, uy = u sin θ and ay = – g, we have,
0 = u2 sin2θ + 2 (–g) H
u2 sin2θ
∴ H = 2g
Horizontal range
Horizontal range (R) = Horizontal velocity × Time of flight
= u cos θ . T
2u sin θ
= u cos θ . g
2 sin θ. cos θ
= u2 g
u2 sin 2θ
∴ R = g
The horizontal range will be maximum if sin 2θ = 1
i.e., sin 2θ = sin 90°
or, 2θ = 90°
or, θ = 45°
∴ The horizontal range will be maximum if the projectile is fired at an angle of 45° to the
horizontal.
u2
∴ Rmax = g
At the same angle of projection, maximum height (H) attained is,
u2
H = 4g
Therefore, Rmax = 4H
Two angles of projection for same horizontal range
We have just derived that, for the angle of projection θ, the horizontal range is given by,
u2 sin 2θ
R= g
Let R' be the horizontal range when the angle of projection is (90 – θ), then,
u2 sin 2(90 – θ) u2 sin(180 – 2θ) u2 sin 2θ
R' = g = g = g
∴ R = R'
Thus, we see that there are two possible angles of projection θ and (90 – θ) for the same horizontal
range (for the same initial velocity) as shown in Fig. 3.12.

Y
w
thro
w
ro
75 o
th
w
ro
60 o
o th
45
w
o thro
30
15o throw
O X
Fig. 3.12: Two possible angles of projection for same horizontal range
Velocity of any instant

2 2
The resultant velocity (v) = vx + vy
The velocity is uniform along x-direction, vx = u cos θ
Also, the velocity along y-direction, vy = uy + gt = u sin θ + gt
It is to be noted that angle of strike on the ground is equal to the angle of projection, as our condition
is symmetrical.
Now, v = u2 cos2 θ + (u sin θ + gt)2
Notes:
If air resistance is taken into account
(i) The parameters which increase are time of flight, angle at which the projectile strikes the ground.
(ii) The parameters which decrease are maximum vertical height, horizontal range, momentum, kinetic energy, etc.
EXAMPLE 5: A projectile is fired from ground level with velocity 500 ms–1 at 30° to the horizontal. Find its horizontal range,
the greatest vertical height to which it rises and the time to reach the greatest height. What is the least speed with which it
could be projected in order to achieve the same horizontal range? (The resistance of the air to the motion of the projectile may
be neglected.)
SOLUTION
Given, (500)2 (sin 30°)2
= 2 × 10 = 3125 m
Velocity of projectile, u = 500 ms–1
Angle with horizontal, θ = 30° u sin θ 500
Time to reach the greatest height = g =
Horizontal range, R = ?
Greatest vertical height, H = ? Again, we know
Least speed to achieve same horizontal u2 sin 2θ
range, vleast = ? R= g
We know, Rg
or u2 =
u2 sin 2θ (500)2 sin 60° sin 2θ
R= g = 10 = 21651 m
Rg
u2 sin2 θ or u=
H = 2g sin 2θ

Here u will be least when sin 2θ will be Rg

maximum. The maximum value of sin uleast = 1 = Rg = 21651 × 10
2θ = 1, and the least velocity to obtain ∴ uleast = 465 m/s Rg
the same range is
 Check Point: A Cannon is fired from a gun with a velocity of 20 ms–1 at an angle of 60º to the
horizon. Calculate (i) the time to reach the maximum height (ii) the maximum height (iii) the
horizontal range (iv) maximum horizontal range with the same speed.
Ans: (i) 17.3 s (ii) 1500 m (iii) 3464 m (iv) 4000 m
3.13 Relative Velocity

Consider a car A is moving on a straight road with velocity 90 km/h with respect to its surrounding.
If a man in another car B when measures the velocity of car A, he records different velocities in
accordance with its motion. The velocity of car A is recorded different due to both magnitude and
direction of motion of car B. If the car B is at rest and the car A is moving with the speed 90 km/h,
i.e., the man sitting in car B records the velocity, same as the original speed, 90 km/h. However, the
situation is different when car B is also moving in the same direction of car A or in the opposite
direction of A or there is a change in direction of car B other than these directions.
Fig. 3.13 (i) : Cars moving in same direction

A B
vA vB
Fig. 3.13(ii): Cars moving away each-other
i. If the car B does not move with respect to its surrounding, the man in this car measures the
velocity 90 km/h of car A as is similar to other objects along the road side.
ii. If the car B is moving in the direction of car A, with equal velocity 90 km/h as shown in
Fig. 3.13 (i), both of them remain in the equal separation at all the moment. It means these cars
do not go away relative to each other. In physics, this position is called relatively rest, i.e.,
relative velocity of car A with respect to car B is zero. If car A and car B move with unequal
velocity, their relative velocity is not zero.
iii. If the car B is moving with equal velocity, but in the opposite direction of car A, both cars
cover equal distance 90 km at the same time i.e., 1 hour. After 1 hour of their starting point,
they are 180 km far to each other as shown in Fig. (3.13 (ii)). Hence, the relative velocity of car
A with respect to car B is 180 km/h.
Above conditions tell that:
i. When the two bodies are moving in the same directions, the relative velocity is equal to the
difference of the individual velocity.
ii. When the two bodies are moving in the opposite directions, the relative velocity is equal to the
sum of the individual velocity.
iii. The above results hold good only for one dimensional motion.

From above example, it is clear that velocity is not an absolute term, it is relative in nature. It is
always measured with reference to some other objects which may or may not be at rest. There are
many examples of relative velocity of objects in our daily life.
(a) Movement of traffic in different directions.
(b) The motion of sun and moon over the sky.
(c) Movement of people relative to buildings and trees.
In all above examples, the distance or direction or both may undergo a change. The change in
magnitude and direction of velocity of one object with respect to another is dealt in relative velocity.
The relative velocity of an object B with respect to object A, when both are in motion, is the time rate of change
of position of object B with respect to that of object A.
Rules for Solving Relative Velocity Problems

The problems associated with relative velocity of two bodies are quite tricky and challenging. These
problems can be made simpler using following rules.
(i) In first step, the magnitudes and directions of velocities are shown in vector form. The arrow
head of a vector shows the direction and length of line represents the magnitude of either
velocity as shown in Fig. 3.14 (i).
(ii) In second step, for one of the two velocities, the direction of velocity vector is reversed so that
the velocity of corresponding body is considered at rest as shown in Fig. 3.14 (ii).
(iii) In third step, the resultant is drawn taking original velocity of one and reversed direction of
next body as shown in Fig. 3.14 (iii).
(iv) Finally, the vector addition rule is applied to find the direction and magnitude of resultant
velocity of a body with respect to another.
(i) (ii) (iii)

Fig. 3.14: Relative velocity of body B w.r.t. body A.
Above steps are done to find the velocity of body B with respect to body A (i.e.,vBA). If the velocity of
A is to be determined with respect to B, (i.e., vAB), the direction of B is reversed in exactly opposite
→
direction keeping the magnitude constant. The graphical notation to find v AB is shown in Fig. (3.15).
There are several conditions in relative velocity. Out of many conditions, relative velocity in one
dimension and relative velocity in two dimensions are dealt in this chapter.

Fig. 3.15: Relative velocity of body A w.r.t. body B
Relative Velocity in One Dimension

If two bodies move in a straight line either in same direction or in opposite direction, the relative
velocity of these bodies is said to be relative velocity in one dimension. Two cases of relative velocity
in one dimension are explained below:
(i) Suppose two cars A and B, are moving with velocity vA and vB along the same direction as
shown in Fig. 3.13(i). In this case, the velocity of A relative to B, i.e., vAB is written as,
→ → →
vAB = vA – vB … (3.11)
If the relative velocity of B is taken with respect to A, the relative velocity is,
→ → →
vBA = vB – vA … (3.12)
Comparing equations (3.11) and (3.12), we get,
→ →
vAB = – vBA … (3.13)
(ii) Suppose these two cars A and B, are moving away to each other with velocities VA and vB
respectively as shown in Fig. 3.13 (ii) then the relative velocity of A with respect to B is,
→ → → → →
vAB = vA – (– vB ) = vA + vB … (3.14)
Also, if we take the relative velocity of B with respect to A, the relative velocity is,
→ → → → →
vBA = vB – (– vA ) = vB + vA
→ → →
∴ vBA = vA + vB … (3.15)
EXAMPLE 6: A "moving sidewalk" in an airport terminal building moves at 1.0 m/s and is 35.0 m long. If a woman steps on
at one end and walks at 1.5 m/s relative to the moving sidewalk, how much time does she require to reach the opposite end
if she walks (a) in the same direction the sidewalk is moving? (b) in the opposite direction?
SOLUTION
Given, Velocity of 'moving side walk', v1 = 1 ms–1
Displacement (s) = 35.0 m
Velocity of woman (v2) = 1.5 ms-1
a. Time to reach the opposite end if she walks in the direction of side walk is moving,
vr = v2 – v1 = 1.5 – 1 = 0.5 ms-1
s 35
∴ Time (t) = v = 0.5 = 70.0 s
r
b. Time to reach the opposite end if she walks in the opposite direction,
vr = v2 + v1 = 1.5 + 1 = 2.5 ms-1
s 35
∴ Time required (t) = v = 2.5 = 14.0 s
r

EXAMPLE 7: Two ships A and B are 4 km apart. A is due west of B. If A moves with a uniform velocity of 8 kmh–1 due east
and B moves with a uniform velocity of 6 kmh–1 due south, calculate (i) the magnitude of the velocity of A relative to B and
(ii) the closest distance apart of A and B.
SOLUTION
vA = 8 km h–1
B
A
φ D N
4 km
→ W E
v AB
→
- vB
S
O
vB = 6 km/h
θ
A → B
vA
C
Given,
Velocity of ship A, vA = 8 km/h due east
Velocity of ship B, vB = 6 km/h due south
Distance between A and B = 4 km
(i) Velocity of A relative to B, vAB = ? (ii)Closest distance apart A and B, (BD) = ?
Now, vB 6
(ii) Again, from ΔABC, tan φ = v = 8
(i) From figure, we have A
v = vA + vB
2 2 6
or φ = tan–1 8 = 36.87°
= (8)2 + (6)2 = 64 + 36 = 10 km h–1
From ΔABD, and from ΔABO
vB 6 BO
tan θ = v = 8 sin θ = AB
A
3 or BO = AB sin θ = 4 × sin 36.87° = 2.4 km
or θ = tan–1 ⎛4⎞
⎝⎠ ∴ BO = 2.4 km
θ = 36.87°
Relative Velocity in two dimensions

If two bodies move in a plane making certain angle to each other, the relative velocity between them
is termed as relative velocity in two dimensions. The magnitude and direction of resultant velocity in
relative motion of two bodies can be determined as follows:
Relative velocity in the case of two velocities inclined to each other
→ →
Consider two objects A and B moving with velocities v1 and v2 respectively inclined to each other
→
at an angle θ as shown in fig. 3.16. The relative velocity v21 of B with respect to A is,
→ → →
v21 = v2 – v1 … (3.16)
Equation (3.12) is written as,
→ → →
v21 = v2 + (– v1 )
or, v212 = v22 + v21 + 2v1v2 cos (180 – θ)
or, v212 = v22 + v21 – 2v1v2 cos θ
or, v21 = v22 + v21 – 2v1v2 cos θ
i.e., v21 = v22 + v21 – 2v1v2 cos θ … (3.17)
→
Let β be the direction of relative velocity v21 of B with respect to A.

v2 sin θ
Then, tan β = … (3.18)
v1 + v2 cos θ
→
Also, the relative velocity v12 of A with respect of B as in Fig. 3.17
is,
→ → →
v12 = v1 – v2 … (3.19)
→ → →
Now, v12 = v1 + (– v2 )
or, v122 = v21 + v22 + 2 v1 v2 cos (180° – θ)
or, v12 = v12 + v22 – 2 v1 v2 cos θ
and the direction of relative velocity w.r.t. A,
v2 sin θ
tan α = – … (3.20)
v1 + v2 cos θ
It concludes that the magnitude of relative velocity in both the cases is the same but, the
direction is reversed.
Warning: Relative velocity and resultant velocity are different concepts.
Special cases
(i) When two bodies are moving along parallel lines in the same direction i.e. when θ = 0°.
v12 = v21 = v21 + v22 – 2v1v2 cos 0°
or, v12 = v21 = (v1 – v2)2
∴ v12 = v21 = ± (v1 – v2) … (3.21)
The relative velocity between two bodies moving in the same direction is equal to the difference
of individual velocities of two bodies.
∴ v12 = v21 = v1 – v2 or v2 – v1
(ii) When two bodies are moving along parallel lines in the opposite direction, i.e., when θ = 180°,
v12 = v21 = v21 + v22 – 2v1v2 cos 180°
or, v12 = v21 = (v1 + v2)2 (cos 180° = –1)
∴ v12 = v21 = (v1 + v2) … (3.22)
The relative velocity between two bodies moving in the opposite direction is equal to the sum of
individual speed of two bodies.
Some common examples of relative velocity in two dimensions are explained below:
Relative velocity of rain with respect to man

Consider a man is walking on a horizontal road (along east
direction), at the same time the rain is falling vertically
downward as shown in Fig. 3.18. A man should tilt his
umbrella at some angle to protect himself from rain because
the rain appears falling with some oblique angle θ.
→
Consider a man walking due east with velocity vm . Suppose
→
rain is falling vertically with velocity vr . Now, the relative
→
velocity of rain with respect to man vrm is determined by

→ → →
vrm = vr + (–vm )
→
|vrm | = v2r + vm2 (for vr ⊥ vm) … (3.25)
vm
Angle of umbrella to be tilted from the vertical position is tan θ = v
r
EXAMPLE 8: A man walking on a road with a speed of 5 km/h, encounters rainfall vertically with a velocity of 12 km/h. At
what angle should he hold his umbrella in order to protect himself from the rain?
SOLUTION
Let OA represent the direction in which the man is walking. The velocity of the rain with
respect to man vr – vm is given by OC.
where OC2 = OB2 + BC2 = (12)2 + 52 = 169 –vm vm
A' A
OC = 13 km/h O
Let θ be the angle with which the velocity of the q
rain relative to the man, makes with the vertical.
vrm
BC vm 5
Then tan θ = OB = v = 12 = 0.4167
r
θ = tan–1 (0.4167) = 22.6º v r
C B
 Check Point: To a person going due east in a car with a velocity of 25 km/h, a train appears to
move due north with a velocity of 25 3 km/h. What is the actual velocity and direction of motion of
the train? Ans: 50 km/h, 30o east of north
Relative velocity in accordance with rules of force

The Swimmer-River Problem
In this type of problems, the earth is taken at rest relative to both river and the swimmer. Then, the
relative velocity of swimmer with respect to earth is determined by vector addition rule as explained
in the following examples.
(a) If a swimmer wants to cross the river heading
straight to opposite shore, he flows downstream
with a certain angle as shown in Fig. 3.19. Actually,
he swims directing his head straight to opposite
side (for example, targeting a stone located at the
next shore), but due to the downward flow of water
in river, the resultant velocity will be directed with Fig. 3.19: Crossing the river heading straight
a certain angle from the targeted point.
→
Here, vRE = Velocity of river relative to earth.
→
vSR = Velocity of swimmer relative to river.
→
vSE = Velocity of swimmer relative to earth.
In this case, the velocity of swimmer relative to earth is calculated as,
→ → →
vSE = vSR + vRE … (3.24)

2 2 2 2
vSE = vSR + vRE + 2 vSR vRE cos 90° = vSR + vRE
2 2 2
∴ vSE = vSR + vRE … (3.25)
If the velocity of swimmer is given in still water, this velocity is the velocity of swimmer relative
to river. The direction through which the swimmer reach the opposite shore, heading straight,
is calculated from,
vRE
tan θ = v … (3.26)
SR
The time to reach the next shore,

d
t=v … (3.27)
SE
In order to cross the river in shortest time, he should obey such path.
(b) If a swimmer wants to cross river directly to the
opposite shore, the swimmer must swim upstream
making certain acute angle θ as shown in Fig. 3.20.
In such condition, the swimmer appears diving
upstream, but due to the flow of water, the
resultant velocity is directed straight to the next
shore. Fig. 3.20: Crossing the river heading upstream
→ → →
or, vSE = vSR + vRE
→ → →
or, vSR = vSE – vRE
2 2
or, vSR = vSE + vRE – 2 vSE vRE cos 90°
2 2
= vSE + vRE
2 2 2
vSR = vSE + vRE
2 2 2
∴ vSE = vSR – vRE … (3.28)
The direction in which swimmer must swim to reach the opposite shore heading upstream
vRE
sin θ = v … (3.29)
SR
The time to reach the next shore,

d
t=v … (3.30)
SE
In order to cross the river through shortest distance he should obey such path.
Similar principle is applied to a boat crossing a river moving with a certain speed relative to
water.

EXAMPLE 9: A river 600 m wide flows at the rate of 5 kmh–1. A swimmer who can swim at 10 kmh–1 on still water, wishes to
cross the river straight. (i) Along what direction must he strike? What should be his resultant velocity? How much time he
would take?
SOLUTION
Given,
Width of river (d) = 600 m
Velocity of river relative to earth (vRE) = 5 kmh–1
Velocity of swimmer relative to river (vSR) = 10 kmh–1
Direction (θ) = ?
Velocity of swimmer relative to earth (vSE) = ?
Time to cross the river (t) = ?
In such problem, earth is taken as the reference relative to motion of both swimmer and
river.
(i) Here, the swimmer should head upstream with angle θ to reach the next side from the
figure aside,
vRE 5 1
∴ sin θ = v = 10 = 2
SR
1
∴ θ = sin−1 ⎛2⎞ = 30°
⎝⎠
(ii) Here, vSE gives resultant velocity, s
2 2 vRE
∴ vSE = vSR – vRE = 102 – 52 = 8.66 kmh–1
8.66 × 1000
∴ vSE = 8.66 kmh–1 = 3600 = 2.4 ms–1
(iii) Now, time taken to cross the river, vSE d
d 600 vSR θ
t = v = 2.4 = 250 s
SE
 Check Point: A man wishes to cross a river to an exactly opposite point of the other bank. The river
is flowing at 1 ms-1 and the velocity of the man in still water is 2 ms-1. In what direction should he
strike out in order to reach the opposite point. Ans: At an angle 120° with the current
(i) If the boat heads to north and wants to cross the river, due to the relative motion of boat and the
river, the boat reaches to downstream along NE direction with certain acute angle as shown in
Fig. 3.24.
2 2
∴ vBE = vBR + vRE … (3.31)
Fig. 3.22: Boat crossing the river heading

Fig. 3.21: Boat crossing the river heading
upstream
north

(ii) Similarly, if the boat travels with the same speed as in (i) relative to the river and is to travel
due north, the boat should head upstream along north west direction with certain acute angle
as shown in Fig. 3.22.
2 2
∴ vBE = vBR – vRE … (3.32)
EXAMPLE 10: The compass of an airplane indicates that it is headed due north, and its airspeed indicator shows that it is
moving through the air at 240 km/h. If there is a wind of 100 km/h from west to east, what is the velocity of the airplane
relative to earth?
SOLUTION
Velocity of plane with respect to air (vPA) = 240 km/h (due north)
Velocity of air relative to earth, (vAE) = 100 km/h (due east)
The three relative velocities are shown in Fig.
Here,
→ → →
v PE = v PA + v AE
∴ vPE = (240 km/h)2 + (100 km/h)2
= 260 km/h
100
θ = tan−1 ⎛240⎞ = 23° east of north.
⎝ ⎠
 Check Point: Consider the above example, find the direction should the pilot head to travel due
north. What will then be her velocity relative to earth? Ans: 218 km/h, 25° west of north
Satellite moving in equatorial plane

→ →
Consider a satellite moving in equatorial plane with velocity vs . Let ve be the velocity of a point
→
on the surface of the earth relative to center of the earth. Let vse be the relative velocity of
satellite with respect to the point on the surface of the earth.
Then,
→ → →
∴ vse = vs – ve … (3.33)
(i) If the satellite moves from west to east in the direction of rotation of the earth on its axis, then
the relative velocity is determined by
→ → →
∴ vse = vs – ve … (3.34)
(ii) If the satellite moves from east to west opposite to the direction of rotation of the earth on its
axis, then the relative velocity is determined by
→ → → → →
vse = vs – (– ve ) = vs + ve
ve ve
vs vs
(i) (ii)
Fig 3.23: (i) Satellite moving from west to east (ii) Satellite moving from east to west

Tips for MCQs
Quantitative Tips
1. Displacement of a body for two conditions:
(i) In uniform motion, s = ut
1
(ii) For uniformly accelerated motion, s = ut + 2 at2
2. The velocity of an object at a particular instant or at a particular point of its path is called its
¤ ¤
¤ lim Δ x dx
instantaneous velocity, v = = dt .
Δt ¤ 0 Δt
¤ ¤
¤ lim Δ v d v
Similarly, instantaneous acceleration is written as, a = = dt
Δt ¤ 0 Δt
a
3. Distance travelled in nth second: snth = u + 2 (2n – 1)
¤ ¤ ¤
4. Relative velocity of object A with respect to object B: v AB = v A – v B
¤ ¤ ¤
Similarly, relative velocity of object B with respect to object A: v BA = v B – v A
5. When vA and vB are inclined to each other at an angle θ, the relative velocity is
vB sin θ
vAB = v2A + v2B – 2vAvB cos θ and if vAB makes an angle β with vA, then tan β =
vA – vB cos θ
6. Equations of motion
Equations of motion in Equations of motion under gravity
straight line For downward motion For upward motion
v = u + at v = u + gt v = u – gt
1 1 1
s = ut + 2 at2 h = ut + 2 gt2 h = ut – 2 gt2
v2 = u2 + 2as v2 = u2 + 2gh v2 = u2 – 2gh

7. A projectile when fired horizontally from certain height:
2H 2H
Time of flight, T = g , Horizontal range, R = u g
velocity at any instant, v = u2 + g2t2
gt
and direction of velocity with respect to x direction, θ = tan–1 ⎛ u ⎞
⎝ ⎠
8. Projectile fired at an angle with the horizontal:
The time of flight, horizontal range, maximum vertical height and maximum horizontal range
travelled by a projectile is written as:
2u sin θ u2 sin 2θ
Time of flight, T = g Horizontal range, R = g
u2 sin2θ u2
Maximum height attained, H = 2g Maximum horizontal range, Rmax = g at θ = 45°
Conceptual Tips
1. Kinematics is the branch of mechanics that deals with the study of motion of objects without
considering the cause of motion.
2. No body can exist in a state of absolute rest or of absolute motion.
3. The magnitude of displacement is less than or equal to the actual distance travelled by the object in
the given time interval.
4. The speed, velocity and acceleration of a body can be defined in terms of uniform, variable, average
and instantaneous.
5. Free fall: In the absence of air resistance, all bodies fall with the same acceleration near the surface of
the earth. This motion of a body falling towards the earth from a small height is called free fall. The
acceleration with which a body falls is called acceleration due to gravity and is denoted by 'g'.
6. Position-time graph: It is the graph between the time 't' and position 'x' of a particle relative to a
fixed origin. Its slope at any point gives the instantaneous velocity at that point. (i) for a stationary
object, the position-time graph is a straight line parallel to the time –axis (ii) for a body in uniform
motion, the position-time graph is a straight line inclined to the time –axis (iii) For uniformly
accelerated motion, the position-time graph is a parabola.
7. For motion in one dimension, the velocity and acceleration are always along the same line either in
same direction (for accelerated motion) or in opposite direction (for decelerated motion).
8. For motion in two or three dimensions, the angle between velocity and acceleration vectors may have
any value between 0° and 180°.
9. A body is said to be a projectile if it is projected into space with some initial velocity and then it
continues to move in a vertical plane such that its horizontal acceleration is zero and vertical
acceleration is equal to g.
10. In projectile motion, the horizontal motion and the vertical motion are independent of each
other i.e., neither motion affects the other.
11. The horizontal range of projectile is maximum for θ = 45° and Rmax = u2/g.
12. The horizontal range is same when the angles of projection are θ and (90° – θ).
13. At the highest point of the parabolic path, the velocity and acceleration of a projectile are
perpendicular to each other.
14. In projectile motion, the kinetic energy is maximum at the point of projection or point just before
reaching the ground and is minimum at the highest point.
15. The trajectory of a projectile is parabolic only when the acceleration of the projectile is constant.
16. The shape of the trajectory of the motion of an object is not determined by position alone but also
depends on its initial position and initial velocity.
17. The relative velocity of an object B with respect to object A when both are in motion is the rate of
change of position of object B with respect to object A.
Quick Reply
1. At what points of the projectile path, the speed is minimum and maximum?
 The speed of projectile is minimum at the position of maximum height and is maximum at two
points: from where projectile is fired, and also, where the project returns on the plane.
2. What is the slope of v–t graph?
 The slope of v–t graph gives the acceleration at that instant.
3. What is the numerical ratio of velocity to speed of an object?
 Numerically, velocity is smaller than or equal to speed. Hence, the numerical ratio is smaller than 1,
i.e.,
|velocity|
|speed| ≤ 1.
The speed and velocity are equal only when the body moves in a straight line.
4. Which physical quantities remain unchanged in projectile motion?
 Horizontal component of velocity, acceleration and mechanical energy remains unchanged in
projectile motion.


1. A bomb is to be dropped from a moving helicopter on the ground. Explain how can it hit the target?
 A bomb that is dropped from a moving helicopter does not fall
directly downward rather it follows the parabolic path as if it
were thrown horizontally from a height with certain initial
velocity. Therefore, the bomb should be dropped from farther
distance equal to the horizontal range 'R' before the helicopter
reaches above the target as shown in figure aside.
The range for bomb must be,
H
2H
R=u g R
Where, u = speed of helicopter at the instant of dropping Target
H = vertical distance of helicopter from the ground.
2. If the displacement of a body is proportional to the square of time. State the nature of motion of the
body.
 Let s and t be the displacement of a body and its corresponding time of travel respectively.
According to the question,
s ∝ t2
s = k t2, where b is proportionality constant.
Differentiating with respect to t, twice, we get,
ds
dt = 2kt
d2s
dt2 = 2k
As we know second derivative of displacement in time gives the acceleration,
So, acceleration (a) = 2k = constant
Hence, the body travels with constant acceleration if s ∝ t2.
3. A boatman wants to take his boat to the opposite bank of a river in the shortest time. How does he
directed his boat and where does he reach?
 Suppose the boat is directed upstream an angle θ with perpendicular line joining two banks. Let t be
the time for the boat to reach the opposite bank, then,
AC AC
t=V =
SE VSR cosθ
For the least possible time, the value of cos θ must be maximum we know, the maximum value of cos
θ is unity (i.e., cos θ = 360°, or, θ = 0°).
It shows that the direction of boat head must be directed along the perpendicular line joining two
points of opposite banks of river as shown in fig. (ii). So, the minimum time must be
AC
t=V
SE
In such condition, the boat reaches the bank below the opposite point of bank as shown in fig. (ii).
B vRE C vRE
vSE
vSR vSR vSE
q q
A
5. Because of air resistance, two objects of unequal mass do not fall at precisely the same rate. If two
bodies of identical shape but unequal mass be dropped simultaneously from the same height, which
one reaches the ground first?
 The air provides the upthrust to any body that U
moves in air. This upward force is also called Acceleration (a1) = g – m … (i)
1
buoyant force. For an object, that moves in For another body of mass m2
fluid (like air), the net force acting on it is,
U
mg – U = ma acceleration (a2) = g – m … (ii)
2
U
where m = mass of falling body
For identical spheres, it is same for both objects.
U = upthrust provided by a If m1 < m2, a1 < a2.
buoyant force
It means heavier object falls faster than lighter
a = downward acceleration
object, if air resistance is taken in consideration.
For a body of mass m1
mg
m1g – U = m1a1
6. If a man wants to hit a target, in what direction should he point his missile?
1
 Every object suffers downward defection as it is thrown from the ground, with magnitude, y = 2 gt2.
If a man directs the missile straight to hit the targeted point, it reaches below the target as shown in
Fig. (i). So, the man should point missile above the target as shown in Fig (ii).
(i) Missing target (ii) Hitting target
7. Rain drops hitting the side windows of a car in motion often leave diagonal streaks. Why?
→ →
 Let vc and vr represent the velocity vector of car and rain respectively. In reality what we observe is
the relative velocity of rain w.r.t. car.
→ →
i.e., vr – vc
From Vector diagram, we fine
→
→ → |vc |
vr – vc makes an angle θ with the vertical given by, tan θ =
→
|vr |
Hence, rain drops hitting the side windows of a car in motion often leave
diagonal streaks.
8. A hunter aims his gun horizontally and fires a bullet directly towards a monkey sitting at a distant
tree. At the instant the bullet leaves the barrel, the monkey drops. Will the bullet hit the monkey?
1
 Yes. The vertical displacement of both the bullet and the monkey is y = 2 gt2, i.e., y α t2. Since both
the actions (leaving bullet and monkey's drop) are begun at the same time, the vertical displacement
is same for them. So, the bullet can hit the monkey.

9. A block slides down a smooth inclined plane when released from the top while another falls freely
from the same point. Which one of them will strike the ground earlier?
 Acceleration of freely falling block is equal to g = 9.8 ms–2, while that of the block sliding down the
smooth inclined plane is g sin θ (component of g). As g > g sin θ (for 0 < θ < 90). So, the block falling
freely will reach the ground earlier.
→ ∧ ∧ ∧ → ∧ ∧ ∧
10. Velocities of two bodies A and B are given in vector notation as vA = i + 2 j − 3k and vB = 3i + 2 j − k
respectively. What will be the relative velocity of B with respect to A in this notation?
→ ^ ^ ^
 Here, vA = i + 2j – 3k
→ ^ ^ ^
vB = 3i + 2j – k
→ → ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
∴ Relative velocity of B with respect to A is vB – vA = (3i + 2j – k) – (i + 2j – 3k) = 2i + 2k
Worked out Problems
1. The relation between t and x is t = a + bx + cx2 where a, b and c are constants. Express the
instantaneous acceleration in terms of instantaneous velocity.
SOLUTION
dv d 1 dx
So, dt = dx ⎛2cx + b⎞ . dt
Given, t = a + bx + cx2
dt ⎝ ⎠
Then, dx = b + 2cx
= –2c (2cx + b)–3
dx 1 dv – 2c
∴ Instantaneous velocity, v = dt = 2cx + b dt = (2cx + b)3
dv dv dx dv
But, dt = dx . dt ∴ a = dt = – 2cv3
∴ Instantaneous acceleration, a = 2cv3.
2. The speed-time graph of a particle moving along a fixed
direction is shown in figure below. Obtain the distance
travelled by the particle between (i) t = 0 to 10 s (ii) t = 2 to 6
s. What is the average speed of the particle in intervals in (i)
and (ii)?
SOLUTION
(i) The distance travelled by the particle between t = 0 to 10 s is
given by
s = Area of OAB
1 1
= 2 OB × AC = 2 × 10 × 12 = 60 m
60
Average speed = 10 = 6 ms–1
(ii) Acceleration of the particle during journey OA is given by

v = u + at
or, 12 = 0 + a × 5
∴ a = 24 ms–2

Similarly, acceleration of the particle during Distance travelled by the particle in t
journey AB is given by = 5 to 6 sec (in t = 1 sec) is given by
v = u + at 1
s2 = ut + 2 at2
0 = 12 + a × 5
∴ a = –2.4 ms–2 1
= 12 × 1 + 2 × (–2.4) × 12
The velocity of particle after 2 sec from start will be
v = u + at ∴ s2 = 10.8 m
or, = 0 + 2.4 × 2 Total distance travelled in t = 2 to 6 sec
∴ = 4.8 ms–1 s = s 1 + s2
Distance travelled by the particle between t = 25.2 m + 10.8 m
= 2 to 5 sec (in t = 3 sec) is given by ∴ s = 36 m.
1 Average speed in the interval t = 2 to 6 sec
s1 = ut + 2 at2 Total distance travelled 36
= Total time taken = 4
1
= 4.8 × 3 + 2 × 2.4 × 32 = 25.2 m
∴ v = 9 m s–1
3. A man wishes to swim across a river 600 m wide. If he can swim at the rate of 4 km/h in still water
and the river flows at 2 km/h. Then in what direction must he swim to reach a point exactly opposite
to the starting point and when will he reach it? v RE
SOLUTION
Width of river (d) = 600 m
Velocity of swimmer relative to river (vSR) = 4 kmh–1
vSE d
Velocity of river relative to earth (vRE) = 2 kmh–1 vSR θ
Direction of swimmer (θ) = ?

Time to cross river (t) = ?
The swimmer should swim upstream making an angle θ with the straight path,
In such problem, earth is taken as the reference relative to motion of both swimmer and river.
From figure alongside,
vRE 2 1
sin θ = v = 4 = 2
SR
∴ Direction, θ = 30°.
2 2
Also, the velocity of swimmer with respect to earth (vSE) = vSR – vRE
2 3 × 1000
= 42 – 22 = 2 3 kmh–1 = 3600 = 0.96 ms–1
Now, time to cross the river,

d 600
t = v = 0.96 = 625 s
SE
4. An aeroplane diving at angle of 37º with the horizontal drops a mail bag at an altitude of 730 m. The
projectile hits the ground 5.0 s after being released. What is the speed of the air craft?
SOLUTION
Given,
Angle below the horizontal (θ) = 37º
Height (H) = 730 m
Time (t) = 5.0 s

The required figure is shown below, using equation (i) in equation (ii), we get,
O (u sin 37º + 50)2 = (u sin 37°)2 + 14600
• ux
37º
uy u (u sin 37°)2 + 2 u sin 37° × 50 + 502
= (u sin 37°)2 + 14600
100 u sin 37° = 14600 – 2500
We know, vy = uy + gt
12100
= u sin 37º + 10 × 5 u =
100 sin 37°
= u sin 37º + 50 … (i)
u = 201.1 ms-1
Also, vy2 = uy2 + 2gh
Therefore, the speed of air craft is 201.1 ms–1.
= (u sin 37°)2 + 2 × 10 × 730
= (u sin 37°)2 + 14600 … (ii)
5. A stone is projected horizontally with 20 m/s from top of a tall building. Calculate its position and
velocity after 3 s neglecting the air resistance.
SOLUTION
Initial velocity (u) = 20 m/s
Let, the stone be at point P after 3 sec,
Now,
vx = u = 20 m/s
vy = uy + gt = 0 + 10 × 3 = 30 m/s
2 2
v = vx + vy = 202 + 302 = 1300 = 36.06 ms–1
Vertical distance, y is
1 1
y = uyt + 2 gt2 = 0 × 2 × 10 × 32 = 45 m
Horizontal distance x = u.t = 20 × 3 = 60 m
vy 30
Angle, θ = tan–1 ⎛ v ⎞ = tan–1 ⎛20⎞ = 56.3°
⎝ x⎠ ⎝ ⎠
So, the particle lies 45 m below the top of tower with an angle 56° with horizontal.
6. A projectile is launched with an initial velocity of 30 ms−1 at an angle of 60° above the horizontal.
Calculate the magnitude and direction of its velocity 5 s after launch.
SOLUTION
Given,
Initial velocity (u) = 30 m/s
Angle projection (θ) = 60°
Now, after 5 s
vx = u cos θ
= 30 × cos 60°
= 15 m/s
vy = uy – gt = 152 + 242 = 28.3 m/s
= u sin θ – gt vy
= 30 sin 60° – 10 × 5 tan φ = v
x
= – 24 m/s vy
or, φ = tan–1 v = 57°
2 2 x
v = vx + vy

7. A canoe has a velocity of 0.40 m/s southeast relative to the earth. The canoe is on a river that is
flowing 0.50 m/s east relative to the earth. Find the velocity (magnitude and direction) of the canoe
relative to the river.
SOLUTION
Given, Here,
Velocity of Canoe with respect to earth ¤ ¤ ¤ ¤
vcr = v ce + v re = v1 + v2
v1 = vce = 0.40 ms-1
Velocity of Canoe with respect to river = v12 + v22 + 2v1v2 cos 135°
v2 = vre = 0.50 ms-1 = (0.4)2 + (0.5)2 – 2 × 0.4 × 0.5 cos 135°
The figure for the given problem is shown vcr = 0.36 ms-1
below, Let β be the angle of velocity of the Canoe
North relative to the river, (vce) with respect to west,
vce sin 135° 0.4 sin 135°
tan β = =
–vre v2= vre vcr + vce cos 135° 0.5 + 0.4 cos 135°
West East
β 45° β = 52.5°
θ 135°
Now, from figure
vce
vcr South β + θ = 90°
θ = 90° – β = 90° – 52.5 = 37.5° ≈ 38°
i.e., 38° west of south

1. A rocket carrying a satellite is accelerating straight up from the earth surface. At 1.15 s after liftoff,
the rocket clear the top of its launch platform, 63 m above the ground. After an additional
4.75 s, it is 1.00 km above the ground. Calculate the magnitude of the average velocity of the rocket
for (a) 4.75 s part of its flight (b) the first 5.90 s of its flight. Ans: 197 ms–1, 170 ms–1
2. A car is stopped at traffic light. It then travels along a straight road so that its distance from the light
is given by x(t) = bt2 – ct3, where b = 2.40 m/s2 and c = 0.120 m/s3. (a) Calculate the instantaneous
velocity of car at (i) t = 0; (ii) t = 9.0 s; (iii) t = 10.0 s. (b) How long after starting from rest is the car
again at rest? Ans: (a) (i) 12 ms–1 (ii) 0, 15 ms–1 (iii) 12 ms–1; (b) 13.3 s
3. A squirrel has x- and y-coordinates (1.1 m, 3.4 m) at time t1 = 0 and coordinates (5.3 m, – 0.5 m) at
time t2 = 3.0 s. For this interval find (a) the components of average velocity (b) the magnitude and
direction of the average velocity. Ans: (a) 1.4 ms–1,–1.3 ms–1 (b) 1.9 ms–1, –43°
4. A rhinoceros is at the origin of coordinates at time t1 = 0. For the time interval from t1 = 0
to t2 = 12.0 s, the rhino's average velocity has x-component –3.8 ms–1 and y-component 4.9 ms–1. At
time t2 = 1.0 s (a) What are the x and y coordinates of the rhino? (b) How far is the rhino from the
origin? Ans: (a) –45.6 m, 58.8 m (b) 74.4 m
¤
5. A web page designer creates an animation in which a dot on a computer screen has a position of r =
∧ ∧
[4.0 cm + (2.5 cm/s2)t2] i + (5.0 cm/s)t j . (a) Find the magnitude and direction of dot's average
velocity between t = 0 and t = 2.0 s. (b) Find the magnitude and direction of instantaneous velocity at
t = 0, t = 1.0 s and t = 2.0 s. Ans: (a) 7.1 cms–1, 45°; (b) 5.0 cms–1, 90°, 7.1 cms–1, 11.0 cms–1, 27°
6. A jet plane is flying at a constant altitude. At time t1 = 0 it has components of velocity vx = 90 m/s,
vy= 110 m/s. At time t2 30.0 s the components are vx = 170 m/s, vy = 40 m/s. For this time interval
calculate (a) the components of the average acceleration (b) the magnitude and direction of average
acceleration. Ans: (a) –8.67 ms–2, –2.33 ms–2; (b) 8.98 ms–2, 195°
7. A tennis ball rolls off the edge of table top 0.750 m above the floor and strikes the floor at a point 1.40
m horizontally from the edge of the table. You can ignore air resistance. (a) Find the time of flight. (b)
Find the magnitude of initial velocity. (c) Find the magnitude and direction of the velocity of the ball
just before it strikes the floor. Ans: 0.78 s, 4.2 ms–1, 7.7 ms–1, 8.8 ms–1

8. A pistol that fires a signal flare gives the flare an initial speed (muzzle speed) of 120 m/s. (a) If the
flare is fixed at an angle of 55° above the horizontal on the level salt flats of Utah. What is it
horizontal range? You can ignore air resistance. (b) If the flare is fired at the same angle over the flot
sea of tranquility on the moon where g = 1.6 m/s2, what is its horizontal range? Ans: 1381 m, 8457 m
9. A river flows due south with a speed of 2.0 m/s. A man steers a motorboat across the river; his
velocity relative to the water is 4.2 m/s due east. The river is 800 m wide. (a) What is his velocity
relative to the earth? (b) How much time is required to cross the river? (c) How far south of his
starting point will he reach the opposite bank? Ans: 25° south of east, 190 s, 380 m
10. A car moving with a velocity of 10 ms–1 accelerates uniformly at 1 ms–2 until it reaches a velocity of
15 ms–1. Calculate (i) the time taken (ii) the distance traveled during the acceleration (iii) the velocity
when it reached 100 m from the place where the acceleration began. Ans: (i) 5 s (ii) 62.5 m, (iii) 17.3 m/s
11. A ball is dropped from a height 20 m and rebounds with a velocity which is ¾ of the velocity with
which it hits the ground. What is the time interval between first and second bounces? Ans: 3 s
12. A ball is thrown forward from the top of a cliff with a velocity of 10 ms–1. The height of the cliff above
the ground is 45 m. Calculate (i) the time to reach the ground (ii) the distance from the cliff of the ball
on hitting the ground and (iii) the direction of the ball to the horizontal just before it hits the ground,
take g = 10 ms–2. Ans: 3 s, 30 m, 71.6°
13. A small smooth object slides from rest down a smooth inclined plane inclined at 30° to the horizontal.
What is (i) the acceleration down the plane, (ii) the time to reach the bottom if the plane is
5 m long? The object is now thrown up the plane with an initial velocity of 15 m/s. (iii) How long
does the object take to come to rest? (iv) How far up the plane has the object then travelled?
Ans: 5 m/s 2 , 1.41 s, 3 s, 22.5 m
14. A stone attached to a string is whirled round in a horizontal circle with a constant speed of 10 m s–1.
Calculate the difference in the velocity when the stone is (i) at opposite ends of a diameter and (ii) in
two positions A and B where angle AOB is 90° and O is the centre of the circle. Ans: 20 m/s, 14.14 m/s
Exercise
1. Can speed ever be negative?
2. What is the slope of s–t (displacement – time) graph?
3. What does the area under v–t graph give?
4. Can a body have zero velocity and still be accelerating?
5. A bullet fired vertically upwards falls at the same place after some time. What is the displacement of
the bullet?
6. What does the speedometer of a car measure: average speed or instantaneous speed?
7. Why does time occur twice in the unit of acceleration?
8. Can a particle with zero acceleration speed up?
9. Can a body subjected to a uniform acceleration always move in a straight line?
10. Under what condition will the distance and the displacement of a moving object have the same
magnitude?
11. What does the area under acceleration time graph represent?
12. What are the horizontal and vertical components of acceleration of a body thrown horizontally with
uniform speed?
13. Can there be motion in two dimensions with acceleration in only one dimension?
14. A projectile fired at angle of 35° has certain horizontal range. State another angle of projection for the
same horizontal range.
15. Is it ever possible to score a hit of a bomber releases a bomb directly above the room? Explain.
16. Which component of velocity remains unchanged during the flight of an oblique angle?
17. At what angle of projection from the ground, the horizontal range is maximum?
Short Questions
1. Can a body be in motion and at rest at the same time?
2. What is the difference between uniform and non-uniform acceleration?
3. The magnitude as well as the direction of acceleration of a particle is constant. Will its path be
definitely rectilinear?
4. Distinguish between average velocity and instantaneous velocity. If the velocity does not change
from instant to instant, will the average velocities be different for the different intervals?
5. Show that there are two angles of projection of a projectile for the same horizontal range.
6. Among the three balls, the ratio of their masses is m1 : m2 : m3. If they are dropped at a time from the
same height, which one will reach the ground first? (neglecting air resistance)
7. Can a body have eastward velocity but westward acceleration? What we call for such that type of
acceleration?
8. Give an example which shows that positive acceleration can be associated with a slowing down
object.
9. Can a body subjected to a uniform acceleration always move in a straight line?
10. Under constant acceleration, the average velocity of a particle is half the sum of its initial and final
velocities. Is this still true if the acceleration is not constant? Explain.
11. A package falls out of an aeroplane that is flying in a straight line at a constant altitude and speed. If
air resistance is neglected, what would be the path of the package as observed by the pilot? As
observed by the person on the ground?
12. A body is thrown vertically upward with initial velocity of 40 m/s. Draw the v-t diagram for the
body.
13. A projectile moves in a parabolic path without air resistance. Is there any point at which its
acceleration is perpendicular to the velocity? Explain.
14. Can a object with constant acceleration reverse its direction? Explain.
15. Can a body have a constant speed but changing velocity? Explain with example.
16. Give with an example a case where the velocity of an object is zero but its acceleration is non-zero.
17. A swimmer wants to reach a point just opposite of a bank of a river, how should he dive to achieve
his goal?
18. From a high tower, one ball is dropped from rest and second ball is simultaneously projected
horizontally neglecting air resistance, which ball will reach the ground earlier?
19. Find the angle of projection at which the horizontal range and maximum height of a projectile are
equal.
20. What would be the effect on maximum range in doubling the initial velocity of a projectile?
21. A projectile is fired out at an angle 18° has certain horizontal range. State another angle of projection
for the same horizontal range.
22. Under what condition is the average velocity equal to the instantaneous velocity?
23. Two balls of different masses (one lighter and other heavier) are thrown upward with same speed.
Which one will rise to greater height?
24. At what point in its trajectory does a projectile have its (i) minimum speed (ii) maximum speed?
25. What will be the effect on maximum height of a projectile when its angle of projection is changed
from 30° to 60°, keeping the same initial velocity of projection?
26. A projectile of mass m is fired with velocity v at an angle θ with the horizontal. What is the change in
momentum as it rises to the highest point of the trajectory?

27. Draw position-time graphs for two objects having zero relative velocity.
28. When an observer is standing on earth, the trees and houses appear stationary to him. However
when he is sitting in a moving train, all these objects appear to move in backward direction. Why?
29. Two stones P and Q of different masses m and 2 m respectively are dropped simultaneously from the
top of a tower and reach the ground with different energies. Which one is faster?
Long Questions
1
1. Prove the equations analytically and graphically (i) s = ut + 2 at2 (ii) v2 = u2 + 2as.
2. Derive the expression for the displacement travelled by a body in nth second.
3. Define projectile. Show that the path of a projectile projected horizontally from the top of a tower is
parabolic. Calculate the time of flight and horizontal range travelled by the projectile.
4. Show that the path followed by a projectile fired at an angle of θ with a horizontal is a parabola and
derive general expression for the time of flight and horizontal range.
5. Calculate the horizontal range and maximum height travelled by the projectile when fired at an angle
of θ with a horizontal.
6. What is relative velocity? Describe a method for calculation of velocity of a body A relative to
another body B when they are moving making by an angle θ.

LEVEL I
1. A batter hits a baseball so that it leaves the bat with an initial speed 37 m/s at an angle of 53º. Find
the position of the ball and the magnitude and direction of its velocity after 2 seconds. (Treat the
baseball as a projectile). Ans: 24.23 ms–1, 23.21°
2. A car travelling with a speed of 15 m/s is braked and is slowed down with uniform retardation. It
covers a distance of 88 m as its velocity reduce to 7 m/s. If the car continues to slow down with the
same rate, how far will the car travel becoming to rest? Ans: 24.5 m
3. A bullet fired into a fixed target loses one third of its velocity after penetrating 2 cm. How much
farther will it penetrate before coming to rest assuming that it faces constant resistance to motion?
Ans: 0.25 cm
4. A body is projected horizontally from the top of a tower 100 m high with a velocity of 9.8 ms-1. Find
the velocity with which it hits the ground. Ans: 45.76 m/s, 77.63°
5. A bullet is fired with a velocity of 100 m/s from the ground at an angle of 60° with the horizontal.
Calculate the horizontal range covered by the bullet. Also, calculate the maximum height attained.
Ans: 866 m, 375 m
6. A ball is thrown vertically upwards with the velocity of 20 m/s from the top of a multi-storey
building. The height of the point from where the ball is thrown is 25.0 m from the ground.
(a) How high will the ball rise?
(b) How long will it be before the ball hits the ground? Take g = 10 m/s2 Ans: (a) 20 m, (b) 5s
7. A cricket ball is thrown at a speed of 28 ms–1 in a direction of 30° above the horizontal. Calculate
(a) the maximum height.
(b) the time taken by the ball to return to the same level.
(c) the distance from the thrower to the point where the ball returns to the same level.
Ans: (a) 10 m, (b) 2.9 s, (c) 69.3 m

∧ ∧
8. A projectile is thrown with an initial velocity of x i + y j . The range of the projectile is twice the
y
maximum height of the projectile. Calculate x. Ans: 2: 1
9. Prove that the velocity at the end of flight of an oblique projectile is the same in magnitude as at the
beginning but the angle that it makes with the horizontal is negative of the angle of projection.
10. A football is kicked with the velocity of 20 ms–1 at a projection angle of 45°. A receiver on the goal
line 25 m away in the direction of the kick runs the same instant to meet the ball. What must be his
speed if he has to catch the ball before it just hits the ground? Ans: 5.5 ms–1
11. An aircraft is flying at a height of 3400 m above the ground. If the angle subtended at a ground
observation point by the aircraft positions 10 s apart is 30°. What is the speed of the aircraft?
Ans: 182.2 ms – 1
12. Rain is falling vertically with a speed of 30 ms–1. A woman rides a bicycle with a speed 10 ms–1 from
the north to south direction. What is the direction in which she should hold her umbrella? Ans: 18°26'
13. An antelope moving with constant acceleration covers the distance between two points 70.0 m apart
in 7.00 s. Its speed as it passes the second point is 15.0 m/s. (a) What is the speed of first point? (b)
What is the acceleration? Ans: 5 ms–1, 1.43 ms–2
14. A subway train starts from rest at a station and accelerates at a rate of 1.60 m/s for 14.0 s. It runs at
2
constant speed for 70.0 s and slows down at a rate of 3.50 m/s2 until it stops at next station. Find the
total distance covered. Ans: 156.8 m, 1568 m. 1796.48 m
15. A ball is thrown vertically upward with an initial speed of 20 ms–1. Calculate (i) the time taken to
return to the thrower (ii) the maximum height reached [g = 10 m/s2]. Ans: 4 s, 20 m
16. A projectile is fired with a velocity of 320 ms–1 at an angle of 30° to the horizontal. Find (i) the time to
reach its greatest height (ii) its horizontal range and (iii) with the same velocity, what is the
maximum possible range? Ans: 16 s, 8868 m, 10240 m
LEVEL II
1. The velocity time graph is shown in the figure below. Calculate the displacement and distance from
the graph action 5 sec.
v(m/s)
1 2 3 4 5 t(s)
-1
-2
Ans: displacement = 3 m, distance = 5 m
2. The variation of velocity of a particle moving along a straight

line is shown in figure below. Calculate the distance
traversed in 4 seconds.
Ans: 55 m

3. A man can swim with a speed of 4.0 km/h in still water. How long does he take to cross a river 1.0
km wide if the river flows steadily at 3.0 km/h and he makes his stroke normal to the river current?
How far down the river, does he go when he reaches the other bank? Ans: 15 min, 750 m
4. In a harbour, wind is blowing at the speed of 72 km/h and the flag on the mast of a boat anchored in
the harbour flutters along the north-east direction. If the boat starts moving at a speed of 51 km/h to
the north. What is the direction of the flag on the mast of the boat? Ans: 45.10°, almost due east
5. A man stands on the roof of 15 m tall building and throws a rock with a velocity of magnitude
30 ms–1 at an angle of 33° above the horizontal. You can ignore air resistance. Calculate
(a) The maximum height above the roof reached by the rock.
(b) The magnitude of the velocity of the rock just before it strikes the ground.
(c) The horizontal distance from the base of the building to the point where the rock strikes the
ground. Ans: (a) 13.6 m (b) 34.6 ms–1 (c) 102 m
6. A boat crossing a wide river moves with a speed of 10.0 kmh–1 relative to water. The water in the
river has a uniform speed of 5.0 kmh–1 due to earth relative to the earth. (a) If the boat heads due
north, determine velocity of the boat relative to the observer standing on either bank. (b) If the boat
travel with the same speed of 10.0 kmh–1 relative to the river and is to travel due north, what should
its heading be? Ans: (a) 11.2 kmh–1, 26.6° (b) 866 kmh–1, 30.0°
7. The coordinates of bird flying in the xy-plane are given by x(t) = αt and y(t) = 30 – βt2 where
α = 2.4 m/s and β = 1.2 m/s2. Calculate the velocity and acceleration vectors of the bird as functions
∧ ∧
of time, t1 = 0 and t2 = 2 s. Ans: (a) 0.0 i – 2β j (b) 5.4 ms–1, –63°, 2.4 ms–2, –90°
8. An airplane is flying with a velocity 90.0 m/s at an angle of 23° above the horizontal. When the plane
is 114 m directly above a dog that is standing on level ground, a suitcase drops out of the luggage
compartments. How far from the dog will the suitcase land? You can ignore air resistance.
Ans: 795 m
9. An airplane pilot wishes to fly due west. A wind of 80.0 km/h is blowing toward the south. (a) If the
air speed of the plane (its speed in still air) is 320.0 km/h, in which direction should the pilot head?
(b) What is the speed of the plane over the ground? Ans: 14.5°, 310 km/s
10. A body falls freely from top of a tower. During the last second of its fall, it falls through 25 m. Find
the height of the tower. Ans: 45 m
11. A car is running on a straight road with accelerating motion. It travels 10 m distance in 3rd second
after the start and 12 m in 5th second. Now, what distance does it travel in 10th second after its start.
Ans: 17 m
12. An object is dropped from the top of the tower of height 156.8 m. and at the same time another object
is thrown vertically upward with the velocity of 78.1 ms-1 from the foot of the tower, when and
where the object meet? Ans: 20 m from top of the tower after 2 s
13. A swimmer's speed along the river (downstream) is 20 km/h and can swim up-stream at 8 km/h.
Calculate the velocity of the stream and the swimmer's possible speed in still water. Ans: 6 km/h
14. A base ball is thrown towards a player with an initial velocity 20 ms-1 and 45° with the horizontal. At
the moment the ball is thrown, the player is 50 m from the thrower. At what speed and in what
direction must he run to catch the ball at the same height at which it was released?
Ans: 10 m, 2.83 s, 3.5 ms–1 towards the thrower


1. A particle starting from the origin (0, 0) moves in a straight line in the (x, y) plane. Its coordinates at a
later time are ( 3, 3). The path of the particle makes with the x-axis an angle of:
a. 45° b. 60° c. 0° d. 30°
2. If a particle is projected in at angle of 45°, then the relation between range and maximum height
attained by the particle is
a. R = 4H b. 4R = H c. 2H = R d. None of these
3. A cannon ball has a range R on a horizontal plane, such that the corresponding possible maximum
heights reached are H1 and H2. Then, the correct expression for R is
H 1 + H2
a. 2 b. [H1H2]1/2 c. 2[H1H2]1/2 d. 4[H1H2]1/2
4. The motion of a particle along a straight line is described by equation x = 8 + 12t – t3 where x is in
metre and t in second. The retardation of the particle, when its velocity becomes zero is
a. 12 ms–2 b. 24 ms–2 c. zero d. 6 ms–2
5. A boat goes across a river with a velocity 12 kmh–1. The magnitude of its resultant speed in flowing
water is 13 kmh–1. The velocity of water flow in the river is
a. 5 kmh–1 b. 7 kmh–1 c. 9 kmh–1 d. 1 kmh–1
6. In the entire path of a projectile, the quantity that remains unchanged is
a. vertical component of velocity b. horizontal component of velocity
c. kinetic energy e. potential energy
7. The sum of magnitudes of two forces acting at a point is 16 N and their resultant 8 3 N is at 90° with
the force of smaller magnitude. The two forces (in N) are
a. 11, 5 b. 9, 7 c. 6, 10 d. 2, 14
¤ ¤ ¤ ¤ ¤ ¤
8. If | a . b | = | a × b |, then angle between a and b will be
a. 30º b. 45° c. 60° d. 90°
9. A particle is travelling along a straight line OX. The distance x (in metre) of the particle from O at a
time t is given by x = 37 + 27t – t3, where t is time in seconds. The distance of the particle from O
when it comes to rest is
a. 81 m b. 91 m c. 101 m d. 111 m
ANSWERS
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (a) 5. (a) 6. (b) 7. (d) 8. (b) 9. (b)


DYNAMICS
4.1 Introduction
Imagine a ball is rolling on a plane surface along a straight line. Will the ball finally stop? Your
answer is definitely, yes! But from the view of physicist, the ball will never come to rest. Who among
you is correct?
It is your right to think that ball will stop because you have seen such situations in your daily life.
Have you ever thought why does the ball stop? Actually the ball rolling along a straight line faces
many external obstacles (forces) such as friction with ground, air resistance, etc. So, the ball
continuously loses energy and finally stops. How would the situation change, if there were no
resistive forces? The answer is, the ball would continue in its state of motion. Because in the absence
of external forces, a body in the state of uniform motion continues its motion and a body at rest
always remains at rest.
So, we come up with a conclusion here, external force is responsible to change the state of a body. An
externally applied force can bring a moving body to rest and can move a body at rest.
The branch of physics that deals with the motion of a body along with the cause is called dynamics.
Dynamics tells us, why bodies move from rest, why do they accelerate/decelerate? etc.
The study of motion of a body was first initiated by Galileo Galilei and was led to the conclusion that
body continues to move with the same velocity if no external force acts on it. Later Sir Issac Newton
studied the problem of motion in detail and enunciated three laws governing the motion of a body
which are called Newton's Laws of motion. These laws do not have a formal proof. However, we
believe they are correct because all the theoretical results obtained by assuming their truth agree
with experimental observations.
4.2 Newton's First Law of Motion and Inertia

Newton's first law of motion states that, "every object in this universe continues to be in its own state of
rest or uniform motion along a straight line unless acted upon by an external agency existing in the form of
push or pull that brings about the change in state of a body". Thus, our answer to why do bodies accelerate
or decelerate is certainly the force.
Here, by force, we mean the unbalanced force. A system of balanced force cancel each other out so
that they have no net effect.
Remember, the change of state is brought about only by the external force not the internal force. You
can't pull yourself up by your bootstraps because it would involve one part of your body exerting
force on another part. That means the force would be internal.

Dynamics |Chapter 4| 93
According to this law, every object has a tendency to preserve its state of rest or uniform motion
unless acted by unbalanced external force. This tendency of the body is called inertia. Thus, first law
of motion is sometimes called as law of inertia. Inertia is the inherent property of every material
particles and can be of following two types:
(i) inertia of motion
(ii) inertia of rest
The tendency of a body to continue its initial state of uniform motion is called inertia of motion.
When a running bus suddenly stops, the passengers jerk forward. It is because, when the bus stops,
the lower part of the body in contact with the bus comes to rest but upper part tends to remain in its
own state of motion due to inertia of motion. So, a passenger is jerked forward. There are several
other examples of inertia of motion; a passenger getting out of a moving bus falls in forward
direction. A passenger experiences a sideway jerk when bus takes a sharp turn. This is because the
feet of person follows the change in direction of motion but upper part of body due to inertia of
motion continues for a while in the original direction. Such inertia is called inertia of direction and is
defined as the tendency of a body to preserve its direction of motion.
Similarly, the tendency of a body to continue its original state of rest is called inertia of rest. Some
practical examples of inertia of rest are:
(i) On shaking the branch of a tree, the fruits fall down.
(ii) When a bus suddenly starts moving, the passengers fall backward.
(iii) A coin placed on a card board over a glass falls into the glass if the cardboard is suddenly
removed.
Moreover, we have to be clear that a body is unable to change its state by itself. This inability is
called inertia. Further, the force tends to cause change in translatory motion while inertia opposes it.
Thus, force and inertia have opposite roles.
It is our common experience that lighter objects require less force to change their state of rest or
motion in comparison to heavier ones. This means lighter object has small inertia and heavier has
large inertia i.e., inertial property of a body depends on mass. Hence, it can be inferred that, mass is
the measure of inertia, and both are measured in same units.
4.3 Linear Momentum and Newton's Second Law of Motion

The word momentum has several meanings in everyday language but only a single precise meaning
in physics. We have previously discussed that, greater force is required to stop a heavy moving body
and also its our common experience that a body moving with greater velocity too requires greater
force to stop it. This means the effect of force on a moving body depends on both mass and velocity.
The physical quantity that depends combined on both mass and velocity is called linear momentum
and is the measure of quantity of motion contained in a body. A body at rest has no linear
momentum. Linear momentum is mathematically defined as the product of mass of the body and its
linear velocity. Being the product of a mass (scalar) and velocity (vector), linear momentum is a
vector quantity whose direction is same as that of velocity.
¤ ¤
If p be the linear momentum of a body of mass (m) moving with linear velocity ( v ) then,
¤ ¤
p = mv … (4.1)
The SI unit of linear momentum is kg m/s and its dimensional formula is [MLT–1].
As we can see from definition, momentum of a body will be large if either its mass or its velocity or
both are large.

Suppose a ball of mass M1 and a car of mass M2 (M2 > M1) are moving with same velocity (v). If p1
and p2 are the momentum of ball and car respectively then,
p1 M1v
p2 = M2v
p1 M1
∴ p2 = M2 … (4.2)
Since M1 < M2, it follows that p2 > p1. Thus, we see, if two objects are moving with same velocity,
then greater mass will have greater linear momentum. Similarly, if two bodies of same mass are
moving with different velocities, then body moving with greater velocity will have greater linear
momentum.
Finally, if two different bodies of masses M1 and M2 moving with velocities v1 and v2 have equal
linear momenta (plural of momentum), then,
M1v1 = M2v2
v 1 M2
∴ v 2 = M1 … (4.3)
If M2 > M1 then, v2 < v1. Thus, if two bodies of different masses posses same momentum, then lighter
body possesses greater velocity.
Let us now turn to the physical meaning of linear momentum. We know, mass of a body is usually a
constant quantity. So, if the linear momentum of a body changes, then it is due to the change in its
velocity. This change in velocity causes acceleration. And from Newton's first law, we can say with
certainty that acceleration is caused by force. We now find here a link that, greater the force, greater
will be the change in velocity and hence the change in momentum.
Newton expressed the relation between force and linear momentum in his second law of motion.
According to this law, "the time rate of change of linear momentum of a body is equal to the resultant force
acting on the body and is in the direction of that force."
¤ ¤ ¤
If p be the momentum (linear) of a body of mass m moving with velocity v and F is the net external
force acting on it then,
¤
¤ dp
F = dt … (4.4)
This law leads to the quantitative measurement of force.

We know,
¤ ¤
p = mv … (4.5)
¤
¤ d ¤ dv
F = dt (m v ) = m dt
¤
dv ¤
But, dt = a is the acceleration produced on the body.
Thus, we can write,

¤ ¤
F = ma … (4.6)
In this way, Newton's second law measures the force as a product of mass of a body and acceleration
produced on it.
Further, if no net force act on the body then,
¤
dp
dt = 0
Integrating above equation, we get,
¤
p = constant
¤ ¤
∴ p = m v = constant
¤
Thus, in the absence of external force, the linear momentum ( p ) of the body is constant and hence
body moves with constant velocity. Since, the force is the product of a mass (scalar) and a
acceleration (vector); it is a vector quantity whose direction is along the direction of acceleration. The
SI unit of force is newton (N) and its dimensional formula is [MLT–2].
In equation (4.6), if m = 1 kg and a = 1 ms–2 then F = 1 N.
Thus, one newton force is the force which produces an acceleration of 1 ms–2 when applied to a mass of
1 kg.
EXAMPLE 1: (a) What is the magnitude of the momentum of a 10,000 kg truck whose speed is 12.0 m/s? (b) What speed
would a 2,000 kg sport utility vehicles having to attain in order to have the same momentum?
SOLUTION
Given, Required velocity of the vehicle = v'
mass (m) = 10,000 kg For the same momentum
velocity (v) = 12.0 ms-1 m'u' = 1.2 × 105
a. Momentum, p = mv 1.2 × 105
u' = 2‚000 = 60 ms-1
= 10,000 × 12 = 1.2 × 10 kg ms
5 -1
b. Mass of sport utility vehicle (m') =2,000 kg

 Check Point: A force of 10 N acts on a body for 3 micro second. If the mass of the body is 5 g.
Calculate change of velocity. Ans: 6 × 10–3 ms–1
4.4 Newton's Third Law of Motion and Conservation of

Linear Momentum
Have you ever hit a concrete wall with your bare hands? What are the consequences? Definitely, you
will hurt your hand. What may be the reason behind this? Let us now give a closer look to the
situation. When you hit the wall with your hand, you exert the force on the wall which we usually
call action. In response, the wall also exerts force on your hand (reaction), as a result you get hurt.
This information regarding the origin of forces in nature is provided by Newton's third law of
motion. According to this law, whenever a force acts on a body then it is the result of interaction with another
body. So, this law is also called as law of interaction. When two bodies interact with each other, they
exert forces on one another which are equal in magnitude but always acts in opposite direction i.e.,
forces always exist in pairs of action and reaction.
Statement: Forces always exist in pairs of action and reaction and to every action there is equal but opposite
reaction.
These forces though equal in magnitude and opposite in direction; do not cancel each other because
they act on two different bodies. However, these forces act along the same line. These forces produce
acceleration on each of the body in which they act. For example: the earth exerts gravitational force
(Fg) on a projectile of mass (m) causing it to accelerate towards the centre of earth with acceleration g
Fg
= m . According to third law of motion, the projectile in turn exerts a force on earth equal in
magnitude but opposite in direction. Thus, the projectile exerts a force Fg on earth towards itself. If
this were the only force acting on earth, the earth would have the acceleration toward the projectile

Fg
of magnitude a = M , where ME is the mass of earth. Because of large mass of earth, the acceleration
E
it experiences due to this force is negligible and unobserved. There are large numbers of other
practical examples of application of third law of motion. For example: walking, rowing boat,
launching rocket, etc., how?
There is a simplest but important consequence of third law for two isolated objects, when the only
force on them are the ones they exert on one another. Let F12 be the force exerted by body 2 on body 1
having mass m1 and velocity v1 and F21 be the force exerted by body 1 on body 2 having mass m2 and
velocity v2 during their collision.
Then, according to Newton's second law of motion,
dv1 dv2
F12 = m1 dt and F21 = m2 dt
Applying Newton's third law of motion,
F21 = – F12
d
or, 0 = F12 + F21 = dt (m1 v1 + m2 v2)
which on integration yields,
m1 v1 + m2 v2 = constant
Here, m1 v1 and m2 v2 are the momenta of each body 1 and 2 respectively. Thus, we see that the sum
of momenta of bodies remain constant in time and this is known as conservation of linear
momentum. In fact, Newton seems to have arrived at this statement of action and reaction by
studying momentum of the bodies.
Apparent weight
The weight of a man measured by a weighing machine is in fact the reaction of the machine on the
body. This reaction is different when a body is moving rather than when it is at rest. The weight
measured by a moving weighing machine is called apparent weight i.e., it is the reaction of a moving
weighing machine on the body.
Let a man of mass m is standing over a weighing machine kept on a lift. Let R be the reaction of
weighing machine on the man.
R R R
R
v=0 v = constant a a a =g a>g
a=0 a=0
mg
mg mg mg mg mg
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi)
Fig. 4.1: Apparent weight in lift

Let us now consider following different cases.
(i) When the lift is at rest: In this condition, acceleration is zero, so net force is zero. This is
possible when,
R – mg = ∑F [But, ∑F = 0]
∴ R = mg … (4.7)
At this condition, the weighing machine gives the true weight of the man.

(ii) When the lift is moving with uniform speed upward or downward: Since the speed is
uniform, the net acceleration of the system is zero. So, net force is also zero.
i.e., R – mg = 0
∴ R = mg … (4.8)
In this case also, the weighing machine measures true weight.
(iii) When the lift is accelerating upward: Since the lift is accelerating upward, there must be a net
force, ∑F producing an acceleration 'a',
i.e., ∑F = ma
But, the reaction force 'R' acts in upward direction and 'mg' acts in downward direction. So,
∑ F = R – mg
or, ma = R – mg
∴ R = ma + mg … (4.9)
This shows that, the weighing machine measures more weight than the actual weight of man.
(iv) When the lift is accelerating downward: In this case, the net force ∑F producing an acceleration
'a' is
∑F = mg – R
or, ma = mg – R
∴ R = mg – ma … (4.10)
Thus, the weighing machine records less weight than the actual weight.
(v) Accidentally, if the rope of the lift is detached, then lift falls downward with acceleration a =
g. Then, from equation (4.10),
R = mg – mg = 0
i.e., weighing machine records no weight. In such situation, we feel weightlessness.
(vi) If somehow, a > g i.e., downward acceleration is greater than g. Then, from equation (4.10),
R will be negative which means, the man will stick on the ceiling of the lift.
Note: An ascending rocket can be compared to a machine gun pointed vertically downward and firing a steady
stream of blank cartridges. The cartridges fired from the gun acquire a downward momentum while the
recoiling machine gun acquires an equal upward momentum.
Rocket
Recoiling propulsion (up)
gun (up)
Burnt gas
Cartridge (down) (down)
Horse-Cart Problem
The Fig. 4.2 below represents a horse of mass 'M' pulling a cart of mass 'm' along a horizontal surface.
The motion of horse can be explained as follows. As the horse pulls the cart, it exerts a force f on the
ground with its foot inclined to the ground. According to Newton's third law, the ground also exerts
an equal and opposite reaction R on the horse. This reaction force can be resolved into two
components; vertical components V and horizontal component H as shown in Fig. 4.2. The
component V balances the weight Mg of horse whereas the component H being greater than the
tension T acting opposite to it in the string, helps the horse to move forward. If 'a' be the acceleration
of horse, then,
H – T = Ma
R'
T T
•
V R
F H
mg f
Mg
Fig. 4.2: Horse pulling the cart
Similarly, the motion of cart can be explained as follows. Basically two types of forces act on the cart.
One is the frictional force F between the tyres and the ground which tends to oppose the motion of
cart and the other is tension T on rope which acts forward by reaction R, due to horse.
If T > F, then,
T – F = ma
As the horse and cart move, the tensions due to horse on cart and that due to cart on horse cancel
each other. In summary, the total number of forces acting on the horse-cart system is (i) frictional
force F between the tyres of cart and ground and (ii) horizontal component H of reaction R due to
ground on horse. So, when H > F, the whole system sets in motion.
Therefore adding above two equations, we get,
H – F = (M + m) a
H–F
∴ a= M + m … (4.11)
This gives the acceleration of the system.
4.5 Principle of Conservation of Linear Momentum

This principle states that, "if a system is isolated so that no net external force acts on it, then the total linear
momentum of the system remains constant".
¤
i.e., Linear momentum ( p ) = constant
It may also be stated as, for a closed, isolated system the total linear momentum (pi) at some initial
time is equal to total liner momentum (pf) at same later time.
i.e., pi = pf
Let us consider two bodies A and B of masses m1 and m2 moving initially with velocities u1 and u2
(u1> u2) respectively along a straight line in the same direction as shown in Fig. 4.3.
m2 m2
m1 m1
u1 u2 v1 v2
A B F2 F1
Fig.4.3: Collision between two spheres moving in same direction along a straight line

Let the bodies interact (collide) with each other for very short interval of time 't' and 'v1' and 'v2' be
their respective velocities after the interaction. Then,
Change in momentum of body A, (pA) = Final momentum of A – Initial momentum of A
= m1v1 – m1u1
Similarly,
Change in momentum of body B, (pB) = Final momentum of B – Initial momentum of B
= m2v2 – m2u2
If FAB is the force on body A due to B, then from Newton's secon
d law of motion,
Rocket Propulsion
pA
FAB = t During the rocket propulsion, the combustion of fuel into the engine
produces large temperature and pressure in gas, the burnt gas
m1v1 – m1u1
∴ FAB = … (4.12) escapes downward with high speed, which in turn propel the rocket
t
upward. In this process, the rate change of momentum.
Similarly, the force on body B due to A is
d dm dv
given by, dt (mv) = dt v + m dt
pB d(mv)
FBA = t For no external force applied, dt = 0.
m2v2 – m2u2
∴ FBA = … (4.13) dv dm
t So, m dt = – dt v
From Newton's third law of motion, dm
FAB = – FBA ma = – dt v
So, from equations (4.12) and (4.13), we dm
get ∴ F = – dt v
m1v1 – m1u1 m2v2 – m2u2 Where, F is the trust on the rocket at time t. The
t =– t negative sign shows that the downward ejection of
or, m1v1 – m1u1 = – m2v2 + m2u2 burnt gas that lifts the rocket upward.
or, m1v1 + m2v2 = m1u1 + m2u2
∴ Total final momentum of the system (pf) = Total initial momentum of the system (pi)
Thus, we see that total momentum of colliding bodies remains constant if no external force acts on
them. This verifies the principle of conservation of linear momentum.
EXAMPLE 2: A ball of mass 0.05 kg strikes a smooth wall normally four times in 2 seconds with a velocity of 10 ms–1. Each
time the ball rebounds with the same speed of 10 ms–1, calculate the average force on the wall.
SOLUTION
Given,
Mass of a ball, m = 0.05 kg
Initial velocity, u = 10 ms–1
Final velocity, v = – 10 ms–1
Time taken in four rebounds, t = 2 s
Average force on the wall, F = ?
Change in momentum in one rebound = mu – mv
= m(u – v) = 0.05 (10 + 10) = 1 Ns
So, change in momentum in four rebounds
= 4 × 1 = 4 Ns
Thus, average force on the wall

Change in momentum in four rebounds 4
= Time taken in four rebounds =2=2N
 Check Point: A shot of mass 20 g is projected with a velocity of 200 ms-1 from a gun of mass 2 kg.
Find the velocity with which the gun recoils. Ans: – 2 ms–1
EXAMPLE 3: A ball A of mass 0.1 kg moving with a velocity of 6 ms–1 collides directly with a ball B of mass 0.2 kg at rest.
Calculate their common velocity if both balls move off together. If A had rebounded with a velocity of 2 ms–1 in the opposite
direction after collision, what would be the new velocity of B?
SOLUTION
Given, Second part:
Mass of ball A, m1 = 0.1 kg Final velocity of ball A, v1 = – 2 ms–1
Initial velocity of ball A, u1 = 6 ms–1 (rebounded)
Mass of ball B, m2 = 0.2 kg Final velocity of ball B, v2 = ?
Initial velocity of ball B, u2 = 0 We know,
Common velocity, v = ?
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
From the principle of conservation of
or, 0.1 × 6 + 0.2 × 0 = 0.1 × – 2 + 0.2 × v2
linear momentum, we have
m1 u1 + m2 u2 = m1v + m2v = (m1 + m2) v or, 0.6 = – 0.2 + 0.2 v2
m1u1 + m2u2 0.1 × 6 + 0.2 × 0 0.6 or, 0.8 = 0.2 v2
or, v = m + m = 0.1 + 0.2 = 0.3
1 2 ∴ v2 = 4 ms–1
= 2 m/s
∴ Common velocity, v = 2 ms–1
 Check Point: A 4.0 kg object moving with a velocity of 4.0 ms–1 collides with a 2.0 kg object moving
with a velocity of 2.0 ms–1 along the same line. If the two object Coalesce after collision, calculate their
common velocity when they are initially moving (i) in the same direction (ii) in the opposite direction.
Ans: 3.3 ms–1, 2.0 ms–1
4.6 Impulse
Impulse is the physical quantity that measures the net effect of force. The impulse of a constant force
F acting for a very short time Δt is defined by
Impulse = FΔt … (4.14)
Impulse is a vector quantity whose direction is same as that of the force and its SI unit is Ns.
Suppose a force F causes the change in momentum of a body by Δ(mv) in time Δt.
From Newton's second law of motion,
Force = rate of change of momentum
Δ(mv)
or, F=
Δt
∴ FΔt = Δ(mv) … (4.15) F
force
Thus, from equations (4.14) and (4.15), we can write,
Impulse = change in momentum
The impulse of the force is measured by the change in linear Fav
momentum produced by the force. It can be positive, negative
or zero accordingly the momentum of body increases, t
decreases or remains same. O t1 t2
The definition of impulse imposes no limit on the length of t2 - t1

time for which force may act. Nevertheless, the concept of Fig. 4.4: Impulse

impulse is normally used only in situations where a large variable force is acting for only a short
time. For example: a golf-club striking a ball or a blow of a hammer on a nail. Such forces are known
as impulsive forces. The impulsive forces do not remain constant but change with time, first from
zero to maximum and from maximum to zero. The variation of force with respect to time is shown in
Fig. 4.4.
When such variable force acts for short interval of time, impulse is measured by taking the product
of average force (Fav) applied and the time period for which the force is applied.
i.e., Impulse = FavΔt … (4.16)
In a more general way, the impulse of variable force acting over time between limits t1 and t2 is given
by
t2 p2
 Fdt =  dp … (4.17)
t1 p1
where, p1 and p2 are initial and final momentum.
We have been using the concepts of impulse knowingly or unknowingly in various situations. The
most observed practical application is in the game of "cricket".
When a batsman strikes a cricket ball, he 'follows through’ in order to keep the bat in contact with
the ball as long as possible. This increases the impulse and therefore produces a larger change in
momentum. So, the speed at which the ball leaves the bat is increased and hence he/she can score
'fours' or 'sixes'.
Suppose now that the ball is caught by a fielder. In catching it, the fielder have to reduce the
momentum of ball to zero. It follows from equation (4.15) that the impulse on his hand will be same
no matter how he catches the ball. However by pulling the hands back, the time to stop the ball is
increased. Therefore, the change of momentum per second is reduced. Since force equals change of
momentum per second, the force of impact is reduced and hence he/she experiences less pain.
4.7 Newton's Second Law: Real Law of Motion

According to Newton's second law of motion, the net external force F applied on a body is equal to
the rate of change of linear momentum.
dp
i.e., Fnet = dt … (4.18)
If the net external force be zero, then,

dp
dt = 0
or, dp = 0 … (4.19)
Integrating above equation, we get,
p = constant
or, mv = constant
constant
or, v = mass = constant.
Thus, in the absence of net external force, a body moving uniformly with velocity 'v' continues its
motion with same velocity 'v'. If it is initially at rest, it remains at rest forever. This is Newton's first
law of motion. This shows that Newton's first law is contained in second law of motion.
Let us consider an isolated system consisting of two bodies A and B moving along a same straight
line. Let the two bodies collide with each other. As a result of collision, their velocities and hence the
individual momentum will change. If dt be the time for which they interact, then
¤
Change in momentum of body A = ΔpA = F AB dt
¤
Similarly, change in linear momentum of body B = ΔpB = F BA dt
So, total change in linear momentum of the bodies A and B is,
¤ ¤
Δp = ΔpA + ΔpB = F AB dt + F BA dt
Since, the system is isolated no external force acts on the system. Hence, F = 0.
So, from equation (4.19), we have,
Δp = 0
¤ ¤
or, F AB dt + F BA dt = 0
¤ ¤
or, F AB = – F BA
which is Newton's third law of motion.
Since, both first and third law can be derived from Newton's second law of motion, it is called as the
real law of motion.
4.8 Free Body Diagram

In mechanics, many numerical problems are associated with a number of forces acting on a body.
Such types of problems are solved considering the graphical representation of magnitudes and
direction of forces on that body. The graphical illustration which is used to visualize the applied
forces, resulting reactions and movements of a body in steady state condition is known as a free
body diagram (FBD). This diagram is very useful in solving problems in mechanics.
When a number of bodies are connected together by strings, rods etc., it is helpful to consider each
body by taking into account all the forces acting on it and then equating the net force acting on the
body to its mass times the acceleration produced. The equations of motion obtained for different
bodies can be solved to determine unknown quantities.
In such many force problems, the net force on a body may or may not be zero. If the net force on a
body is zero, the condition is called equilibrium condition, i.e., ΣF = 0. In this situation, the body
remains at rest or in uniform motion. If the net force is not zero, the condition is non-equilibrium
condition, i.e., ΣF = ma. In this situation, the body moves with some acceleration. Some important
examples for free body diagram problems are explained below.
(i) Force exerted by a block on the rope while moving on horizontal surface.
Let a force F is applied to a rope attached to a block of mass M lying on a smooth horizontal
surface as shown in Fig. 4.5. Let 'm' be the mass of rope which pulls the block. The
acceleration of block is determined as,
F = (M + m) a
F
∴ a=M+m ... (4.20)
Let F' be the force exerted by the block on the rope and F'' be the reaction of the rope on the block.
According to Newton's third law of motion, F'
F' = – F''
The force exerted on the block by the rope is,
F
F" = Ma
The force exerted by the block on the rope is, F"
F' = –F" = |Ma| Fig 4.5: Force exerted by a block on the rope
(ii) Two blocks in contact lying on a horizontal smooth surface.
Consider two blocks of masses m1 and m2 in contact lying on a horizontal frictionless surface.
Suppose the two blocks are pushed by a force F, provided that they are always in contact as
shown in Fig. 4.6. f
Total force on blocks, F = (m1 + m2) a F m1 m2
where, a is the common acceleration of blocks.
Fig. 4.6: Two blocks in contact
F
∴ a=m +m … (4.21)
1 2
If the block of mass m1 exerts force f on block of mass m2, then the force of reaction on block of
mass m1 will be equal and opposite to f. These forces are shown in Fig 4.6. The force 'f' is given
as,
m2 F
f = m2a = m + m
1 2
(iii) Three blocks connected together lying on a horizontal frictionless table and pulled with a
force F. a
Consider three blocks of masses m1, m2 and m3 T1 T1 T2 T2 F
m1 m2 `m3
connected together and lie on a horizontal
frictionless table as shown in Fig. 4.7 (i).
Fig. 4.7: (i) Connecting three blocks
Suppose force F is applied to pull the masses.
For all the blocks moving with common acceleration 'a' under the given force F,
F a
The common acceleration, a = m + m + m
1 2 3 m1 T1
F
Here, m1 < m2 < m3 is considered.
To determine T1: Consider a free body diagram for m1 as shown Fig. 4.7: (ii) Free body
in Fig. 4.7 (ii). Let the tension T1 produces acceleration 'a' in mass diagram for m1
m1.
m1
So, T1 = m1a = ⎛m + m + m ⎞ F … (4.22) a
⎝ 1 2 3⎠
To determine T2: Consider free body diagram for m3 as shown in T2 F

m3
Fig. 4.7 (iii). Let force F acts towards right and tension acts
towards left.
Now, Resultant force on block of mass m3, Fig. 4.7: (iii) Free body
F – T2 = m3a diagram for m3
or, T2 = F – m3a
m3
or, T2 = F – m + m + m F
1 2 3
m + m
T2 = ⎛m + m + m ⎞ F
1 2
∴ … (4.23)
⎝ 1 2 3⎠
EXAMPLE 4: Three blocks are connected as shown in figure on a horizontal frictionless table and pulled to the right with
force F1 = 12 N, Find F2 and F3.
SOLUTION
m3 = 1 kg m2 = 2 kg m1 = 3 kg
F3 F2
F1
F1 12
a = m + m + m = 3 + 2 + 1 = 2 m/s2
1 2 3
F2 = (m2 + m3) a = (2 + 1) 2 = 6 N
F3 = m3 a = 1 × 2 = 2 N
(iv) Three blocks connected together and pull upwards.
Let m1, m2 and m3 be three masses which are connected together
T1
and pulled upward with force F so that whole system is
accelerated with acceleration 'a' as shown in Fig. 4.8. m1
The tension above the mass m1 (T1) = Total weight (W) + Fupward
= (m1 + m2 + m3)g +(m1 + m2 + m3)a T2
∴ T1 = (m1 + m2 + m3) (a + g) … (4.24) m2
In Fig. 4.8, the force pulling upward, F = T1,
and also the force due to gravity is (m1 + m2 + m3) g
T3
Similarly, for the motion of the system (m2 + m3), we can write,
m3
∴ T2 = (m2 + m3) (a + g) … (4.25)
and for the motion of body of mass m3, we have, Fig. 4.8: Three blocks
∴ T3 = m3 (a + g) … (4.26) connected vertically
Note: When the whole system is stationary or moving with uniform velocity, a = 0, the tensions in three blocks
connected vertically is,
T1 = (m1 + m2 + m3) g
T2 = (m2 + m3) g
T3 = m3 g
EXAMPLE 5: The masses m1, m2 and m3 of three bodies as shown in figure below are 4 kg, 2 kg and 5 kg respectively.
Calculate the values of the tensions T1, T2 and T3 when (i) the whole system is going upward with an acceleration of 3 ms–2
and (ii) the whole system is stationary. Given g = 9.8 ms–2.
SOLUTION
The three bodies together are moving upward with an acceleration of 3 ms–2. The force pulling
the system upward is T1 and the downward force of gravity is (m1 + m2 + m3) g.
Therefore net upward force,
(i) (m1+m2+m3) a = T1 – (m1 + m2 + m3)g T1
∴ T1 = (m1 + m2 + m3) (a + g)
m1
= (4 + 2 + 5) (3 + 9.8)
= 11 × 12.8
T2
= 140.8 N
Similarly, for the motion of the system, (m2 + m3) m2
we have,
T2 = (m2 + m3) (a + g) T3
= (2 + 5) (3 + 9.8) m3
= 7 × 12.8 = 89.6 N
For a motion of body of mass m3, we have We have,
T3 = m3 (a + g) T1 = (m1 + m2 + m3) g
= 5 (3 + 9.8) = 11 × 9.8 = 107.8 N
= 5 × 12.8 Also, T2 = (m2 + m3) g
= 64.0 N = (2 + 5) 9.8
(ii) When the whole system is stationary, = 7 × 9.8 = 68.6 N
a=0 And, T3 = m3 g = 5 × 9.8 = 49 N

(v) A block moving on a smooth horizontal
surface
Consider a body of mass m1 which is placed on a
smooth horizontal table is connected to a string
passing over a frictionless pulley. Another mass
m2 is connected to another end of string as
shown in Fig. 4.9. Since both the masses are
connected by a single inextensible string, the
acceleration is equal for both masses and the
tension due to both masses becomes same.
From Newton's second law of motion, in equilibrium
condition,
m1a = m2g – m2a
(m1 + m2) a = m2g
m2 g
∴ a=m +m … (4.27)
1 2
m2 g
and Tension T = m1 a = m1 ⎛m + m ⎞
⎝ 1 2⎠
m1 m2
∴ T = ⎛m + m ⎞g … (4.28)
⎝ 1 2 ⎠
Note: When the bodies stop, acceleration a = 0, so new tension T' on the string is T' = m2g.
EXAMPLE 6: A light rope is attached to a block with mass 4 kg that rests on a frictionless, horizontal surface. The
horizontal rope passes over a frictionless pulley and a block with mass m is suspended from the other end. When the
blocks are released, the tension in the rope is 10 N. Draw free body diagrams and calculate the acceleration of either block
and the mass m of the hanging block.
SOLUTION
Let us consider a 4 kg mass is rest on horizontal frictionless surface attached by a light string
which is passed over pulley and suspended a mass m on it.
Now,
For 4 kg
→a T
Tension (T) = 4 × a 4 kg
Free body diagram for mass 4 kg.
ΣF = T = 4a T ↓a
or, 10 = 4 a
a m
∴ a = 2.5 m/s2 T
4 kg
For mass m,
mg – T = ma
or, m (g– a) = T
Free body diagram for mass m
ΣF = mg – T = ma
or, m (10 – 2.5) = 10
10
or, m = 7.5 = 1.33 kg

 Check Point: Find the acceleration of the following systems and tension in the cord. Assume that the
surface and the pulley are frictionless.
T
1.5 kg
1.2 kg
Ans: 4.44 ms–2, T = 6.67 N
(vi) A block lying on an inclined plane and connected to

another mass suspended through a friction-less pulley
T
Suppose a block of mass m1 is connected to a string which T
a
passes over a frictionless pulley and another block of mass
m2 is connected to another free end as shown in Fig. 4.10.
Since both the masses are connected with an inextensible m2 a
q
string, the acceleration of both masses is same. As the
m1g cos q m2 g
q
pulley is frictionless, the tension provided by each mass is
n
si
1g
m1g
same. Let 'a' and 'T' are acceleration of masses and tension
m
q
on the string respectively.
Fig 4.10: Motion in inclined plane
For body of mass m2 (falling downward)
m2g – T = m2a … (4.29)
For body of mass m1
T – m1g sin θ = m1a … (4.30)
Adding equations (4.29) and (4.30), we get,
m2g – m1g sin θ = (m1 + m2) a
∴ a = ⎛m2 – m1 sin θ⎞ g … (4.31)

⎝ m1 + m2 ⎠
m2 – m1 sin θ⎞
m2g – T = m2 ⎛ m1 + m2 ⎠ g
⎝
(m2 – m1 sin θ) g ⎤
T = m2 ⎡g –
⎣ m1 + m2 ⎦
m1 + m1 sin θ
= m2g  m + m … (4.32)
 1 2 
m1 m2
∴ T = ⎛m + m ⎞ (1 + sin θ) g … (4.33)
⎝ 1 2⎠
EXAMPLE 7: In the given figure find the acceleration 'a' of the load and tension on the string.
SOLUTION
Given, Smaller mass (m1) = 1 kg
Large mass (m2) = 2 kg
Inclination (θ) = 30°
From the given conditions,
m2g − T = m2a ... (i)

T − m1g sin θ = m1a ... (ii)
Solving we get,
(m2 − m1 sin θ)g
a = m1 + m2
2 − 1 × sin 30°⎞
=⎛
⎝ 1+2 ⎠g
= 0.45 × 10
= 5 ms−2
m2 − m1 sin θ⎞
Also, T = m2g ⎛1 −
⎝ m1 + m2 ⎠
2 − 1 × sin 30°⎞
= 2 × 10 ⎛1 −
⎝ 1+2 ⎠
= 10 N
 Check Point: Two blocks connected by a cord passing over a small frictionless pulley rest on
frictionless planes as shown in the diagram. (i) Which way will the system move? (ii) What is the
acceleration of the system? (iii) What is the tension in the cord?
kg
50 25 kg
15o 60o
Ans: (i) 25 kg move down, (ii) 1.16 ms–2 (iii) 187. 46 N
Mass-Pulley System
Consider two masses m1 and m2 (let m1 > m2) connected to the two ends of an
inextensible string passing over a smooth frictionless pulley. Since, both the
masses are connected with inextensible string, the acceleration for both masses
is same. It means while the heavier mass m1 moves downwards with
acceleration a, the lighter mass m2 moves up with same acceleration a. Let T be
the tension in the string due to both masses as shown in Fig. 4.11. This type of
machine is called Atwood machine.
The weight of heavier mass = m1g
The weight of lighter mass = m2g
The resultant downward force on mass m1, F1 = m1g – T
i.e., m1a = m1g – T … (4.34)
Resultant upward force on mass m2 is,
F2 = T – m2g
∴ m2a = T – m2g … (4.35)
Solving equation (4.34) and (4.35), we get,

m1a + m2a = m1g – m2g
(m1 – m2)g
∴ a= m +m
1 2
Now, dividing equation (4.34) by equation (4.35), we get,
m1a m1g – T
m2a = T – m2g

or, m1T – m1m2g = m1m2g – m2T
or, (m1 + m2) T = 2 m1m2g
∴
⎛ 2m1m2 ⎞
T = ⎜m + m ⎟ g … (4.36)
⎝ 1 2⎠
Note: If the pulley is not frictionless, then the tension on the two sides of the pulley will not be the same.
For the tension T1 on the side of m1 and T2 on the side of m2, the acceleration and tension are
m2 – m1
a=⎛ ⎞ g and T2 – T1 = 12 Ma where, M is the mass of the pulley.
⎜m1 + m2 + ⎟
m
⎝ 2⎠
Method of Solving Numericals Related to Free Body Diagram

The purpose of solving problems related to free body diagram mostly involves the
finding of acceleration, tension etc. Following important strategies are helpful in T
a T a
solving such problems. The strategies provided below are applicable to range of
12 kg
problem such as connected motion of hanging bodies, linear motion of connected
7 kg
bodies etc. Here, we have tried to justify the solving strategies in relation to
m 1g
information provided in the following figure. m 2g
Strategies Examples
1. First, find the direction of motion of a 1. If we take mass m1 (= 12 kg) in the figure, its
specific body (upward or downward or motion is downward.
any other direction).
2. Find the forces responsible for moving the 2. The responsible force for downward motion
body in that direction. of the body is m1g.
3. Subtract the frictional force (if any). 3. Subtract frictional force from m1g.
i.e., m1g – Fc
In this case, the pulley is frictionless, i.e.,
FC = 0. So, the force = m1g – 0 = m1g.
4. If other forces are acting on that body, 4. Tension acts in the opposite direction of m1g,
a. add these forces, if they are along so the resultant downward force is
direction of motion. F1 = m1g – T.
One must remember that, in above example,
b. Subtract these forces, if they are
(m1g – T) is the net force acting on the body
opposite to the direction of motion.
defined by Newton's second law and hence is
responsible for the acceleration of the body.
ΣF = m1g – T
5. Equate the resultant force with m1a, 5. m1g – T = m1a
where 'a' is the downward acceleration of 12 × 10 – T = 12a
body of mass m1. 120 – T = 12a …(1)
Similarly, for another body of mass (m2)

1. The direction of motion of m2 (= 7 kg) is upward.
2. Tension (T) is responsible to move this body upward.
3. For frictionless pulley, frictional force is taken zero, so upward force = T – 0 = T.
4. The weight (m2g) is acted downward, so, resultant upward force (F2) = T – m2g.
5. Then, equate the resultant upward force with m2a, where a is the upward acceleration of

body of mass m1. So, the resulting force equation is,
i.e., T – m2g = ma
or, T – 7 × 10 = 7a
or, T – 70 = 7a …(2)
Solving equations (1) and (2), we get,
a = 2.63 ms–2
T = 88.42 N
EXAMPLE 8: In the Atwood's machine in the given figure, the system starts from rest. What is the speed and distance
moved by each mass at t = 2 s?
SOLUTION
The figure for the Atwood machine is given For mass B,
alongside. T – m2 g = m2 (–a)
Given,
or, T – 15 × 9.8 = –15 a
Mass of A (m1) = 10 kg
or, T – 147 = –15 a … (ii)
Mass of B (m2) = 15 kg
Solving equation (i) and equation (ii),
Time (t) = 2 sec.
Taking upward as the a = 1.96 ms–2
T T
positive acceleration, Now, v = u + at
For mass A, a or, v = 0 + 1.96 × 2
T – m1g = m1 a 15 kg or, v = 3.92 ms–1
m
or, T – 10 × 9.8 = 10 a a 1
10 kg And, distance travelled, s = ut + 2 at2
or, T – 98 = 10a … (i)
1
∴ s = 0 + 2 × 1.96 × 22 = 3.96 m
 Check Point: Find the acceleration of the given mass suspended at the ends of a
cord and tension in the cord of the given figure. Assume that the surfaces and the T T
pulleys are frictionless. a
1.5 kg
m1
a
Ans: 2.0 ms–2, 12 N 1 kg
4.9 Equilibrium
Equilibrium refers to the state of a system in which forces, torques (turning effects of force) or any
other influences balance each other out so that there is no net change produced in the system. These
forces or torques may be acting on a body which is at rest or at uniform motion but they should not
produce any change in state, for the body to be in equilibrium. And hence, acceleration of such
system must be zero.
Let us consider the following examples;
(a) A book resting on table.
(b) A block sliding with constant velocity across a frictionless surface.
(c) The rotating blades of ceiling fan.
(d) A circular disc rolling along a horizontal surface in a straight line at constant speed.
¤
For each of these four objects, the linear momentum p of its centre of mass is constant.
¤
p = constant

¤
It's angular momentum L about an axis through its centre of mass or through any other point is also
constant.
¤
L = constant
We say that such objects are in equilibrium. There are different types of equilibrium of the body.
When the body is not moving either in translation or in rotation even though a number of forces act
on it, then it is said to be in static equilibrium. Of the four examples mentioned above, only book
lying on the table is in static equilibrium. If a body returns to a state of static equilibrium after having been
displaced from the state by a force, then the body is said to be in stable static equilibrium. A marble placed at
the bottom of hemispherical bowl is an example of such equilibrium.
If a small force can displace the body and end the equilibrium, the body is said to be in unstable equilibrium. If
a body stays in the displaced position after it has been displaced slightly, it is said to be in neutral equilibrium.
The stable, unstable and neutral equilibrium are summarized as below.
Equilibrium Properties Figure
If the ball is displaced, it will return to its
Stable original position. In this equilibrium,
potential energy of the system is minimum.
If the ball is displaced, it will accelerate away
from the equilibrium point. In this
Unstable
equilibrium potential energy of the system is
maximum.
If the ball is displaced, it will stay in its new
Neutral location. In this equilibrium potential energy
of the system is constant.
When a body moves with uniform velocity and the net force acting on it is zero, the body is said to be in
dynamic equilibrium. Example (b) – a block sliding with constant velocity over a frictionless surface is
the example of dynamic equilibrium. If the net torque acting on a body is zero, the body may be at
rest or be rotating with constant angular velocity. If the body is moving with constant angular velocity,
then it is said to be in dynamic rotational equilibrium.
The translation motion of a body is governed by Newton's second law as,
¤
→ dp
F = dt … (4.37)
¤
If the body is in translational equilibrium, then p is a constant. So,
¤
dp
dt = 0 … (4.38)
Thus, for a body to be in translational equilibrium, the net external force acting on it must be zero.
i.e., if a number of forces are acting, then they must balance each other out. The internal force among
the particles in a body cannot alter the equilibrium position of a body. For a body to be in
equilibrium external force must balance each other i.e., the net external force acting on a body must
be zero.

Again, the rotational motion of a body is governed by equation,
¤
¤ dL Equilibrium by three unequal concurrent
τ net = dt … (4.39)
forces.
where, τnet is the net torque acting on the body. Those forces whose lines of action intersect
¤ at a common point are called concurrent
If the body is in rotational equilibrium, then L = constant. forces.
So,
Let F1, F2, and F3 are the concurrent forces as
¤ shown in figure.
dL
dt = 0 … (4.40)

¤
τ net = 0
Thus, for a body to be in rotational equilibrium, the net
torque acting on the body must be zero i.e., if numbers of
torque are acting, then they must balance each other out.
Thus, the two requirements for a body to be in equilibrium
are:
Here, F12 is the resultant of F1 and F2.
(i) The vector sum of all the external forces acting on When the F12 is equal and opposite of F3, the
the body must be zero. body remains in equilibrium.
(ii) The vector sum of all external torques that act on a
body, measured about any possible point, must also be zero.
These requirements obviously hold for static equilibrium. They also hold for the more general
¤ ¤
equilibrium in which p and L are constant but not zero.
4.10 Torque due to Couple

Literally couple means pair. In physics, a pair of parallel and equal forces acting opposite to each
other on a body at different points are said to constitute a couple. The lines of action of these forces
do not pass through a common point. Such parallel forces produce the rotational motion only. The
perpendicular distance between the lines of action of the forces is called arm of a couple.
Suppose two equal and opposite forces of magnitude F are acting on a rigid
F
body at points P and Q. These forces constitute couple and rotates the body O
P Q
clock-wise about O as shown in Fig. 4.12.
Moment of couple about O = Moment of force F at P about O + Moment of F
force F at Q about O Fig. 4.12: Torque due to
couple
= F × PO + F × OQ
= F (PO + OQ) = F × PQ
Conventionally we assume that moment of a couple is positive if the couple tends to produce
anticlockwise rotation and negative if it tends to produce a clockwise rotation, however, reverse
assumption can also be accepted. The moment of couple is independent of the position of axis about
which rotation taken place.

∧ ∧ ∧
EXAMPLE 9: Find the torque of a force 2 i + 3 j – 4 k about the origin which acts on a particle whose position vector is
∧ ∧ ∧
i +2j – k .
SOLUTION
Given,
⎪ ∧i ∧ ∧
j k ⎪
¤ ∧ ∧ ∧
Force ( F ) = 2 i + 3 j – 4k =
⎪ ⎪
⎪1 2 –1 ⎪
Position vector (¤
∧ ∧ ∧
r ) = i + 2j – k
⎪2 3 –4 ⎪
Now, ¤ ∧ ∧ ∧
∴ τ = –5 i + 2 j – k .
¤
Torque (¤ τ)=¤ r ×F
4.11 Principle of Moment

Any body other than a point particle, acted upon by forces can be turned. The turning effect of a
single force depends not just on the magnitude of force and its direction, it also depends on the
distance from the point of application of force to the point about which turning would take place. For
example: Suppose you try to lever a nail from a piece of wood using a claw hammer. The longer the
handle, the easier it is to remove the nail when you apply force to one end of the handle.
The moment of a force about a given axis is the measure of the turning effect of force and is
mathematically defined as,
Moment of force = Force × perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation to the point of
application of force
r1 r1 Q
P
P O Q O Q P O
F1 F2
(i) (ii) (iii)
Fig. 4.13: Verification of principle of moment
Consider a metre scale suspended by a thread from a rigid support as shown in Fig. 4.13 (i). Let P
and Q be two points which are respectively at a distance r1 and r2 from the axis of rotation O. If we
apply a force F1 at point P, the scale rotates anticlockwise about O
as in Fig. 4.13 (ii). This moment which rotates the scale
anticlockwise, is called anticlockwise moment.
Likewise, if we apply force F2 at point Q, the scale rotates
clockwise about O as in Fig. 4.13 (iii). This moment which rotates
the scale clockwise is called clockwise moment.
Now, suspend two masses m1 and m2, simultaneously on left and
right arms of the scale as in Fig. 4.14. Due to these masses the
scale is acted simultaneously on both sides by two moments, viz.
clockwise moment and anticlockwise moment. These moments
act in opposite direction and tend to produce rotation in a direction of larger moment.
However, if the masses or the distance of masses from axis of rotation are adjusted so as to keep the
scale in horizontal position, the scale is said to be in equilibrium. This is possible if anticlockwise
moment is equal to clockwise moment. This case applies for any number of forces acting on the
body.
Thus, if a body is in rotational equilibrium, under the action of different forces, the sum of clockwise
moments must be equal to sum of anticlockwise moments. This is known as principle of moments. If
m1 and m2 be two masses each at a distance r1 and r2 from the centre of the metre scale respectively
and W1 and W2 be the respective weights as shown in Fig. 4.14, then from principle of moment, we
can write,
W1r1= W2r2
or, m1gr1 = m2gr2
∴ m1r1= m2r2 … (4.41)
Fig. 4.15: Rotational equilibrium in many weights system

Consider five different loads W1, W2, W3, W4 and W5 hanging at points A, B, C, D and E respectively
of a metre scale as shown in Fig. 4.15. Let the metre scale is suspended with an inextensible thread
supporting at point O. In the Fig. 4.15, W1 and W2 produce the anticlockwise moments and W3, W4
and W5 produce the clockwise moment. In equilibrium condition of the scale,
W1 × OA + W2 × OB = W3 × OC + W4 × OD + W5 × OE.
EXAMPLE 10: Two people are carrying a uniform wooden board that is 3 m long and weights 160 N if one person applies
an upward force equal to 60 N at one end, at what point does the other person lift?
SOLUTION
Let two people applying force upward from So, to hold the weight, force F should be
point A and B. The load is acted downward applied upward.
as shown in figure. Let point A is taken as the reference point of
rotation (you can take any point).
Clockwise moment = anticlockwise moment
F × 0 + 160 × x = (x + 1.5) 60
or, 160 x = 60 x + 90
∴ 100 x = 90
∴ x = 0.9 m
Let F be the unknown force acting at point A. AO = 0.9 m
In the beginning if a man applies 60 N force AB = 0.9 + 1.5 = 2.4 m
at point B, it tends to rotate the board in ∴ The separation of two forces is 2.4 m
anticlockwise direction.
At the same time, the weight of the board
tends to rotate downward.

4.12 Friction
As discussed earlier, a body moving over a surface eventually comes to rest. Also, if we try to push a
heavy boulder, it does not move at all. What may be the possible cause?
Let us analyze the cases separately.
A body moving over a surface comes to rest eventually. This means, the body must have acceleration
parallel to the surface, in the direction opposite to its velocity. From, Newton's second law of motion,
then, a force must act on the body parallel to the surface, in the direction opposite to its velocity. So
this force tends to retard the body and is called frictional force.
Similarly, in case of boulder too, a second force must also be acting to counteract your force. This
second force must be directed opposite to your force and have same magnitude as your force so that
two forces balance. The second force is the force of friction.
Under certain circumstances, bodies in contact will exert forces on each other tangential to the
surface in contact. The tangential component of the contact force exerted by one body on another is
called frictional force and this force has a tendency to retard the motion.
This force is developed on both the surfaces in contact. For example, if we try to move a block resting
on a table by applying horizontal force, the table evidently exerts a horizontal force equal and
opposite to applied force which is the frictional force. The block, of course, exerts an equal and
opposite frictional force on the table tending to drag it in the direction of applied horizontal force.
This frictional force is due to the bonding of molecules of block and table at places where surfaces are
in close contact.
So, a precise definition of frictional force would be, "the tangential backward dragging force developed
between two surfaces in contact, when one surface moves or attempts to move over another surface and has a
tendency to oppose the relative motion of one another". Frictional forces may exist between surfaces even
when there is no relative motion.
4.13 Origin of Friction

Though the actual cause of friction is yet unknown, physicists have
given different views regarding its origin.
According to the classical view; even if the surfaces seem to be smooth
to our naked eyes, there are many irregularities on them when viewed
under microscope. These irregularities are in the form of sawtooth like
Fig. 4.16: Interlocking between
projections. When a surface is placed over another, these projection the surfaces in contact
interlock with each other and form a tight bonding as shown Fig. 4.16.
It is this interlocking which resist the motion of the surfaces. For a body to move over another, these
interlocking have to be dislodged. Sometimes small force applied to a body is not sufficient enough
to dislodge these interlocking so the body does not move at the instant when force is applied to it.
However, when we continuously go on increasing the force, these interlocking are broken and the
body moves. Thus, classical view presents, 'interlocking between the surfaces in contact', to be the
cause of friction. According to it, greater the area of contact, greater would be the interlocking and
hence greater the frictional force.
However, this force is found to exist in greater extent when the surfaces in contact are smooth
enough (highly polished surfaces) and also experiments show that frictional force is independent of
area of contact for a body of same mass. So, a more accurate theory regarding the origin of friction
had to be sought out which we call the modern theory. According to it, the cause of friction is the
force of adhesion between the molecules of surfaces in contact. When two highly polished (smooth)
surfaces are placed one over another, their molecules come in the molecular range and they interact
giving rise to attractive intermolecular forces. These attractive forces become so significant that, a
body sliding over another has to overcome them. So, according to this theory, it is the intermolecular
force of attraction between the molecules of two surfaces in contact, which gives rise to friction. So,
when smoothness of the surfaces increase, more number of molecules comes into intermolecular
range as a result intermolecular forces increase, consequently, friction also increases. It seems here
that smoothness increases the area of contact and hence frictional force increases but this is not the
real picture. As mention earlier, frictional force is independent of area of contact for the body of same
mass. Why is it so? We shall discuss it in the laws of friction.
Warning: According to classical approach, friction can be reduced by making the surface smooth.
However, if the contact surface is too smooth, the coefficient of friction between the surfaces becomes
very high due to cold welding, which is modern approach of friction.
4.14 Static and Rolling Friction

Static Friction
Let us consider a situation in which a block rests over a table as
shown in Fig. 4.17.
At this condition the block pushes the table with gravitational
force (weight) F = mg. In return, the table pushes the body with
a force perpendicular to its surface called the normal reaction
(R). These two forces balance each other provided no other
forces act. If no attempts are made to slide the block, there will be no friction.
However, experiments show that when a dry unlubricated body presses against a surface under the
same condition and a force attempts to slide the body along the surface, the frictional force arises and
due to this, the body may not move at that instant. This frictional force that comes into play when the
bodies are static (in the state of rest) with respect to each other i.e., when there is no relative motion
of the two surfaces, is called static frictional force.
Now, when we gradually increase the applied force,
the static frictional force also increases continuously
until the body starts to move i.e., static frictional force
exactly follows the applied force. The static force then
attains a maximum value before the body actually
starts to move which is known as limiting friction.
This is equal to the minimum force required to start
the motion of the body.
Once the body starts to move, the interlocking
between the surfaces are dislodged and hence motion
becomes easier. Thus, the force of friction reduces
slightly. This frictional force which exists between two adjacent surfaces which are in relative motion
is called sliding or dynamic or kinetic friction. It is usually slightly less than limiting frictional force
between the surfaces and remains more or less constant provided that surfaces are moving at
constant velocities. It depends upon the nature of surfaces in relative motion.
A plot of applied force versus the force of friction is as shown in Fig. 4.18. It must be remembered
that, a frictional force is, in essence, the vector sum of many forces acting between the surface atoms
of one body and those of another body. If two highly polished and carefully cleaned metal surfaces
are brought together in a very good vacuum (to keep clean), they can't be made to slide over each

other. Because the surfaces are so smooth and they stick firmly forming a single piece. This is known
as cold welding of the surfaces. However, this level of atom to atom contact is not possible because
even a highly polished surface is far from being flat (smooth) on atomic scale. Moreover, the surfaces
of everyday objects have layers of oxides and other contaminants that reduce cold welding.
Rolling Friction
The frictional force that comes into play when a body actually rolls
over a surface is called rolling friction. For example, when a cylinder
rolls on the ground, the friction between cylinder surface and
ground is rolling friction as shown in Fig. 4.19. Rolling friction is
smaller than sliding friction, so the tyres of vehicles are made
circular.
4.15 Laws of Friction

There are following laws of friction which are determined experimentally.
(i) The frictional force between two surfaces opposes their relative motion or attempted motion.
(ii) Frictional forces are independent of area of contact of the surfaces.
(iii) For two surfaces which have no relative motion, the limiting frictional force is directly
proportional to the normal reaction. For two surfaces which have relative motion the sliding
frictional force is directly proportional to the normal reaction and is approximately
independent of the relative velocity of the surfaces.
An Explanation of Laws of Friction

On microscopic level, even highly polished surface has bumps and hollows. It follows that when two
surfaces are put together the actual area of contact is less than apparent area of contact. For example:
it has been estimated that for steel on steel, the actual area of contact can be as little as one tenth of a
thousand of the apparent area. The pressure at the contact points is very high and it is thought that
the molecules are pushed into such close proximity that the attractive force between them welds the
surface together at these points. These welds have to be broken before one surface can move over
another. Clearly, therefore, no matter in which direction the motion occurs there is a force which
opposes it. This explains the first law.
If the apparent area of contact of a body is decreased by turning the body so that it rests on one of its
smaller face, the number of contact points is reduced. Since the weight of the body has not altered,
there is increased pressure at contact points and this flattens the bumps, so that the total area of
contact and the pressure return to their original values. Thus, although the apparent area of contact
has been changed, the actual area of contact has not changed. This explains second law.
The extent to which bumps are flattened depends on the weight of the body. Therefore, greater the
weight, the greater is the area of contact. This explains third law because weight is equal to normal
reaction.
4.16 Verification of Laws of Limiting Friction

Consider a wooden block of mass M placed over a horizontal table provided with a pulley as shown
in Fig. 4.16 (i). A string passing over the pulley is attached to this wooden block whose another end
is connected to scale pan.

Standard known weights are loaded on the scale pan until the block just starts to slide on the
horizontal surface. Let, 'mg' be the weight on the scale pan which causes the block to just slide it over
the surface. At this condition, frictional force Fc is equal to the pulling force mg on the scale pan.
Fc = mg
Normal force R = Mg
Fc mg
But, coefficient of limiting friction μ = R = Mg
m
∴ μ=M … (4.42)
If the experiment is repeated with the blocks of different material having same mass and area of
contact, it is found that different amount of pulling force is required. Hence, the coefficient of
limiting friction will also be different corresponding to different values of m in equation (4.42).
This leads to the conclusion that the value of limiting friction depends upon the nature of material of
the surface in contact. The value of limiting friction is usually less for smooth surfaces than for rough
surfaces.
Again, the experiment is performed by placing the objects of different shapes, but having identical
mass and material, so that the surface area of contact between the sliding surface will be different for
different bodies.
Fig. 4.20: Verification of laws of friction

It is found that the same pulling force is required for each bodies to just slide them over the surface.
Hence it can be concluded that coefficient of limiting friction is independent of area of contact for the
body of same mass.
Finally, another wooden block of mass M' is placed over the mass M as shown in Fig 4.20 (ii) and the
corresponding pulling force required to just slide these blocks over horizontal surface is noted. Let it
be (m + m')g where m' is the additional mass on the scale P. Then new limiting friction is F1 = (m +
m')g and reaction force R1 = (M + M')g.
(m + m')
∴ New coefficient of friction μ1 = (M + M')
If this experiment is repeated by continuously adding the masses over the block, each time pulling
force has to be increased by adding weights on scale pan.
The coefficient of limiting friction is determined for each case. Surprisingly! It is found that the
coefficient of friction for each case is found to be equal.
i.e., μs = constant
Fc
or, R = constant

∴ Fc ∝ R
This shows that frictional force is directly proportional to normal reaction.
4.17 The Coefficient of Friction

We know, for any pair of surfaces, the limiting frictional force is proportional to the normal reaction
between the surfaces. In other words, for any pair of surfaces the ratio of limiting frictional force (Fc)
to the normal reaction force (R) is a constant. The value of this constant depends on the surfaces
involved and so it is known as the coefficient of static friction (μs) for two surfaces. It is a unit-less
quantity.
Mathematically,
Fc
μs = R … (4.43)
Let a body of mass m resting over a table is attempted to move

horizontally by applying force (Fa) as shown in Fig. 4.21.
Clearly at this condition, the normal reaction R is equal to 'mg'.
i.e., R = mg
Replacing value of R in equation (4.43), we get,
Fc
μs = mg
Similarly, once the body starts moving, the coefficient of friction defined is called coefficient of
kinetic friction denoted by μk. It is simply given by,
Fk
μk = R … (4.44)
where, Fk = force of dynamic friction.

Since dynamic friction is always less than static friction, coefficient of dynamic friction is always less
than coefficient of static friction.
Determining the coefficient of friction is important because we are able to predict weather we slip or
not on the floor. For example, safety in the home is greatly improved by designing kitchen and
bathroom floor coverings with high friction.
EXAMPLE 11: In a physics lab experiment, a 6 kg box is pushed across a flat table by a horizontal force F. (i) If the box is
moving at a constant speed of 0.35 m/s and the coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.12, what is the magnitude of F? (ii) If the
box is speeding up with a constant acceleration of 0.18 m/s2, what will be the magnitude of F?
SOLUTION
Given, mass of box (m) = 6 kg We have,
i. Speed of box (u) = 0.35 m/s FK
μK = R
Coefficient of kinetic friction (μk) = 0.12
Frictional force (F) = ? or, FK = μK R = μK mg
Now, ii. When the box moves with acceleration
ΣF = F – Fk = ma = 0 (for constant speed) 0.18 m/s2. Then,
∴ F = Fk = μK mg ΣF = F – Fk = ma
= μK mg F = Fk + ma
= 0.12 × 6 × 10 = 7.2 N = 0.12 × 6 × 10 + 6 × 0.18 = 8.28 N
 Check Point: A hockey puck leaves a players stock with a velocity of 10 ms–1 and slides on ice, 40 m
before coming to rest. Find the coefficient of friction between the puck and the ice. Ans: 0.125

Angle of Friction
Angle of friction is the angle made by the resultant of the limiting
friction and normal reaction with the normal reaction.
Let us consider a body of mass m resting over a table is
¤
attempted to move horizontally by applying force Fa as
shown in Fig. 4.22.
In figure, OY represents normal reaction (R), OX represents
frictional force (Fc) and OZ is the resultant of R and Fc
represented by FR. Clearly, by definition ∠YOZ = α is called
angle of friction. From figure,
YZ
tan α = OY
OX Fc
∴ tan α = OY = R
Fc
But R = μs
∴ tan α = μs … (4.45)
Hence, the coefficient of limiting friction is equal to the tangent of
angle of friction.
R Fc
Angle of Repose
Let us consider a body of mass 'm' is placed over an inclined surface
whose angle of inclination with horizontal is 'θ' as shown in Fig. 4.23. q
The inclined surface is such that its angle of inclination can be varied. mg cos q
q
n
When the angle of inclination is very small, the body does not slide
si
mg
g
m
down. But as the angle of inclination is gradually increased, a stage q

will be reached at which the body starts to slide down. Fig. 4.23: Angle of repose
This angle made by the inclined surface with the horizontal for which the
body kept over the inclined surface just begins to
slide is called angle of repose. A cause of land slides
Here the phrase, "just begins to slide" means The downward acceleration of a body on the inclined surface,
the body has not yet started moving but is depends on the angle of repose. For two identical bodies when
about to do so and it is in the equilibrium state slides from two slopes of different angle of repose, θ1 and θ2,
under the action of various forces. as in figure.
Referring to Fig. 4.23, the various forces acting
on the body are:
(i) The weight 'mg' of the body acting
vertically downwards.
(ii) The limiting friction 'Fc' acting along the
inclined plane in upward direction.
(iii) The normal force 'R' acting at right angle Sindhupalchok land slide, 2020
to the inclined surface in upward As we know, F1 = mgsin θ1
direction.
F2 = mgsin θ2
At static equilibrium, the limiting frictional
As θ2 > θ1 , F2 > F1. Hence, there is the greater chance of land
force is balanced by the component mg sin θ of slides in sloppy regions.
weight mg

i.e., Fc = mg sin θ … (4.46)
The normal reaction 'R' is equal to the component mg cos θ of weight mg.
i.e., R = mg cos θ … (4.47)
Dividing equation (4.46) by (4.47), we get
Fc
R = tan θ
Fc
But, R = μs is the coefficient of static friction
∴ tan θ = μs … (4.48)
Thus, coefficient of static friction is equal to tangent of angle of repose. Further, we know,
μ = tan α … (4.49)
where, α is angle of friction
tan θ = tan α
∴ θ=α … (4.50)
i.e., angle of repose is equal to angle of friction.
EXAMPLE 12: You are to lower a safe with mass 260 kg at a constant speed down skids 20.0 m long, from a truck 2.00 m
high. (a) If the coefficient of kinetic friction between safe and skids is 0.25, do you need to pull down or hold back the safe?
(b) How great a force parallel to the skids is needed?
SOLUTION
Given, A
mass of safe (m) = 260 kg
Fc
Coefficient of friction (μ) = 0.25 R
Here, from fig,

AB = 2 m q
AC = 20 m mg cos q
q
n
2 1
si
mg
g
sin θ = 20 = 10
m
q
C B
1 2
cos θ = 1 – ⎛10⎞ = 0.99
⎝ ⎠
1
The downward force, Fdown = mg sin θ = 260 × 9.8 × 10 = 255 N
Now, the friction tends to hold the block at the same position, so,
Frictional force,
Fc = μ R = μ mg cos θ = 0.25 × 260 × 9.8 × 0.99 = 634 N
a. We need to pull downward because, Fc > Fdown.
b. The excess force to be applied, f = Fc – Fdown = 634 – 255 = 379 N
 Check Point: A block slides down a plane inclined at 30º to the horizontal. Find the acceleration of
the block (i) If the plane is frictionless, (b) If the coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.2.
Ans: (i) 5 ms–2 (ii) 3.3 ms–2
4.18 Pulling with Oblique Angle

If a body is pulled with a string at an angle θ with the horizontal direction, the pulling force F can be
resolved into two components:
(i) The horizontal component, Fx = Fcos θ, which acts along of the direction of motion.
(ii) The vertical component, Fy = Fsin θ, which acts along the normal reaction from the surface.
In equilibrium condition, net force is zero, i.e., ΣF = 0.
It means ΣFx = 0 and ΣFy = 0
Hence, the body can be at rest or in uniform motion. The illustrations in free body diagram for
equilibrium condition are: R F
(i) Along horizontal direction: Fy = Fsin q
Fx − f = 0, where f = frictional force, q
f Fx = Fcos q
i.e., Fcos θ − f = 0
(ii) Along vertical direction:
W
Fy + R − W = 0
Fig. 4.24: Pulling with oblique angle
Where, R = normal reaction on the body in
vertically upward direction.
W = Weight of box acting vertically downward,
So, Fsin θ + R − W = 0
In the non-equilibrium condition, the body gets displaced along horizontal direction from the initial
position.
In this condition, Fcos θ – f = ma
where 'm' is mass of the body and 'a' is the acceleration produced by net force in the direction of
motion.
Fcos θ − f
∴a= m … (4.51)
Advantages and Disadvantages of Friction

Friction, whose nature is to oppose the relative motion of two surfaces, is responsible for loss of
mechanical energy. This loss of energy is generally unwanted but is practically unavoidable because
some work has to be done in overcoming such resistive force. So, all the work done in a system does
not appear in the form of mechanical energy. Some of it appears in the form of heat, light, sound and
other forms of energy which are not retraceable i.e., it is impossible to recover them entirely in useful
terms. And we don't have energy for free to loose it in such a manner. But this loss of energy due to
friction is inevitable.
In any machine with moving parts some energy is used up against the friction between the parts and
its efficiency is lowered. Excessive friction causes wear and tear in moving parts of machine. The
heat energy developed due to friction may cause damage to machine. These are some of the adverse
impacts of friction.
Though friction has many disadvantages, it plays a notable part in our daily life. For example, we are
reminded of the importance of friction when we slip up an icy pavement or polished floor. Walking
would be impossible without friction between ground and soles of our shoes. Quite often our lives
depend on the force of friction in the brake of automobiles and also on the friction between tyre and
the road. Without friction the vehicles would not stop, start or turn corners.
Though energy lost in other forms such as heat are apparently called unwanted, they may be
beneficial from some other aspects. For example, the heat produced by the friction when a match is
struck, causes it to ignite. Also, it is our common experience that we rub our palms together in cold
winters to warm them up. This is also possible due to the heat generated by friction between palms.
Because of above reasons, though responsible for loss of energy, friction does not have to be
necessarily considered as an evil.

Methods of Reducing Friction

Since loss of energy due to friction is undesirable, much of our efforts are to reduce friction.
Following are the techniques that can be adopted to reduce friction.
(i) Polishing: It increases the smoothness of the surface and hence reduces friction.
(ii) Lubrication: The materials used for lubrication (such as oil) fill in the irregularities of the
surfaces in contact and reduce friction considerably.
(iii) Ball bearings: When rotating spherical balls or cylinders are placed in between the sliding
surfaces, friction is considerably reduced. In such implementations, rolling friction comes in
play which is much smaller than sliding friction.
(iv) Streamlining: Some of the high speed automobiles, aeroplanes, submarine etc., are designed
in a spherical shape in order to reduce friction due to air or fluid. This special shape is called
streamline and the process is called streamlining.
(v) Using anti-friction alloys: The frictional force that arises when a steel surface moves over
steel is greater than when it moves over some alloys such as bronze or brass. The coefficient of
friction is greater in former case than in latter. In order to reduce friction in the moving parts
of machinery, they are lined with those alloys. This method of reducing friction is called
babbitting after its inventor Isaac Babbitt.
Tips for MCQs
Quantitative Tips
1. The linear momentum is defined as the product of mass and linear velocity, p = mv
mv – mu dp mv – mu
2. Force is the rate of change of linear momentum, i.e., F = t = dt ⇒ F = t = ma
3. Impulse = change of linear momentum, (dp = mv – mu)
i.e., impulse = force x time = dp = F t
4. In Newton’s third law of motion, for every action, there is equal and opposite reaction,
FAB = – FBA
5. Apparent weight of body in a lift:
(i) when a lift moves upwards with uniform acceleration 'a', the apparent weight of a body in the
lift increases, R = m(g + a)
(ii) when a lift moves downwards with uniform acceleration 'a', the apparent weight of a body in
the lift decreases, R = m (g – a).
(iii) when a lift is at rest or moves with uniform velocity (a = 0), the apparent weight of the body is
equal to its true weight, R = mg.
(iv) when a lift falls freely (a = g), the apparent weight of the body in the lift is zero, R = 0.
6. Principle of conservation of linear momentum:
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2,
where, u1 = initial velocity of mass m1 u2 = initial velocity of mass m2,
v1 = final velocity of mass m1, v2 = final velocity of mass m2
7. When a bullet of mass 'm' is fired with velocity 'v' from a gun of mass 'M', the gun recoils with
velocity v', Momentum of gun = – momentum of bullet i.e., (Mv' = – mv).
dm dm
8. Rocket propulsion: The thrust on rocket is calculated from, F = –u dt , where dt is the rate of
ejection of fuel and 'u' is the velocity of exhaust gas.

9. The rotational effect of force (i.e., moment of force) is called torque, it is determined from the vector
¤
product of force and perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation. ¤ τ =¤ r ×F.
(i) In cartesian coordinate, ¤
τ z = xFy – yFx, τy = zFx – xFz and τx = yFz – zFy .
(ii) In polar coordinate, τ = rF sin θ.
10. The principle of moment states that in rotational equilibrium, clockwise moment is equal to
anticlockwise moment, F1 × r1 = F2 × r2.
Fc
11. Coefficient of static friction: μs = R , where, R = mg is normal reaction and Fc is the force of static
friction.
Fk
12. Coefficient of kinetic friction: μk = R , where Fk is the force of kinetic friction.
13. Free body diagram: A free body diagram is a graphical illustration used to visualize the applied
forces, resulting reactions and movements of a body in steady state condition.
14. Motion of connected bodies: Suppose two bodies of masses M and m (M > m), are tied at the ends of
an inextensible string passing over a frictionless pulley. Then,
M–m 2Mm
Acceleration of the masses, a = M + m g and tension on the string, T = M+m g, clearly a < g
15. If a body of mass 'm' is moved over a rough horizontal surface through displacement 's', then
Fk
Force of friction, Fk = μkR = μkmg and retardation produced, a = m = μk g
16. Motion along a rough inclined plane:
(i) when a body moves down an inclined plane with uniform velocity (a = 0), net downward force
needed is FN = mg sin θ - Fk = mg (sin θ – μ cos θ), where Fk = frictional force.
(ii) when a body moves up an inclined plane with uniform velocity (a = 0), net upward force
needed is
F = mg sin θ + Fk = mg (sin θ + μ cos θ)
(iii) when a body moves up an inclined plane with acceleration 'a', net upward force needed is
FN = ma + mg sin θ + Fk = m (a + g sin θ + gμk cos θ).
17. The coefficient of friction μs, angle of friction 'α' and angle of repose 'θ' are related with following
relation: μs = tan α = tan θ, where tan α is called tangent of angle of friction and tan θ is called tangent
of angle of repose.
Conceptual Tips
1. Inertia is the inherent property of a material body by virtue of which it cannot change, by itself, its
state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line. Inertia is of two types: inertia of rest, inertia of
motion.
2. If a body has more mass, it has more inertia i.e., it is more difficult to change its state of rest or of
uniform motion.
¤
3. In every motion, force F is parallel to acceleration.
4. The cause of every accelerated motion is an external force. Internal forces have no role to play.
5. If a body is momentarily at rest, it does not mean that force or acceleration is necessarily zero.
6. Gravitational unit of force is written in kilogram weight (kg f) in SI unit and gram weight (gm f) in
CGS system.
7. In rocket propulsion, the large backward momentum of the ejected gases imparts an equal forward
momentum of the rocket. Due to the decrease in mass of the rocket-fuel system, the acceleration of
the rocket keeps on increasing.
8. Action and reaction always act on different bodies. If they acted on the same body, the resultant force
would be zero and there would be no accelerated motion.
9. A particle is an object whose mass is finite but whose size and internal structure can be neglected.
10. A system is a collection of a very large number of particles which mutually interact with one another.
11. A rigid body is said to be in equilibrium when linear and angular acceleration are zero. For a body to
¤
be in equilibrium, the resultant of all the external forces acting on the body must be zero, ∑ F ext = 0.
The resultant of all the torques due to all forces acting on the body about a point must be zero, ∑
¤τ ext = 0.
12. When a number of bodies are connected together by strings, rods etc, it is convenient to draw a free
body diagram for each body separately by showing all the forces acting on it.
13. Static friction is a force of friction which comes into play between two bodies before one body
actually starts moving over the other.
14. Kinetic friction is a force of friction which comes into play when a body is in a steady motion over the
surface of another.
15. Kinetic friction is always smaller than limiting friction and static friction is smaller than or equal to
limiting friction.
Quick Reply
1. What is the effect on the acceleration of a particle if the net force on the particle is doubled?
 Force, F is calculated with formals, F = ma, it the force is double of the particle,
F' = ma'
F' 2F
a' = m = m = 2a
∴ On doubling the force on a body is doubling, the acceleration is also doubled.
2. What does "net force on a body is zero" infer?
 It infers that the body does not change its original position. A body at rest remains at rest and a body
in motion remains in uniform motion.
3. Why is it difficult to put a bicycle into motion than to maintain its motion?
 Bicycle should overcome the limiting friction while starts up, however the bicycle should overcome
the kinetic friction during in motion. The kinetic friction is lesser than the limiting friction. Therefore,
it is difficult to put a bicycle into motion than to maintain its motion.
4. Can a body be in equilibrium if it is in motion? Explain.
 Yes. A body in motion will be in equilibrium if it has no linear and angular accelerations. Hence a
body moving with uniform velocity along a straight line will be in equilibrium.
5. Is a body in circular motion in equilibrium?
→
 No. A body is circular motion has a centripetal acceleration a directed towards the centre of the
→
circle. Since a ≠ 0, the body is not in equilibrium.

1. A bird is sitting on the floor of a wire cage and the cage is in the hand of a boy. The bird starts flying
in the cage. Will the boy experience any change in the weight of the cage?
 Before flying, the cage should provide the reaction to the weight of bird, so the boy applies force
equal to the weight of cage and bird. But, when the bird starts to fly inside the cage, the air holds the
weight of bird. So, the weight of bird is not experienced. Therefore, the cage will appear lighter than
before.

2. Is momentum of a moving body a vector or a scalar?
 When a vector quantity is multiplied with a scalar, the product will be a vector quantity. As the
momentum is the product of mass (a scalar) and velocity (a vector), it is also a vector quantity
¤ ¤
i.e., p = m v .
3. Why does a heavy rifle not kick as strongly as a light rifle using the same cartridges?
 Before firing, the total momentum of the cartridges and rifles is zero. After firing both of them come
to motion, but in opposite direction. From principle of conservation of linear momentum, the
momentum of cartridges is equal to the rifle. i.e., Mv = mu, where
M = mass of rifle
v = velocity of rifle after firing
m = mass of cartridges
u = velocity of cartridges after firing
If mass M is provided larger, the backward velocity of rifle is smaller.
mu
i.e., v = M
Final momentum of cartridges 1

velocity of rifle = Mass of rifle i.e., v ∝ M
Hence, a heavy rifle does not kick as strongly as a light rifle using the same cartridges.
4. Why is it necessary to bend knees while jumping from greater height?
 During the jump, our feet at once comes to rest and for this smaller time a large force acts on feet, as
1
F ∝ , for constant impulse. If we bend the knees slowly, the value of time of impact increases and
Δt
less force acts on our feet. So we get less hurt.
5. Explain the difference between a push and a pull in case of a heavy roller on a level road where the
force acts on the roller making an angle with the horizontal road.
 The vertical component of applied force is just opposite in direction in case of push and pull of an
object. The components of forces for push and pull in case of a heavy roller on a level road are shown
in figures below.
F Fy = F sin θ
Fx = F cos θ
θ F
F θ
Fy = F sin θ Fx = F cos θ
W = mg
mg
Fig. (a) Pushing the roller
Fig. (b) Pulling the roller
In Fig. (a), the vertical component of force (Fy) is applied along the direction of weight, so net weight
of the roller is observed greater than actual weight. But in figure (b), the vertical component of force
(Fy) is applied in the opposite direction of weight, hence the net weight of the roller is observed
smaller than the actual weight. Hence, pulling is easier than pushing.
6. Why is it easier to open a tap with two fingers than with one finger?
 With two fingers, we apply a couple whose moment is equal to the product of the force and
perpendicular distance between two fingers (which is equal to the length of the handle of the tap).
When we apply force with one finger, and equal and opposite force of reaction acts at the axis of
rotation. This results in the couple of smaller arm and hence lesser moment. So, it is easier to open a
tap with two fingers than with one finger.

7. When is a rigid body said to be in equilibrium? State the necessary conditions for a body to be in
equilibrium.
 A rigid body is said to be in equilibrium when its linear acceleration and angular acceleration are
zero.
i. For translation equilibrium of a rigid body, the sum of all the external forces acting on it must be
→
zero. i.e., ∑ Fi = 0.
ii. For rotational equilibrium of a rigid body, the sum of torques due to all forces acting on it must
→
be zero. i.e., ∑ τi = 0.
8. Why a wrench of longer arm is preferred in comparison to a wrench of shorter arm?
 According to principle of moment, to be in equilibrium, left
A B
hand moment must be equal to the right hand moment.
In figure, for the arm to be in equilibrium
F1× OA = F2 × OB. If OA > OB, F1 < F2. F1 F2
The longer arm is chosen to apply the force, in wrench, the force can be multiplied. So that the nail
can be tighten or loosen easily.
9. Dynamic friction is always smaller than limiting friction. Explain.
 While a body is rolling on the ground, the inertia of motion supports the body to move forward such
that dynamic friction reduces. But the position of the body need to be changed in case of limiting
condition (the condition at the instant of changing rest to motion) in addition to friction to be
overcome. Hence, dynamic friction is always smaller than limiting friction.
10. When a large heavy truck collides with a passenger car, occupants of the car are more likely to be
hurt than the truck driver. Why?
 According to Newton's third law of motion, Since the collision time is equal,
wherever one body exerts a force on another, So, (dp)truck = (dp)car
the second exerts an equal and opposite force (mdv)truck = (mdv)car
on another. So, when a heavy truck collides
As the mass of truck is greater then car,
with a car, the action provided by truck is
equal to the reaction provided by the car. (dv)car > (dv)truck
dp Hence, the car can skid long distance and may have
i.e. ⎛ dt ⎞ ⎛dp⎞
⎝ ⎠truck = ⎝ dt ⎠car more damage.
11. If a moving bullet striking a block of wood on a frictionless table embeds inside it, what happens to
the kinetic energy of the bullet?
 As the bullet embeds into the block of wood, the block and bullet moves with common velocity,
m1u1 + m2u2
vC = m + m
1 2
Here, m1 = mass of bullet

m2 = mass of block It means the velocity of bullet after collision is
u1 = initial velocity of bullet smaller than the velocity of bullet before
u2 = initial velocity of block (= 0) collision. We know, kinetic energy Ek ∝ v2.
m1 u1 m1 Therefore, kinetic energy of bullet decreases
∴ vc = m + m = ⎛m + m ⎞ u1
1 2 ⎝ 1 2⎠ after collision.
∴ vc < u1.

Worked Out Problems

1. A neutron having a mass 1.67 × 10–27 kg and moving at 107 ms–1 collides with deutron at rest and
sticks to it. If the mass of deutron is 3.34 × 10–27 kg, find the speed of combination.
SOLUTION
Given, m1u1 + m2u2 = (m1 + m2) v

For neutron: m1u1 + m2u2
Mass (m1) = 1.67 × 10–27 kg ∴ v = m1 + m2
Initial velocity (u1) = 107 ms–1 1.67 × 10–27 × 107 + 3.34 × 10–27 × 0
=
For deutron, 1.67 × 10–27 + 3.34 × 10–27
Mass (m2) = 3.34 × 10–27 kg = 0.33 × 107 ms–1
Initial velocity (u2) = 0 Since they stick together,
From the principle of conservation of linear final velocity v1 = v2 = v = 0.33 × 107 m/s
momentum,
2. Suppose you try to move a crate by trying a rope around it and pulling on the rope at angle 30º above
the horizontal. What is the tension required to keep the crate moving with constant velocity? Assume
weight of crate 'W' = 500 N and coefficient of dynamic friction is μk = 0.40.
SOLUTION
Given,
Frictional force (F) = T cos 30º (T = tension on rope)
Normal reaction (R) = W – T sin 30º
o
R = 500 – T sin 30º Tsin 30
Now, T
F T cos 30º 30
o
μ = R = 500 – T sin 30º o
T cos 30
Tcos 30°
0.4 = F
500 – Tsin30°
or, 0.4 × 500 = T cos 30º + 0.4 T sin 30º W
0.4 × 500
T= = 187.6 N ∴ T = 187.6 N
cos 30° + 0.4 sin 30°
3. An elevator has a mass of 4000 kg. When the tension in the supporting cable is 48000 N, what is the
acceleration? Starting from rest, how far does it move in 3 s? (g = 10 ms−2)
SOLUTION
Given, T T − mg
a = m
Mass of elevator (m) = 4000 kg a
Tension in the cable (T) = 48000 N 48000 − 40000 8000
Initial velocity (u) = 0 ∴ a = 4000 = 4000 = 2 ms−2
mg
Time (t) = 3 s Now, the upward distance moved in 3 s, is,
The weight of elevator (W) = 4000 × 10 1 1
= 40000 N s = ut + 2 at2 = 0 + 2 × 2 × 32 = 9 m
Since, T > W, the elevator accelerates Therefore, the upward acceleration of
upward, elevator is 2 ms−2 and distance travelled by
Now, net upward force = T − mg elevator is 9 m.
∴ ma = T− mg

4. A uniform ladder rests on a rough horizontal ground, leaning against a smooth vertical wall. Weight
of the ladder is 300 N and a man weighing 500 N stands on one quarter of its length from the bottom.
Ladder makes 30° to the horizontal. Find the reaction at the wall and the total force on the ground.
SOLUTION
Let R be the reaction provided by the wall to the
ladder. Also, the ground provides reaction R' to the
ladder. A
R
Since the ladder is in equilibrium under the action of
many forces, moment of all forces about any point
must be zero.
(i) For rotational equilibrium, (taking B as origin)
l
l l
R l sin 30 – 300 × 2 cos 30 – 500 × 4 cos 30 = 0 Wall
R'
1 300 3 500 3
R2– 2 2 – 4 . 2 =0
300 3 500 3 30° 300 N

R– 2 – 4 =0 B 500 N
C
R – 150 3 – 125 3 = 0 ground
R = 275 3 = 476.31 N
(ii) For translational equilibrium, the sum of For vertical equilibrium,
all the horizontal and vertical R' sin θ – 300 – 500 = ΣFy = 0
components must be separately zero, i.e.,
R' sin θ = 800
ΣFx = 0 and ΣFy = 0
Now, total force on the ground,
For horizontal equilibrium,
F = (R' cos θ)2 + (R' sin θ)2
R' cos θ – R = ΣFx = 0
R' cos θ – R = 0 = (476.31)2 + (800)2 = 931.06 N.
R' cos θ = 476.31 N

5. Atwood's Machine: A 15.0 kg load of brick hangs from one end of a rope that passes over a small,
frictionless pulley. A 28.0 kg counterweight is suspended from the other end of the rope, as shown in
figure. The system is released from the rest. (a) Draw two free body diagrams, one for the load of
bricks and one for the counterweight. (b) What is the magnitude of the upward acceleration of the
load of bricks? (c) What is the tension in the rope while the load is moving? (d) How does the tension
compare to the weight of the load of bricks to the weight of the counterweight?
SOLUTION
Given,
a. The free body diagram for the given problem is shown below,
Here, mass of bricks, (m) = 15.0 kg
Mass of counter weight, (M) = 28.0 kg
Since M > m, the pulley rotates clockwise,
M–m
b. Acceleration (a) = ⎛M + m⎞ g
⎝ ⎠
28 – 15
= ⎛28 + 15⎞ × 9.8 = 2.96 ms–2
⎝ ⎠
c. Tension, (T) = m (a + g) = 15 (2.96 + 9.8) = 191 N
d. The tension on the side of bricks is directed along the acceleration of bricks. On the other hand,
the tension on counterweight is directed opposite of its acceleration.

6. A bullet of mass 10 g traveling horizontally with a velocity of 300 ms–1 strikes a block of wood of
mass 290 g which rests on a rough horizontal floor. After impact, the block and bullet move together
and come to rest when the block has traveled a distance of 15 m. Calculate the coefficient of sliding
friction between the block and the floor.
SOLUTION
Given, u = 10 m s–1, v = 0, s = 15 m
Mass of bullet, m1 = 10 g = 0.01 kg From equation of motion, v2 = u2 – 2 a s
Velocity of bullet, u1 = 300 ms–1 where a is the retardation produced in the
Mass of block, m2 = 290 g = 0.29 kg motion.
Distance moved by the bullet and block, u2 – v2 u2 – v2 (10)2 – 0 10
s=15 m ∴ a = 2s = 2s = 2 × 15 = 3 ms–2
Coefficient of sliding friction, μs = ? Frictional force, F = m a = (m1 + m2) a
Let v be the common velocity of bullet 10
and block of wood after the impact. From = 0.3 × 3 = 1 N
the principle of conservation of linear F 1
momentum, we have ∴ Coefficient of sliding friction, μs = R = mg
m1 u1 + m2 u2 = (m1 + m2) v 1
m1 u1 0.01 × 300 = 0.3 × 10
∴ v = m + m = 0.01 + 0.29 = 10 m s–1
1 2 1
After impact, for the motion of the block = 3 = 0.33
and the bullet

1. Two forces have the same magnitude F. What is the angle between the two vectors if their sum has a
magnitude of (a) 2F? (b) 2 F? (c) zero? Sketch the three vectors in each case. Ans: 0°, 90°, 180°
2. Two dogs pull horizontally on ropes attached to a post; the angle between the ropes is 60.0°. If dog A
exerts a force of 270 N and dog B exerts a force of 300 N, find the magnitude of the resultant force
and the angle it makes with dog A's rope. Ans: 494 N, 31.7°
3. A dockworker applies a constant horizontal force of 80.0 N to a block of ice on a smooth horizontal
floor. The frictional force is negligible. The block starts from rest and moves 11.0 m in 5.00 s. (a)
What is the mass of the block of ice? (b) If the worker stops pushing at the end of
5.00 s, how far does the block moves in the next 5.00 s? Ans: 90.9 kg, 11 m
4. An electron (mass = 9.11 × 10–31 kg) leaves one end of a TV picture tube with zero initial speed and
travels in a straight line to the accelerating grid, which is 1.80 cm away. It reaches the grid with a
speed of 3.00 × 106 m/s. If the accelerating force is constant, compute (a) the acceleration (b) the time
to reach the grid (c) the net force, in newtons. (You can ignore the gravitational force on the electron.)
Ans: 2.5 × 10 1 4 ms – 2 , 1.2 × 10 – 8 s, 2.3 × 10 – 1 6 N
5. A chair of mass 12.0 kg is sitting on the horizontal floor; the floor is not frictionless. You push on the
chair with a force F = 40.0 N that is directed at an angle of 37.0° below the horizontal and the chair
slides along the floor. Calculate the normal force that the floor exerts on the chair. Ans: 142 N
6. A light rope is attached to a block with mass 4.00 kg that rests on a frictionless, horizontal surface.
The horizontal rope passes over a frictionless, massless pulley and a block with mass m is suspended
from the other end. When the blocks are released, the tension in the rope is 10.0 N. (a) Draw two free-
body diagrams, one for the 4.00 kg block and one for the block with mass m. (b) what is the
acceleration of either block? (c) what is the mass m of the hanging block? (d) How does the tension
compare to the weight of the hanging block? Ans: 2.5 ms–2, 1.37 kg, moves downwards, 13.43 N, 10 N

7. A soccer ball with mass 0.420 kg is traveling with a speed of 4.50 m/s at an angle of 20.0°
counterclockwise from the +x axis as shown in alongside figure.
What are the ball's x- and y- components of momentum?
Ans: 1.80 kgms – 1 , 0.65 kgms – 1
8. A baseball with mass 0.145 kg is moving in the +y direction with a

speed of 1.30 m/s and a tennis ball with mass 0.0570 kg is moving in
the –y direction with a speed of 7.80 m/s. What are the magnitude
and direction of the total momentum of the system consisting of the
two balls? Ans: –0.26 kgms–1, along –y direction
9. A lift moves (i) up and (ii) down with an acceleration of 2ms–2. In each case, calculate the reaction of
the floor on a man of mass 50 kg standing in the lift. Ans: 600 N, 400 N
10. The mass of gas emitted from the rear of a toy rocket is initially 0.1 kgs . If the speed of the gas
–1
relative to the rocket is 50 ms–1 and the mass of the rocket is 2 kg, what is the initial acceleration of
the rocket? Ans: 2.5 ms–2
11. A hose directs a horizontal jet of water moving with a velocity of 20 ms–1 onto a vertical wall. The
cross–sectional area of the jet is 5 × 10–4 m2. If the density of water is 1000 kgm–3, Calculate the force
on the wall assuming the water is brought to rest there. Ans: 200 N
12. Rain falls vertically onto a plane roof 1.5 m square, which is inclined to the horizontal at an angle of
30°. The rain drops strike the roof with a vertical velocity 3 ms–1 and a volume of 2.5 × 10–2 m3 of
water is collected from the roof in one minute. Assuming the conditions are steady and that the
velocity of the raindrops after impact is zero, calculate (i) the vertical force exerted on the roof by the
impact of the falling rain and (ii) the pressure normal to the roof due to the impact of the rain.
(Density of water = 103 kgm–3) Ans: (i) 1.25 N (ii) 0.48 Nm–2
13. A uranium atom traveling with a velocity of 5.00 × 105 ms–1 relative to the containing tube breaks up
into Krypton and Barium. The Krypton atom is ejected directly backwards at a velocity of 2.35 × 106
ms–1 relative to the barium after separation. With what velocity does the barium atom move forward
relative to the tube? What is the velocity of the Krypton atom relative to the containing tube?
(Relative mass of Kr = 95, Ba = 140, U = 235) Ans: 1.45 × 106 ms–1, 9.0 × 105 ms–1
14. A fire engine pumps water at such a rate that the velocity of the water leaving the nozzle is
15 m s–1. If the jet be directed perpendicularly on to a wall and the rebound of the water be neglected,
calculate the pressure on the wall (1 m3 water has mass 1000 kg). Ans: 2.25 × 105 Nm–2
Exercise
1. What is the force on a body when it moves with uniform motion?
2. What is an impulse?
3. Is momentum of a moving object a scalar or a vector quantity?
4. At what condition action and reaction cancel each-other?
5. Which force is necessary to change the speed and direction of a body, internal or external?
6. In a tug of war, the team that pushes harder against the ground ultimately wins, why?
7. A carpet is beaten with a stick to remove the dust particles. Why?
8. Why don't the tyres make with iron, but rubber?
9. Why are mud-guards used over the rotating wheel of the vehicles?
10. Why free body diagram is very important in the calculation of force?
11. At what condition, the tension on both sides of a pulley is equal?
12. What is the direction of tension on a rope with heaving load?
13. What is coefficient of friction? Does it have unit?
14. In order to propel forward during swimming, the swimmer pushes water backward, why?
15. In MAHABHARAT story, KUBER scattered the mustard grains on the road in order to move the
heavy cart. Does it have any physical sense?
15. What is internal force in a body? What is external force?
17. Friction doesn't depend on surface area of contact if so, why does a tyre not flat?
Short Questions
1. Why do bodies of small mass require small initial effort to bring them into motion?
2. Can a single isolated force exist in nature?
3. Distinguish between inertia of rest and inertia of motion.
4. Define momentum. Give its unit and dimensions.
5. What are angle of friction and angle of repose?
6. Why is it necessary to bend knees while jumping from greater height?
7. Why is it advisable to hold a gun tight to one’s shoulder when it is being fired?
8. Why are passengers thrown forward from their seats when a speeding bus stops suddenly?
9. When a bus suddenly stops, a passenger standing in it is thrown forward. Explain why?
10. Automobiles and bogies of the trains are provided with spring system. Explain why?
11. Is there any frictional force when lying on the ground?
12. A block of mass m is held on a rough inclined surface of inclination various forces acting on the
block.
13. A horse has to apply more force to start a cart than to keep it moving. Why?
14. Is it unreasonable to expect the coefficient of friction to exceed unity?
15. How does friction help us in walking?
16. In a tug of war, the team that pushes harder against the ground wins. Why?
17. Why is Newton’s first law of motion also called law of inertia?
18. A thief jumps from the upper stair of a house with a load on his back. What is the force of the load on
his back when the thief is in air?
19. Why a man getting out of a moving bus must run in the same direction for a certain distance?
20. Explain why a coin placed on a cardboard covering a glass falls into the glass when the cardboard is
pulled suddenly to one side?
21. The leaves fall when a tree is shaken. Give reason.
22. A man jumping out of a moving train falls with his head forward. Why?
23. Why do the blades of an electric fan continue to rotate for some time after the current is switched off?
24. If a ball is thrown up in a uniformly moving train, it comes back to the person's hand? Why?
25. Why is Newton's first law of motion also called law of inertia?
26. Can a body be regarded in a state of rest as well as in motion at the same time? Give an example.
27. Explain how Newton's first law of motion follows from the second law.
28. If action and reaction are always equal and opposite, why don't they always cancel each other and
leave no force for acceleration of the body?
29. A thief jumps from the upper storey of a house with a load on his back. What is the force of the load
on his back when the thief is in air?
30. Why is it difficult to run fast on sand?
31. According to Newton's third law, every force is accompanied by equal and opposite force. How can
anything move then?
32. In a tug of war, the team that pushes harder against the ground wins. Why?
33. A firecracker at rest explodes, sending fragments off in all directions. Initially the firecracker has zero
momentum, but after the explosion the fragments flying off from each other have quite a lot of
momentum. Hasn't momentum been created? If not explain why not?
34. Why is it advisable to hold a gun tight to one's shoulder when it is being fired?
35. A cricketer lowers his hands while catching balls. Why?
36. When a balloon filled with air and its mouth downwards is released, it moves upwards why?
37. Why we are hurt less when we jump on a muddy floor in comparison to a hard floor?
38. A stone when thrown on a glass window smashes the window pane into pieces, but a bullet from the
gun passes through making a clean hole. Why?
39. Mention the conditions of stable equilibrium.
40. Why a wrench of longer arm is preferred in comparison to a wrench of shorter arm?
41. It is difficult to open the door at the outer edge while closing or opening it?
42. Can three unequal coplanar forces bring the body in equilibrium?
43. How does friction help us in walking?
44. Why do we slip on a rainy day?
45. Is friction a necessary evil? Explain.
46. In rain a scooter may slip on the turning of a road. Why?
47. Sand is thrown on tracks covered with snow. Why?
Long Questions
1. State Newton’s laws of motion. Show that the first law gives the qualitative definition of force and
the second law gives the quantitative (the measure) definition of force and third law explains the
equilibrium of forces.
2. State the principle of conservation of linear momentum and show how it follows from Newton's laws
of motion.
3. State the principle of conservation of linear momentum. Show that in collision between two moving
bodies in which no external forces act.
4. State second law of motion. Prove F = ma. Also, show that force on a body is inversely proportional
to the time of impact for constant impulse.
5. State the laws of limiting friction? How would you measure the coefficient of friction between a body
and an inclined plane?
6. Define angle of repose. Establish relationship between angle of friction and angle of repose.
7. State the laws of limiting friction. Show that when a body just begins to slide down an inclined plane,
the coefficient of friction between the two surfaces is equal to the tangent of inclination of the plane.
8. What do you mean by cold weldings? Show that angle of repose and angle of friction are equal.
9. Define angle of friction. Derive a relation between angle of friction and coefficient of friction.

LEVEL I
1. A bullet of mass 0.04 kg moving with a speed of 90 m/s enters a heavy wooden block and is stopped
after a distance of 60 cm. What is the average resistive force exerted by the block on the bullet.
Ans: 270 N
2. Two blocks of masses 3 kg and 2 kg are placed in contact with each other on a frictionless table. Find
the force on the common cross-sectional area of contact if a force of 5 N is applied on
(i) bigger block (ii) smaller block Ans: i) 2N ii) 3N
3. Find the distance travelled by a body before coming to the rest if it is moving with the speed of 10
ms–1 and the coefficient of friction between the body and the ground is 0.4. Ans: 12.5 m

4. A block of weight 10 N rest on a rough inclined plane of slope 3 in 5. Calculate the minimum force
required to start moving the block of the inclined plane. (Given μ = 0.6.) Ans: 10.8 N
5. A rocket with a lift mass of 3.5 × 104 kg is blasted upwards with an acceleration of 10 ms–2. Calculate
5
the initial thrust of the blast. Ans: 7.0 × 10 N
6. A force of 49 N is just sufficient to pull a block of wood weighing 20 kg on a rough horizontal
surface. Calculate the coefficient of friction and angle of friction. Ans: 0.5, 26°34'
–1
7. A body rolled on ice with a velocity of 8 ms comes to rest after travelling 4 m. Compute the
coefficient of friction. [Given g = 9.8 ms–2] Ans: 0.8164
8. A ball of mass 0.05 kg strikes a smooth wall normally four times in 2 seconds with a velocity of 10
ms–1. Each time the ball rebounds with the same speed of 10 ms–1. Calculate the average force on the
wall. Ans: 2 N
9. A vehicle having a mass of 500 kg is moving with a speed of 10 ms–1. Sand is dropped into it at the
rate 10 kg/min. What force is needed to keep the vehicle moving with uniform speed? Ans: 1.67 N
10. A little red wagon with mass 7 kg moves in a straight line on a frictionless horizontal surface. It has
an initial speed of 4 m/s and then is pushed 3 m in the direction of the initial velocity by a force of
10 N. Calculate the wagon's final speed and the acceleration produced by the force.
Ans: 4.96 m/s, 1.43 m/s 2
11. A cricket ball of mass 145 g is moving with a velocity of 14 m/s and is being hit by a bat, so that the
ball is turned back with a velocity of 22 m/s. The force of blow acts on the ball for 0.015 s. Find the
average force exerted by the bat on the ball. Ans: 348 N
12. A box rests on a frozen pond, which serves as a frictionless horizontal surface. If a fisherman applies
a horizontal force with magnitude 48.0 N to the box and produces an acceleration of magnitude 3.00
m/s2, what is the mass of the box? Ans: 16.0kg
13. A crate with mass 32.5 kg initially at rest on a warehouse floor is acted on by a net horizontal force of
140 N. (a) What acceleration is produced? (b) How far does the crate travel in 10.0 s?
(c) What is its speed at the end of 10.0 s? Ans: 4.3 ms–2, 215 m, 43 ms–1
24
14. A student with mass 45 kg jumps off a high dividing board. Using 6.0× 10 kg for the mass of the
earth, what is the acceleration of the earth towards her as she accelerates towards the earth with an
acceleration of 9.8 m/s2? Assume that the net force on the earth is the force of gravity she exerts on it.
Ans: 7.4 × 10–23 ms–2
15. A 8.00 kg of ice, released from rest at the top of a 1.50 m long frictionless ramp, slides downhill,
reaching a speed of 2.50 m/s at the bottom. What is the angle between the ramp and the horizontal?
Ans: 12.3°
16. A car of mass of 1000 kg is accelerating at 2 ms–2. What resultant force acts on the car? If the
resistance to the motion is 1000 N, what is the force due to engine? Ans: 2000 N, 3000 N
17. A ball of mass 0.2 kg falls from a height of 45 m. On striking the ground, it rebounds in 0.1 s with
two–thirds of the velocity with which it struck the ground. Calculate (i) the momentum change on
hitting the ground and (ii) the force on the ball due to the impact. Ans: 10 Ns, 100 N
18. A constant force acting on a body of mass 5 kg changes speed from 2 ms–1 to 4 ms–1 in 20 s. The
direction of motion of the force remains unchanged. What is the magnitude and the direction of the
force? Ans: 0.5 N
19. A van of mass 2,000 kg travelling at 30 ms–1 dashes into a water tanker of mass 10,000 kg moving in
the same direction with the velocity of 8 ms–1. After the collision, the van bounces with a velocity of 6
m/s. What is the final speed of water tanker after the impact? Ans: 15.2 ms–1
LEVEL II
1. A body of mass 8 kg is acted upon by two perpendicular forces of 16 N and 12 N. Give the
magnitude and direction of the acceleration of the body. Ans: 36.87°, with the 16 N force
2. A hunter has a machine gun that can fire 50 g bullets with a velocity of 150 ms–1. A 60 kg tiger springs
at him with a velocity of 10 ms–1. How many bullets must the hunter fire into the tiger in order to
stop him in attack? Ans: 80

3. A body m1 of mass 20 kg is placed on a smooth horizontal table. It
R
is connected to a string which passes over a frictionless pulley and a
T →
carries at the other end, a body m2 of mass 10 kg. What
m1
acceleration will be produced in the bodies when the nail fixed on
T
the table is removed? What will be the tension in the string during
the motion of the bodies? What will be the tension when the m2 a
bodies stop? [Take g = 9.8 Nkg–1] m1g ↓
Ans: 3.27 ms–2, 65.4 N, 98 N
mg
4. A truck of mass 2 × 10 kg travelling at 0.5 ms–1 collides with
4 2
–1
another truck of half its mass moving in the opposite direction with a velocity of 0.4 ms . If the
trucks couples automatically on collision, calculate the common velocity with which they move.
–1
Ans:0.2 ms
5. Suppose you try to move a crate by tying a rope around it and pulling on the rope at angle of 30°
above the horizontal. What is the tension required to keep the crate moving with constant velocity?
Assume weight of the crate 'W' = 500 N and coefficient of dynamic friction μk = 0.40. Ans: 187.6 N
¤ ¤ ¤
6. Two forces, F1 and F2 acts at a point. The magnitude of F1 is 9.00 N and its direction is 60.0° above the
¤
x-axis in the second quadrant. The magnitude of F2 is 6.00 N and its direction is 53.1° below the x-axis
in the third quadrant. (a) What are the x- and y- components of the resultant force? (b) What is the
magnitude of the resultant force? Ans: (a) 8.10 N, 3.02 N (b) 8.64 N
7. A box of mass 50 kg is pulled up from the hold of a ship with an acceleration of 1 ms–2 by a vertical
rope attached to it. Find the tension in the rope. What is the tension in the rope when the box moves
up with a uniform velocity of 1 ms–1? Ans: 550 N, 500 N
8. A bullet of mass 20 g is fired horizontally into a suspended stationary wooden block of mass
380 g with a velocity of 200 ms–1. What is the common velocity of the bullet and block if the bullet is
embedded in the block? If the block and bullet experience a constant opposing force of 2 N, find the
time taken by them to come to rest. Ans: 10 ms–1, 2 s
9. Two people are carrying a uniform wooden board that is 3.00 m long and weight 160 N. If one person
applies an upward force equal to 60 N at one end, at what point does the other person lift?
Ans: 2.40 m
10. Two people carry a heavy electric motor by placing it on a light board 2.00 m long. One person lifts
one end with a force of 400 N, and the other lifts the opposite end with a force of 600 N. What is the
weight of the motor and where along the board is its centre of gravity located? Ans: 1000 N, 1.20 m
11. A uniform ladder 5.0 m long rests against a frictionless, vertical wall with its lower end 3.0 m from
the wall. The ladder weights 160 N. The coefficient of static friction between the foot of the ladder
and the ground is 0.40. A man weighing 740 N climbs slowly up the ladder. (a) What is the maximum
frictional force that the ground can exert on the ladder at its lower end? (b) What is the actual
frictional force when the man has climbed 1.0 m along the ladder? How far along the ladder can the
man climb before the ladder starts to slip? Ans: 360 N, 170 N, 2.7 m
12. A rocket is set for vertical firing. If the exhaust speed is 1,400 ms–1, how much gas must be ejected per
second to supply the thrust needed? How much gas must be ejected per second to supply the thrust
needed to overcome the weight of the rocket? [Given mass of rocket 4000 kg] Ans: 28 kg s-1
13. A 550 N physics student stands on a bathroom scale in an elevator. As the elevator starts moving the
scale reads 450 N. Draw free body diagram of the problem and find the magnitude and direction of
the acceleration of the elevator. Ans: 1.78 ms–2 downwards
14. What should be the acceleration of a work sliding down on inclined that makes an angle of 45º with
the horizontal if the coefficient of sliding friction between two surfaces is 0.3? Ans: 4.95 m/s2
15. A rectangular plate ABCD has two forces of 100 N acting along AB and BC in opposite directions. If
AB = 3 m, BC = 5 m, What is the moment of the couple or torque acting on the plate? What forces
acting along BC and AD respectively are required to keep the plate in equilibrium? Ans: 166.67 N


1. A block of mass M is pulled along a horizontal frictionless surface by a rope of mass m. Force P is
applied at one end of the rope. The force which the rope exerts on the block is:
P P Pm PM
a. M(m + M) b. M – m c. M – m d. m + M
2. A marble block of mass 2 kg lying on ice when given a velocity of 6 m s–1 is stopped by a friction in
10 s. Then the coefficient of friction is
a. 0.06 b. 0.01 c. 0.02 d. 0.03.
3. A chain of 5 links, each of mass 0.1 kg, is lifted vertically with a constant acceleration 1.2 ms–2. The
force of interaction between the top link and the one immediately below it is
a. 1.10 N b. 0.88 N c. 0.66 N d. 0.44 N.
4. A block of mass m is placed on a smooth wedge of inclination θ. The whole system is accelerated
horizontally so that the block does not slip on the wedge. The force exerted by the wedge on the
block (g is acceleration due to gravity) will be
a. mg cos θ b. mg sin θ c. mg d. mg/cos θ.
5. A car of mass m is moving with momentum p. If μ is the coefficient of friction between the tyres and
the road, what will be stopping distance due to friction alone?
p2 p2 p2 p2
a. b. c. d. 2 mg
2 μg 2 m μg 2 m2 μg
6. A particle of mass m is executing uniform circular motion on a path of radius r. If p is the magnitude
of its linear momentum, the radial force acting on the particle is
rm mp2 p2
a. p m r b. p c. r d. rm
7. Human heart is pumping blood with constant velocity v ms–1 at the rate of M kg s–1. The force
required for this is (in N)
M dM
a. M b. Mv c. v d. v dt
8. A block of weight 4 kg is resting on a smooth horizontal plane. If it is struck by a jet of water at the
rate of 2 kg s–1 and at the speed of 10 m s–1, then the initial acceleration of the block is
a. 15 m s–2 b. 10 m s–2 c. 2.5 m s–2 d. 5 m s–2.
9. A body of mass 'm' is travelling with a velocity 'u'. When a constant retarding force 'F' is applied, it
comes to rest after travelling a distance 's1'. If initial velocity is '2u', with the same force 'F', the
distance travelled before it comes to rest is 's2'. Then
s1
a. s2 = 2s1 b. s2 = 2 c. s2 = s1 d. s2 = 4s1
10. An elevator of mass M is accelerated upward by applying a force F. A mass m initially situated at a
height of 1 m above the floor of the elevator is falling freely. It will hit the floor of the elevator after a
time equal to:
2M 2M 2M 2M
a. F + mg b. F – mg c. F d. F + Mg
ANSWERS
1. (d) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (d) 5. (c) 6. (d) 7. (b) 8. (d) 9. (d) 10. (c)


WORK, ENERGY
AND POWER
5.1 Introduction
We have been using the term 'work' to define different activities that we do commonly on our daily
life. For us, reading book for hours is work, lifting a 2 kg load for 10 minutes is work. The everyday
meaning of work for us is, all those activities including one that requires muscular or mental effort.
To perform the work, energy is necessary. Energy comes to us from the sun in the form of sunlight.
Energy from the sun is converted into various forms in our food we eat, and it sustains life. Energy
may be the most familiar concept in science, yet it is one of the most difficult to understand. Persons,
places, and things have energy, but we observe only the effects of energy, when something is
happening only when energy is being transferred from one place to another or transformed from one
form to another. Thus, energy can be studied relating the concept of work done.
5.2 Meaning of Work done

The term 'work' in physics has a meaning different from that of the word as it is used in ordinary
circumstances. A man holding a 10 kg stone off the ground for a while does no work. Nevertheless,
he gets tired and begins to shake. This is because the components of muscle fibres in the arm do
work as they continually contract and relax. This is the work done by one part of arm exerting force
on another part, however, not on the load. From the point of a physicist, for the work to be done,
force must be applied on a body and the body must move from one place to another, i.e., it must
undergo a displacement.
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)

Fig. 5.1: (i) No displacement -no work (ii) Force perpendicular to displacement-no work
(iii) No displacement -no work (iv) Force applied to displace load- work done.
Whenever a body moves, a force must act on it in the same direction as the displacement. Thus, work
is said to be done by a force if the body displaces in the direction of applied force. If a constant force
Work and Energy |Chapter 5| 137
of magnitude F acts on a body and produces a displacement of magnitude s, then work done (W) by
the force is defined as the product of force magnitude (F) and displacement magnitude (s)
i.e., W = Fs … (5.1)
The work done on a body is greater if either the force (F) or displacement (s) is greater. The work
done is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is joule (J). In equation (5.1), the SI unit of force is newton (N)
and the unit of distance is metre (m). So, joule is equivalent to newton-metre (N m). Thus, one joule work is
said to be done when a force of 1 newton displaces a body through 1 metre in its own direction.
In British system, the unit of force is pound (lb) and unit of distance is foot (ft). So, the unit of work is
foot-pound (ft-lb).
1 joule = 0.7376 ft-lb
1 ft-lb = 1.356 J F sin φ
F
The force applied on a body is not always parallel to the displacement.
For example, if we wish to pull a crate with the help of a rope tied to one φ F cos φ
of its side, then the force applied is oblique, i.e., the direction of applied s
force makes certain angle φ to the horizontal as shown in Fig. 5.2. Fig. 5.2: Work done by oblique
force
In such case, we resolve the applied force in two components:
→
F cos φ along horizontal and F sin φ along vertical. Here, only the component F cos φ of F is effective
in displacing the crate. So, the component F cos φ does work and hence work done in this case is
defined as
W = F cos φ s … (5.2)
→→
Equation (5.2) has the form of scalar product of two vectors as A . B = AB cos φ. So, above equation
can be written more compactly as,
→ →
W= F . s
Note:
(i) Work done is the scalar product of force and displacement,
→ →
W= F . s
For three dimensional space,
→ ∧ ∧ ∧
F = F 1 i + F 2 j + F3 k
→ ∧ ∧ ∧
s = s1 i + s2 j + s3 k
→ →
∴ F . s = F1s1 + F2s2 + F3s3
Here, we have assumed that both F and φ are constant during displacement. If φ = 0, then
cos φ = 1, and W = F cos φ s = Fs
Hence, we are back to equation (5.1) again.
In equation (5.2), the presence of the term cos φ implies that work can be positive or negative.
(a) If φ < 90°, cos φ is positive, so work done is positive. Under this condition, there will be a
component of force in the direction of object's displacement.
(b) If φ > 90°, cos φ is negative, so work done is negative. Under this condition, there is a
component of force opposite to the direction of object's displacement.
(c) If φ = 90°, no work is done by the force on the object.
Thus, we come up with a conclusion that, for work to be done, force need to have a component in the
direction of motion. Even when you walk with constant velocity on a level floor while carrying a
load over your head, you still do no work on it. The load has displacement but the supporting
(vertical) force that you exert on load has no component in the direction of horizontal motion.
However, you do work while lifting the load from ground to over your head. Thus, necessary
condition for work to be done is, "force must be applied on a body and the body must displace".
When several forces are acting on a body, the total work done is the algebraic sum of the quantities
→
of work done by each separate force. If several forces act on a particle, then we can replace F in the
→ → →
equation W = F . s by the net force Σ F . R
¤ ¤ ¤ ¤
where , Σ F = F 1 + F 2 + F 3 + …
Fk F
The total work done is then,
¤ ¤ ¤ ¤ ¤ ¤ ¤ ¤ s
W = (Σ F ). s = F 1 . s + F 2 . s + F 3 . s + … mg
Fig. 5.3: Work done against friction
Some illustrations of work done
(i) Work done against friction along a horizontal:
Let us consider a body of mass 'm' slides over a rough surface with constant velocity (a = 0) by
applying force F.
Let 'μk' be the coefficient of kinetic friction between the body and the surface. Then, kinetic
friction is given by,
Fk = μk R = μk mg … (5.3)
Here, R = mg is normal reaction and 'g' is acceleration due to gravity.
The kinetic friction (Fk) and the applied force 'F' are equal when the body moves with constant
velocity.
∴ F = Fk = μk mg … (5.4)
Let 's' be the displacement of the block, then work done against friction 'F' is equal to work done
by force F.
∴ W = Fs = μk mgs
EXAMPLE 1: A 20.0 kg rock is sliding on a rough, horizontal surface at 8.00 m/s and eventually stops due to friction. The
coefficient of kinetic friction between the rock and the surface is 0.200. What average thermal power is produced as the
rock stops?
SOLUTION
Given,
Mass (m) = 20.0 kg, Initial velocity (u) = 8.00 ms–1, Coefficient of friction (μ) = 0.200
Here, force provided by friction
F = μ mg = 0.2 × 20 × 9.8 = 39.2 N
Power (P) = F.v = 39.2 × 8 = 313.6 W
 Check Point: A Nigerian player "Musa" kicked the football of mass 0.40 kg with initial speed
10 ms–1 and eventually stops due to friction. The coefficient of kinetic friction between the
ground and the surface is 0.25. Find the force provided by the friction. Also find the power.
(Given, Power (P) = F v) Ans: 1 N, 10 W

(ii) Work done against friction when body moves up the inclined plane:
Let us consider a block of mass m moves over an inclined
rough surface with constant velocity (a = 0) by applying
F
n
force F as in Fig. 5.4. At any position of block as shown in
io
R
ot
M
Fig. 5.4, the weight 'mg' acts vertically downward, which
can be resolved along two components.
(a) mg cos θ perpendicular to inclined plane which balances q
normal reaction, mg cos q
q
n
si
i.e., R = mg cos θ
g
m
mg
k +
(b) mg sin θ parallel to inclined surface. In addition to this
q
F
force, a kinetic frictional force also acts along the same
Fig. 5.4: Body moving up an inclined plane
downward direction, so that net force acting downward
= Fk + mg sin θ.
But, Fk = μk R = μk mg cos θ
In order to move the body up with constant velocity, R Fk
F = Fk + mg sin θ
or, F = μk mg cos θ + mg sin θ
n
If 's' be the distance through which the block moves then,
io
q
ot
M
total work done is,
W = Fs q mg cos q
n
si
∴ W = (μk cos θ + sin θ) mgs … (5.5)

g
m
mg
However, if the body moves down the inclined plane, the q
work done is, Fig. 5.5: A body moving downward on
∴ W = (sin θ – μk cos θ) mgs … (5.6) inclined plane
Note: If the body moves upward with uniform acceleration 'a',

F = Fk + mg sin θ + ma
=μk mg cos θ + mg sin θ + ma
The total work done for a body to move upward with acceleration 'a'.
W = (μk g cos θ + g sin θ + a) ms
EXAMPLE 2: A car of mass 1000 kg moves at a constant speed of 20 ms–1 along a horizontal road where the frictional
force is 200 N. Calculate the power developed by the engine. If the car now moves up an incline at the same constant
1
speed, calculate the new power developed by the engine. Assume that the frictional force is still 200 N and that sin θ = 20 ,
where θ is the angle of the incline to the horizontal.
SOLUTION
Given, 1
F1 = mg sin θ = 1000 × 10 × 20 = 500 N
Mass (m) = 1000 kg, Velocity (v) = 20 ms–1,
Force (F) = 200 N Frictional force, F2 = 200 N
Power developed, P = F . v ∴ Total down ward force
= 200 × 20 = 4000 W = 4 kW F = F1 + F2 = 500 + 200 = 700 N
Here, To move up, the car should be overcome
1 the opposing force as well, so,
sin θ = 20 The new power developed by the engine,
Force along the plane due to gravity, P = F × v = 700 × 20 = 14000 W = 14 kW.
 Check Point: A 10 kg slab is lying on a plane inclined at 30º to the horizontal and the
coefficient of friction is 0.2. Find the least force which will pull the slab upward.
5.3 Work done by Variable Force

We have so far discussed the work done by constant force. But in real life, there are many situations
in which a body may be moving under the effect of a
varying force. For example: when a body is moved away
from the center of earth, the magnitude of gravitational
force continuously decreases. However, direction always
remains the same. The forces which vary with position of
a body in magnitude, direction or both are called variable forces.
To calculate the work done by variable force, let us consider a body is displaced from position A to
position B under the action of varying force as shown in Fig 5.6.
Let PQ = dx be the small displacement of the body during its motion. Here, dx is so small that the
force can be assumed to be constant during this displacement. So, small work done is given by
¤ ¤
dW = F .dx (Definition of work)
∴ Total work done in moving a body from position A to B is
obtained by integrating above equation i.e.,
B B¤ ¤
W = A dW = A F .dx … (5.7)
Graphical Method
We can use graphical method to calculate the work done by
variable force. In this method, we draw a graph between force
and the object's position and area under the curve gives the
total work done by the variable force. A plot of one
dimensional variable force as a function of position F(x) is as shown in Fig 5.7.
Note: The graph need not be necessarily the same as shown in Fig. 5.7. It represents only a type in which the magnitude
of force is increasing with increase in displacement.
Here, we want to calculate the work done on a particle by a variable force as it moves from initial
point xi to final point xf. For this, we divide the area under the curve of Fig. 5.7 into a number of
narrow strips of width Δx. Let us choose Δx small enough so that the force F(x) can be taken
reasonably constant over that interval.
Let us consider one such interval say ith interval and Fi be the average value of force F(x) within that
interval. Then, from Fig. 5.7, Fi is the height of the ith strip.
The amount of work done in this interval is given by
ΔWi = Fi Δx
= area of ith rectangular strip
To approximate the total work done by force on the particle as it moves that from xi to xf, we add the
areas of all the strips between xi and xf.
i.e., W = Σ Δ Wi = Σ Fi Δx
If the width of the strip is reduced so that it approaches zero i.e., Δ x → 0, then number of strips
becomes infinitely large and we have an exact result.
lim
i.e., W = Σ Fi . Δx
Δx → 0

If the force is continuous then, we Area under the F–s curve gives work done.
replace the summation sign by
integration as,
xf
W = ⌠x F(x) dx
⌡ i
xf
= ⌠x Area of ith
⌡ i
(i) Work done by constant force (ii) Work done by variable forces.
rectangular strip
1
= Total area under curve Work done (W) = OA × OC Work done = 2 AB × OA
between F and x-axis
from xi to xf.
Hence, work done by variable force is numerically equal to the area under the force curve and the
displacement axis.
5.4 Energy
A body which is capable of doing work is said to possess energy. The amount of energy that a body
has is equal to the amount of work that it can do. Equivalently, the amount of work that must have
been done on it to give it that energy.
Thus, energy of a body can be defined as its capacity for doing work. More precisely, it is the stored ability
to do work and does not depend on time in which the work is performed. It is a scalar quantity
whose dimensional formula is [ML2T–2] and is measured in joule in SI unit, same as work. In atomic
physics, energy is usually expressed in electron volt (eV) which is the energy gained by an electron
when it is accelerated through a potential difference of one volt.
1 eV = 1.6 × 10–19 J
Energy can exist in various forms such as chemical energy, nuclear energy, heat energy, light energy,
sound energy, mechanical energy, etc. We will focus mainly on the study of mechanical energy in
this chapter.
Mechanical energy is the energy possessed by a body because of its motion and position or state. For
example, a moving bus possesses energy, a stretched catapult possesses energy, a stretched or
compressed spring possesses energy, a stone lying at certain height from the ground possesses
energy and so on. The mechanical energy is basically of two types: kinetic and potential energy.
5.5 Kinetic Energy

The energy associated with a body in motion is called kinetic energy. For example, a bullet fired from a gun,
moving water, blowing wind, etc., possess the kinetic energy. The kinetic energy is the measure of
the work that a moving body can do. There are several examples which illustrate the work done by a
moving body (system). A blowing air (wind) which is said to possess kinetic energy is used to run air
mills. Similarly, K.E. of running water is used to run turbines in hydro-electric projects and so on. For
a mass 'm' moving at speed 'v', its kinetic energy is given by
1
K.E. = 2 mv2

To prove this, suppose a mass 'm' moves a distance 's' under the action of constant force 'F'. The work
done 'W' by the force is given by m F
W = Fs
s
If the acceleration is 'a', then from Newton's second law of motion
Fig. 5.8: Work done in
F = ma horizontal surface
∴ W = mas … (5.8)
Equation (5.8), so, obtained above considers that the force is constant but the same equation is valid
even if the force is variable.
If the body has been accelerated from rest to some velocity v, then, we can have,
v2 = u2 + 2as
or, v2 = 2as ... initial velocity (u) = 0
v2
∴ as = 2 … (5.9)
From equation (5.8) and (5.9),
v2 1
W = m 2 = 2 mv2
1
∴ W = 2 mv2
1
The quantity 2 mv2 on R.H.S is the K.E of the body and is equal to the work done in imparting it a
velocity v.
1
∴ K.E. = 2 mv2 … (5.10)
We see from above equation that K.E. of a moving body is directly proportional to the mass and
square of the velocity of the body. The kinetic energy is a scalar quantity and depends only on the
magnitude of velocity of the body but not on the direction in which it is moving. Since, m and v2 are
both positive quantity, K.E. is always positive but the change in kinetic energy can be positive or
negative.
Further, we know,
Linear momentum of the body (p) = mv … (5.11)
1
But, K.E. = 2 mv2
1 (mv)
∴ K.E. = 2 (mv) m … (5.12)
∴ From equations (5.11) and (5.12), we get,
1 p
K.E. = 2 p. m
p2
∴ K.E. = 2m
1
If momentum p is constant then K.E. ∝ m i.e., the body of larger mass will have smaller K.E. The
graph between K.E. and 'm' for this situation is given in Fig. 5.9 (i).

Fig. 5.9: (i) K.E. versus 'm' (ii) 'p' versus 'm' (iii) K.E. versus 'p'
If K.E. is constant, then p ∝ m i.e., for constant K.E., the body with larger mass will have larger
linear momentum. The graph between 'p' and 'm' for this situation is shown in Fig. 5.9 (ii). Finally, if
mass 'm' is constant then, p ∝ K.E. i.e., for constant mass (same mass), the body with larger linear
momentum will have larger K.E. The graph between K.E. and 'p' for this situation is shown in
Fig. 5.9 (iii).
5.6 Work-Energy Theorem

We know, total work done is not only related to the change in position but also to the change in
object's speed. This change in speed produces the change in kinetic energy.
The work-energy theorem states that, "the work done by net force on a particle equals to the change in
particle's kinetic energy".
Suppose a body of mass 'm' moving initially with velocity 'u' covers a distance 's' under the action of
constant force F in the direction of force as shown in Fig. 5.10.
Fig. 5.10: Work done by the force 'F' over the displacement 's' of the object
The work done (W) by this force is given by
W = Fs … (5.13)
From, Newton's second law of motion, the acceleration is given by
F
a=m … (5.14)
∴ W = mas … (5.15)
If the work done by this force changes its velocity to a final value 'v', then we have,
v2 = u2 + 2as
v2 – u 2
∴ as = 2 … (5.16)

1 1
W = 2 mv2 – 2 mu2
1
Here, 2 mu2 = initial K.E. of body (K.E.)i
1
and 2 mv2 = final K.E. of body (K.E.)f

∴ W = (K.E.)f – (K.E.)i … (5.17)
Thus, the work done on a body by a force is equal to the change in K.E. of the body which is the
required work-energy theorem.
From above equation, we see that
(i) When W is positive, the kinetic energy increases i.e., (K.E.)f > (K.E.)i.
(ii) When W is negative, the kinetic energy decreases i.e., (K.E.)f < (K.E.)i
(iii) When W is zero, the kinetic energy stays the same i.e., (K.E.)f = (K.E.)i and the speed is
unchanged.
Moreover, we see that K.E. of a particle is equal to the total work that was done to accelerate it from
some finite speed (or rest) to its present speed. It is also equal to the total work that a particle can do
in the process of being brought to rest.
Notes:
(i) Work (W) is 'energy transferred' to or from an object by means of a force acting on the object. Energy
transferred to the object is positive work and energy taken from the object is negative work.
(ii) Great physicist, Albert Einstein showed that matter was equivalent to energy, whatever form of matter. The
energy associated with a mass 'm' is given by the famous formula of Einstein known as mass-energy
equivalence relation.
E = mc2
where, c is the speed of light in vacuum, c = 3 × 108 m/s.
EXAMPLE 3: A sled with mass 8.00 kg moves in a straight line on a frictionless horizontal surface. At one point in its path,
its speed is 4.00 m/s; after it has traveled 2.5 m beyond this point, its speed is 6.00 m/s. Use the work-energy theorem to
find the force acting on the sled, assuming that this force is constant and that it acts in the direction of the sled's motion.
SOLUTION
Given,
Mass of sled (m) = 8.00 kg
Speed at a point (v1) = 4.00 ms-1
Speed at another point (v2) = 6.00 ms-1 after travelling displacement, s = 2.5 m
From work-energy theorem,
1 1
W = 2 mv22 – 2 mv21
1 1
F.s = 2 mv22 – 2 mv21
m 8
F = 2s (v22 – v21) = 2 × 2.5 (62 – 42)
F = 32 N
 Check Point: You throw a 20 N rock vertically into the air from ground level. You observe that
when it is 15 m above the ground, it is travelling at 25 cm/s upward. Use the work-energy theorem
to find (i) its speed as it left ground (ii) its maximum height. Ans: 30.41 ms–1, 46.25 m
Kinetic Energy of Exploding Objects

Let us consider a body at rest explodes into two different m1 ¤ ¤ m2
v1 v2
¤
masses m1 and m2 which then move with velocities v1
¤ ¤ ¤
and v2 after explosion as shown in Fig. 5.11. Let p1 and p2
be their respective linear momentum after collision. Fig. 5.11: Kinetic energy of
exploding objects
1 p21
K.E. of mass m1, (E1) = 2 m1v21 = 2m … (5.18)
1

1 p22
K.E. of mass m2, (E2) = 2 m2v22 = 2m … (5.19)
2
Since the body is at rest before collision, initial linear momentum is zero.
But from conversation of linear momentum,
Initial linear momentum = final linear momentum
¤ ¤
or, 0 = p1 + p2
¤ ¤
∴ p1 = – p2 … (5.20)
This shows that, masses m1 and m2 fly off in opposite directions.
Further, dividing equation (5.18) by equation (5.19), we get,
2
E1 p1/m1
E2 = p2/m
1 2
E1 m2
[... |p1| = |p2| from equation (5.20)]
¤ ¤
E2 = m1
1
Therefore, K.E. ∝ mass
Thus, when a body explodes, the lighter mass has greater kinetic energy than heavier one.
EXAMPLE 4: An explosive of mass M placed at a point explodes into one-third and two-third parts. If the initial kinetic
energy of the smaller part is 1000 J. What will be the initial K.E. of the bigger part?
SOLUTION
Total mass of exploding object = M
1
Mass of smaller fragment (m1) = 3 M
2
Mass of bigger fragment (m2) = 3 M
Kinetic energy of smaller fragment (E1) = 1000 J
Kinetic energy of bigger fragment (E2) = ?
We have,
E2 m1
E1 = m2
m1 1/3 M 1
E2 = m × E1 = 2/3 M × 1000 = 2 × 1000 = 500 J
2
∴ Initial kinetic energy of bigger fragment is 500 J.

 Check Point: A stationary mass of 44 unit explodes into two fragments of unequal masses. If
the smaller mass, 4 unit has an initial kinetic energy of 1000 J. Find the mass and initial
kinetic energy of larger fragment. Ans: 40 unit, 100 J
5.7 Potential Energy

The energy which a body possesses due to its position or the arrangements of its component parts
i.e., configuration, is called potential energy (P.E.).
A brick which is suspended above the ground has energy because it could do work by falling to
ground. Its energy is due to its position and therefore it is potential energy. Moreover, it is acted
upon by earth's gravitational field, so, it is called gravitational potential energy. A charged particle
situated in an electric field has electric potential energy. The potential energy of stretched bow
strings results from the elastic properties of the string and is therefore referred to as elastic potential

energy. There are many forms of potential energies but we m
will focus only on the gravitational potential energy in this
chapter.
Gravitational Potential Energy

Consider a body of mass 'm' at some arbitrary height above h
the ground and is moving upward with some arbitrary
velocity. If the body is just to maintain this velocity, there
must be an upward force acting on it which is equal in
magnitude to its weight mg. If the body moves upward by a Arbitrary
height above
further distance 'h' under the influence of this (constant) the ground
force, the work done (W) by the force is given by,
Fig. 5.12: Potential energy of a body
W = mgh … (5.21) at height, h is mgh.
Since the velocity of the body has been constant throughout,
there is no change in the kinetic energy of the body. Therefore work done on the body has been used
only to increase its potential energy. Thus, in raising a body of mass 'm' through a distance 'h', the
increase in potential energy is mgh. It follows that if the potential energy of the body is taken to be
zero when it is on the ground, then its potential energy at a height 'h' is mgh.
i.e., Gravitational Potential Energy = mgh
1
Note: The potential energy of a stretched spring is, Ep = 2 kx2, where k is spring constant and x is stretched
length.
5.8 Principle of Conservation of Energy

It states that, "Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed but
can be transformed from one form to another so that the total energy u=0
A
of the system always remains constant or conserved" i.e., when
energy changes from one form to other forms, the total
x
amount of energy after the change must equal to the initial v1
amount of energy. Whenever energy in one form disappears, B
h
an equivalent amount of energy appears in some other forms
so that the total energy remains constant.
h-x
Principle of Conservation of Mechanical Energy
The mechanical energy of a system is the sum of its kinetic
energy (K.E.) and the potential energy (P.E.) of the objects v2
C
within it.
Fig. 5.13: Illustration of conservation of
Mechanical energy (E) = K.E. + P.E. … (5.22) mechanical energy in gravitational field
The total mechanical energy of a system may or may not be
conserved according as the forces involved are conservative
or non-conservative. When a conservative force does work on an object within the system, the force
transfers energy from kinetic energy of the object to potential energy (or potential energy to kinetic
energy) of the system so that the total mechanical energy is always conserved. Conservative force
neither add the energy nor reduce the energy of the system.

Let us consider an example of gravitational force to see how the mechanical energy is conserved.
Here we consider that friction and drag forces are absent and no external force outside the system
causes energy change inside the system.
Let us consider a body of mass 'm' initially at rest is dropped from point A at a height 'h' above the
surface of the earth. Let B and C be the position of the body during its fall as shown in Fig. 5.13.
At position A:
Kinetic energy of the body (K.E.) = 0 [... object is initially at rest]
Potential energy of the body (P.E.) = mgh
∴ Total mechanical energy (E) = 0 + mgh = mgh … (5.23)
At position B:
Let the body accelerates downward Conservation of mechanical energy
through a distance x from A and reaches When a wooden block is hung with a thread of length l from a rigid
support, the velocity of the block at any instant can be determined as
position B, where it attains a speed 'v1'. follows.
∴ Potential energy at B = mg (h – x) Here, OB = OC = l, length of thread.
1 During the oscillation, the block lifts net displacement AB making
and kinetic energy (K.E.) = 2 mv12 angle θ at the point of suspension.
Using the equation of kinematics,
v21 = u2 + 2gs
We get,
v2 = 2gx [... u = 0 and s = x ]
1
1
∴ K.E. = 2 m. 2gx = mgx
∴ Total mechanical energy (E) Here, change of kinetic energy
= K.E. + P.E. 1 1
Δ Ek = 2 mv2 = 2 mu2
= mgx + mg (h – x)
and change of potential energy.
i.e., E = mgh … (5.24)
ΔEp = mgΔh
At position C: = mg (OB – OA)
Let the body further accelerates downwards = mg(l – lcos θ)
and attains a velocity v2 just before it hits = mgl (1 – cos θ)
the ground at position C. Now,
ΔEk = ΔEp
∴ Potential energy (P.E.) = mgh
1 1 2
= 0 (... h = 0 at ground) 2 mv – 2 mu = mgl (1 – cos θ)
2
1 v2 – u2 = 2gl (1 – cos θ)
and Kinetic energy (K.E.) = 2 mv22
∴ v2 = u2 + 2gl(1 – cos θ)
Further, we have, v= u2 + 2gl(1 – cos θ)
v22 = u2 + 2gs [ ∵ u = 0 and s = h] E
or, v22 = 2gh
KE + PE
1 mgh
∴ Kinetic energy (K.E.) = 2 m × 2gh = mgh
PE
Total mechanical energy (E) = P.E + K.E
Total mechanical energy (E) = mgh … (5.25) KE
From equations (5.23), (5.24), and (5.25), we see that total h
mechanical energy is conserved at all points as the body falls O
Fig. 5.14: Variation of kinetic energy
freely under the effect of gravity. Further, we see that, total and potential energy at different
points on the path.
mechanical energy is in the form of P.E. at position A which is partly converted in the form of K.E. as
the particles reaches position B. So, total mechanical energy is partially kinetic and partially
potential.
Finally, as the body reaches position C, whole energy is kinetic only. In this way, we see that the
energy is transformed from one form to another. However, the total energy remains constant at all
times. Thus, a body falling under the effect of gravity follows the principle of conservation of energy
provided friction and drag forces are absent throughout.
EXAMPLE 5: A pitcher throws a baseball with mass 0.145 kg straight upward with an initial speed of 25.0 m/s. (a) How
much work has gravity done on the baseball when it reaches a height of 20.0 m above the pitcher's hand? (b) Use the work-
energy theorem to calculate the speed of the baseball at a height of 20.0 m above the pitcher's hand. You can ignore air
resistance.
SOLUTION
Given, 1 1
mass (m) = 0.145 kg mgh = 2 mv2 – 2 mu2
Initial velocity (u) = 25.0 ms–1 2gh = v2 – u2
∴ v = 15.3 ms–1 2 × (–9.8) × 20 = v2 – (25)2
a. The work done by gravity v2 = 625 – 392 = 233
W = mgh = 0.145 × (–9.8) × 20 = – 28.42 J ∴ v = 15.3 ms–1
b. From work energy theorem,
1 1
W = 2 mv2 – 2 mu2
 Check Point: A pistol fires a 3 g bullet with a speed of 400 ms–1. The pistol barrel is 13 cm
long. (i) How much energy is given to the bullet? (ii) What average force acted on the bullet
while it was moving down the barrel? Ans: 240 J, 1846 N
5.9 Conservative and Non-conservative Forces

So far, we have discussed that whenever one form of energy disappears, an equivalent energy
appears in some other forms. Some of these new forms of energy can be retraced in their previous
forms while others can't be retraced.
For example, when you throw a ball vertically upward, its K.E. gradually decreases due to decrease
in velocity and attains a minimum value of zero at maximum height. Here, the loss in K.E. appears in
the form of P.E. which gradually increases and attains a maximum value at maximum height.
However, as the ball falls down, the P.E. is gradually decreased and this loss in P.E. reappears as the
K.E. In other words, we can say that, loss in one form of energy is stored as another form so that an
equivalent amount of energy can be retrieved in its original form.
A force that offers an opportunity of two way conversion between kinetic and potential energies is called
conservative force. An essential feature of conservative force is that, their work done is always
reversible. Anything that is deposited in any form of energy (P.E. or K.E.) can later be withdrawn
without loss i.e., total mechanical energy is always conserved. The work done by such forces are
independent of actual path followed but depend only on the initial and final positions. However,
when the starting and ending points are same, the total work done is zero i.e., total work done round
a closed path is always zero.
However, all the forces are not conservative. Consider a body is sliding over a rough surface under
the action of applied force. In this case, as the body slides, frictional force appears in the direction
opposite to the displacement of body and does negative work. Similarly, if the body now moves
opposite to its previous direction, the frictional force again, appears opposite to the body's
displacement and again does negative work. In this way, in both situations, the net work done by
applied force is reduced. This means there is loss in K.E. of the body which can't be retrieved even if
we reverse its path. The loss in K.E. appears in the form of heat, light, sound, etc. Such forces for
which the work done is not reversible are called non-conservative forces. These forces are path
dependent and whenever any form of energy (K.E. or P.E.) is lost, it is lost forever in some other
forms. The original form of energy (P.E. or K.E.) can't be retrieved i.e., total mechanical energy is not
conserved.
However, the non-conservative forces do not always cause the loss of mechanical energies. There are
some non-conservative forces that increase mechanical energy. For example, the fragments of an
exploding fire cracker fly off with very large kinetic energy which is due to the chemical reaction of
gun powder with oxygen i.e., the chemical energy of gun powder aids the increase of K.E. of
fragments.
The examples of conservative forces are gravitational force, electric force, spring forces, etc., and that
of non-conservative force is kinetic friction, fluid resistance, etc.
Note: (a) Forces acting along the line joining the centers of two bodies are called central forces. Gravitational
force and electrostatic force are two important examples of central forces. Central forces are
conservative forces.
(b) The magnetic field itself is neither conservative nor non-conservative. Magnetic field lines do go in
closed paths but that's not the definition of conservative. Rather, a field is conservative when the force
on a test particle moving around any closed path does no net work. But magnetic fields only act on
moving charges, and at right angles to the motion, so the work is always zero and the concept doesn't
properly apply.
Of course, if a magnetic field is changing, then it generates an electric field according to Faraday's law
of induction, and that magnetically generated electric field will run in closed paths and be non-
conservative (unlike electric fields generated from static charges). Also, if there were magnetic
monopoles, they would try to follow the magnetic field the way electric charges try to follow the electric
field lines. And since as already noted, magnetic field lines tend to go in closed paths, that would create
a non-conservative force on the monopoles. However, as far as we know, magnetic monopoles don't
exist.
5.10 Power
The time rate at which work is done by a force is said to
be the power due to that force. If a force does an The kinetic energy of a group of particles is the sum
amount of work W in time t, the average power of kinetic energies of the individual particles.
due to the force during that interval is 1 2 1 2 1 2
Ek = 2 m1v1 + 2 m2v2 + 2 m3v3 + ………..
W
Pav = t
For example: If a machine gun fires N number of identical
It is a scalar quantity and its unit is joule per bullets at time t.
second more often called as watt (W). If a force 'F' Then, total kinetic energy delivered,
moves a body through distance 'ds' in small time 1
Ek = N . 2 mv2
'dt', then power is given by
ds Where, m is the mass of each bullet and v be the initial
P = F dt = Fv … (5.26) velocity of each of them.
where 'v' is called instantaneous velocity and P is Now, total power delivered,
called instantaneous power. The commonly used Ek N 1 1
P = t = t . 2 mv2 = n . 2 mv2
practical unit of power is horse power (H.P.)
1 H.P. = 746 W N
Where, n = t , is the number of bullet emitted per second
from the gun.

5.11 Collision
A collision is defined as the mutual interaction of the particles for relatively short interval of time as
a result of which the energy and momentum of interacting particles change. In physics, for the
collision to occur, two bodies need not necessarily touch physically. They are said to collide if the
motion of one particle changes due to the influence of other particle. For example, whenever two
marbles collide with each other, there is physical contact but when two electrons collide, there may
not be physical contact, they actually repel each other.
When two bodies collide with each other, often the forces exerted by one on another are much
stronger than any other external forces present and the time of collision is so short that bodies do not
move appreciably during the interaction. When the external forces are negligible, the total linear
momentum of the two body system is conserved. Here, the time interval must also be very short so
that the external force though negligibly small, does not have time to change the momentum of a
system of colliding bodies. The total energy of the system is also conserved. On the basis of
conservation of K.E., collisions are broadly classified under two categories. (i) Elastic collision and
(ii) Inelastic collision
Elastic Collision
The interaction between two particles is said to be elastic collision if,
(i) Total linear momentum is conserved.
(ii) Total mechanical energy is conserved.
(iii) Total kinetic energy is conserved.
(iv) Forces involved during the interaction are of conservative nature.
The examples of elastic collisions are the collisions between atomic and sub-atomic particles.
Thus, if two particles collide elastically, then following two equations must essentially hold.
1 1 1 1
(a) 2 m1u1 + 2 m2u2 = 2 m1v1 + 2 m2v2
2 2 2 2
(law of conservation of K.E.)
(b) m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2 (law of conservation of linear momentum)

Here, m1, u1, v1 and m2, u2, v2 are respectively the mass, initial velocity and final velocity of two
colliding particles.
Elastic Collision in One Dimension

Let us consider two bodies of masses 'm1' and 'm2' moving along a same straight line with initial
velocities 'u1' and 'u2' (u1 > u2) collide elastically with each other so that their final velocities are 'v1'
and 'v2'. Since the collision is one dimensional, their motion after collision is along the same straight
line i.e., their final velocities also act along the same straight line.
m1 m1
m2 m2
u1 u2 v1 v2
Before collision During collision After collision
Fig 5.15: Elastic collision between two bodies in 1-Dimension

Then,
Initial momentum of mass m1 = m1u1
Final momentum of mass m1 = m1v1
Initial momentum of mass m2 = m2u2
Final momentum of mass m2 = m2v2
Total initial momentum of the system = m1u1 + m2u2
Total final momentum of the system = m1v1 + m2v2
Since the total momentum of the system must remain conserved, we must have,
Total initial momentum = Total final momentum
∴ m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2 … (5.27)
∴ m1 (u1 – v1) = m2 (v2 – u2) … (5.28)
Similarly,
1
Initial K.E. of mass m1 = 2 m1u21
1
Final K.E. of mass m1 = 2 m1v21
1
Initial K.E of mass m2 = 2 m2u22
1
Final K.E. of mass m2 = 2 m2v22
1 1
∴ Total initial K.E. of the system = 2 m1u21 + 2 m2u22
1 1
Total final K.E. of the system = 2 m1v21 + 2 m2v22
Since the collision is elastic one, total kinetic energy must be conserved. So, we can write,
Total initial kinetic energy = Total final kinetic energy
1 1 1 1
or, 2 m1u1 + 2 m2u2 = 2 m1v1 + 2 m2v2
2 2 2 2
or, m1u21 – m1v21 = m2v22 – m2u22

or, m1(u21 – v21 ) = m2(v22 – u22 )
∴ m1(u1 – v1)(u1 + v1) = m2(v2 + u2)(v2 – u2) … (5.29)
Dividing equation (5.29) by equation (5.28), we get,
or, (u1 + v1) = (v2 + u2)
∴ u1 – u2 = v2 – v1 … (5.30)
The quantity (u1 – u2) represents relative velocity of approach and the quantity (v2 – v1) represents
relative velocity of separation. "Thus, we see that in one dimensional elastic collision, the relative velocity of
approach before collision is equal to relative velocity of recession (separation) after collision".
Further, from equation (5.30), we can have,
v 2 = u 1 – u 2 + v1 … (5.31)
Using the value of v2 in equation (5.27), we get
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2(u1 – u2 + v1)
or, m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2u1 – m2u2 + m2v1
or, m1u1 + m2u2 – m2u1 + m2u2 = m1v1+ m2v1
or, (m1 – m2)u1 + 2m2u2 = (m1 + m2)v1

(m1 – m2) 2m2
∴ v1 = (m + m ) u1 + (m + m ) u2 … (5.32)
1 2 1 2
This is the required expression for the final velocity of mass m1 after collision.
Similarly, final velocity (v2) of mass m2 can be shown to be,
(m2 - m1) 2m1
v2 = (m + m ) u2 + (m + m ) u1 … (5.33)
1 2 1 2
Special cases:
(i) When two bodies are of same masses i.e., m1 = m2 = m (say) then,
(m – m) 2m 2m
v1 = (m + m) u1 + (m + m) u2 = 0 + 2m u2
∴ v1 = u2
Similarly, v2 = u1
"When two bodies of equal masses collide elastically in one dimension, they simply exchange their
velocities after collision".
(ii) When one of the body (say m2) is at rest, then u2 = 0. So,
(m1 – m2) 2m2
v1 = (m + m ) u1 + (m + m ) u2
1 2 1 2
(m1 – m2)
∴ v1 = (m + m ) u1 … (5.34)
1 2
2m1
and, v2 = (m + m ) u1 … (5.35)
1 2
If two bodies are of equal masses i.e., m1 = m2 then,

From equation (5.34), we have,
v1 = 0
v2 = u1
Thus, when a body strikes another body of equal mass at rest, then the second body moves with the
velocity that the first body had before collision and the first body comes to rest.
Again, if m1 >> m2, so that m2 can be neglected as compared to m1, then,
m1
v1 = m u1 = u1 (provided m2 is at rest)
1
2m1
and v2 = m = u1 = 2u1
1
If a heavy body strikes a light body at rest, then the velocity of heavy body is unchanged but the
light body starts to move with velocity twice that of heavy body.
Finally, if m2 >> m1 then,
– m2
v1 = ⎛ m ⎞ u1 = – u1 (provided m2 is at rest initially)
⎝ 2⎠
2m1
and v2 = m u1 ≈ 0 (... m1 << m2)
2
Thus, if a small body strikes a heavy body at rest, then the light body rebounds with the same initial
speed but the heavy body almost remains at rest.

EXAMPLE 6: A 10 kg ball and 20 kg ball approach each other with velocities 20 ms–1 and 10 ms–1 respectively. What are
their velocities after collision if the collision is perfectly elastic?
SOLUTION
Given: 10 – 20 2 × 20
Mass of first ball (m1) = 10 kg = 10 + 20 × 20 + 10 + 20 × (–10)
Mass of second ball (m2) = 20 kg = – 20 ms–1
Initial velocity of first ball (u1) = 20 ms–1
2m1 m2 – m1
Initial velocity of second ball (u2) = –10 ms–1 v2 = m + m u1 + m + m u2
1 2 1 2
Final velocity of first ball (v1) = ?
Final velocity of second ball (v2) = ? 2 × 10 20 – 10
= 10 + 20 × 20 + 10 + 20 × (–10)
m1 – m2 2m2
Now, v1 = m + m u1 + m + m u2
1 2 1 2 = 10 ms–1
 Check Point: A 0.150 kg glider is moving to the right on a frictionless, horizontal air track
with a speed of 0.80 ms–1. It has a head on collision with a 0.300 kg glider that is moving to
the left with a speed of 2.20 ms–1. Find the final velocity (magnitude and direction) of each
glider if the collision is elastic. Ans: 3.2 towards left, 0.20 ms–1 right
Inelastic Collision
The interaction between two bodies is said to be inelastic collision if the kinetic energy of the system is not
conserved. The total linear momentum and total energy must however be conserved. In such type of
collision, the forces involved may be conservative or non-conservative.
Most of the collisions that we see on our daily life are inelastic one. In such type of collision, K.E. of
colliding bodies is lost in the form of heat, light, sound, etc. So, total K.E. before collision is always
greater than total K.E. after collision. The head on collision between two buses, collision between two
stones, etc., are some examples of inelastic collision. In some cases, two colliding bodies practically
stick together and hence move with same common velocity after collision. Such collisions are called
perfectly inelastic collision. When you fire a bullet in a wooden block, the bullet embeds itself into
the wood and the system (wood and bullet) moves as a single body after collision. This is perfectly
inelastic collision.
Thus, when two particles collide inelastically, following two equations must essentially hold.
1 1 2 1 2 1
(a) 2 m1u1 + 2 m2u2 > 2 m1v1 + 2 m2v2 (total K.E. not conserved)
2 2
(b) m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2 (total linear momentum conserved)

Total kinetic energy is not conserved in case of perfectly inelastic collision between two
bodies
Let us consider a body of mass 'm1' moving with initial velocity 'u1' collides with another body of
mass m2 initially at rest u2 = 0. Let the two bodies permanently stick together after collision and
move with common velocity 'v' as shown in Fig. 5.16.
The initial linear momentum of mass m1 = m1u1
Initial linear momentum of mass m2 = m2u2 = 0 [ ∵ u2 = 0]
Final momentum of the system m1 m1 + m2
= (m1 + m2) v m2
u1 > 0 u2 = 0 v
So, from principle of conservation of linear
momentum,
m1u1 = (m1 + m2) v Before collision After collision
(m1 + m2)
∴ u1 = m1 v … (5.36) Fig. 5.16: Perfectly inelastic collision between two bodies

Further,
1 1
K.E. before collision = 2 m1u12 + 2 m2u22
1
∴ K.E. before collision = 2 m1u12 [... u2 = 0] … (5.37)
1
Also, K.E. after collision = 2 (m1 + m2) v2 … (5.38)

1
2 m1u1
2
K.E. before collision
K.E. after collision = 1
2 (m1 + m2)v
2
m1 (m1 + m2)2
= (m + m ) v2 × (m )2 v2 [... Using equation (5.36)]
1 2 1
m1 + m2
= m1 >1
K.E. before collision

∴ K.E. after collision > 1
i.e., K.E. before collision > K.E. after collision
EXAMPLE 7: A railway truck of mass 4 × 104 kg moving at a velocity of 3 ms–1 collides with another truck of mass 2 × 104
kg which is at rest. The coupling joins and the trucks move off together. What fraction of the first truck's initial kinetic
energy remains as kinetic energy of the two trucks after the collision?
SOLUTION
Given,
Mass of truck 1 (m1) = 4 × 104 kg, Initial velocity of truck 1 (u1) = 3 ms–1,
Mass of truck 2 (m2) = 2 × 104 kg, Initial velocity of truck 2 (u2) = 0
Let v be the common velocity of the trucks after collision, then from the conservation of
linear momentum,
m1 u1 + m2 u2 = (m1 + m2) v 1
K.E. after collision, E2 = 2 (m1 + m2) v2
m1 u1 + m2 u2
or, v = m + m
1 2 1
4 × 104 × 3 + 2 × 104 × 0 = 2 (4 × 104 + 2 × 104) × 22 = 12 × 104 J
= 4 × 104 + 2 × 104 = 2 ms–1
∴ Fraction of K.E. of two trucks to initial K.E.
1 E2 12 × 104 2
K.E. before collision, E1 = 2 m1 u1 2
= E = 18 × 104 = 3
1
1
= 2 × 4 × 104 × 32 = 18 × 104 J
 Check Point: A bullet of mass 10 g is fired from a gun of mass 1 kg with a velocity of
100 ms–1. Calculate the velocity of recoil of the gun. Ans: 100: 1
5.12 Resilience and Coefficient of Restitution

During collision, the colliding bodies undergo a rapid temporary deformation. This ability of body to
temporarily deform rapidly is called resilience.
After collision, once the reasons causing the deformation are removed, the body regains its original
shape. The promptness with which the bodies regain their original shape after deforming forces have
been removed is called restitution.

The coefficient of restitution is a number expressing a ratio of the relative velocity of separation to
the relative velocity of approach.
If two bodies move with velocities u1 and u2 before collision and v1 and v2 after collision, then
Relative velocity of separation
Coefficient of restitution (e) = Relative velocity of approach
v2 – v1
e =u –u
1 2
The value of coefficient of restitution varies between 0 to 1.

For perfectly elastic collision, we have shown that,
Relative velocity of separation = relative velocity of approach
∴ e = 1 (for perfectly elastic collision)
For perfectly inelastic collision, v2 = v1 = v (say)
∴ e=0
For imperfect collision, 0 < e < 1
(v2 − v1) ≤ (u1 − u2)
Relative velocity of separation after collision is always less than or equal to the relative velocity of
approach before collision.
Tips for MCQs
Quantitative Tips
¤ ¤
1. If the force F makes an angle θ with the direction of displacement s , then the work done is
¤¤
W = F . s = Fs cos θ (a) When θ = 0°, then W = Fs (maximum work done) (b) When θ = 90°, then
W = 0 (minimum work done).
x2 ¤ ¤
2. Work done by a variable force is determined from, W =  F . d x , this can also be calculated from
x1
the area under the force-displacement curve.
3. Work done in terms of rectangular components.
¤ ∧ ∧ ∧ ¤ ∧ ∧ ∧
F = F1 i + F2 j + F3k and s = s1 i + s2 j + s3k .
¤ ¤
Then, W = F . s = F1s1 + F2s2 + F3s3
Work done is a scalar quantity.
4. Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion.
1 p2
Kinetic energy, EK = 2 mv2 = 2m
1 1
5. Work energy theorem: W = change of kinetic energy = 2 mv2 – 2 mu2 .
The work energy theorem may be regarded as the scalar form of Newton’s second law of motion.
6. Potential energy is the energy possessed by a body by virtue of its position (in a field) or
configuration (shape and size).
7 Gravitational potential energy, Ep = mgh
8. The rate of doing work is known as power.
Work done W ¤ ¤
Power (P) = Time taken = t = F . v = Fv cos θ

9. If a body is exploded into two fragments, then the kinetic energy imparted into the pieces is written
E1 m2 1
as: E = m i.e., E ∝ m .
2 1
10. Velocities in one-dimensional elastic collision: Suppose two bodies of masses m1 and m2 moving with
velocities u1 and u2 (u1 > u2) in the same direction suffer head on elastic collision. Let v1 and v2 be
their velocities after collision. The final velocities in elastic collision are calculated from the formula;
m1 – m2 2m2 2m1 m2 – m1
v1 = m + m u1 + m + m u2 and v2 = m + m u1 + m + m u2
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
11. Work done by frictional force:

(i) when a body moves down an inclined plane with uniform velocity (a = 0), work done
is W = mg (sin θ – μk cos θ) s
(ii) when a body moves up an inclined plane with uniform velocity (a = 0), work done is
W = mg (sin θ + μk cos θ) s
(iii) when a body moves up an inclined plane with acceleration a, work done is
W = m (a + g sin θ + g μk cos θ) s
Conceptual Tips
1. One joule of work is said to be done when a force of one newton displaces a body through one metre
in its own direction.
2. Newton’s third law and work done: For two bodies, the sum of the mutual forces exerted between
¤ ¤ ¤
them is zero. From Newton’s third law, F 12 + F 21 = 0 but the sum of the work done by the two
forces may or may not be zero i.e., W12 + W21 ≠ 0 or, W12 + W21 = 0.
3. The SI unit of energy is joule. For the atomic system, the energy is measured in terms of electron volt
(eV), 1 eV = 1.6 × 10–19 J.
4. According to Einstein, mass can be converted into energy and vice-versa, E = mc2, this is called mass-
energy equivalence, where 'c' is the speed of light in vacuum.
5. For the gravitational potential energy, the zero (or reference) of potential energy is chosen to be the
ground.
6. Two bodies may or may not come in physical contact during the collision. In charged particles, the
collisions may occur without physical contact.
7. If the colliding objects move in a same straight line, the collision is called head on collision or one
dimensional collision.
8. If two bodies do not move along the same straight line (path) before and after collision, the collision
is said to be oblique collision.
9. When a body is exploded into two fragments, smaller mass possesses the greater kinetic energy.
10. The impact and deformation during a collision may convert some part of the initial kinetic energy
into heat and sound.
Quick Reply
1. Work done is sometimes zero, although force and displacement of a body is non-zero. Explain the
condition.
 Work done is the scalar product of force and displacement, i.e., W = F. s = Fs cos θ.
If the body is displaced perpendicular to the applied force, θ = 90°. Then, W = 0.
2. Derive the dimension of potential energy in terms of stretching object?
1
 The potential energy of stretching object, Ep = 2 kx2.
F
Here, k is force constant, k = x

[F] [MLT–2]
So, the dimension is, [k] = [x] = [L] = [MT–2]
The dimension of x2 = [L2]

So, dimension of potential energy = [MT–2] [L2]
= [ML2T–2].
3. What does the area under F – s curve give?
 The area under F–s curve gives the work done of corresponding object.
4. If lighter and heavier bodies have the same K.E., then which have greater momentum?
 The relation of momentum and kinetic energy of a body is,
p= 2mEk
In Ek is constant, p α m .
Hence, heavier body has greater momentum.
5. Why do gas particles not settle down after collision?
 The collision of gas particles with themselves or on other objects is elastic in nature. It means they do
not loss kinetic energy during collision. So, they do not settle down after collision.
6. When is the exchange of energy maximum during an elastic collision?
 When two colliding bodies are of the same mass, there will be the maximum exchange of energy.

1. How does the kinetic energy of a body change if its momentum is halved?
 The relation of kinetic energy and momentum is, p = 2mE ,
p2 = 2 mE … (i)
Let p' and E' be the new momentum and kinetic energy of particle,
∴ p'2 = 2 mE' … (ii)
p p 2 E
For p' = 2 , ⎛ 2 ⎞ = 2 m E' ∴ E' = 4
⎝ ⎠
th
p2 So, the kinetic energy becomes ⎛1⎞ of initial
or, 4 = 2 m E' ⎝4⎠
kinetic energy when momentum is halved.
p2 = 8 m E' … (iii)
Dividing (ii) by (i)
p2 8 m E'
p2 = 2 m E
2. In a syphon, water is lifted above its original value during its flow from one container to another.
Where does it get the needed potential energy from?
 The pressure difference plays the role to lift the water up to a certain level. Work done on a system is
related with the pressure as,
dW = F dx = PA. dx
dW = P dV
Water flows from higher pressure to lower pressure. In syphone, the air pressure at the greatest
height is maintained minimum. Hence the water is lifted up.
3. Can there be a situation, in which E – Ep < 0? Where E = total energy and Ep = potential energy.
 Sum of potential energy and kinetic energy gives the total energy for a body.
So, E = Ek + Ep
E – Ep = Ek

for, E – Ep < 0, Ek < 0
It means kinetic energy of the system is negative, which is not possible. So, given condition is
impossible.
4. Is it necessary that work done in the motion of a body over a closed loop is zero for every force in
nature? Why?
 No. The work done in the motion of a body over a closed loop is zero, only when the working force is
conservative force like gravitational force, electric force, etc. But the work done in closed path is not
zero if the working force is non-conservative like frictional force.
5. What happens to the potential energy when (a) two protons are brought close together (b) one proton
and one electron are brought close together?
 (a) The potential energy increases when two protons are brought close together because work has to
be done against the force of repulsion between them.
(b) The potential energy decreases when a proton and an electron are brought closer because work is
done by the force of attraction between them (origin of the force being the system itself).
6. A stationary mass suddenly explodes into two fragments; one heavy and another light. Which one
has greater kinetic energy and why?
 Let M be the mass of stationary mass, m1 and m2 be the masses of smaller and bigger fragments with
velocity v1 and v2 respectively. Let U be the velocity of initial velocity which is zero (being stationary).
Then from principles of conservation of momentum,
m1v1 + m2v2 = MU 1 m22v22
=2 m
or, m1v1 + m2v2 = 0 [U = 0] 1
m2 ⎛1
= m 2 m2v22⎞
m2v2
or, v1 = – m 1⎝ ⎠
1
m22v22 m2
or, v12 = m 2 = m K.E. bigger
1 1
1 1 m22v22 Since, m2 > m1, K.E. smaller > K.E. bigger

∴ K.E. smaller = 2 m1v12 = 2 m1 . m 2 So, smaller fragment has greater energy due to
1
greater velocity and momentum.
7. Springs A and B are identical except that A is stiffer than B, i.e., force constant kA > kB. In which
spring is more work expended if they are stretched by same amount?
 Work done in stretching a spring of force constant k through a distance x,
1
W = 2 kx2
1
2 kA x
2
WA
WB = 1
2 kB x
2
WA kA
WB = kB
This shows that W ∝ k,
So, WA > WB.
8. A machine delivering constant power moves a body along a straight line. What is the relation
between time t and the distance covered by the body in time t?
 The power is, P = F v cos θ ms2 = Pt3
For θ = 0°, P = F v = mav For constant m and P,
s s s 2 ∝ t3
P = m t2 t
s ∝ t3/2

Worked Out Problems

1. The turbine pits at the Niagra falls are 50 m deep. The average power developed is 3.75 × 106 watt. If
the efficiency of the generator is 85%, how much water passes through the turbines per minute? Take
g = 10 ms–2.
SOLUTION
Given: Total work done by falling water in 1 min or
The useful power developed = 3.75 × 106 watt 60 s
Efficiency = 85% W = Pt = 4.39 × 106 × 60 = 2.63 × 108 J
100 Now total potential energy developed
∴ Total power generated = 85 × 3.73 × 106
mgh = W
= 4.39 × 106 W W 2.63 × 108
m = gh = 10 × 50 = 5.27 × 105 kg.
¤
2. A loaded grocery cart is rolling across a parking lot in a strong wind. You apply a constant force F =
∧ ∧ ∧ ∧
(30 N) i – (40 N) j to the cart as it undergoes a displacement ¤ s = (–9.0 m) i – (3.0 m) j . How much
work does the force you apply do on the grocery cart?
SOLUTION
Given,
¤ ^ ^
F = (30 N) i – (40 N) j
¤ ^ ^
s = (–9.0 m) i – (3.0 m) j
We know,
¤ ¤
W =F. s
^ ^ ^ ^
= [(30 N) i – (40 N) j ] . [(–9.0 m) i –(3.0 m) j ]
= – 270 + 120 = – 150 J
3. Find the power of an engine in kilowatts which pulls a train of
mass 600 tonnes up an inclined plane whose slope is 1 in 100 at
the rate of 60 km/h. The weight of the engine is 200 tonnes and
the resistance due to friction is 50 Newton's per tonne.
SOLUTION
Given,
Mass of train = 600 tonnes
Mass of engine = 200 tonnes
Total mass (m) = (600 + 200) tonnes = 800 × 103 kg
1
Inclination = 1 in 100 = 100
60 × 1000
Speed of train (u) = 60 km/h = 60 × 60 = 16.67 m/s
Frictional force (Fr) = 50 Newton / tonnes = 50 × 800 = 40000 N
Power of engine (P) = ?
Then total force needed is
1 1
F = Fr + mg sin θ = 40000 + 800 × 103 × 10 × 100 = 120000 N (∴ sin θ = 100 )
Now, Power (P)= F.v = F.u = 120000 × 16.67 = 2000 kW.

4. A ball of mass 4 kg moving with a velocity 10 ms-1 collides with another body of mass 16 kg moving
with 4 ms-1 from the opposite direction and then coalesces into a single body. Compute the loss of
energy on impact.
SOLUTION
Given: = –1.2 m/s (i.e., in the direction of m2)
Mass of first ball (m1) = 4 kg Kinetic energy before collision,
Initial velocity of first ball (u1) = 10 ms–1 1 1
Ei = 2 m1u12 + 2 m2u22
Mass of second ball (m2) = 16 kg
1 1
Initial velocity of second ball (u2) = − 4 ms–1 = 2 × 4 × 102 + 2 × 16 × (−4)2 = 328 J
Loss of energy on impact (ΔE) = ?
Kinetic energy after collision,
Since, the balls are moving in opposite
1
direction. Ef = 2 (m1 + m2) u2
m1u1 + m2u2 = (m1 + m2) v, where v is the
1
common velocity =2 (4 + 16) × (1.2)2 = 14.4 J
m1u1 + m2u2
v= m +m ΔE = Ei – Ef = 328 – 14.4 = 313.6 J
1 2
4 × 10 + 16 × (−4) ∴ Loss of energy is 313.6 J

= 4 + 16
5. A typical car weighs about 1200 N. If the coefficient of rolling friction is μr = 0.015, what horizontal
force is needed to make the car move with constant speed of 72 km/h on a level road? Also calculate
the power developed by the engine to maintain this speed.
SOLUTION
Given: where, f = frictional force.
Weight of car (W) = 1200 N Since, a = 0, F = f
Coefficient of friction (μ) = 0.015 ∴ F = μr mg
Velocity (v) = 72 km/h = 20 m/s = 0.015 × 1200 = 18 N.
Power developed by the engine (P) = ? Also, Power developed by engine (P) = F × v
Horizontal force (F) = ? = 18 × 20 = 360 watt.
Now, we have, Therefore, horizontal force needed = 18 N
F – f = ma Power developed by engine = 360 watt.
6. A body of weight 150 N is pulled 20 m along a horizontal surface at constant velocity. Calculate the
workdone by the pulling force if the coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.20 and the pulling force makes
an angle of 60º with the vertical.
SOLUTION
Here, frictional force (Fr) = μR
R = W – Fcos 60
Fr = 0.20 (W– F cos 60º) F
At dynamic equilibrium
→ 60o o
ΣF =0 Fr
30 F1 = Fcos 30
F1 + (–Fr) = 0
F cos 30º – 0.20 (W – F cos 60º) = 0
F (cos 30º + 0.20 × cos 60º) = 0.20 × W W = 150 N
0.20 × W
F= (Here, W = weight)
cos 30º + 0.20 × cos 60º
Required work = F1 d = F cos 30º × 20
0.20 × 150
= × cos 30º × 20 = 537.88 J
cos 30º + 0.20 × cos 60º

7. A rifle bullet weighing 20 g is fired with a velocity 91 ms–1 into a wood O
block of mass 1.80 kg which is suspended from a cord 1 m long. If the

bullet embeds itself inside the block, calculate (a) the vertical height q
l
through which the pendulum rises. (b) maximum inclination of the
cord to the vertical.
SOLUTION
mass of bullet (m) = 0.02 kg
mass of block (M) = 1.8 kg
initial velocity (u) = 91 ms–1
Let θ be the maximum inclination that the treat makes with the
h
vertical and h is the vertical height through which block rise.
Let v be the velocity of the block and the bullet just after impact,
then
(m + M) v = mu v2 = u2 – 2gh
m 0 = (1)2 – 2 × 10 h
v =m+M ×u
1
0.2 h = 20 = 0.05 m
= × 91 = 1 ms–1
0.02 × 1.8 l – h 1 – 0.05
For the motion of block, Again, cos θ = l = 1 = 0.95
u = 1 ms–1, v = 0 ∴ θ = cos–1 (0.95) = 18.2°
max. height (h) = ?

1. You push your physics book 1.50 m along a horizontal tabletop with a horizontal force of
2.40 N. The opposing force is 0.600 N. (a) How much work does your 2.40 N force do on the book? (b)
What is the work done on the book by the friction force? (c) What is the total work done on the book?
Ans: 3.60 J, –0.900 J, 2.70 J
2. Two tugboats pull a disable supertanker. Each tug exerts a constant force of 1.80 × 106 N, one 14°
west of north and the other 14° east of north, as they pull the tanker 0.75 km towards the north. What
is the total work they do on the supermarket? Ans: 2.62 × 109 J
3. T. Rex: The dinosaur Tyranosaurus rex (T.Rex) is thought to have had a mass of about 700 kg.
(a) Treat the dinosaur as a particle and estimate its kinetic energy at a walking speed of 4.0 km/h. (b) With
what speed would a 70 kg person have to move to have the same kinetic energy as a walking T. rex?
Ans: 4.3 × 10 3 J, 40 km/h
4. You throw a 20 N rock vertically into the air from ground level. You observe that when it is
15.0 m above the ground, it is traveling at 25.0 m/s upward. Use the work energy theorem to find (a)
its speed just as it left the ground (b) its maximum height. Ans: 30.3 m s–1, 46.8 m
5. A soccer ball with mass 0.420 kg is initially moving with speed 2.00 m/s. A soccer player kicks the
ball, exerting a constant force of magnitude 40.0 N in the same direction as the ball's motion. Over
what distance must her foot be in contact with the ball to increase the ball's speed to 6.00 m/s?
Ans: 0.168 m
6. A block of ice with mass 2.00 kg slides 0.750 m down an inclined plane that slopes downwards at an
angle of 36.9° below the horizontal. If the block of ice starts from rest, what is its final speed? You can
ignore friction. Ans: 2.97 ms–1
7. A force of 160 N stretches a spring 0.050 m beyond its unstretched length. (a) What magnitude of
force is required to stretch the spring 0.015 m beyond its unstretched length? To compress the spring

0.020 m? (b) How much work must be done to stretch the spring 0.015 m beyond its unstretched
length? How much work has to be done to compress the spring 0.020 m from its unstretched length?
Ans: (a) 48 N, 64 N (b) 0.360 J, 0.640 J
8. How many joules of energy does a 100 watt light bulb use per hour? How fast a 70 kg person have to
run to have that amount of energy? Ans: 3.6 × 105 J, 101 ms–1
9. A tandem (two-person) bicycle team must overcome a force of 165 N to maintain a speed of 9.00 m/s.
Find the power required per rider, assuming that each contributes equally. Express your answer in
watts and in horsepower. Ans: 743 W, 0.99 HP
10. An object A moving horizontally with kinetic energy of 800 J experiences a constant horizontal
opposing force of 100 N while moving from a place X to another place Y, where XY is 2 m. What is
the energy of A at Y?
In what further distance will A come to rest if this opposing force continues to act on it?
Ans: 600 J, 6 m
11. A 4 kg ball moving with a velocity of 10.0 ms–1 collides with a 16 kg ball moving with a velocity of 4.0
ms–1 (i) in the same direction and (ii) in the opposite direction. Calculate the velocity of the balls in
each case if they coalesce on impact, and the loss of energy resulting from the impact.
Ans: (i) 5.2 ms – 1 ,57.6 J (ii) – 1.2 ms – 1 , 313.6 J
12. A bullet of mass 10 g is fired vertically with a velocity of 100 ms–1 into a block of wood of mass 190 g
suspended by a long string above the gun. If the bullet is embedded in the block, through what
height does the block move? Ans: 1.25 m
13. Sand falls at a rate of 0.15 kgs–1 on to a conveyor belt moving horizontally at a constant speed of 2
ms–1. Calculate (i) the extra force necessary to maintain this speed (ii) the rate at which work is done
by this force (iii) the change in kinetic energy per second of the sand on the belt.
Ans: 0.3 N; 0.6 W; 0.3 W
14. A train of mass 2.0 × 105 kg moves at a constant speed of 72 kmh–1 up a straight incline against a
frictional force of 1.28 × 104 N. The incline is such that the train rises vertically 1.0 m for every 100 m
traveled along the incline. Calculate (i) the rate of increase per second of the potential energy of the
train and (ii) the necessary power developed by the train. Ans: 400 kW; 656 kW
15. A stationary radioactive nucleus of mass 210 units disintegrates into an alpha particle of mass 4 units
and a residual nucleus of mass 206 units. If the kinetic energy of the alpha particle is E, calculate the
2
kinetic energy of the residual nucleus. Ans:
103
E
16. A vehicle of mass 2000 kg traveling at 10 ms–1 on a horizontal surface is brought to rest in a distance
of 12.5 m by the action of its brakes. Calculate the average retarding force. What power must the
engine develop in order to take the vehicle up an incline of 1 in 10 at a constant speed of 10 ms–1, if
the frictional resistance is equal to 200 N? Ans: 8000 N, 22 kW
Exercise
1. An object does not have work itself, justify.
2. What is the work done on the earth during its revolution around the sun?
3. Can a kinetic energy of a body be negative?
4. Why is spark produced when two stones are struck against each other?
5. At what condition potential energy is negative?
6. How will momentum of a body change if its kinetic energy is doubled?
7. Doctors suggest walking faster than ordinary work in the morning, why?
8. Suppose a bullet fired from a gun, embedded into a wooden block. Where does its mechanical energy
go?
9. Although force and velocity are vector quantity power is scalar, why?
10. If lighter and heavier bodies have same momentum, which have more kinetic energy?
11. If a machine gun fires n-number of bullets per second, what is the relation between power and
kinetic energy?
12. Hail stone mostly melts into rain water during the fall from sky, why?
13. We should speed up the motorbike while rides up in inclined plane, why?
14. Why does frictional force a non-conservative?
15. How many watts are there in one horse power?
16. Can a body have energy without momentum?
18. What is the source of the kinetic energy of the falling rain drops?
Short Questions
1. A coolie carrying a load on his head is not considered as work done. Why?
2. What is meant by positive work, negative work and zero work? Give one example of each.
3. No energy is consumed in planetary motion. Explain, why?
4. What physical quantity does the area under the force-displacement curve represent?
5. Does the work done depend on how fast or slow a body is moved?
6. What kind of energy is stored in spring of a watch?
7. When an air bubble rises in water, what happens to its potential energy?
8. What kind of energy transformation takes place at a hydro-electric power house?
9. Will water at the foot of the fall be at a different temperature from that at the top? If yes, explain.
11. Derive an expression of kinetic energy for an object of mass m when moves with velocity v.
12. Gravitational force is conservative force. Why?
13. Friction is non-conservative force. Explain.
14. The moon is accelerating towards the earth. Why isn't it getting closer to us?
15. A man carrying a bucket of water is walking on a level road with a uniform velocity. Does he do any
16. work on the bucket while carrying it?
17. If you are given two objects one is heavier and another is lighter, both have the same kinetic energy.
Which one has more linear momentum?
18. How does the K.E. of an object change if its momentum is doubled?
19. Differentiate between conservation of kinetic energy and conservation of linear momentum.
20. Mountain roads rarely go straight up but wind up gradually. Why?
21. Two boys are carrying equal loads and run to reach same place from same point. If one has reached
faster than another, who has done greater work? What would be the power?
22. What sort of energy is associated with a bird flying in air?
23. Can the overall energy of a body be negative?
24. A body of mass m moving with speed v collides elastically head on with another body of mass m
initially at rest. Show that the moving body will come to a stop as a result of this collision.
Long Questions
1. Define energy. Starting from work done, W = F.s, derive the expression for kinetic energy and
potential energy for an object.
2. Define work energy theorem. Show that final kinetic energy of a body is equal to the sum of initial
kinetic energy and work done on the body.

3. Write expression for work done by constant and variable force. Show that the work done by the
resultant force on a particle is equal to the change in kinetic energy of the particle.
4. Define work. Derive an expression to calculate the work done by a variable force.
5. State the principle of conservation of energy. Show that total mechanical energy of a body is
conserved when it moves under the action of gravitational field.
6. What are conservative and non–conservative forces? Explain each with an example.
7. Differentiate between elastic and inelastic collisions. Show that for an elastic collision in one
dimension, the relative velocity of approach before the collision is equal to relative velocity of
separation after collision.
8. Derive the relation of the linear momentum, p = 2mE , where m is the mass and E is the kinetic
energy of a body. For the conservation of linear momentum, kinetic energy is inversely proportional
to the mass of the fragment when a body is split up into two unequal masses.
9. What are elastic and inelastic collisions? Give an example of each. Write the energy and momentum
equations for an inelastic collision.
10. What is elastic collision? Prove that the colliding objects exchange their velocities in one dimensional
elastic collision.

LEVEL I
¤ ∧ ∧ ∧ ¤
1. Find the work done in moving a particle along a vector s = (4 i – j + 7k) m, if the applied force is F
∧ ∧ ∧
= ( i + 2 j – k) N. Ans: –5J
2. A particle moves along the x-axis from x = 0 to x = 5 m under the influence of a force F (in N) given
by F = 3x2 – 2x + 7. Calculate the work done. Ans: 135 J
3. A bullet of mass 20 g is fired from a riffle with a velocity of 800 ms–1. After passing through the mud
wall 100 cm thick, velocity drops to 100 ms–1. What is the average resistance of the wall neglecting
friction due to air? Ans: 6300 N
4. The kinetic energy of a body is increased by 21%. What is the percentage increase in the linear
momentum of the body? Ans: 10%
5. The heart of a man pumps 4 liters of blood per minute at a pressure of 130 mm of mercury. If density
of mercury is 13.6 gcm–3, then calculate the power of the heart. Ans: 1.55 W
6. An engine of 150 kW power is drawing in a train of total mass 15 × 104 kg up and inclination of 1 in 50. The
frictional resistance is 4 kg wt/1000 kg. Calculate the maximum speed. Given g = 10 ms–2. Ans: 4.17 ms–1
7. A rain drop of radius 2 mm falls from a height of 250 m above the ground. What is the work done by
the gravitational force on the drop? Ans: 0.082 J
8. A 0.15 kg glider is moving to the right on a frictionless horizontal air track with a speed of 0.80 ms−1.
It has a head on collision with a 0.300 kg glider that is moving to the left with a speed of 2.2 ms−1.
Find the final velocity (magnitude and direction) of each glider if the collision is elastic. Ans: – 3.2 m/s
9. A fisherman reels in 12.0 m of line while pulling in a fish that exerts a constant resisting force of 25.0
N. If the fish is pulled in at constant velocity, how much work is done on it by the tension in the line?
Ans: 300 J
10. (a) Compute the kinetic energy, in joules, of a 1600 kg automobile traveling at 50.0 km/h. (b) By
what factor does the kinetic energy change if the speed is doubled? Ans: 1.5 × 104J, 4 times
11. A baseball leaves a pitcher's hand at a speed of 32.0 m/s. The mass of the baseball is 0.145 kg. You
can ignore air resistance. How much work has the pitcher done on the ball by throwing it? Ans: 74.2 J

12. An object A of mass 10 kg is moving with a velocity of 6 ms–1. Calculate its kinetic energy and its
momentum. If a constant opposing force of 20 N suddenly acts on it, find the time it takes to come to
rest and the distance through which it moves. Ans: 180 J, 60 kgms–1, 3 s, 9 m
13. Calculate the energy of (i) a 2 kg object moving horizontally with a velocity of 10 ms–1 (ii) a 10 kg
object held stationary 5 m above the ground. Ans: 100 J, 500 J
14. A stationary mass explodes into two parts of mass 4 units and 40 units respectively. If the larger mass
has an initial kinetic energy of 100 J, what is the initial kinetic energy of the smaller mass? Ans: 1000 J
15. A machine gun fires 100 bullets per minute with a velocity of 800 ms–1. If each bullet has a mass of
50 g, find the power developed by the gun. Ans: 26.7 kW
LEVEL II
1. A water pump rises water at a rate of 0.50 m3 per minute from a depth of 30 m. If the pump is 70%
efficient, what power is developed by the engine of the pump? Given density of water = 100 kg/ m3.
Ans: 1715 W
2. How many calories of food must one eat per day in order to stay alive? One food calorie
(= 1 kcal) contains 4180 J of chemical energy. The minimum power used per day averages between 80
W while asleep and 150 W while awake. Assume an average of 110 W. Ans: 22721.7 k cal
3. An elevator of total mass (elevator + passenger) 1800 kg is moving up with a consent speed of
2 ms–1. A frictional force of 4000 N opposes its motion. Determine the minimum power
delivered by the motor to the elevator. Take g = 10 ms–2. Ans: 44 kW
4. The leaning tower of Pisa is 45 m high. A ball of mass 4 kg is raised to its top and dropped from the
top. (a) Calculate the work done in raising the body to the top. (b) Calculate the value of potential
energy at the top. (c) What is the value of the kinetic energy just before hitting the ground? (d) What
is the velocity just before hitting the ground? Take g= 10 ms–2. Ans: 1800 J, 1800 J, 1800 J, 30 ms –1
5. Two bodies of masses 50 g and 30 g moving in a same direction, along the same straight line with
velocities 50 cms–1 and 30 cms–1 respectively suffer one dimensional elastic collision. Calculate their
velocities after the collision. Ans: 35 cms–1, 55 cms–1
6. A body A of mass 2 kg moving with a velocity of 25 ms in the east direction collides elastically with
–1
another body B of mass 3 kg moving with velocity of 15 ms–1 westwards. Calculate the velocity of
each ball after collision. Ans: –23 ms–1, 17 ms–1
7. A man cycles up a hill whose slope is 1 in 20 with a velocity of 3.2 kmh along the hill. The weight of
–1
the man and the cycle is 100 kg. What work per minute is he doing? What is his horse power? Take
g = 10 ms–2 Ans: 0.059 horse power, 266.4 J
8. A 6.0 kg box moving at 3.0 m/s on a horizontal frictionless surface runs into a light spring of force
constant 75 N/m. Use the work-energy theorem to find the maximum compression of the spring.
Ans: 0.85 m
9. A ball of mass 0.1 kg is thrown vertically upwards with a velocity of 20 ms–1. What is the potential
energy at the maximum height? What is the potential energy of the ball when it reaches three–
quarters of the maximum height while moving upwards? Ans:20 J, 15 J
10. A box of mass 15 kg placed on horizontal floor is pulled by a horizontal force. What will be the work
done by the force if the coefficient of sliding friction between the box and the surface of the floor is
0.3 and body moved at unit distance. Ans: 45 J
11. The turbine pits at the Niagra falls are 50 m deep. The average power developed is 3.75 × 10 watt. If
6
the efficiency of the generator is 85%, how much water passes through the turbines per minute? Take
5
g = 10 ms–2. Ans: 5.27 × 10 kg
12. The constant force resisting the motion of a car of mass 1500 kg is equal to one fifteenth of its weight.
When travelling at 48 km/h, the car is brought to rest in a distance of 50 m by applying the brakes,
find the additional retarding force due to the brakes (assumed constant) and heat developed in the
16
brakes. Ans: –
9
m/s2


1. A car of mass m has an engine which can deliver power P. The minimum time in which the car can
be accelerated from rest to a speed v is
mv2
a. 2P b. Pmv2 c. 2 P mv2 d. mv2P
2. In the non-relativistic regime, if the momentum is increased by 100%, the percentage increase in
kinetic energy is
a. 100 b. 200 c. 300 d. 400
3. A stationary particle explodes into two particles of masses m1 and m2 which moves in opposite
directions with velocities v1 and v2. The ratio of their kinetic energy E1/E2 is
a. m2/m1 b. m1/m2 v. 1 d. m1v2/m2v1
4. A body of mass m is accelerated uniformly from rest to a speed v in a time T. The instantaneous
power delivered to the body as a function of time is given by
1 mv2 1 mv2 mv2 mv2
a. 2 2 .t b. 2 2 .t
2 c. 2 .t d. . t2.
T T T T2
5. 300 J of work is done in sliding a 2 kg block up an inclined plane of height 10 m. Taking
g = 10 ms–2, work done against friction is
a. 200 J b. 100 J c. zero d. 1000 J
6. A windmill converts wind energy into electrical energy. If v is the wind speed, electrical power
output is proportional to
a. b b. v2 c. v3 d. v4.
7. The speed of the block at point C, immediately before it leaves the second incline is
a. 120 ms–1 b. 105 ms–1 c. 90 ms–1 d. 75 ms–1
8. Two bodies of masses 4 kg and 5 kg are moving with equal momentum. Then the ratio of their
respective kinetic energies is
a. 4 : 5 b. 2 : 1 c. 1 : 3 d. 5 : 4
9. Two blocks, each of mass m are connected to a spring of spring constant k. If both are given velocity
v in proportional directions, then the maximum elongation of the spring is
mv2 2mv2 mv2 mv2
a. k b. k c. 2k d. 2 k
10. A girl in a swing is 2.5 m above the ground at the maximum height and at 1.5 m above the ground at
the lowest point. Her maximum velocity in the swing is (g = 10 m s–2)
a. 5 2 ms–1 b. 2 5 ms–1 c. 2 3 ms–1 d. 3 2 ms–1
11. Two bodies of masses m1 and m2 are acted upon by a constant Force F for a time t. They start from
E1
rest and acquire kinetic energies E1 and E2 respectively. Then E is
2
m1 m2 m1m2
a. m2 b. m c. 1 d. m + m
1 1 2
ANSWERS
1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (b) 6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (d) 9. (b) 10. (b) 11. (b)


CIRCULAR MOTION
6.1 Introduction
When you play in a merry-go-round, your motion is confined in a circle. You are always at a equal
distance from a central pole. This type of motion in which a body is displaced continuously, but is
always confined at a fixed distance from a fixed point is called circular motion and the fixed point is
called centre. There are several examples of circular motion in our daily life. If a stone is attached at
one end of a string and whirled around holding another end, the motion of stone is circular.
Similarly, turning of vehicles in bending roads is also the example of circular motion. The motion of
satellites around the planets, and that of planets around the sun are also examples of circular motion.
In fact, the planets, stars, and galaxies are also in circular motion. Thus, circular motion is the most
common motion in the universe.
In chapter 3, we studied two dimensional motion of the body, the projectile motion; in which the
acceleration is constant both in magnitude and direction but the velocity changes both in magnitude
and direction. We now examine a different case of two dimensional motion in which a particle
moves in a circular path in such a way that the magnitude of both velocity and acceleration remains
constant but their directions change continuously.
When a particle moves in a circular path with constant speed, the motion is called uniform circular
motion. Though the magnitude of velocity (speed) remains constant, the direction changes
continuously. The examples of circular motion are; a satellite moving in a circular orbit, a car
rounding a curve path with constant radius at constant speed, etc. If the speed of the particle is not
constant, then such motion is called non-uniform circular motion.
6.2 Rotational Variables

(a) Angular displacement (θ): Consider a particle is moving along a circular path of radius OA = r
and centre at O. Let the particle initially at position A reaches at position B after time 't' such
that the radius OA is turned through ∠BOA = θ. This angle so turned by the particle from OA
to reach at B is called angular displacement.
It is in fact the angular measure of the curve path B Q
AB (= l) travelled by the particle in time t. l θ2 P
θ θ1
O A O A
Mathematically, r r
Arc length
Angular displacement (θ) = Radius of arc
(i) (ii)
AB l Fig. 6.1: Motion in a circle
= OA = r

It is a dimensionless quantity whose proper unit is radian (abbreviated as rad). A finite angular
displacement (θ or Δθ) is not vector however an infinitesimally small displacement i.e., dθ is a
vector quantity.
(b) Average angular velocity (ω̄): Average angular velocity is defined as the ratio of the angular
displacement to the time taken by the particle to undergo this displacement. It is denoted by ω̄
or ωav.
Suppose, a particle is moving in a circle and θ1 and θ2 are its angular displacement at time t1 and
t2 respectively, such that the total angular displacement is Δθ = θ2 – θ1 in the time interval
Δt = t2 – t1 as in Fig. 6.1 (ii).
Angular displacement
Then, Average angular velocity (ω̄) = Time taken
θ2 – θ1 Δθ
∴ ω̄ = t – t = →
2 1 Δt Direction ω
(c) Instantaneous angular velocity (ω): If a particle is in non- →
The direction of ω is shown
uniform motion, its velocity changes at every instant of its perpendicular to the plane of
motion both in magnitude and direction. The velocity of rotation. Actually, nothing moves in
particle at any instant of time measured in such situation is →
called instantaneous angular velocity. It is defined as the the direction of ω , however it
limiting value of the average angular velocity of the particle shows that the rotational motion
in small time interval such that the time interval approaches occurs in the plane perpendiculars
zero. to it.
lim Δθ
i.e., ω =
Δt → 0 Δt
dθ
= dt
In case of uniform circular motion, ω̄ = ω.

It's SI unit is rads–1 and dimensional formula is [M0L0T–1].
It is to be noted that, both average angular velocity and instantaneous angular velocity are
vector quantities.
Note: In case of a rigid body, since all the particles are locked together, every particles of the body have the same
angular velocity. The angular velocity may be positive or negative depending upon whether the body is rotating
clockwise or anti-clockwise respectively. The magnitude of angular velocity is called angular speed.
(d) Uniform angular velocity: If the particle describes equal angular displacement in equal interval
of time then angular velocity of the particle is said to be uniform.
(e) Time period (T): Time taken by particle to complete one revolution is called time period. It is
denoted by T.
Since total angle described in one complete rotation is 2π, the time period is given by,
2π
T= ; where ω = angular velocity
ω
(f) Frequency: Number of revolutions made in unit time is called frequency or linear frequency,
denoted by f.
1
Therefore, f = T

Circular Motion |Chapter 6| 169
1
or, f=
2π/ω
∴ ω = 2πf
The unit of frequency is cycle per second (or Hertz) and the dimension is [M°L°T−1].
Angular Acceleration
If a body moves in a circle with a non-uniform angular velocity, then the body is said to have
angular acceleration. If ω1 and ω2 be the angular velocities at times t1 and t2 respectively, the average
angular acceleration of rotating body in the interval Δt = t2 – t1 is defined as
ω2 – ω1 Δω
αav = t – t =
2 1 Δt
where, Δω is the change in angular velocity in the same interval Δt.
The limiting value of average angular acceleration as Δt approaches zero, is called instantaneous
angular acceleration i.e.,
lim Δω dω
αins = = dt
Δt → 0 Δt
6.3 Relation between Angular Velocity and Linear Velocity

Let us consider a particle of mass 'm' is moving in a circular path of radius 'r' with constant
speed 'v'. Let, in small time dt, the particle moves a distance 'ds' along the arc of the circle as shown
in Fig. 6.2. Then,
ds = vdt … (6.1)
(for infinitesimal displacement ds can be considered to be a straight line)
If dθ be the angle swept out by the particle as it moves through a distance ds, then from
trigonometry
ds
dθ = r ds
dθ
v dt O r
∴ dθ = r [... using equation (6.1)]
dθ
or, v = r dt Fig. 6.2: Motion in a circle
dθ
The rate of change of angle with respect to time dt is called angular velocity ω. So,
v = rω … (6.2)
Further, differentiating equation (6.2) with respect to time, we get
dv dω
dt = r dt
or, a = rα
This is the relation between linear acceleration and angular acceleration.
6.4 Expression for Centripetal Acceleration

When a body is in uniform circular motion, the speed remains constant but the direction of velocity
changes continuously. This change in direction produces the acceleration, known as centripetal
acceleration. This acceleration is directed along the radius of the circle towards the centre.

Let us consider a body of mass 'm' is moving with linear velocity 'v' in a uniform circle of radius 'r'
and centre O as shown in Fig. 6.3.
¤
Let at any position A, the velocity of the body is vA which is along the tangent at A. Let after time Δt,
¤
the particle reaches at B where its velocity is vB and is directed along the tangent at B as shown in
Fig. 6.3 (i).
As the body moves from A to B, it covers a small distance Δl along the arc and subtends a small
angle Δθ at centre O. Since the body is in uniform circular motion, the magnitude of velocity must
¤ ¤
remain constant i.e., |vA | = |vB | = v (say). However, the direction of velocity is different at A and
¤
B, so acceleration is produced. Let Δv represents the change in velocity vector i.e.,
¤ ¤ ¤
Δv = vB – vA .
¤ ¤
The vectors vA and vB are redrawn as shown in Fig. 6.3 (ii) which forms the sides of
triangle PQR.
→
A vA
•
Δl • Δθ
B →
r vB →
Δθ – vA
Q P
Δθ
→
O → Δv
vB
R
(i) (ii)
Fig. 6.3: Determination of centripetal acceleration
Now, two triangles OAB and PQR are similar both being isosceles triangles and having the same
angle Δθ. So,
Δv Δl
v = r (corresponding sides of similar triangles are proportional)
v
or, Δv = r Δl
Δv v Δl
The rate of change of velocity is, =
Δt r Δt
lim Δv lim v Δl
Taking limit Δt ¤ 0 on both sides, =
Δt ¤ 0 Δt Δt ¤ 0 r Δt
lim Δv
But, =a
Δt ¤ 0 Δt
lim Δl
And, =v
Δt ¤ 0 Δt
∴ Above equation can be written as,
v
a=r .v
v2
∴ a= r

This gives the magnitude of centripetal acceleration.
In Fig. 6.3 (i), if Δt is very small, both Δl and Δθ are also very small such that A and B lie very close to
→ → →
each other. In such situation, vB will be almost parallel to vA and hence Δ v will be perpendicular to
→ → →
both vA and vB . In the lim Δt → 0, Δ v will be exactly Centripetal force
→ → F = mω2r = mω(rω) = mωv
perpendicular to vA. Thus, Δ v acts along the radius of circle. Since
F = m(2πf)2r = 4π2f2mr
→ →
by definition, a is in the same direction as Δ v , acceleration is also 2π 2 4π2mr
F = m⎛ T ⎞ r = T2
directed along the radius towards the centre and hence this is ⎝ ⎠
known as centripetal acc → → → →
Direction of s , v , a and F
eleration. Further, as with any acceleration, there must be a in uniform circular motion
resultant force in the direction of acceleration to produce it
→ →
(Newton's law). This resultant force is called the centripetal force s , v → tangentially outward
and is the force required to move a body in uniform circle. →→
a , F → radially inward.
Obviously, this force is also directed along the radius towards the
centre. Thus,
Centripetal force = mass × centripetal acceleration
mv2
∴ Fc = r = mrω
2 … (6.3)
If we calculate work done by
Tangential Acceleration centripetal force,
In circular motion, the direction of velocity at a point in a circle is W = F.s = Fs cos 90° = 0
represented by the direction of tangent at that point. The change of
tangential velocity at two points A and B is determined by subtracting vA from component of vB
along vA.
Here, component of vB along vA is, vB cos θ.
vB cos θ – vA
Therefore, tangential acceleration (αt) = dt
Since the magnitudes of velocity at A and B are equal, vA = vB = v
v cos θ – v
So, αt = dt
for θ → 0, cos θ = 1
v−v
∴ αt = dt = 0
Hence, the tangential acceleration is zero, when a body moves in a circular path.
Centrifugal Force
A body revolving in a circle when suddenly released from the centripetal force, it would leave the
circular path. For observer standing outside the path, the body appears to fly off tangentially at the
point of release. The observer sees that as if a new force is acting outside to throw it away from the
circular path. This force is called centrifugal force. Its magnitude is equal to the centripetal force, i.e.,
mv2
F= r .
Actually, centrifugal force is not a force of reaction. It is a fictious force which has a concept only in a
rotating frame of reference. This force is only the consequence of inertial property of the body. The
concept of centripetal force is applied in the construction of centrifuge. Centrifuge isolates the heavy
and light particles from a mixture. For two particles M and m (M > m), when revolve around the
same centre, the centripetal forces are FM = Mω2r and Fm = mω2r. The angular velocity is equal in the
given situation,
FM Fm
So, ω2 = Mr and ω2 = mr
FM Fm
or, Mr = mr
FM M
∴F =m
m
This shows that the centrifugal force for heavy particle is greater than for the lighter particle.
EXAMPLE 1: What force is necessary to keep a mass of 0.8 kg revolving in a horizontal circle of radius 0.7 m with a period
of 0.5 s? What is the direction of this force?
SOLUTION
Given,
Mass, m = 0.8 kg
Radius of horizontal circle, r = 0.7 m
Time period, T = 0.5 s
Force necessary, F = ?
In such case, we have
2π 2 4π2
F = m ω2 r = m ⎛ T ⎞ r = 0.8 × (0.5)2 × 0.7
⎝ ⎠
∴ F = 90 N
Direction of this force is towards centre.
 Check Point: A ball of mass 2 kg is whirled around a circular path of radius 2 m. The ball makes five
revolutions per second. Calculate the centripetal force acting on the ball. Ans: 3947.8 N
EXAMPLE 2: A model of a helicopter rotor has four blades, each 3.40 m in length from the central shaft to the blade tip. The
model is rotated in a wind tunnel at 550 rev/min. (a) What is the linear speed of the blade tip, in m/s? (b) What is the radial
acceleration of the blade tip expressed as a multiple of the acceleration due to gravity, g?
SOLUTION
Given,
Radius (r) = 3.40 m Frequency (f) = 550 rev/ min = 9.17 rev/ s
Now,
ω = 2πf = 2π × 9.17 = 57.60 rad s-1
Now,
a. Linear velocity (v) = rω = 3.40 × 57.60 = 195.82 ms-1
b. Radial acceleration (a) = ω2r
= (57.60)2 × 3.40
1.13 × 104
= 1.13 × 104 ms–2 = 9.8 × g = 1151 g
Applications of Circular Motion

(i) A vehicle taking a circular turn on level road: While taking a circular turn on a level road, the
linear velocity of vehicle is along the tangent to the circular track. So, the vehicle tries to leave
off the track. Hence, a centripetal force is required to keep the vehicle moving round the track,
which is provided by the frictional force between tyres and road.

Let a car of mass 'm' is going round a circular turn of radius 'r' with uniform velocity 'v' as shown in
Fig. 6.4. The weight 'mg' of car acts vertically downwards and the normal reactions R1 and R2 of
ground on inner and outer tyre act vertically upward as shown in Fig. 6.4. As there can be no motion
of car along vertical, the total normal reaction R = (R1 + R2) balances its weight.
i.e., R1 + R2 = mg … (6.4)
The frictional forces F1 and F2 acting inward provide the necessary centripetal force. i.e.,
mv2
∴ F 1 + F2 = r … (6.5)
If μ be the coefficient of friction between road and tyres then,

F1 = μR1 and F2 = μR2
mv2
∴ μR1 + μR2 = r
mv2
or, μ (R1 + R2) = r … (6.6)
Dividing equation (6.6) by equation (6.4), we

get,
μ (R1 + R2) v2
(R1 + R2) = rg
∴ v = μrg
This is the maximum velocity with which a
vehicle can take a safe circular turn of radius r.
Thus, it is seen that if the coefficient of friction
is large, vehicle can take safe turn even with
greater velocity. Further, it is seen that for
constant μ the vehicle has to take a turn of greater radius 'r' when its velocity is large.
(ii) Banking of Track: We just saw that, the value of velocity to take a safe turn depends on
coefficient of friction (μ) between road and tyre. The limiting value of velocity decreases with
decrease in value of μ.
In slippery roads and for vehicles whose tyres have worn out, the value of μ is significantly low. Due
to this, a vehicle travelling along such tracks can't take a safe circular turn at reasonable speed. In
order to manage the sufficient centripetal force for a safe turn along such paths, the outer edge of the
tracks is raised a little above the inner one. This is called banking of track.
The main purpose of banking is to tilt the normal reaction of ground inward so that its horizontal
component provides necessary centripetal force.
Let us consider a car of mass 'm' is going round a circular turn of radius 'r' with uniform velocity 'v'
on a banked track as in Fig. 6.5. If OB be the banking of road whose horizontal surface is represented
by OA, then ∠BOA = θ is called angle of banking.
The car is under the effects of following forces.
(a) The weight 'mg' acting vertically downwards.
(b) The normal reaction R of ground on vehicle perpendicular to banked road.

R = R1 + R2 R cos θ
R2
R1
θ
R sin θ
•
B
F2
F1
θ A
O
mg
Fig. 6.5: Motion of a car on a banked track.
The vertical component of R i.e., R cos θ balances the weight 'mg' of vehicle
∴ R cos θ = mg … (6.7)
and horizontal component of R i.e., R sin θ provides necessary centripetal force to the vehicle.
mv2
∴ R sin θ = r … (6.8)

v2
tan θ = rg
This equation gives the optimum speed of vehicle in the circular track. The maximum permissible
speed however is much greater than this optimum value. It is because friction between road and
tyres of vehicles also contributes to the required centripetal force.
Note: It can be shown that, maximum permissible speed of vehicle on a road banked at θ is given by
1/2
gr (μ + tan θ )
vmax = ⎡ ⎤
⎣ (1 – μ tan θ ) ⎦
EXAMPLE 3: A racing car of 1000 kg moves round a banked track at a constant speed of 108 kmh–1. Assuming the total
reaction at the wheels is normal to the track and the horizontal radius of the track is 100 m, calculate the angle of inclination
of the track to the horizontal and reaction at the wheels.
SOLUTION
Given,
Mass of a car, m = 1000 kg
Speed of the car, v = 108 km/h = 30 ms–1
Radius of the track, r = 100 m
In case of banked track at angle,
mv2 Dividing Eq. (i) by (ii), we get
R sin θ = r ... (i)
302
= tan–1 ⎛100 × 10⎞ = tan–1 (0.9)
R cos θ = mg ... (ii) ⎝ ⎠
or, θ = 42° Now, from Eq. (ii),

v2 R cos θ = mg
tan θ = rg
mg 1000 × 10
or R= = cos 42° = 13,456 N
v2 cos θ
or, θ = tan–1 ⎛rg⎞
⎝ ⎠
 Check Point:
(a) At what angle should the road be banked so that a car running at 36 kmh–1 may be safely able to go
round a circle turn of 200 m radius? Take g = 9.8 ms–2. Ans: 2º 55'
(b) A bend in a level road has a radius of 100 m. Find the maximum speed which a car turning this bend
may have without skidding, if the coefficient of friction between the tyre and the road is 0.8.
Ans: 28 ms–1
(iii) Bending of Cyclist: If a cyclist wishes to take a circular turn, he has to bend himself inward
towards the centre of curved path so as to provide necessary
centripetal force required to keep him in the circular track. R cos θ
Consider a cyclist taking a circular turn of radius 'r' with R
θ
velocity 'v' leans inward making angle 'θ' with the vertical. The •
various forces acting on the system are:

R sin θ
(a) The weight 'mg' acting vertically downwards at the centre of
gravity of the system (cycle and cyclist). Here 'm' refers to mass
of cyclist and the cycle.
(b) The normal reaction R of ground on the system. It will act along mg
θ
a line making angle θ with vertical as shown in Fig. 6.6. So, R
has a horizontal component R sin θ and vertical component
R cos θ. Since, there is no motion of the system along vertical, r •
the component R cos θ balances the weight 'mg' of the system.
∴ R cos θ = mg … (6.9) Fig. 6.6: Bending of a cyclist at
The component R sin θ acts inward towards the centre of the circular circular path
track and provides the necessary centripetal force to keep the system
in circular track.
mv2
i.e., R sin θ = r … (6.10)

v2
tan θ = rg
It follows from above equation that, angle through which a cyclist should bend, would be greater if
radius of curve is small and velocity of cyclist is large. This is one of the reason why a bike racer in
MotoGP tilts his bike with large angles while taking sharp circular turns.
EXAMPLE 4: Calculate the angle through which a cyclist bends from the vertical when he crosses a circular path of 40 m in
–2
circumference in 4.5 second. Take g = 9.8 ms .
SOLUTION
Radius of the circular path,
Circumference 40
r = = = 6.37 m
2π 2π

Velocity
Length of path 40 –1
v =
Time taken = 4.5 = 8.89 ms
v2 (8.89)2
tan θ = rg = 6.37 × 9.8 = 1.267
∴ Angle through which the cyclist bends from the vertical, θ = 51.71°.
 Check Point: A motor-cycle rider, going 25 ms–1 around a curve with a radius of 100 m must lean
at an angle to vertical. Find the angle at which he leans. Ans: 32º
6.5 Motion in a Vertical Circle

Motion is a vertical circle is an example of non-uniform circular motion. Let us consider a body of
mass 'm' is rotating in a vertical circle of radius 'r' in anticlockwise direction. Let P be the position of
the body at any instant of time. At this position, the tension T acts along PO and the weight 'mg' acts
vertically downwards as in Fig. 6.7. At this position, the component mg cos θ of mg and the tension T
on the string provides the necessary centripetal force whereas the component mg sin θ acts along the
tangent to the path and hence continuously decreases the speed as the particle rises up. So a smaller
centripetal force is required and therefore the tension in the string decreases.
Thus, at position P, we can write,
mv2
∴ T – mg cos θ = r … (6.11)
Let us consider four different positions A, B, C and D of the particle in its path and TA, TB , TC and TD
be the tensions on the string when the particle is at these positions respectively.
At lowest point A, (θ = 0°)
mvA2
TA – mg cos 0° = r
where, vA is the velocity of particle at position A.
mvA2
or, TA – mg = r (... cos 0° = 1)
mvA2
∴ TA = r + mg
which is the required expression for maximum tension in the
string.
At position C, θ = 180°
2 Fig. 6.7: Motion of body in vertical circle
mvC
∴ TC – mg cos 180° = r
2
mvC
or, TC + mg = r
2
or,
⎛vC ⎞
TC = mg rg – 1
⎝ ⎠
which is the required expression for minimum tension in the string.
2
vC
For slow speeds, rg < 1, so the tension becomes negative and hence the body will fall down.

∴ The critical speed below which the body will fall down from highest point of the loop without
2
vC
completing the circle is obtained by taking rg = 1.
i.e., vC = rg
which gives velocity at C.
At point B and D, θ = 90° or 270°
mv2 mv2
∴ TB = r + mg cos 90° and TD = r + mg cos 270°
mv2
⇒ T B = r = TD
According to conservation of energy,
Total energy at A = Total energy at C
But, Total energy at A = Kinetic energy
1 2
= 2 mvA … (6.12)
(Taking reference of K.E. to be a horizontal line passing through point A.)
And total energy at C
= K.E + P.E
1 2
= 2 mvC + mg (AC)
1 2
= 2 mvC + mg (2r) … (6.13)
From equations (6.12) and (6.13)
1 2 1 2
2 mvA = 2 mvC + 2rmg
1 2 1
or, 2 vA = 2 rg + 2rg [Using vC = rg ]
1 2 5rg
or, 2 vA = 2
or, vA = 5rg
or, vA = 5 vC
Therefore, for completing the loop, the velocity at lowest point must be 5 times the critical velocity
at highest point. This shows that, motion in a vertical plane is non-uniform.
EXAMPLE 5: An object of mass 8 kg is whirled round in a vertical circle of radius 2 m with a constant speed of 6 ms–1.
Calculate the maximum and minimum tension in the string.
SOLUTION
Given,
Mass of the object, m = 8 kg
Radius of vertical circle, r = 2 m
Speed of the object, v = 6 ms–1
Maximum tension, Tmax. = ?
Minimum tension, Tmin. = ?
In case of vertical circle, we have maximum tension at the lowest point,
mv2 8 × 62
Tmax. = r + mg = 2 + 8 × 10 = 224 N

and the minimum tension at the highest point,
m v2
Tmin. = r – mg
8 × 62
= 2 – 8 × 10 = 64 N
 Check Point: A mass of 0.4 kg is rotated by a string at a constant speed v in a vertical circle of radius
1 m. If the minimum tension of the string is 3 N, calculate (i) v (ii) the maximum tension and (iii) the
tension when the string is just horizontal. Ans: (i) 4.18 ms–1 (ii) 11.00 N (iii) 7.00 N
6.6 Conical Pendulum (Horizontal Pendulum)

A system consisting of a small heavy bob suspended by a string from a rigid support and whirled
round in a horizontal circle at a constant speed is called conical pendulum. It is so called because, as
the bob swings in a horizontal circle, the string sweeps a cone.
Let a small bob of mass 'm' is suspended by a string of length 'l' from a rigid support O as shown in
Fig. 6.8.
The bob is now whirled in a horizontal circle of radius 'r' with a constant speed such that at any
position A of bob, the string makes angle θ with the vertical BO as shown in Fig. 6.8.
At position A, the various forces acting on the system are
(i) The weight 'mg' of bob vertically downwards.
(ii) The tension T in the string along the length AO.
The tension T in the string can be resolved into two components, viz. T cos θ acting vertically
upwards and T sin θ along AB.
(In this chapter, time period of revolution and tension on the string are represented by same symbol
'T'. So, the students should be aware about the situation for appropriate use.)
The component T cos θ balances the weight 'mg' of bob i.e., O
T cos θ = mg … (6.14)
and the component T sin θ acts inwards towards the centre so as to
provide the necessary centripetal force.
θ
mv2
∴ T sin θ = r … (6.15)
Dividing equation (6.15) by equation (6.14), we get, T
v2 l
tan θ = rg
If ω be the angular speed of the bob, then,

T cos θ θ r B
v = rω
T sin θ
rω2 A•
∴ tan θ = g
g tan θ mg
or, ω= r Fig. 6.8: Conical pendulum
∴ Time period (T) of conical pendulum is given by
2π r
T= = 2π
ω g tan θ
Knowing the value of r, g and θ, time period of pendulum can be found. Further, from Fig. 6.8,
In triangle, AOB
AB r
sin θ = AO = l
∴ r = l sin θ
l sin θ
∴ T = 2π
g tan θ
l cos θ
T = 2π g
This gives the time period of conical pendulum.
EXAMPLE 6: A mass of 1 kg is attached to the lower end of a string 1 m long whose upper end is fixed. The mass is made
to rotate in a horizontal circle of radius 60 cm. If the circular speed of the mass is constant, find the tension in the string and
the period of motion.
SOLUTION
Given: or, θ = sin–1 (0.6) = 36.87º
Mass of object (m) = 1 kg So, from relation
Length of string (l) = 1 m T cos θ = mg
Radius of circle (r) = 60 cm = 0.6 m mg
Tension on the string (T) = ? T =
cos θ
Period of motion (t) = ? 1 × 10
Tcos θ
From figure, = cos 36. 87º = 12.5 N

θ
mv2 T
T sin θ = r Again, from relation
θ
T cos θ = mg r
l cos θ
or, t = 2π g
v2 Tsin θ
∴ tan θ = rg and
1 × cos 36. 87º
= 2π 10 = 1.78 s
r 0.6 mg
sin θ = l = 1 = 0.6
 Check Point: A ball of mass 100 g is suspended by a string 40 cm long. Keeping the string always
taut the ball describes a horizontal circle of radius 10 cm. Find the angular speed of the ball.
Ans: 5.03 rads–1
Tips for MCQs
Quantitative Tips
1. The angular displacement is the angle swept out by a radius vector in a given time interval:
l
θ=r.
2. For uniform circular motion, angular velocity is the angle swept out by the radius vector per second,
angular displacement Δθ θ2 – θ1
ω= time taken = = .
Δt t2 – t1
3. The relation of linear velocity and angular velocity: v = rω.
4. Angular acceleration is the rate of change of angular velocity.
angular velocity Δω ω2 – ω1
α = time taken = = t –t .
Δt 2 1

5. Let T, f and ω are the time period, frequency and angular velocity respectively. The relation of these
1 2π
quantities are, ω = 2πf, f = T and ω = T .
v2
6. Centripetal acceleration, a = r = ω2r.
mv2
7. Centripetal force, F = r = mω2r.
8. Motion in vertical circle:
mv2
i. At the lowest point, the maximum tension is observed Tmax = r + mg.
mv2
ii. At the highest point, the minimum tension is observed Tmin = r – mg.
mv2
iii. Tension is horizontal diametrical points Tav = r .
9. In order to take a circular turn of radius 'r' with speed 'v', the cyclist should bend himself through an
v2
angle 'θ' from the vertical such that, tan θ = rg .
10. A vehicle taking a circular turn on a level road: If μ is the coefficient of friction between tyres and
road, then the maximum velocity with which the vehicle can safely take a circular turn of radius 'r' is
given by, vmax = μrg .
11. Banking of tracks (roads): The maximum velocity with which a vehicle (in the absence of friction)
can negotiate a circular road of radius r and banked at an angle θ is given by v = rg tan θ . When the
frictional forces are also taken into account, the maximum safe velocity is given by
μ + tan θ ⎞
vmax = rg ⎛
⎝ – μ tan θ⎠ .
1
l cos θ
12. The time period of oscillation of conical pendulum is, T = 2π g .
Conceptual Tips
1. At constant centripetal force, although the speed of a body in the circular path is constant,
acceleration is non-zero because of the change of direction in every point of its path.
2. Centripetal force is the name given to any force that provides radial inward acceleration to a body in
circular motion.
3. Nothing actually moves in the direction ¤ω. However, the direction shows that the rotational motion
occurs in a plane perpendicular to it.
4. Centrifugal force is not a force of reaction. It is a fictious force which comes into play only in a
rotating frame of reference.
5. Centripetal force is not a new type of force. The material forces such as tension, gravitational force,
electric force, friction, etc., may act as the centripetal force in any circular motion.
6. The tension on the string is maximum at the lowest point and is minimum at the highest point of a
vertical circle. Motion in a vertical circle is an example of non-uniform circular motion.
7. The path of a body hanging on a string from a rigid support when moves in a circle trace a conical
shape, therefore the shape of oscillation of pendulum is called conical pendulum.

Quick Reply
1. What is the direction of linear velocity for a stone revolving in a circle?
⇒ The direction shown by the tangent at any point in a circular path represents the direction of linear
velocity at that point. Since the direction of velocity is acted along the tangential direction, it is also
called tangential velocity.
2. If there is a net force acting on a particle in uniform circular motion, why does the particle's speed not
change?
 If there is a net force acting, then of course it causes an acceleration. The net centripetal force is
uniform circular motion does not change the speed, but the direction. The reason is the force vector is
perpendicular to the direction of the particle at every instant. Which causes the magnitude of velocity
i.e. speed some for whole trip.
3. The positively charged nucleus of an atom attracts the electron in the orbit. Why do the electrons not
collapse into the nucleus?
 For an electron revolving around the nucleus, the centripetal force is provided by the electric force of
attraction between the nucleus and the electron. While revolving in circular path, the displacement of
electron is directed tangentially outward and this force tending outward is a type of fictious force,
called centrifugal force. Resultant of these components of forces (towards the centre and tangentially
outward) makes the electron in circle (i.e., in orbit), but not inside.
4. Why does a child in a marry-go-round press the side of his seat radially outwards?
 While a child goes round in a marry-go-round, he tends to displace outward from the circle (i.e., path
of marry-go-round). To balance the outward force, the seat will press the child inward, providing the
necessary centripetal force.

1. Motor cyclist does not fall down, in circus, when he moves on the vertical walls of the "wall of death".
 Motor cyclist tilts his motor bike with certain angle on the wall. Then, the frictional force between the
wall and the tyre of motor bike can be resolved into two components. Vertically upward component
balances the weight of bike and the horizontal component provides necessary centripetal force to
move in curved path on the wall. Thus, the motor bike does not fall from the vertical wall.
2. A solid tied at the end of a string is revolved in vertical. At what point the tension in the string will
be the greatest?
 The whirling of a solid through the string is shown in figure.
At the lowest point, the direction of tension and the weight of the solid are just mg
opposite.
mv2
So, centripetal force ⎛ r ⎞ is the difference of tension on the string and the weight T
⎝ ⎠
of solid.
mv2 mv2 mg
So, r = T – mg or, T = r + mg
This is the condition of maximum tension on the string.

3. Explain the significance of the banking of a curved road.
 If a cyclist is to take a turn, he/she can bend from his/her vertical position. However, it is not
possible in the case of a vehicle like car, bus, truck or train. The tilting of the vehicle is achieved by
raising the outer edge of a circular track, slightly above the inner edge of a circular track. This is
known as banking of curved track. This banking of track provides the necessary centripetal force to
the vehicles and gets the safe turn.

4. Explain the difference between a simple and conical pendulum.
 A simple pendulum executes simple harmonic motion, the to and fro motion along a line. In the ideal
condition, the motion of simple pendulum is one dimensional.
A conical pendulum goes on circular motion, revolves around a central point. The motion of conical
pendulum is considered as two dimensional motion.
In simple pendulum, acceleration is directed towards the mean position and time period is calculated
by
l
T = 2π g. On the other hand, in conical pendulum, acceleration is directed towards the centre of
l cos θ
circle and time period of revolution is determined with, T = 2π g .
5. Comment on the statement "sharper the curve, more is the bending".
 let θ be the angle made with the vertical while taking a circular turn of radius r with velocity v. We
know,
v2
tan θ = rg
1
i.e., tan θ ∝ r
1
Also, i.e., θ ∝ r .
It means sharper the curve (i.e., smaller is the radius), greater is the value of θ.
6. Motor cyclist does not fall down, in circus, when he moves on the vertical walls of the "wall of death".
 Motor cyclist tilts his motor bike with certain angle on the wall. Then, the frictional force between the
wall and the tyre of motor bike can be resolved into two components. Vertically upward component
balances the weight of bike and the horizontal component provides necessary centripetal force to
move in curved path on the wall. Thus, the motor bike does not fall from the vertical wall.
7. Explain the significance of the banking of a curved road.
 If a cyclist is to take a turn, he/she can bend from his/her vertical position. However, it is not
possible in the case of a vehicle like car, bus, truck or train. The tilting of the vehicle is achieved by
raising the outer edge of a circular track, slightly above the inner edge of a circular track. This is
known as banking of curved track. This banking of track provides the necessary centripetal force to
the vehicles and gets the safe turn.
8. Is it correct to say that the banking of road reduces the wear and tear of the tyres of automobiles. If
yes, explain.
 If the road is not banked, then the necessary centripetal force has to be provided by the force of
friction between the tyres and the road only. On the other hand, when the road is banked, a
component of the normal reaction in addition to the frictional force provides the necessary
centripetal force. This reduces the wear and tear considerably.
Worked Out Problems

1. A clock has a second hand 1.5 cm long. Calculate (i) speed of the tip of second hand. The velocity of
the top at t = 0 to t = 30 s (ii) change in velocity from t = 0 to t = 30 s.
SOLUTION
Given, the length of second hand, r = 1.5 cm
We know, time taken by second hand for one complete rotation is, T = 1 min = 60 s

2π 2π π
Now, the angular velocity, ω = T = 60 = 30 rad s−1
(i) The speed of tip of second hand,
π π
v = rω = 1.5 × 30 = 20 = 0.16 cms−1
π
(ii) The velocity of tip at t = 0, v1 = rω = 1.5 × 30
→
= 0.16 cm s−1 (along AN)
π →
The velocity of tip at t = 30, v2 = rω = 1.5 × 30 = 0.16 cm s-1 (towards BM)
→ → →
(iii) Change in velocity at t = 0 and t = 30 s, is, v = v2 − v1
Since v1 and v2 are directed exactly opposite to each other, v2 = −v1 = v, the resultant velocity;
→
So, v = v − (−v) = 2v = 2 × 0.16 = 0.32 cm s−1
1
2. A playing record of radius 15.0 cm revolves with 33 3 rev/min. Two coins are placed at 5 cm and 10
cm away from the centre of record. If the coefficient of friction between the coin and record is 0.15, so
that coins revolve with the record. Find the position of coins.
SOLUTION
1
Revolution per minute = 333 rev/min
100 1 0.15 × 10
Frequency per second = 3 × 60 r≤ (3.5)2
100 1 r ≤ 0.12 m
ω = 2πf = 2π 3 × 60 = 3.5 rad/s
r ≤ 12 cm
The coins revolve with the record until Here both coins lie within 12 cm from the
centripetal force ≤ frictional force axis of rotation.
or, mω2r ≤ μmg Hence they would rotate with the record.
μg
r≤ 2
ω
3. A mass of 0.2 kg is rotated by a string at a constant speed in a vertical circle of radius 1 m. If the
minimum tension in the string is 3 N, calculate the magnitude of the speed and the maximum tension
in the string.
SOLUTION
Given,
Mass of stone (m) = 0.2 kg
Radius of circle (r) = 1 m
Minimum Tension on string (Tmin) = 3 N
Tmin
Magnitude of speed (v) = ? or, 5 = 0.2 v2
Maximum tension (Tmax) = ? 5
or, v2 = 0.2 = 25
We have,
mv2 or, v = 5 m/s
Tmax = r + mg … (i)
From equation (i)
r
mv2 0.2 × 52
Tmin = r – mg … (ii) Tmax = 1 + 0.2 × 10
Tmax
From equation (ii) = 0.2 × 25 + 2 = 7 N
0.2 × v2
3 = 1 – 0.2 × 10

4. A ball of mass 0.2 kg is suspended by a string 50 cm long. Keeping the string always taut, the ball
describes a horizontal circle of radius 15 cm. Calculate the angular speed.
SOLUTION
The required figure for the given problem is shown below.
O
Here, mass (m) = 0.2 kg So, T cos θ = mg … (i)
cm
q
Radius (r) = 15 cm= 0.15 m Tcos q
T sin θ = mω2r … (ii)
50
Let the string makes angle T Now, dividing equation (ii) by equation (i), we get,
q
θ with the vertical. Then 15 cm T sin θ mω2r
AB 15 3
B A = mg
Tsin q T cos θ
sin θ = OB = 50 = 10
rω2
θ = 17.45° mg
tan θ = g
Let T be the tension in the string, its vertical
g tan θ 9.8 × tan 17.45°
component balances the weight mg while the ω = =
r 0.15
horizontal component T sin θ provides the
= 4.53 rad s–1
centripetal force.
5. A stone of mass 500 g is attached to a string of length 50 cm which will break if the tension in it
exceeds 20 N. The stone is whirled in a vertical circle, the axis of rotation being at a height of 100 cm
above the ground. The angular speed is very slowly increased until the string breaks. In what
position is this break most likely to occur and at what angular speed? Where will the stone hit the
ground?
SOLUTION
Given, 1
Mass of stone, m = 500 g = 0.5 kg s = u t + 2 g t2
Maximum tension, Tmax. = 20 N 1 ..
Radius of vertical circle, r = 50 cm = 0.5 m or, h = 0.t + 2 g t2 [ . u = 0 and s = h]
Angular speed, ω = ?
2h 2 × 0.5
Where will the stone hit the ground? or, t = g = 10
The maximum tension is at lowest point
on the vertical circle and the string breaks at ..
[ . h = 50 cm = 0.5 m]
this point. t = 0.32 s
m v2
Tmax. = r + mg
m v2
or, Tmax. – mg = r 50 cm
100 cm
r
or, v = m (Tmax. – mg) 50 cm
0.5
= 0.5 (20 – 0.5 × 10) = 3.875 m/s
R =x =? ?
For horizontal motion:
Again, Distance travelled
v=rω Velocity = Time taken
v 3.875 R
or, ω = r = 0.5 = 7.75 rad/s or v = t
ω = 7.75 rad/s or R = v. t = 3.88 × 0.32 m
When the string breaks, R = 1.24 m
For vertical downward motion
6. A stone is rotated steadily in a horizontal circle with a period T by a string of length l. If the tension
in the string is constant and l increases by 1%, find the percentage change in T.
SOLUTION
l
Let, radius of the circle, r1 = l. Then, radius of greater circle, r2 = l + 100 = 1.01 l

Let T1 and T2 be the period on the first Since tension is constant in two cases, so
and the second circle respectively. F1 = F2
In first case, we have, m 4π2 4π2
4π2 or, T12 . l = m . T22 . 1.01l
F1 = m ω12 r1 = m . T 2 . r1
1 2
or, ⎛T2⎞ = 1.01
or,
4π2
F1 = m . T 2 l ... (i)
⎝T1⎠
1
T2
In second case, or, T1 = 1.005
4π2 T2 – T1
F2 = m ω22 r2 = m . T 2 . r2 So, percentage change in T = ⎛ T ⎞ 100%
2 ⎝ 1 ⎠
T2
= ⎛T – 1⎞ 100%
4π2
F2 = m . T 2 . 1.01 l
2
... (ii) ⎝ 1 ⎠
= (1.005 – 1) 100% = 0.5%

1. In a test of "g-suit," a volunteer is rotated in a horizontal circle of radius 7.0 m. What is the period of
rotation at which the centripetal acceleration has a magnitude of (a) 3.0 g? (b) 10 g?
Ans: 3.07 s, 1.68 s
2. The radius of the earth's orbit around the sun (assumed to be circular) is 1.50 × 108 km and the earth
travels around this orbit in 365 days. (a) What is the magnitude of the orbital velocity of the earth in
m/s? (b) What is the acceleration of the earth toward the sun in m/s2? (c) Repeat parts (a) and (b) for
the motion of the planet Mercury (orbit radius = 5.79 × 107 km, orbital period = 88.0 days.)
Ans: 2.99 × 104 ms–1, 5.96 × 10–3 ms–2, 4.78 × 104 ms–1, 0.04 ms–2
3. An object of mass 10 kg is whirled round a horizontal circle of radius 4m by a revolving string
inclined to the vertical. If the uniform speed of the object is 5 ms–1, calculate (i) the tension in the
string and (ii) the angle of inclination of the string to the vertical. Ans: (i) 118 N (ii) 32°
4. Calculate the mean angular velocity of the earth assuming it takes 24 hours to rotate about its axis.
An object of mass 2 kg is (i) at the poles (ii) at the equator. Assuming the earth is a perfect sphere of
radius 6.4 × 106 m, calculate the change in weight of the mass when taken from poles to the equator.
Ans: 73 × 10–4 rads–1, 0.0682 N
5. An object of mass 0.5 kg is rotated in a horizontal circle by a string 1 m long. The maximum tension
in the string before it breaks is 50 N. What is the greatest number of revolutions per sec. of the object?
Ans: 1.6 rev s–1
Exercise
1. Why a force is necessary to keep a body moving with uniform speed in a circular path?
2. An aeroplane tilts when it makes a curved flight, why?
3. What is the work done of a body when revolves with uniform speed on a circular path?
4. How does cream separate from the milk?
5. How many times the second needle of a clock revolve in one hour?
6. Why conical pendulum is named so?
7. What is the time period of conical pendulum?
8. Which force is responsible to revolve a body in a circular path?

9. Define angular displacement. Write its unit and dimensions.
10. What are the equivalent quantities in circular motion that of displacement and velocity in linear
motion?
11. What are the formula of centripetal acceleration in terms of linear velocity (v) and angular
velocity ω?
12. Can you relate the centripetal acceleration with angular velocity (ω) and linear velocity (v)?
13. What common misconception may we have about the centrifugal force?
14. What provides the centripetal force for a vehicle in order to change the direction?
15. Can centripetal force increase the kinetic energy and momentum of a body in a circle?
Short Questions
1. Why does skidding takes place generally on a rainy day along a curve path?
2. A particle is executing circular motion with constant speed, is its acceleration also constant?
3. Why does a cyclist bend inwards while riding along a curve road?
4. Why does a pilot looping a vertical loop not fall down even at the highest point?
5. Why does the passenger of a car rounding a curve throw outward?
6. A body is moving along a circular path such that its speed is always constant. Should there be a force
acting on the body?
7. A circus man starts down an inclined plane on his scooter. At the end of the inclined plane, there is a
vertical circular arch. If he is to safely negotiate the arch, what must be his velocity at the end of the
plane?
8. Can centripetal force produce rotation?
9. What is responsible to provide the centripetal force for the following conditions? (i) revolution of
electron around the nucleus (ii) revolution of planets around the sun (iii) bending of cyclist in a curve
path (iv) taking the turn by four wheelers in a banked track.
10. Explain why the earth is flattened at the poles.
11. Why a force is necessary to keep a body moving with uniform speed in a circular path?
12. Why is it more difficult to revolve a stone by tying it to a longer string than by tying it to a shorter
string?
13. When a particle is revolved round in a horizontal circle. What physical quantities remain constant?
14. A stone tied to the end of a string is whirled in a horizontal circle. When the string breaks, the stone
flies away tangentially. Why?
15. A bucket containing water is rotated in a vertical circle. Explain, why the water does not fall.
16. For uniform circular motion, does the direction of centripetal force depend on the sense of rotation?
Long Questions
1. Define angular velocity. Derive the relation between linear velocity and angular velocity.
2. Define centripetal acceleration. Derive the relation of centripetal acceleration, ω2r, where ω is angular
velocity and r is radius of the circular path. Hence find the centripetal force, mω2r.
3. Define centripetal force. Show that the acceleration of a body moving in a circular path of radius r
with uniform velocity ω is ω2r and draw a diagram to show the direction of acceleration.
4. Explain why a cyclist should incline himself to the vertical while moving round a circular path.
Obtain the expression for his inclination with the vertical.
5. Define centripetal force. Derive an expression for the force acting on a body moving with uniform
speed along a circular path.
6. What do you mean by the banking of a curved path? Derive an expression for the banking angle.
7. Discuss the motion of a body in a vertical circle. Calculate minimum and maximum tension.
8. What is conical pendulum? Derive the expression for the time period of oscillation of conical
l cos θ
pendulum, 2π g .


LEVEL I
1. An aircraft executes a horizontal loop of radius 1 km with a steady speed of 900 kmh-1. Compare its
centripetal acceleration with the acceleration due to gravity. Ans: 6.38
2. A particle of mass 14 g attached to a string of 70 cm length is whirled round in a horizontal circle. If

the period of revolution is 2 second, calculate the tension. Ans: 9.68 × 10-2 N
3. A stone of mass 50 g tied to one end of the string is rotated in a horizontal circle of radius 1 m with a
speed of 5 ms-1. Calculate the centripetal force. Ans: 31.58 N
4. Find the maximum speed with which an unpowered air of mass 1000 kg can take a corner of radius
20 m if the coefficient of friction between the tyres and the road is 0.5. [Take g= 10 ms-2] Ans: 10 ms-1
5. A cyclist goes round a circular track 440 m long in 20 second. What is the angle that his cycle makes
with the vertical to safely cover the circular track? (g = 9.8 ms–2) Ans: 35° 12ı
6. A bend in a level road has radius of 100 m. Calculate the maximum speed which a car turning this
bend may have without skidding? [Given: µ = 0.5] Ans: 22.4 ms-1
7. At what angle must a track with a bend of 200 m radius be banked for safe running of trains at a
speed of 72 kmh-1. [Given: g = 9.8 ms-2] Ans: 11° 32ı
8. For traffic moving at 60 kmh-1, if the radius of the curve 0.1 km, what is the correct angle of banking
of the road? [Given: g = 10 ms-1] Ans: 15.5°
9. A spaceman in training is rotated in a seat at the end of a horizontal rotating arm of length 5m. If he
can withstand acceleration upto 9 g, what is the maximum number of revolutions per second
permissible? Ans: 0.675 rev s–1
10. The earth has a radius of 6380 km and turns around once on its axis in 24 h. (a) What is the radial
acceleration of an object at the earth's equator? Give your answer in m/s2 and as a fraction of g.
Ans: 0.034 m s–2, 3.4 × 10–3 g
11. An object of mass 4 kg moves round a circle 6 m with a constant speed of 12 ms–1. Calculate
(i) the angular velocity (ii) the force towards the centre. Ans: (i) 2 rads–1, (ii) 96 N
12. Calculate the force necessary to keep a mass of 0.2 kg moving in a horizontal circle of radius 0.5 m
with a period of 0.5 sec. What is direction of the force? Ans: 15.8 N, towards the centre
LEVEL II
1. A string breaks under a load of 50 kg. A mass of 1 kg is attached to one end of the sting 10 m long
and is rotated in a horizontal circle. Calculate the greatest number of revolution that the mass can
make without breaking the string. Ans: 1.12 rps
2. A horizontal circular turn table rotates about its centre at the uniform rate of 120 revolutions per
minute. Find the greatest distance from the centre at which a small body will remain stationary
relative to the turn table, if the coefficient of static friction between the turntable and the body is 0.8.
Ans: 5.07 cm
1
3. A coin placed on a disc rotates with speed of 33 3 rev/min provided that the coin is not more than 10
cm from the axis. Calculate the coefficient of static friction between the coin and the disc. Ans: 0.122
4. A ball of mass 100 g is suspended by a string 40 cm long. Keeping the string always taut, the ball
describes a horizontal circle of radius 10 cm. find the angular speed of the ball. Ans: 5.03 rad/s
5. What is the smallest radius of a circle at which a motor cyclist can travel if his speed is
60 km/h and the coefficient of static friction between the tyres and the road is 0.32? Ans: 86.8 m
1
4. A coin placed on a disc rotates with speed of 333 rev min–1 provided that the coin is not more than 10
cm from the axis. Calculate the coefficient of static friction between the coin and disc. Ans: 0.125
5. A mass of 0.2 kg is whirled in a horizontal circle of radius 0.5 m by a string inclined at 30° to the
vertical. Calculate (i) the tension in the string, (ii) the speed of the mass in the horizontal circle.
Ans: (i) 2.3 N (ii) 1.7 ms – 1
6. A string breaks under the load of 4.8 kg. A mass of 0.5 kg is attached to one end of the string 2 m long
and is rotated in a horizontal circle. Calculate the greatest number of revolutions that the mass can
make without breaking the string. Ans: 65.5 rpm
7. A certain string breaks when a weight of 25 N acts on it. A mass of 500 g is attached to one end of the
string of 1 m long and is rotated in a horizontal circle. Find the greatest number of revolutions per
minute which can be made without breaking the string. Ans: 67.5 rpm
8. At what angle should a circular road be banked so that a car running at 50 km/h be safe to go round
the circular turn of 200 m radius? Ans: 5.5°
9. A bend in a level road has a radius of 200 m. Find the maximum speed which a car tuning this bend
–1
may have without skidding, if the coefficient of friction between the tyres and road is 0.4. Ans: 28 ms

1. A car of mass 'm' moving with speed 'v' when passes through a bridge exerts a force on it which is
equal to
mv2 mv2 mv2 2mv2
a. mg + r b. r c. mg – r d. r
2. A block of mass 'm' at the end of a string is whirled round a vertical circle of radius r. The critical
speed of the block at the top of the swing is
r 1/2 g m
a. ⎛g⎞ b. r c. rg d. (rg)1/2
⎝ ⎠
3. The maximum velocity with which a car driver must traverse a flat curve of radius 150 m and
coefficient of friction 0.6 to avoid skidding is
a. 60 b. 30 c. 15 d. 25
4. A particle is acted upon by a force of constant magnitude which is always perpendicular to the
velocity of the particle. The motion of the particle takes place in a plane. It follows that
a. Its velocity is constant b. Its acceleration is constant
c. Its kinetic energy is constant d. It moves in a straight path
5. If a cycle wheel of radius 4 m completes one revolution in two seconds, then acceleration of the cycle
is
a. 4π ms–2 b. 8π ms–2 c. 2π2 ms–2 d. 4π2 ms–2
6. The angular acceleration of a particle moving along a circular path with uniform speed is
a. Uniform but non zero b. Zero
c. Variable d. Can not be predicted
7. A particle is moving along a circular path of radius 5 m with a uniform angular speed 5 m s–1. What
will be the average acceleration when the particle completes half revolution?
10
a. zero b. 10 ms–2 c. 10π ms–2 d. ms–2
π
8. A particle is moving with a constant speed v in a circle. What is the magnitude of average velocity
after half rotation?
v v v
a. 2v b. 2 c. 2 d.
π 2π
ANSWERS
1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (d) 6. (b) 7. (d) 8. (b)

GRAVITATION
7.1 Introduction
The origin of the theory of gravitation goes back to ancient times. The earliest investigations were
initiated with the queries that ancient people had about (i) motion of planets (ii) the falling of objects
released near the earth's surface. Although these queries seem quite unrelated at that time, today it
has been recognized that both phenomena are the result of same force - gravitation.
Among four classes of the fundamental interactions found in nature, gravitation is the earliest one to
be studied extensively. Gravitational force is always attractive. Different theories have been
presented at different times by different physicists. But most successful theory was presented by Sir
Isaac Newton in the 17th century in 1687. He discovered that, the force which holds moon in its orbit
is same force that makes an apple fall from the tree. He concluded, it is not only the earth that
attracts both moon and apple but, everybody in this universe attracts every other body; this tendency
of bodies to move towards one another is called gravitation.
Note: The four fundamental forces of nature are: strong force, weak force, electromagnetic force, and gravitational
force.
7.2 Newton's Law of Gravitation

"Every particle of the matter in this universe attracts every other particle with a force that is directly
proportional to the product of masses of the particles and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them. This force acts along the line joining the centers of these particles".
If F be the magnitude of this force between two particles of mass m1 and m2 separated by a distance
'r' then, according to above statement
F F
F ∝ m1m2 … (7.1) m1 m2
1
F ∝ r2 … (7.2)
r
Combining equations (7.1) and (7.2), we get,
Fig. 7.1: Gravitational force between two bodies
m1m2
∴ F = G r2 … (7.3)
where, G is the proportionality constant known as universal gravitational constant.

The gravitational force of attraction between two particles forms an action-reaction pair. Even if the
masses of the particles are different, gravitational force exerted on each other have equal magnitude.
This means gravitational attraction of your body on earth has same magnitude as that of earth on
your body.
7.3 Gravitational Constant 'G'

In equation (7.3), if m1 = m2 = 1 kg and r = 1 m, then
F=G
Universal gravitational constant is numerically equal to the force of attraction between two unit
masses separated by unit distance. The numerical value of G depends upon the system of units used.
–11
In SI system, unit of G is Nm2 kg–2 and its value is approximately 6.67 × 10 Nm2 kg–2. It is called
universal constant because its value is same for any pair of masses and is independent of the nature
of medium in which the masses are kept. It is also independent of the chemical composition of
masses, temperature, pressure and direction of gravitational forces between the masses. Value of G
was experimentally determined by Henry Cavendish in 1798.
7.4 Gravitation and Principle of Superposition

It states that, "for a given group of particles, the net (resultant) gravitational force on any one of them is the
vector sum of individual forces due to all other masses." The principle asserts that the gravitational force
between two masses acts independently and is not influenced by the presence of other bodies. To
apply this principle, we first compute the individual gravitational forces that act on our selected
particle due to other particles and add these individual forces vectorically to get the resultant.
¤ ¤ ¤
Let us consider a system consisting of 'n' particles each of mass m1, m2, … mn. Let F12 , F13 , …, F1n be
the force on mass (m1) due to m2, m3, … mn respectively.
Then, according to principle of superposition,
¤ ¤ ¤ ¤
Net force on mass m1, ( F1.net) = F12 + F13 + …+ F1n .
7.5 Inertial Mass and Gravitational Mass

Inertial mass of a body is the mass that measures inertia. It is determined by using Newton's second
law of motion. According to Newton's second law, if an external force F acts on a body of mass 'm',
then
F = ma
F
∴ m=a …(7.4)
This equation (7.4) gives inertial mass of body and hence may be defined as the ratio of the magnitude
of external force applied on it to the magnitude of acceleration produced in it. This mass measures the ability
of a body to resist the production of acceleration on it. This mass is independent of shape, size and
state of a body and is conserved during chemical reaction.
The mass of the body which determines the gravitational pull acting upon it is called gravitational mass. It is
determined using Newton's law of gravitation i.e., if M and R be the mass and radius of earth
respectively, the gravitational pull on a body of mass 'm' is given by
GMm
F= R2
FR2
∴ m = GM … (7.5)
Equation (7.5) gives gravitational mass of the body.

Gravitation |Chapter 7| 191
General theory of relativity supports that inertial mass and gravitational mass of a body are
equivalent and share the same properties. However, they represent two concepts unrelated to each
other and differ in the methods of their determination.
EXAMPLE 1: A typical human has a mass of about 70 kg. What force does a full moon exerts on such a human when it is
directly overhead with its centre 378,000 km away? (Mass of moon = 7.35 × 1022 kg)
SOLUTION
Given,
Mass of man (m) = 70 kg
Mass of moon (M) = 7.35 × 1022 kg
Distance (r) = 378000 km = 3.78 × 107 m
Now, Gravitational pull,
Mm
F = G r2
6.67 × 10-11 × 7.35 × 1022 × 70
= (3.78 × 107)2 = 0.24 N
 Check Point: Calculate the force between the sun and the earth in which the distance between the
sun and the earth is 1.49 × 1011 m and G = 6.67 × 10–11 Nm2 kg–2. (Given mass of the sun =
1.99 × 1030 kg and mass of the earth = 6.0 × 1024 kg) Ans: 3.6 × 1022 N
7.6 Acceleration due to Gravity

Earth attracts every object lying near its surface towards its centre. This attractive force of earth is
called gravity. This term gravity is reserved for the bodies on the surface of earth only. For the bodies
lying on the surface of other planets or satellites, the term gravitation is used. However, gravity is
special case of gravitation. Even it can be said that, gravitation is the cause and gravity is the effect.
According to Newton's second law of motion, this attractive force must produce acceleration on a
body free to fall towards earth. The acceleration produced on the body falling freely under the effect
of gravity is called acceleration due to gravity. It is denoted by g and its unit is ms–2. The velocity of
such object increases continuously during its fall but the rate of increase is constant. Hence, a body
falling under the effect of gravity has constant acceleration and is independent of the nature and
mass of the falling body. Its value differs from place to place on the surface of earth. The value of g at
sea level and at latitude 45° is taken as standard reference which is approximately 9.8 ms–2.
7.7 Expression for Acceleration due to Gravity

Let us consider that the earth is a uniform sphere of mass M and radius R. Let a small body of mass
'm' at a distance 'r' from the centre of earth is falling freely as
shown in Fig. 7.2.
mg
At this position, the gravitational force of attraction between
body and earth is given by
R r
Mm
∴ F = G r2 … (7.6)
O
From Newton's second law of motion, the acceleration
produced on the body due to this force is given by M
F G Mm
g = m = r2m
Fig. 7.2: Freely falling body near the pole

GM
∴ g = r2
This is the expression for the acceleration due to gravity at a distance 'r' away from the centre of
earth.
GM
If the body is very close to the surface of earth such that r ≈ R, then, g = .
R2
7.8 Variation of Acceleration due to Gravity

The variation in the value of acceleration due to gravity corresponds to different factors such as
altitude, depth, latitude, etc. It's value differs significantly even on the surface of earth. We know,
earth is not a perfect sphere. It is flattened at the poles and bulged out at the equator. So its
equatorial radius (RE) is greater than polar radius (RP), i.e., RE > RP. P
•
Since at the surface of earth
h
1
g∝
R2
We can say that, value of g is greater at poles than at equator. This is
the same reason why a body has more weight at poles than at
M R
equator. •
O
(i) Variation of g due to altitude
Let us consider earth to be a perfect sphere of radius R and mass M.
Let g be the value of acceleration due to gravity on the surface of
Fig. 7.3: Acceleration due to
earth. Then, gravity at a height h
GM
g= … (7.7)
R2
Let a body of mass 'm' is at point P at a height 'h' above the surface of
earth as shown in Fig. 7.3 and g' be the value of acceleration due to
gravity at this position. Then,
GM
g' = … (7.8)
(R + h)2
where, R + h = distance between centers of body and earth.
g GM (R + h)2
g' = R2 × GM
h 2
R 2 ⎛1 + R ⎞
g ⎝ ⎠
or, g' = R2
g ⎛ h ⎞2
or, g' = ⎝1 + R⎠
g' h –2
Also, g = ⎛1 + R⎞
⎝ ⎠

Expanding right hand side of above equation binomially and neglecting higher order terms, we get,
–2
⎛1 + h ⎞ 2h
≈1– R
⎝ R⎠
g' ⎛ 2h⎞
∴ g = ⎝1 – R ⎠ ≤ 1
∴ g' ≤ g
Case I: On the surface of the earth, h = 0, so g' = g.
Case II: Above the surface of the earth, h > 0, so g' < g.
Thus, value of 'g' decreases as we move away from the surface of earth.
(ii) Variation of g due to depth x

Let us consider a body of mass 'm' is lying at a depth 'x' from the P
surface of the earth as shown in Fig. 7.4. R-x
R
The acceleration due to gravity on the surface of earth is given by •
O
GM
g=
R2
If ρ be density of earth, then,
4 Fig. 7.4: Acceleration due to
M = 3 πR3ρ gravity at a depth x
4
∴ g = 3 πρGR … (7.9)
When the body is at a depth x below the surface of earth, the acceleration g' on the body is due to the
sphere of radius (R – x). If M' be the mass of this sphere, then,
GM'
g' =
(R – x)2
4
But M' = 3 π(R – x)3ρ
4 π(R – x)3 ρG
∴ g' = 3
(R – x)2
4
g' = 3 πρG (R – x) … (7.10)

4
πρG (R – x)
g' 3
g = 4
3 πρGR
g' R ⎛ x⎞ ⎛ x⎞
g = R ⎝1 – R⎠ = ⎝1 – R⎠
g' ⎛ x⎞
∴ g = ⎝1 – R ⎠ ≤ 1
So, g' ≤ g
Case I: On the surface of the earth, x = 0, so g' = g.
Case II: Inside the surface of the earth, x > 0, so g' < g.
Thus, value of 'g' decreases as we move towards the centre of earth.

The variation of 'g' with distance 'r' from the centre of earth is as shown in Fig. 7.5. It is seen that g
varies linearly with distance from centre of earth, attains maximum value at the surface and then
decreases following inverse square law away from the surface of earth.
Notes: Value of g:
(i) The earth can be imagined to be a sphere made up of large number of concentric spherical shells with the
smallest one at the centre and the largest one at its surface. A point outside the earth is obviously outside of
the shells. Thus, all the shells exert a gravitational force at the point outside just as if the masses are
concentrated at their common centre. The total mass of all the shells combined is just the mass of the earth.
Hence, at the point outside the earth, the gravitational force is just as if the entire mass of the earth is
concentrated at its centre.
(ii) As we go towards the centre of the earth, value of g decreases gradually. At the centre, x = R, so, g = 0. It
means the weight of a body becomes zero (i.e., weightlessness).
(iii) Lasers have made it possible to measure distance upto 10–19 m. Again by electronic devices, time can be
measured accurately upto 10–9 s. Modern methods have made it possible to measure g with an accuracy of 1
part in 108.
EXAMPLE 2: At what distance above the surface of the earth is acceleration due to gravity 0.980 ms–2, if the acceleration
due to gravity at the surface has magnitude 9.80 ms–2?
SOLUTION
Given, 2h g' 0.98 1
1 – R = g = 9.8 = 10
g' = 0.980 ms–2
g = 9.80 ms–2 2h 1 9
∴ R = 1 – 10 = 10
h =?
R = 6380 km = 6380 × 103 m 9R 9 × 6380 × 103
h = 20 = 20
We have,
2h = 2.87 × 10 6m
g' = g⎛1 – R ⎞
⎝ ⎠
 Check Point:
(a) Find the value of g at a height of 400 km above the surface of the earth. Given radius of earth,
R = 6400 km and value of g at the surface of the earth = 9.8 ms–2. Ans: 8.58 ms–2
(b) Find the percentage decrease in weight of body when taken 16 km of below the surface of the earth.
Take radius of the earth as 6400 km. Ans: 0.25%
7.9 Variation of g due to Rotation of Earth

Let us consider a body of mass 'm' at position P on the surface of
the Earth as shown in Fig. 7.6. The angle ∠POE made by the line
joining the position of object to centre of earth with equatorial line
is called latitude angle. Let this angle be φ.
i.e., ∠ POE = φ
As the Earth rotates, the body also rotates about ZZ' axis tracing a
circle of radius r = PQ as shown in Fig. 7.6.
Clearly, PQ = r = R cos φ where R is radius of Earth. If g is the
acceleration due to gravity in the absence of rotational motion of
earth, then weight 'mg' of body acts along PO towards the centre of
¤
earth. Let it be represented by vector PA . As the earth rotates, some
part of mg is used up in providing the centripetal force to the body
and hence its weight is decreased.

Let centrifugal force Fc, (Fictitious force) on the body due to rotational motion of earth acts along the
radius of circular path and in outward direction. The magnitude of this force is given by,
Fc = mrω2
= mR cos φ ω2
¤
Let the force be represented by vector PA as in Fig. 7.6. If g' be the value of acceleration due to
¤
gravity due to rotation of earth, then the apparent weight mg' is given by the resultant of PA and
¤ ¤
PO i.e., by PB .
To find resultant, complete the parallelogram PABO and then apply parallelogram law of vector
addition,
PB2 = PO2 + PA2 + 2PO × PA cos (180 – φ)
or, m2g'2 = (mg)2 + (mRω2 cos φ)2 + 2 × mg × mRω2 cos φ × (– cos φ)
R2 ω4 cos2 φ 2R ω2 cos2 φ⎤1/2
or, g' = g ⎡1 + –
⎣ g2 g ⎦
Rω2 R2ω4
Since g is a small quantity, the terms containing the factor g2 can be neglected.
1
2Rω cos φ⎤2
g' = g ⎡1 –
2 2
So,
⎣ g ⎦
1 2Rω2 cos2 φ
g' = g ⎡1 – 2 × + higher order terms⎤ [... Using binomial expression]
⎣ g ⎦
2 R ω2 cos2 φ
Higher powers of g can be neglected and hence,
R ω2 cos2 φ⎤
g' = g ⎡1 –
⎣ g ⎦
∴ g' = g – Rω2 cos2 φ … (7.11)
At the equator, φ = 0, so, cos 0° = 1.
∴ ge = g – Rω2
Therefore, acceleration due to gravity is minimum at equator.
At the poles, φ = 90°, and cos 90° = 0
∴ gp = g
There is no effect on the acceleration due to gravity at the poles due to the rotation of the earth. It
concludes that, acceleration due to gravity decreases due to the effect of latitude towards equator.
EXAMPLE 3: The earth is elliptical with polar and equatorial radii equal to 6.357 × 106 m and 6.378 × 106 m respectively.
Determine the difference, Δg values of the acceleration of free fall at a pole and at the equator due to this difference in radii.
24
(Mass of earth = 5.957 × 10 kg, Gravitational constant, G = 6.670 × 10–11 Nm2kg–2).
SOLUTION
Given,
Polar radius of earth, Rp = 6.357 × 106 m
Equatorial radius of earth, Req = 6.378 × 106 m
Mass of earth, M = 5.957 × 1024 kg
G = 6.67 × 10–11 N m2 kg–2

Acceleration of free fall at the pole,
GM
gp = R 2
p
6.67 × 10–11 × 5.957 × 1024

= (6.357 × 106)2 = 9.83 ms–2
Acceleration of free fall at the equator,
GM 6.67 × 10–11 × 5.957 × 1024
geq = R 2 = (6.378 × 106)2 = 9.77 ms–2
eq
∴ Δg = gp – geq = 9.83 – 9.77 = 0.06 ms–2

∴ Difference in the values of acceleration of free fall at the pole and at the equator is 0.06 m s–2.
 Check Point: Assuming whole variation in the weight of a body when taken from the equator to the
pole of the earth. Find the difference in weight of 1 kg as measured at equator and at pole. Given,
radius of the earth is 6.4 × 106 m and time period of rotation of the earth about its axis is 24 h.
Ans: 3.38 × 10–2 N
7.10 Centre of Mass

The entire mass of a body can be considered to act at a single
P
point, known as the centre of mass of the body. If the body is
symmetrical and of uniform composition, the centre of (i)
Q
mass is at the geometric centre of the body.
If a single force acts on a body and the line of action of the
force passes through the centre of mass, the body will have
a linear acceleration but no angular acceleration. Thus, a (ii)
body which is accelerated from rest by such a force will
move in a straight line without any rotation. As an example Fig. 7.7: (i) Linear equilibrium
(ii) Rotational equilibrium
of this, imagine a stationary hammer resting on a
frictionless surface. If forces such as P and Q are applied to the hammer (Fig. 7.7 (i) and (ii)), it will
move without rotation as shown.
However, if a force such as R (as in Fig 7.8) is
applied to the hammer, its subsequent motion
involves rotation because R does not act through
centre of mass. Note that even when the body is R
rotating, the centre of mass moves along a straight
Fig 7.8: Rotation of centre of mass
line i.e., rotation taken place about centre of mass.
Thus, in the absence of an actual axis of rotation, a body behaves as if an axis has been fixed as its
centre of mass.
The motion of centre of mass of a body can't be affected by
internal forces.
(i) Centre of mass of two body system: Consider a system m1 • m2
CM
of two bodies A and B of masses m1 and m2. Let r1 and r2
be their distance at any instant with respect to the centre r1 r2
of mass (CM) of two bodies as shown in Fig. 7.9. Then in
Fig 7.9: Centre of mass between two bodies
stable equilibrium,
m1r1 = m2r2
m1
∴ r2 = ⎛m ⎞ r1
⎝ 2⎠
m2
Also, r1 = ⎛m ⎞ r2
⎝ 1⎠
This concludes that centre of mass lies nearer to the heavier body. As an example, the CM of
sun-earth system lies nearer to the sun.
(ii) Centre of mass for n–particular system: Consider a system of 'n' particles having masses m1,
m2, m3, … … … , mn and position having co-ordinates (x1, y1), (x2, y2), (x3, y3), … … … , (xn, yn)
relative to the origin O as shown in Fig. 8.6.
Let F1, F2, F3, … , Fn be the net external forces acting along x-axis on mass m1, m2, m3, … , mn and a1,
a2, a3, … , an respectively be the acceleration produced along the same axis. Total force acting on the
body along x-axis is therefore,
ΣFx = F1 + F2 + F3 + . . . + Fn = m1 a1 + m2 a2 + m3 a3 + . . . + mnan.
d2x1 d2x2 d2x3 d2xn
or, ΣFx = m1 dt2 + m2 dt2 + m3 dt2 + . . . + mn dt2
d2
or, ΣFx = dt2 (m1 x1 + m2 x2 + m3 x3 + . . . + mnxn) y
yi
ΣFx d2 ⎛m1x1 + m2x2 + m3x3 + . . . + mnxn⎞ y1
•mi
or, = m1
Σm dt2 ⎝ m1 + m2 + m3 + . . . + mn ⎠ •
y c.m.
From this relation, we can say that, x-coordinate of • m2
y2
centre of mass is •
m1x1 + m2x2 + m3x3 + . . . Σmx
x= m1 + m2 + m3 + . . . = M x1 x xi x2
Similarly, its y-coordinate is

x
m1y1 + m2y2 + m3y3 + . . . Σmy O
y= m1 + m2 + m3 + . . . = M Fig. 7.10: Calculation of centre of mass of a
'n' particle system.
So, the co-ordinate of centre of mass (x, y) is
m1x1 + m2x2 + m3x3 + . . . m1y1 + m2y2 + m3y3 + . . .⎤
RCM = ⎡ ‚
⎣ M M ⎦
where, M = m1 + m2 + m3 + . . . + mn, is the total mass of the body.
If r1 and ¤
¤ r2 are two position vectors of two particles of masses m1 and m2, then the position vector of
¤
¤ m1 ¤r1 + m2 r2
their centre of mass is given by, R CM = m + m . For a system of n-particles, the centre of mass
1 2
¤ ¤
¤ m1 ¤
r1 + m2 r2 + … + mn r n
is given by R CM = m1 + m2 + … + mn .
¤ ¤
¤ m1v1 + m2 v2
The velocity of the centre of mass of a two-particle system is given by v CM = m1 + m2 .
EXAMPLE 4: Three masses 1 kg, 2 kg, and 3 kg are located at the corners of an equilateral triangle of
side 1 m. Locate the centre of mass of the system.
SOLUTION
Given,
Suppose the equilateral triangle lies in the XY-plane with mass 1 kg at the origin.
Let P(x, y) be the coordinates of CM.
Here,
Mass of the first body (m1) = 1 kg
Mass of the second body (m2) = 2 kg

Mass of the third body (m3) = 3 kg
Here, AB = OB2 – OA2 = 12 –(0.5)2 = 0.87 m.
(i) Along X-component,
x1 = 0, x2 = 1 m, x3 = 0.5 m
We know, B m3
m1x1 + m2x2 + m3x3 1 × 0 + 2 × 1 + 3 × 0.5
X = m1 + m2 + m3 = 1+2+3 1 1
∴ X = 0.58 m.
(ii) Along Y-component,
O A C
y1 = 0, y2 = 0, y3 = 0.87 m m1 m2
m1y1 + m2y2 + m3y3 1 × 0 + 2 × 0 + 3 × 0.87
Y = m1 + m2 + m3 = 1+2+3
∴ Y = 0.44 m.
Therefore, the coordinates of centre of mass are (0.58 m, 0.44 m).
 Check Point: Two meteorites in free space have masses of 10 kg and 15 kg respectively. Find the
position of their center of mass if they are 12 m apart. Ans: 7.2 m from 10 kg mass
7.11 Centre of Gravity

Any object can be considered as an assembly of small particles each having
•
certain mass. Each particle is attracted by the earth towards its centre. As a CG •
•
result, weight of each particle is directed downward towards the centre of W1 • •
earth. The various weights of these particles can be considered to be the
W3
parallel forces acting downwards. So the resultant of these forces (weight)
W2 W4
can be obtained by simply adding the weights of individual particles.
The centre of gravity of a body is then defined as a point through which resultant W
of the weights of all the particles of the body passes.
Fig. 7.11: The resultant weight
Simply, it is defined as a single of the particles passes
vertically through the C.G. of
point at which the entire weight
th b d
of the body can be considered to act. It depends upon the
shape and size of the body but is independent of its
position as shown in Fig. 7.11. For bodies having regular
geometric shapes, the centre of gravity lies at their
geometric centres. The centre of gravity may or may not lie
within matter of the body. For example, the C.G. of a
circular ring, lies at its centre where there is no matter of
Deudhunga Dolakha- Center of gravity lie within
ring whereas C.G. of a disc lies at its geometric centre
the base that gives the stability of the structure
where there is matter of disc.
Conditions for a body to be is stable equilibrium:
(i) The C.G. of body should lie as low as possible.
(ii) The base of body should be as large as possible.
(iii) The C.G. must lie within the base of the body on displaced position.

Differences between centre of gravity and centre of mass
Centre of gravity Centre of mass
1. The centre of gravity is the point at 1. Centre of mass is the point at which the
which the whole weight of the body is whole mass of the body is assumed to be
supported to be acting. concentrated.
2. A weight distribution of the body 2. The mass distribution around the centre
around centre of gravity is uniform. of mass is uniform.
That is if we pass an axis through the
centre of gravity, then the weight acting
to the left is equal to the weight acting to
the right.
3. The centre of gravity changes with the 3. It remains unchanged with the change in
change in the force of gravity. the gravitational field.
EXAMPLE 5: Two people carry a heavy electric motor by placing it on a light board 2.00 m long. One
person lifts one end with a force of 400 N, and the other lifts the opposite end with a force of 600 N.
What is the weight of the motor and where along the board is its centre of gravity located?
SOLUTION
Given,
l = 2.00 m F1 = 400 N F2 = 600 N
W=? Point of CG located = ? x
∴ The weight is equal to the sum of lifting force. C.G.
So, W = F1 + F2
= 400 + 600 = 1000 N
Let x be the point of C.G.
F1 F2
from F1, then for equilibrium,
F1 × x = F2 (l – x)
or 400 × x = 600 (2.00 – x)
∴ x = 1.20 m
 Check Point: A uniform meter scale supported at the 40 cm mark is in equilibrium when a 50 g mass
is suspended at the 10 cm mark of the scale. Find the mass of the scale. Ans: 150 g
7.12 Gravitational Field

When a material particle is placed in space, it modifies the space in some manner. So, when another
material particle is brought within this space, it experiences the gravitational force of attraction due
to former material particle. The space around any material particle over which its gravitational influence can
be felt is called gravitational field. It is simply the space around a mass over which it exerts gravitational
force on other masses.
7.13 Gravitational Field Intensity

Gravitational field intensity at a point in the gravitational field is defined as the force experienced by a unit test
mass placed at that point. The unit test mass is taken considering the fact that the unit mass itself does

not produce any change in the field of body. It is a vector quantity which is directed towards the
F
particle producing the field. It is denoted by E i.e., E = m.
Let us consider a test mass 'm' is at point P in the gravitational

field of earth at a distance 'r' away from its centre as shown in
Fig. 7.12. If M and R be the mass and radius of earth respectively,
then from Newton's law of gravitation, the force on test mass m
is given by,
GMm
F= r2 … (7.12)
By definition of gravitational field intensity,

F
E=m … (7.13)
Therefore, from equations (7.12) and (7.13), we get,

GM
∴ E = r2 … (7.14)
It is seen from above equation that, intensity of the gravitational field decreases as the distance r
GM
increases and becomes zero at infinity. Here, r2 is equal to acceleration due to gravity at point P.
Therefore, intensity of gravitational field at a point is equal to the acceleration produced on the point
mass at that point due to gravity.
If the test mass lies on the surface of earth, then
r=R
GM
and E = 2 = g
R
where, g is the acceleration due to gravity at surface of earth.
We know,
G = 6.67 × 10–11 Nm2 kg–2
R = 6.4 × 106 m
M = 6.0 × 1024 kg
6.67 × 10–11 × 6.4 × 106
∴ E= Nkg–1 ≈ 9.8 Nkg–1
6.0 × 1024
7.14 Gravitational Potential and Gravitational Potential Energy

The gravitational potential energy at a point in the gravitational field is defined as the amount of work done
while bringing a body from infinity to that point with constant velocity. It is the energy associated with a
body due to its position in the gravitational field of another body. It is a scalar quantity and is
denoted by U.
The gravitational potential (V) is the energy associated with a unit mass and is defined as the amount of work
done in taking a unit mass from infinity to any specified position in the gravitational field of another body.
Simply, it is the gravitational potential energy per unit mass.
U
i.e., V=m

7.15 Expression for Gravitational Potential Energy

Let a body of mass 'm' initially at infinity is at point A, at any instant of time, in the gravitational
field of earth as shown in Fig. 7.13. Let OA = x be its distance from the centre of earth.
Considering the earth to be a uniform sphere of radius R and mass M, the gravitational force on mass
'm' at point A due to earth is given by
GMm
∴ F= x2 … (7.15)
Let the mass moves through an infinitesimal distance dx from point A to B as shown in Fig. 7.13.
Then, small work done by the force is given by,
dW = F dx
GMm
∴ dW = x2 dx (using equation (7.15) … (7.16)
Let C be the point at a distance 'r' away from the

centre of earth where gravitational potential
energy is to be determined.
Total work done in bringing the mass 'm' from
infinity to point C is obtained by integrating
equation (7.16) between the limits ∞ to r.
r r GMm
i.e., W = ∫ dW = ∫ x2 dx
∞ ∞
r r
–1 –1 1 GMm
= GMm ∫ x–2 dx = GMm ⎡ x ⎤ = GMm ⎡ r + ⎤ = – r
∞ ⎣ ⎦ ∞
⎣ ∞ ⎦
GMm
∴ U =W=– r … (7.17)
The negative sign indicates that the gravitational force is always attractive. This equation reveals that
body's gravitational potential energy increases as it moves away from earth and attains maximum
value of 0 at r = ∞.
Further,
U GMm
Gravitational potential (V) = m = – rm
– GM
∴ V= r … (7.18)
This is the required expression for gravitational potential.
Relation between 'E' and 'V'

If there are two points A and B lying very near to each other at a distance 'dr' in a gravitational field
'E' acting in the direction indicated, then workdone in moving a unit mass from B to A along the
direction of the force = E dr (since for unit mass F = E)
If dV is the difference of gravitational potential between the point A and B, then,
VA − VB = dV = − Edr
dV A B
∴ E = − dr F dr
Hence the gravitational field intensity at any point is equal to the negative gradient of gravitational
potential.
EXAMPLE 6: Ten days after it was launched towards Mars in December 1998, the Mars Climate Orbiter spacecraft (mass
629 kg) was 2.87 × 106 km from the earth and traveling at 1.20 × 104 km/h relative to the earth. At this time, what were (a) the
spacecraft's kinetic energy relative to the earth and (b) the potential energy of the earth-spacecraft system?
SOLUTION
Given,
The mass of spacecraft (m) = 629 kg
Radius of path (r) = 2.87 × 106 km
Speed (v) = 1.20 × 104 km h-1 = 3333.33 ms–1
i. Kinetic energy with respect to earth
1 1
Ek = 2 mv2 = 2 × 629 × (3333.33)2 = 3.5 × 109 J
GMm
ii. Potential energy, EP = – r
6.0 × 1024 × 629
= – 6.67 × 10–11 × 2.87 × 109 = – 8.8 × 107 J
7.16 Escape Velocity

When a body is projected upwards, it returns to the earth due to gravitational pull on it. The
gravitational pull retards the velocity so that it decreases continuously till it reaches the maximum
height.
If we project the object with greater velocity, it will attain greater height and again the phenomenon
is same. However, if the body can be given a velocity which can take it beyond the gravitational field
of earth, it will never return and escape into space. This velocity is called escape velocity. Thus, the
minimum velocity with which a body must be projected upwards from the surface of earth to overcome its
gravitational pull so that it can escape into space is called escape velocity.
Consider the escape velocity of a small mass near a planet. To escape from a position at a distance 'r'
–GMm
from the planet's centre, the potential energy of small mass must increase from r to 0.
If projected, the small mass will escape if its initial kinetic energy is sufficient to increase its potential
GMm 1
energy by r . Therefore, for speed of projection 'v', it will escape if 2 mv2 is greater than or equal
GMm
to r
1 GMm
i.e., 2 mv2 ≥ r
2GM
or, v2 ≥ r
The minimum velocity to escape into space from the gravitational field is the escape velocity and is
thus given by,
2GM
escape velocity (ve) = r …(7.19)
GM
Since the gravitational field strength 'g' at the point of projection equals to r2 ,
2GM
r = 2gr

∴ ve = 2gr … (7.20)
If the object is projected from the surface of the earth, r = R (radius of the earth), then
ve = 2gR = 2 × 9.8 × 6.4 × 106 = 11.2 km/s.
Thus, the velocity of escape from the gravitational field of earth is 11.2 km/s.
7.17 Weightlessness
The weight measured by a weighing machine is the reaction of weighing machine on the body. If the
weighing machine is stationary with respect to earth, it measures the true weight of the body and is
known as static weight. However, the reaction force of machine on body may change when it is not
stationary. In such situations, the weight measured by the machine is called apparent weight. The
apparent weight of the body can sometimes be zero. This state in which the apparent weight of the
body is zero is called weightlessness. We know, the weight of a body is given by W = mg. Since the
mass can't be zero, the body will be truly weightless if g = 0. The value of g is zero in outer-space, so
a body feels truly weightlessness in the outer space.
The state of weightlessness can be observed in different situations:
(i) When a body falls freely under the effect of gravity, the body experiences weightlessness. Let us
consider, a man is on the lift. Suppose the lift is suddenly detached from the string holding it,
then lift moves downwards with acceleration a = g. Hence, apparent weight of man
R = m (g – a) = m (g – g) = 0
Hence a person in freely falling lift feels weightlessness.
(ii) Similarly, when the astronaut and spaceship are continuously in the state of free fall towards
earth, both of them will fall with same acceleration 'g' and hence astronaut exerts no force on
spaceship and there is no reaction of spaceship on the astronaut. So, he feels weightlessness.
EXAMPLE 7: How do you account for the sensation of weightlessness experienced by the occupant of a space capsule
(a) in a circular orbit round the earth, (b) in outer space? Give one other instance in which an object would be weightless.
SOLUTION
(a) We know gravitational pull of attraction provides centripetal force.
mv2 GMm v2 GM
r = r2 ⇒ r = r2
a=g
Then in satellite m1g – R = m1a
R = m1(g – a)
R = m1 (g – a)
R=0
Thus, the reaction of floor on man is zero and hence he feel weightlessness.
(b) In outer space g = 0 and hence body feels weightlessness when object is falling freely under
gravity we feel weightlessness.
7.18 Satellite and Principle of Launching of Satellite

Anybody which orbits around a planet is called satellite. Satellites may be natural or artificial.
Natural satellites are the heavenly bodies orbiting a planet and are relatively smaller than planet. For
example, moon is a natural satellite of Earth. The moon revolves round the earth in a circular orbit of
radius 3.84 × 105 km and it takes 27.3 days to move once round the earth. On the other hand, a man
made spacecraft that orbits earth, moon, sun, etc., is called artificial satellites. Artificial satellites are

used for various purposes such as communication, weather study, remote sensing, space flights,
study the intensity of cosmic radiation etc. Some of the artificial satellites are Sputnik 1, Apollo 11
etc.
Suppose artificial satellites are projected from a several kilometer high tower on the surface of the
Earth imparting it a horizontal velocity such that it escapes the curvature of earth. Let us see an
illustration. If we throw a stone from the top of the tower it may hit
the surface at a point A (say) as on Fig. 7.14. If the stone is projected O
with a greater horizontal velocity, then it will hit the surface at a
farther distance B (say). Now, if velocity of projection is gradually
increased, the horizontal range also increases i.e., the stone will hit the
A
surface at farther places like C. When the velocity of projection is high
Earth B
enough, the stone will not strike the surface rather it escapes the
curvature of Earth. After then, the stone is continuously attempting to
fall toward the Earth's surface but each time it will be missing it i.e., C
the stone is in the state of free fall around the earth rather than into it.
And hence the stone follows a stable circular path as shown in Fig.
7.14 and becomes satellite. This velocity with which an object must be Fig. 7.14: Principle of
launching satellite
projected to put it in an orbit is called orbital velocity and is simply
the velocity of satellite in its orbit.
Since, this is a very high velocity, a satellite may practically burn due to atmospheric friction. So, for
launching a satellite, a rocket is used. A satellite is taken to a suitable height by using rocket and then
given a suitable horizontal velocity so as to put it in the circular path around the earth.
Expression for Orbital Velocity

Let a satellite of mass 'm' is orbiting in a circular orbit of radius 'r' with orbital velocity vo. The
necessary centripetal force required to keep the satellite in circular orbit is provided by the
gravitational attraction between earth and satellite. vo
GMm mvo2
i.e., r2 = r Satellite
E
where, G = Universal gravitational constant
M = Mass of Earth
Fig. 7.15: Satellite orbiting
GM
or, vo = r
around the earth
If 'h' be the height of satellite from the surface of earth then, r = R + h where R = radius of Earth.
GM
∴ vo = R+h … (7.21)
This is the orbital speed of satellite and is independent of the mass of satellite but depends only upon
its height 'h' above the surface. Greater the height, smaller is the orbital speed and vice versa.
GM
But, we know, g = R2 is the acceleration due to gravity on earth's surface,
So, GM = gR2
∴ Equation (7.21) can be written as,
gR2 g
vo = R+h =R R+h

When, h << R i.e. satellite revolves in an orbit very close to earth surface, then R + h ≈ R. So,
GM
vo = R
∴ vo = gR
But, we know, g = 9.8 m/s2
R = 6.4 × 106 m
∴ vo = 8 × 103 m/s = 8 km/s
Time period: The total time taken by a satellite to revolve round the orbit is called its time period (T).
We know,
2π
T=
ω
2πr
or, T= v [... vo = rω]
o
2π(R + h)
∴ T= vo … (7.22)
Circumference of orbit
T= Orbital velocity
Further, using equation (7.21) in equation (7.22), we get,
2π(R + h) (R + h)3
T= = 2π GM
GM
R+h
(R + h)3 GM
or, T = 2π R2g [... g = R2 on surface of Earth]
2π (R + h)3
∴ T= R g
Thus, the greater is the height of satellite the greater will be time period and vice versa.
Height of satellite above Earth surface:
We know,
2π (R + h)3
T= R g
Squaring on both sides,
4π2 (R + h)3
T2 = R2 g
g R 2 T2
or, (R + h)3 =
4π2
g R2 T2⎞1/3
or, R+h=⎛
⎝ 4π2 ⎠
g R2 T2⎞1/3
∴ h=⎛ –R
⎝ 4π2 ⎠
Note: Orbital velocity and time period are independent of the mass of satellite.

EXAMPLE 8: Find the period of revolution of a satellite moving in a circular orbit round the earth at a height of 3.6 × 106 m
above the earth's surface. Assume the earth is a uniform sphere of radius 6.4 × 106 m, the earth's mass is 6 × 1024 kg and G
is 6.7 × 10–11 Nm2kg–2.
SOLUTION
Given, GMm mv2
i.e. r2 = r
Height of satellite above the surface of
earth, GM
h = 3.6 × 106 m or v = r
Radius of earth, R = 6.4 × 106 m If T is the period of revolution of a
If r be the radius of orbit of satellite. satellite moving in a circular orbit round
Then, the earth, then,
r =R+h
2π r 2π r r
= 6.4 × 106 + 3.6 × 106 T = v = = 2π r GM
GM
= 10 × 106 m = 1.0 × 107 m
r
Mass of earth, M = 6 × 1024 kg
G = 6.7 × 10–11 Nm2kg–2 107
= 2 π × 1.0 × 107 6.7 × 10–11× 6 × 1024
For the satellite to be in the circular orbit,
gravitational force = centripetal force = 9910 s.
 Check Point: An artificial satellite circles around the earth at distance of 3400 km. Calculate the
period of revolution and orbital velocity. Given the radius of earth = 6400 km and g = 9.8 ms–2.
Ans: 9622 s, 6.415 kms–1
EXAMPLE 9: A proposed communication satellite would revolve round the earth in a circular orbit in the equatorial plane,
at a height of 35880 km above the earth's surface. Find the period of revolution of the satellite in hours, and comment on
the result. Radius of earth = 6370 km, mass of earth = 5.98 × 1024 kg, constant of gravitation = 6.66 × 10–11 Nm2kg–2).
SOLUTION
Given,
Height (h) = 35880 km, Radius of the earth (R) = 6370 km
∴ Radius of orbit of satellite, r = R + h
= (6370 + 35880) × 103 m = 42250 × 103 m = 4.225 × 107 m
Mass of the earth, M = 5.98 × 1024 kg
For the satellite to revolve round the earth in a circular orbit, the gravitational force must be
equal to the centripetal force
GMm mv2
i.e., r2 = r
GM GM
or, v2 = r or, v = r
If T is the period of revolution of the satellite, then,
2πr 2π 2π 2πr⎤
T = v ⎡T =
⎣ ω = v/r = v ⎦
r 22 4.225 × 107
= 2πrGM = 2 × 7 × 4.225 × 107
6.66 × 10–11 × 5.98 × 1024
= 86498.18 s = 24 h
∴ The required time period of revolution of satellite is 24 hours.
Geostationary Satellite
These are the satellites which seem to be at rest when viewed from earth. Actually, these satellites are
not at rest but the time period of revolution of such bodies about earth is equal to the time period of
rotation of earth in its axis. The orbits of such satellites are called parking orbits.
The time period of a satellite is
2π (R + h)3
T= R g
which gives
⎧T2 R2 ⎫1/3
h = ⎨ 2 × g⎬ – R
⎩ 4π ⎭
We have, R = 6.4 × 106 m, T = 24 × 3600 s and g = 9.8 ms–2
⎧(24 × 3600)2 × (6.4 × 106)2 ⎫1/3
h=⎨ × 9.8⎬ – 6.4 × 106 = 3.6 × 107 m = 36,000 km
⎩ 4π 2
⎭
Radius of the parking orbit, r = R + h = 6.4 × 103 km + 36,000 km = 42,400 km
Speed of Satellite: The speed of satellite at the parking orbit is given by
2πr
vo = T
As, T = 24 × 3600 s, and r = 36000 + 6400 = 42,400 km

2π × 42400
∴ vo = 24 × 3600 = 3.1 × 103 m/s = 3.1 km/s
Notes:
(i) The first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, was launched by Russia on October 4, 1957.
(ii) For a simple analysis of the motion of a satellite, we make the following two assumptions:
(a) We consider the gravitational force only between the satellite and the earth. The disturbing effect of the
gravitational force of other bodies is ignored.
(b) The centre of the mass of the earth-satellite system is at the centre of the earth.
(iii) Inside an orbiting satellite, one can float in a fairy tale fashion. One can overturn a cup of water without spilling it
to the floor and can easily lift even an elephant.
7.19 Total Energy of Satellite The variation of kinetic energy, potential

energy and total energy with distance r for a
A satellite revolving in its orbit has potential energy due to
satellite moving in a circular path.
its position in gravitational field and kinetic energy due to
its motion. So, total energy of a satellite is t
he sum of kinetic energy and potential energy.
Total Energy of Satellite = K.E. + P.E.
1 –GMm
= 2 mvo2 + ⎛ r ⎞
⎝ ⎠
1 GM GMm ⎡. . GM⎤
=2m r – r
⎣ . vo = r ⎦
1 GMm
Total Energy = – 2 r … (7.22)
Ek = kinetic energy Ep = potential energy
The negative sign shows that energy must be given to the Et = total energy
satellite in order to send it to infinity.
EXAMPLE 10: Taking the earth to be uniform sphere of radius 6400 km and the value of g at the surface to be 10 m s–2,
calculate the total energy needed to raise a satellite of mass 2000 kg to a height of 800 km above the ground and to set it into
circular orbit at that altitude.
SOLUTION
Given, g = 10 ms–2
Radius of the earth, R = 6400 km Mass of the satellite (m) = 2000 kg
= 6.4 × 106 m Height of satellite, h = 800 km = 8 × 105 m

Radius of the orbit of satellite, r = R + h ⎡... GM ⎤
1 1 ⎢ g = R2 ⎥
= 6.4 × 106 + 8 × 105 = 7.2 × 106 m =g R2 m ⎡R – 2r⎤
⎣ ⎦ ⎢. ⎥
Total energy needed to raise the satellite to a ⎣. . GM = g R2⎦
desired height into a circular orbit is R2
= mg ⎡R – 2r ⎤
E = Increase in P.E. + K.E. ⎣ ⎦
GM GM 1
= m ⎡– r – ⎛– R ⎞⎤ + 2 mv2
(6.4 × 106)2
⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦ = 2000 × 10 ⎡6.4 × 106 – 2 × 7.2 × 106⎤
⎣ ⎦
1 1 1 GM
= GMm ⎡R – r ⎤ + 2 m r = 7.1 × 1010 J
⎣ ⎦
1 1 1
= GMm ⎡R – r + 2r⎤
⎣ ⎦
 Check Point: Calculate the energy required to move an earth satellite of mass 103 kg from a circular
orbit of radius 2R to that of radius 3R. Given mass of the earth M = 5.98 × 1024 kg and radius of the
earth, R = 6.37 × 1036 m. Ans: 5.02 × 109 J
7.20 Global Positioning System (GPS)

Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space based satellite navigation system that provides location
and time information on or near the earth. It works in all weather conditions anywhere in the world
24 hours a day. This project was started by the United States (US) Department of Defence in 1973 for
the military purpose. The US government created the system and now maintains it and makes it
freely accessible to everyone with a GPS receiver. GPS become fully functional in US by 1995 and
was used in cars in 1996. The highest quality signals were only used for military purpose until may
2000, and then was made accessible for the civilians. It has also been in progress for quality signals
and accuracy of location. Besides US GPS system, there are many other navigination satellite system
from different countries across the world, like Russian, Indian, Chinese, and European equivalent
systems. However, the most popular and commonly used system is Navstar, the USA system.
In order to track the location and provide time information, there are many satellites orbting the earth. 24
of them are core satellites and the rest serve as an emergency replacement. Each satellite transmits
information about its position and the current time at regular intervals. These signals, travelling at speed
of light, are intercepted by our GPS receiver (like cell phones, laptops etc.). These satellites are set up in
such a way that from almost anywhere on the surface of the earth, we should have a direct line of sight of
at least four GPS satellites.
Trilateration: Interesting mathematical process

Trilateration is a mathematical process from
which GPS receivers calculate the position in the
space. Trilateration can be either two dimension
(2-D) or three dimension (3-D). It is useful to
locate the object in spherical world (3-D world).
In this process, the first satellite calculates our
distance R1 at a point on the surface of the
sphere. The second satellite calculates our
distance R2, so that we can be on a circle formed
by the intersection of two spheres. It is to be
noted that intersection of two spheres gives a
circle. Now, with the help of third satellite, you
will be able to narrow down our location to just
two points. Here the intersection for a circle and
a sphere gives two points (i.e., satellites can
Fig. 7.16: Trilateration scheme of three satellites S1, S2 and S3
show you at two different points). Using the
earth as the fourth surface, we find the correct point, the three special coordinates on the earth's surface as
shown in Fig. 7.16.
Distance measurement: All satellites are equipped with a very accurate atomic clocks. The satellite
sends an intermittent radio signal down to earth. This radio signal contains the exact time and the
position of the satellite. Since radio waves travel at the speed of light, our receiver receives signal
after a short time duration. Calculating the difference between the sent and received time, and
multiplying it by the speed of light, we will be able to find out the distance between our location and
the satellites. Since the satellite has already sent us its coordinates, we can easily build a sphere
around the satellites center point, and find out our position as explained before. One thing to note
here is that, the time measurement has to be very accurate. Even an error of microseconds will give a
error in a range of kilometers, since the speed of light is so huge.
Time correction: The receiver clocks in our mobiles, laptops, are not accurate, compared to atomic
clocks. This can be one of the cause of erroneous result in location findings. This problem can be
resolved as the following process. The time offset in the receiver with all three of the satellites is the
same. Since all the satellites keep the same time, the time offset value of our device becomes the new
unknown parameter in the calculation. It means, apart from the three special coordinates, we have to
resolve the time offset value (x, y, z Δtoffset) of our receiver as well. We need an extra satellite
measurement to solve the fourth unknown, and that is why we need four satellites to measure the
location. This way the need of atomic clock in our electric devices can be avoided.
Even with all these advanced technologies, the GPS system will not give us the right location. This
happens due to the fact that time is not absolute, as explained by Einstein’s theory of relativity.
According to this theory, a fast moving clock will tick slower, which are moving at speed of 14000
km/h will slow down by 7 μs every day. At an altitude of 20,000 km above the earth the satellites
experiences one quarter of the earth gravity (weak gravitational field). Thus, according to the general
theory of relativity, the clock will tick slightly faster. Due to this, a net 38 μs offset is created in the
atomic clock. To compensate for this, a theory of relativity equation is integrated into the computer
chips, and adjusts the rates of the atomic clock. Without the application of theory of relativity, the
GPS would have produced an error of 10 km everyday.
Tips for MCQs
Quantitative Tips
1. The gravitational force between two masses m1 and m2 when separated with distance 'r' is
m1m2
determined from the formula, F = G r2 .
GM
2. The acceleration due to gravity on the earth’s surface is g = 2 , where G is universal gravitational
R
constant, M is mass of the earth and R is the radius of the earth. Hence, the mass of the earth is
gR2
calculated from, M = G .
3g
3. The mean density of the earth is determined from, ρ = . This formula can be applied to any
4πGR
heavenly body.
2h
4. Variation of acceleration due to gravity g with altitude is, g' = g ⎛1 – R ⎞ , for h<<R, where h is the
⎝ ⎠
R
height of experimental point from the surface of the earth. At h = 2 , g' = 0.

5. Variation of acceleration due to gravity g with depth from the surface of the earth is,
x
g' = g ⎛1 – R⎞ , where x is the depth of observation point from the surface of the earth. At the center of
⎝ ⎠
the earth, the value of g' is zero, i.e., at x = R, g' = 0.
Rω2cos2 φ⎞
6. Variation of acceleration due to gravity g due to the rotation of the earth is, g' = g ⎛1 –
⎝ g ⎠
Rω2
(i) At the equator, φ = 0°, cos 0° = 1, g' = g ⎛1 – g ⎞ = g – Rω2. Therefore, acceleration due to
⎝ ⎠
gravity is minimum at equator.
(ii) At the poles, φ = 90° and cos 90° = 0°. So, g' = g. There is no effect on the acceleration due to
gravity at the poles due to the rotation of the earth. This also implies that the value of g is
maximum at the pole.
GM
7. The intensity of gravitational field, E = r2 . If the gravitational intensity is measured on the earth’s
GM
surface then, E = 2 = g. Hence, the gravitational field intensity on the earth's surface is numerically
R
equal to the acceleration due to gravity.
– GM GMm
8. The gravitational potential, V = r and gravitational potential energy is, U = – r .
dV
9. The relation of gravitational intensity and gravitational potential, E = – dr .
10. Total energy of a body in a gravitational field is calculated from the sum of kinetic energy and
1 GMm GMm
potential energy. i.e., total energy = K.E. + P.E. = 2 mv2 + ⎛– r ⎞ = – 2r .
⎝ ⎠
11. The minimum velocity that is required to take a body beyond the gravitational field is called escape
velocity. On the earth, ve = 2gR = 2 × 9.8 × 6.4 × 106 = 11.2 km/s.
12. Satellite revolves around the planets. Satellite may be natural or artificial. The orbital velocity v, time
period of revolution T and height h of the satellite from the surface of the earth are:
1/3
g 2π (R + h)3 ⎛T R g⎞
2 2
v=R R+h,T= R g , h = ⎝ 4π2 ⎠ – R
The height of geostationary satellite is 36000 km.
1 – GMm GMm
13. Total energy of the satellite, Ek + Ep = 2 mv2 + ⎛ r ⎞ = – 2r
⎝ ⎠
14. The angular momentum of a satellite, L = GMm2r .
Conceptual Tips
1. Gravitation is the force of attraction between any two bodies while gravity refers to the force of
attraction between any body and the earth.
2. Properties of gravitational force: The gravitational force between two point masses (i) is
independent of intervening medium. (ii) obeys Newton’s third law of motion (iii) has spherical
symmetry (iv) is conservative and central force (v) obeys principle of superposition.
3. The value of G does not depend on the nature and size of the masses.
4. The gravitational law is universally valid. It applies to small objects on the earth, planets in the solar
systems and to galaxies.
5. A body pulls the earth with a gravitational force with an equal force that the earth attracts it. It does
not depend on mass of single body rather than the product of masses; however a body falls towards
the earth because of different acceleration. The acceleration of earth is negligible with respect to the
falling body.

6. In deriving the expression for escape velocity, we have neglected the air resistance on the body. In
actual practice, the value of escape velocity is slightly greater than the above calculated value.
7. Escape velocity does not depend on angle of projection from the earth’s surface.
8. As the escape velocity depends on the mass and radius of the planet from the surface of which the
body is projected, so escape velocity is different for different planets.
9. A planet will have atmosphere if the root mean square velocity of its atmospheric molecules is less
than the escape velocity for the given planet. That is why moon has no atmosphere and Jupiter has
thick atmosphere.
10. The total mechanical energy of an object (say satellite in orbit), is negative if it is bound, for example;
its orbit is an ellipse or circle. But it is not always negative. It can be positive in which case its
trajectory is a hyperbola and the object is not bound to the central star.
11. When a body is in free fall, a gravitational pull mg does not act on it. It is said to be weightless
because it exerts no force on its support.
12. In the state of weightlessness, though the bodies have no weight, they have inertia on account of their
mass. So, bodies floating in a spacecraft may collide with each other and crash.
13. Trilateration is an interesting mathematical process in GPS.
Quick Reply
1. Which provides greater gravitational force, a stone by earth or earth by a stone?
 Gravitational force is equal in both conditions. Gravitational force doesn't depend on single mass of a
body, but depends on the multiplication of masses. i.e., m1m2. The thing is difference in acceleration,
F
a = m . For equal force, smaller object has more acceleration. So, the stone falls towards the earth.
2. At what height of the earth, the acceleration due to gravity is zero?

 The acceleration due to gravity (g') along the height of the earth is,
2h
g' = g⎛1 – R ⎞
⎝ ⎠
R
At h = 2 , (half of the value of radius of the earth).
2 R
g' = g⎛1 – R ⎛ 2 ⎞⎞ = 0
⎝ ⎝ ⎠⎠
∴ g' = 0
3. Express the total energy of satellite in terms of magnitude of kinetic energy, and potential energy.
 Total energy of satellite has the equal magnitude to kinetic energy and half the magnitude of
potential energy.
4. A man can jump six times as high on the moon as that on the earth. Justify.
 The value of g on the surface of the earth is six times greater than the moon, i.e., ge = 6 gm.
For the same gain of potential energy in both cases, we have
mgm hm = mge he
gm hm = 6 gm he
hm = 6 he
5. Which theory is applied to compensate the time in atomic clock?
 General theory of relativity (GTR) is used to compensate the time is atomic clock.
6. A man carrying a load on his back leans forward. Why should he do so?
 To be stable, the center of gravity (CG) should lie within the base of body, i.e., the base of body
should lie within the legs. When a load is added on the back of man, the center of gravity is shifted
away from the base (out from the legs). When leaning forward, the CG again lies within the base and
brings the man stable.

1. Suppose the radius of the earth were to shrink by 2%, its mass remaining the same. Calculate the
percentage change in the acceleration due to gravity 'g'.
 The acceleration due to gravity for the radius R and mass M of the earth is,
GM
g= 2
R
If the radius of the earth is shrinked by 2%, the new radius of the earth is,
2 49
R' = R – 2% of R = R – 100 of R = 50 R
GM 2
Now, new acceleration due to gravity is, g' = 49
⎛ R⎞
⎝50 ⎠
GM GM
⎡ ⎛49⎞ R – 2
R2 ⎤
⎢ ⎝50⎠ 2
⎥ 2
× 100 = ⎡⎛49⎞ – 1⎤ × 100% = 4.12%
g' – g 50
% change = g × 100% =
⎢ GM ⎥ ⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦
⎣ R 2
⎦
2. Why an astronaut in a space capsule orbiting the earth experiences a feeling of weightlessness?
 Suppose a body of mass m lies on an inside surface of the satellite. Force acting on this body will be:
G Mm
(a) gravitational pull of the earth = r2
(b) reaction force R of the surface.
Now, the force on the satellite,
G Mm
F = r2 –R
G Mm
ma = r2 – R
GM GMm
m ⎛ r2 ⎞ = r2 – R
⎝ ⎠
∴ R=0
Thus, the surface does not exert any force on the body and hence apparent weight is zero. That is
why an astronaut sees all the bodies floating weightlessly inside the spacecraft.
3. According to Newton's law of gravitation, the apple and the earth experience equal and opposite
forces due to gravitation. But it is the apple that falls towards the earth and not the earth to the apple.
Why?
 The force of attraction depends on the product of masses but not the mass of single body, so the
gravitational attraction is equal whether the body is larger or smaller. From Newton's second law of
motion,
F = ma
F
a=m
1
For constant F, a ∝ m
Since the mass of earth is extremely large as compared to that of apple, the acceleration of earth
towards the apple tends to zero (i.e., a → 0).

4. Explain why tidal waves (high tide and low tide) are formed on seas.
 The gravitational attraction of moon on sea water causes high tides. Tides at one place causes low
tides (ebbs) at another. Attraction by the sun also causes tides but only of half the magnitude. Hence
on new moon and on full moon days, when both effects added, the tides are very high.
5. Why are space rockets usually launched from west to east in equatorial plane?
 Due to rotation of the earth about its polar axis, every particle on the earth has a linear velocity
directed from west to east. This velocity, v = Rω, is maximum at the equator (Re > Rp). When rocket is
launched from west to east, the maximum velocity gets added to the launching velocity, so the
launching becomes easier.
6. A man carrying a load on his back leans forward. Why should he do so?
 To be stable, the center of gravity (CG) should lie within the base of body, i.e., the base of body
should lie within the legs when a load is added on the back of man, the center of gravity is shifted
away from the base (out from the legs). When leaning forward, the CG again lies within the base and
it brings the man stable.
7. What does GPS do?
 Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite navigation system used to determine the ground
position of an object. GPS system includes many satellites deployed in space about 12000 miles above
earth surface.
Worked Out Problems

1. Compare the gravitational acceleration of the earth due to attraction of the sun with that due to
attraction of the moon. Given that the mass of the sun, mS = 1.99 × 1030 kg, the mass of the moon,
mm = 7.35 × 1022 kg, distance of sun from the earth, res = 1.49 × 1011 m and distance of moon from the
earth rem = 3.84 × 108 m.
SOLUTION
Given: If gem = attraction of the earth due to the
Mass of sun (ms) = 1.99 × 1030 kg attraction of moon, so,
Mass of moon (mm) = 7.35 × 1022 kg G mm
gem = r 2 … (ii)
em
Distance of sun from the earth (res) =1.49×1011 m
Dividing equation (i) by equation (ii), we
Distance of moon form the earth (rem)
get,
= 3.84 × 108 m
ges G ms rem2 ms rem2
Let me be the mass of the earth and ges = × = ×
gem res2 G mm mm res2
= acceleration of earth due to the attraction of
sun. 1.99 × 1030 (3.84 × 108)2
= 22 ×
me ms 7.35 × 10 (1.49 × 1011)2
me ges = G r 2
es = 179.8
Gms ges 179.8
ges = r … (i) ∴
es gem = 1 ≈ 180
2. Taking the earth of be uniform sphere of radius 6400 km, calculate the total energy needed to raise a
satellite of mass 1000 kg to a height of 600 km above the ground and to set it into circular orbit at that
altitude.
SOLUTION
Given, Total energy (E) = ?
Radius of earth (R) = 6400 km = 6400000 m Energy needed = Increase in P.E. + K.E. at
Mass of satellite (m) = 1000 kg Orbit
Height of satellite (h) = 600 km = 600000 m GMm ⎛–GMm⎞ 1
=– r –
⎝ R ⎠ + 2 mv
2

R2
= gm ⎡R – 2(R + h)⎤
GMm GMm 1 GM
=– R+h + R +2mR+h ⎣ ⎦
(6400000)2
= 2000 × 10 ⎡6400000 – 2(6400000 + 600000)⎤
1 1
= GMm ⎡R – 2(R + h)⎤ ⎣ ⎦
⎣ ⎦
1 1 = 3.47 × 1010 J
= gR2m ⎡R – 2(R + h)⎤
⎣ ⎦
3. A satellite X moves round the earth in a circular orbit of radius R. Another satellite Y of the same
mass moves round the earth in a circular orbit of radius 4R. Show that (i) the speed of X is twice that
of Y; (ii) The K.E. of X is greater than of Y; (iii) The P.E. of X, is less than of Y (iv) Has X or Y the
greater total energy?
SOLUTION
i. let v1 and v2 be the speed of satellite X and Y 1 2
K.E of Y = 2 mv2
of the same mass 'm' moving round orbit of
radius r1 and r2. re be radius of earth. i.e., K.E. of X > K.E. of Y
Then, r1 = R, r2 = 4R GMm GMm
2 2
iii. P.E of X = – r =– R
1
g re g re
Now, v1 = r1 = R . . . (1) GMm GMm
P.E. of Y = r = – 4R
2
Again,
2 P.E of X is less than of Y.
g re 1 GMm GMm
v2 = 4R . . . (2) iv. Total energy of X = 2 R – R
v1 GMm
Now, v = 4 v1 = 2v2 = – 4R
2
i.e., speed of X is twice of Y. 1 GMm
2
1 2 1 Total energy of Y = 2 mv2 – 4R
ii. K.E. of X = 2 mv1 = 2 m × (2v2)2
GMm GMm GMm
1 2 2 ⇒ 8R – 4R = – 8R
= 2 m × 4v2 = 2mv2
Y has greater energy than X.
4. An artificial satellite revolves round the earth in 2.5 hours in a circular orbit. Find the height of the
satellite above the earth assuming earth as a sphere of radius 6370 km.
SOLUTION
Given
Time (T) = 2.5 hours = 2.5 × 60 × 60 = 9000 sec.
Height of satellite (h) = ?
Radius of earth (R) = 6370 km = 6370000 m = 6.37 × 106 m
We have 90002 × 10 × (3.67 × 10)2
or, (R + h)3 = 4 × 3.142
(R + h)3
T = 2π gR2 or, (R + h) = 8.334 × 1020
3
T 2 (R + h)3 or, R + h = (8.334 × 1020)1/3

or, = gR2 or, R + h = 9.4 × 106m
4π 2
90002 (R + h)3 or, h = 9.4 × 106 – 6.37 × 106

or, 4 × 3.142 = 10 × (3.67 × 10)2 or, h = 3.041 × 106m
∴ h = 3041 km

5. An earth satellite moves in a circular orbit with a speed of 6.2 kms–1. Find the time of one revolution
and its centripetal acceleration.
SOLUTION
Orbital velocity of earth satellite (v0) or, h = 10655301 – 6400000
= 6.2 kms–1 = 6200 m/s h = 4255301 m
Radius of earth (R) = 6400000 m Now,
Time period (T) = ? (R + h)3
T = 2π gR2
Radial acceleration (a) = ?
g (4255301 + 6400000)3
We have, v0 = R =2π 10 × (6400000)2
R+h
10 295350
or, 6200 = 6400000 = 2π 66
6400000 + h
= 2π × 1718.57
10
or, 9.69 × 10–4 = = 10798.128 s
6400000 + h
Now, radial acceleration
10
or, 6400000 + h = 9.385 × 10–7 v2 (6200)2
a = R + h = 10655301 = 3.6 m/s2
6. Two binary stars, masses 1020 kg and 2 × 1020 kg respectively, rotate about their common centre of
mass with an angular velocity ω. Assuming that the only force on a star is the mutual gravitational
force between them, calculate ω. Assume that the distance between the stars is 106 m and that G is
6.7 × 10–11 N m2 kg–2.
SOLUTION
Given, ω
m1 = 2 × 1020 kg
m2 = 1 × 1020 kg
r2 r1
r1 + r2 = R = 106 m ... (i) •
If ω be the m2 cm m1
angular velocity ω
of m1 and m2,
then 1
∴ m1 ω2 r1 = m2 ω2 r2 Now, from Eq. (ii), r2 = 2 r1 = 2 × 3 × 106
or, m1 r1 = m2 r2 2
m2 = 3 × 106 m ... (iv)
or, r1 = m r2
1
since the centripetal force is equal to the
1020
or, r1 = 2 × 1020 r2 gravitational force, then
Gm1 m2
or, r2 = 2 r1 ... (ii)
(r1 + r2)2 = m2 ω r2
2
Gm1
From Eq. (i) and Eq. (ii), we have ∴ ω2 = (r + r )2 × r
1 2 2
2r1 + r1 = 106 m
6.7 × 10–11 × 2 × 1020
or, 3r1 = 106 or, ω2 = 2
1 (106)2 × 3 × 106
∴ r1 = 3 × 106 m ... (iii)
or, ω2 = 20.1 × 10–9
∴ ω= 20.1 × 10–9 = 1.4 × 10–4 rad s–1.


1. The sun has a mass 333,000 times that of the earth. For a person on earth, the average distance to the
center of the sun is 23,500 times the distance to the center of the earth. In magnitude, what is the ratio
of the sun's gravitational force on you to the earth's gravitational force on him? Ans: 6.03 × 10–4 : 1
2. When in orbit, communication satellite attracts the earth with a force of 19.0 kN and the earth-
satellite gravitational potential energy (relative to zero at infinite separation) is –1.39 × 1011 J. Find the
satellite's altitude above the earth's surface. Ans: 9.2 × 105 m
3. An experiment using the Cavendish balance to measure the gravitational constant G found that a
uniform 0.400 kg sphere attracts another uniform 0.00300 kg sphere with a force of 8.00 × 10–10 N,
when the distance between the centers of the spheres is 0.0100 m. The acceleration due to gravity at
the earth's surface is 9.80 m/s2 and the radius of the earth is 6380 km. Compute the mass of the earth
from these data. Ans: 5.98 × 1024 kg
1th 1
4. Titania, the largest moon of the planet uranus, has 8 the radius of the earth and 1700 the mass of the
earth. (a) What is the acceleration due to gravity at the surface if Titania? (b) What is the average
density of titania? Ans: 0.37 ms–2, 1660.6 kgm–3
5. Rhea, one of Saturn's moons, has a radius of 765 km and an acceleration due to gravity of 0.278 m s–2
at its surface. Calculate its mass and average density. Ans: 9.7 × 1021 kg, 5.2 × 103 kgm–3
6. Suppose you want to place a 1000 kg weather satellite into a circular orbit 300 km above the earth
surface. (a) What speed, period and radial acceleration must it have? (b) How much work has to be
done to place this satellite in orbit? Ans: (a) 7727 ms–1, 90.5 min, 8.94 ms–2; (b) 3.26 × 1010 J
7. Assuming the earth is a uniform sphere of mass M and radius R, show that the acceleration of free
fall at the earth's surface is given by g = GM/R2. What is the acceleration of a satellite moving in a
circular orbit round the earth of radius 2 R? Ans: 0.25 g
8. A preliminary stage of spacecraft Apollo 11's journey to the moon was to place it in an earth parking
orbit. This orbit was circular, maintaining an almost constant distance of 189 km from the earth's
surface. Assuming the gravitational field strength in this orbit is 9.4 Nkg–1, calculate
(i) the speed of the spacecraft in this orbit and (ii) the time to complete one orbit. (Radius of the
earth = 6370 km.). Ans: (i) 7852 ms–1 (ii) 5249 s
9. Obtain the value of g from the motion of the moon, assuming that its period of rotation round the
earth is 27 days 8 hours and that the radius of its orbit is 60.1 times the radius of the earth. (Radius of
earth = 6.36 × 106 m.) Ans: 9.8 ms–2
10. The maximum vertical distance through which a fully-dressed astronaut can jump on the earth is 0.5
m. Estimate the maximum vertical distance through which he can jump on the moon, which has a
mean density two-thirds that of the earth and a radius one-quarter that of the earth, stating any
assumptions made. Determine the ratio of the time duration of his jump on the moon to that of his
jump on the earth. Ans: 3 m, 6:1
Exercises
1. Which falls faster, a feather or an iron ball, if there is no air resistance?
2. Where do you jump higher on the earth or on the moon?
3. Which has longer period of revolution, a satellite revolving close or away from the surface of the
earth?

4. Write the conditions of weightlessness.
5. Why is gravitational potential energy negative?
6. On what factors do the orbital velocity of an earth satellite depend?
7. The weight of body is less in coal mine, why?
8. What difference is the ordinary satellite and geostationary satellite?
9. What minimum velocity is needed to escape in from the gravitational field?
10. What is value of acceleration due to gravity 'g' at the center of the earth?
11. At which place, the rotation of the earth does not influence the acceleration due to gravity?
12. What is the effect on weight of a body on earth when earth suddenly stops rotating?
13. Why is G called universal gravitational constant?
14. Is it possible to shield a body from gravitational effects?
15. An elephant and an ant are to be projected out of earth into space. Do you need different velocities to
do so?
16. Why a pregnant woman leans backward during walking?
17. What is the use of GPS?
Short Questions
1. The value of G on the surface of the earth is 6.67 × 10–11 Nm2 kg–2. What is its value on the surface of
the sun?
2. Does gravity have any effect on inertial mass?
3. What will be our weight at the center of the earth, if the earth were a hollow sphere?
4. If accelerations due to gravity at a height h and at a depth x below the surface of the earth are equal,
how are h and x related?
5. What is the effect on our weight due to revolution of the earth about the sun?
6. Why is the gravitational potential energy negative?
7. A satellite revolves close to the surface of a planet. How is its orbital velocity related with velocity of
escape from that planet?
8. Which has greater value of escape velocity, mercury or jupiter?
9. Why does hydrogen escape from the earth’s atmosphere more readily than oxygen?
10. What is the most important application of geostationary satellite?
11. What would happen to an artificial satellite if its orbital velocity is slightly decreased due to some
defects in it?
12. If the force of gravity acts on all bodies in proportional to their masses, why does not a heavy body
fall faster than a light body?
13. If heavier bodies are attracted more strongly by the earth, why do they not fall faster than lighter
ones? (neglect air resistance)
14. What will happen to the value of acceleration due to gravity if the earth stops rotating about its axis?
15. How does 'g' at a point vary with the distance from the centre of the earth? Where is the highest
value of g? Explain.
16. According to Newton's law of gravitation, every particle of matter attracts every other particle. But
bodies on the surface of earth never move towards each other on account of this force of attraction.
Why?
17. If the diameter of the earth becomes twice its present value but its mass remains unchanged, then
how would be the weight of an object on the earth affected?

18. What difference is the weight of a body, 5 km above the surface of the earth or 5 km below the
surface of the earth?
19. An artificial satellite revolves around the earth without using any fuel. On the other hand, an
aeroplane requires fuel to fly. Why?
20. What is the difference between inertial mass and gravitational mass of a body?
21. What is trilation principle is GPS?
22. What is the advantage of setting of many navigation a satellites connecting in GPS?
Long Questions
1. State and explain Newton's law of gravitation. Define G and give its units and dimensions.
2. Define acceleration due to gravity. Derive the expression of variation of acceleration due to gravity at
height h from the surface of the earth and explain its meaning.
3. Obtain the expression of acceleration due to gravity at depth x from the surface of the earth.
4. Obtain the expression of acceleration due to gravity due to the rotation of the earth.
5. What is gravitational potential energy? Obtain an expression for the gravitational potential energy of
a body at a distance r from the centre of the earth.
6. What is geostationary satellite? Obtain an expression for the total energy of a satellite orbiting round
the earth.
7. What do you understand by the intensity of gravitational field and the gravitational potential at a
point in the earth's gravitational field? How are they related?
8. What is a parking orbit? Derive an expression for the orbital velocity and hence find the expression
for the time period of the satellite revolving around the earth.
9. Explain the concept of geostationary satellite. Find an expression for the total energy of the moon
revolving around the earth.
10. What is escape velocity? Show that the escape velocity of a body is 2Rg , where symbols have their
usual meanings.
11. What is artificial satellite? Calculate its orbital velocity.
12. Assuming the earth to be perfectly spherical, sketch the graphs to show how: (a) the acceleration due
to gravity (b) the gravitational potential due to earth’s mass varies with distance from the surface of
the earth to points external to it.
13. Define center of gravity and center of mass. Derive the expression for center of mass.
14. What is GPS? What is its use? Describe the working principle of GPS.

LEVEL I
1. Imagine a tunnel dug along a diameter of the earth so that a particle dropped from one end of the
tunnel executes simple harmonic motion. What is the time period of the motion? Assume the earth to
be a sphere of uniform mass density (equal to its average density = 5520 kg/m3), G = 6.67 × 10–11
Nm2/kg2. Neglect all damping. Ans: 5059.77 s
2. A rocket is fired from the earth towards the sun. What point on its path is the gravitational force on
the rocket zero? Mass of the sun = 2 × 1030 kg, mass of the earth = 6 × 1024 kg. Neglect the effect of
8
other planets. Orbital radius = 1.5 × 1011m. Ans: 2.60 × 10 m
3. Jupiter has a mass 318 times that of earth and its radius is 11.2 times the earth's radius. Estimate the
escape velocity of the body from jupiter surface given that the escape velocity from Earth is 11.2
km/s. Ans: 59.7 kms–1
4. Show that the moon would depart forever if its speed were increased by 42%.

5. A geo-stationary satellite orbits the earth at a height of nearly 3600 km from the surface of the earth.
What is potential due to earth's gravity at the site of the satellite.
6
Mass of the earth = 6 × 1024 kg, radius = 6400 km. Ans: –9.43 × 10 Jkg–1
6. If the radii of two planets be R1 and R2 and their mean densities be ρ1 and ρ2. Then, prove that the
ratio of the acceleration due to gravity on the planets will be R1 ρ1 : R2ρ2.
7. How much below the surface of the earth does the acceleration become 70% of its value at the surface
of the earth? Radius of the earth 6400 km. Ans: 1920 km
8. A satellite revolves round the planet in an orbit just above the surface of the planet taking
G = 6.67 × 10–11 Nm2kg–2 and the mean density of the planet = 8 × 103 kg m–3. Find the period of
satellite. Ans: 4206.7 s
9. The radius of earth's orbit is 1.5 × 108 km and that of mars is 2.5 × 1011 m. In how many years, does
the mars complete its one revolution? Ans: 2.15 years
10. A man can jump 1.5 m on earth. Calculate the approximate height he might able to jump on a planet
whose density is one-quarter than that of earth and whose radius is one third of earth.
Ans: 3.47 × 10 1 0 J
11. A satellite is to be put into orbit 500 km above the earth's surface. If vertical velocity after launching
is 2000 ms–1 at this height, calculate the magnitude and direction of the impulse required to put the
satellite directly into orbit, if its mass is 50 kg. Assume g = 10 ms–2, radius of earth R = 6400 km.
Ans: 3.98 × 10 5 kg m/s, 14.6º
12. The acceleration due to gravity at the north pole of Neptune is approximately 10.7 m/s2. Neptune
has mass 1.0 × 1026 kg and radius 2.5 × 104 km and rotates once around its axis in about 16 h. What is
the gravitational force on a 5.0 kg object at the north pole of Neptune? Ans: 53.4 N
13. The mass and radius of the pluto are 1.31 × 1022 kg and 1.15 × 106 m respectively. Calculate the
acceleration due to gravity at the surface of pluto. Ans: 0.66 ms–2
14. The gravitational force on a mass of 1 kg at the earth's surface is 10 N. Assuming the earth is a sphere
of radius R, calculate the gravitational force on a satellite of mass 100 kg in a circular orbit of radius 2
R from the centre of the earth. Ans: 250 N
15. Calculate the points along a line joining the centres of earth and moon where there is no gravitational
force. Ans: 3.42 × 108 m
LEVEL II
1. Two particles each of mass 'm' go round a circle of radius 'r' under the action of their mutual
GM
gravitational attraction. Find the speed of each particle. Ans:
4r
2. A man can jump 1.5 m high on the earth. Calculate the approx height he might be able to jump on a
planet whose density is 1 quarter of the earth and whose radius is 1/3rd of the earth radius.
Ans: 18 m
3. A rocket is fired vertically from the surface of the Mars with a speed of 2 kms–1. If 20% of its initial
energy is lost due to martian atmospheric resistance, how far will the rocket go from the surface of
Mars before returning to it?
Mass of mars = 6.4 × 1022 kg, radius of mars = 3395 km, G = 6.67 × 10–11 Nm2kg–2. Ans: 1655 km
24 6
4. The mass of earth is 6.0 × 10 kg and its radius 6.4 × 10 m. How much work will be done in taking a
10 kg body from the surface of the earth to infinity? What will be the gravitational potential energy of
the body on the earth's surface? If this body falls from infinity to the earth, what will be its velocity
8 8
when striking the earth? Take G = 6.67 × 10–11 Nm2 kg–2. Ans: 6.25 × 10 J, –6.25 × 10 J, 11.2 kms–1
5. A satellite of 250 kg is orbiting the earth at the height of 500 km above the surface of earth. How
much energy must be expended to rocket so that the satellite comes out of the gravitational influence

of the earth? Given mass of the earth = 6.0 × 1024 kg, radius of the earth = 6400 km and G = 6.67 ×10–11
9
Nm2 kg–2. Ans: 7.25 × 10 J
6. Assuming the earth to be uniform sphere of radius 6400 km, calculate the total energy needed to raise
a satellite of mass 2000 kg to a height of 800 km above the surface of the earth and to set it into
circular orbit at that altitude. Ans: 7.12 × 1010 J
7. If the acceleration of free fall at the earth's surface is 9.8 m s , and the radius of the earth is 6400 km,
–2
calculate a value for the mass of the earth. (G = 6.7 × 10–11 N m2 kg–2). Ans: 6 × 1024 kg
8. Assuming the mean density of the earth is 5500 kgm–3, that G is 6.7 × 10–11 Nm2kg–2 and that the
earth's radius is 6400 km, find a value for the acceleration of free fall at the earth's surface.
Ans: 9.9 ms – 2
9. Explorer 38, a radio-astronomy research satellite of mass 200 kg, circles the earth in an orbit of
average radius 3R/2 where R is the radius of the earth. Assuming the gravitational pull on a mass of
1 kg at the earth's surface to be 10 N, calculate the pull on the satellite. Ans: 889 N
10. The orbit of the moon is approximately a circle of radius 60 times the equatorial radius of the earth.
Calculate the time taken for the moon to complete one orbit, neglecting the rotation of the earth.
Acceleration of free fall at the poles of the earth = 9.8 ms–2. Equatorial radius of the earth
= 6.4 × 106 m. 1 day = 8.6 × 104 seconds.) Ans: 27.4 days
11. Jupiter has a mass 318 times that of the earth and its radius is 11.2 times the earth's radius. Estimate
the escape velocity of a body from Jupiter's surface. The escape velocity from the earth's surface is
1
11.2 kms–1. Ans: 59.7 kms–
12. The world's first artificial satellite (Sputnik 1) launched by U.S.S.R. was circling the earth at a distance
of 896 km above the earth's surface. Calculate its orbital speed and period of revolution. Take radius
of the earth = 6400 km and g = 9.8 ms–2. Ans: 1 h 42 min 58 s
13. A 400 kg satellite is in a circular orbit of radius 2Re about the earth. How much energy is required to
transfer it to a circular orbit of radius 4Re? What are the changes in the kinetic energy and potential
9
energies? Ans: 6.28 × 10 J
14. A 200 kg satellite is lifted to an orbit of 2.2 × 104 km radius. If the radius and mass of the earth are
6.37 × 106 m and 5.98 × 1024 kg respectively, how much additional potential energy is required to lift
the satellite? Ans: 4.47 × 107 J
15. What is the period of revolution of a satellite of mass m that orbits the earth in a circular path of
radius 7880 km about 1500 km above the surface of the earth? Ans: 1.91 h
16. A period of moon revolving under the gravitational force of earth is 27.3 days. Find the distance of
moon from the centre of the earth if mass of earth is 5.97 × 1024 kg. Ans: 3.83 × 108 m

1. A satellite with kinetic energy E is revolving round the earth in a circular orbit. The minimum
additional kinetic energy required for it to escape into outer space is
a. 2E b. 2E c. E/ 2 d. E
2. For a satellite moving in an orbit around the earth, the ratio of kinetic energy to potential energy is
a. 1/2 b. 1/ 2 c. 2 d. 2
3. The radii of circular orbits of two satellites A and B of the earth are 4R and R respectively. If the
speed of satellite A is 3v, then the speed of satellite B will be
3v 3v
a. 4 b. 6v c. 12v d. 2

4. A point mass is placed inside a thin spherical shell of radius R and mass M at a distance R/2 from the
centre of the shell. The gravitational force exerted by the shell on the point mass is
GM GM GM
a. b. – 2R2 c. zero d.
2R2 4R2
5. Two bodies of masses m and 4 m are placed at a distance r. The gravitational potential at a point on
the line joining them where the gravitational field is zero is
3Gm 6Gm 9Gm
a. zero b. – r c. – r d. – r
6. The mass of a spaceship is 100 kg. It is to be launched from the earth's surface out into free space. The
values of 'g' and 'R' (radius of earth) are 10 m s–2 and 6400 km respectively. The required energy for
this work will be
a. 6.4 × 108 J b. 6.4 × 109 J c. 6.4 × 1010 J d. 6.4 × 1011 J
7. If ve is the escape velocity and vo is orbital velocity of a satellite for orbit close to the earth's surface,
then these are related by
a. v0 = 2 ve b. v0 = ve c. ve = 2vo d. ve = 2 vo
8. An artificial satellite moving in a circular orbit at a distance h from the centre of the earth has a total
energy E0. Its potential energy is
a. – E0 b. 1.5 E0 c. E0 d. 2E0
9. The ratio between the values of acceleration due to gravity at a height 1 km above and at a depth of 1
km below the earth's surface is (radius of earth is R km)
R–2 R R–2
a. R–1 b. R –1 c. R d. 1
10. A body of mass M is divided into two parts m and M – m. The gravitational force between them is
m
maximum if M is
a. 1:1 b. 1 : 2 c. 1 : 3 d. 1 : 4
ANSWERS
1. (d) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (d) 6. (c) 7. (d) 8. (d) 9. (a) 10. (b)


ELASTICITY
8.1 Introduction
Every matter is composed up of fundamental block of microscopic particles, called atoms. An atom
contains positively and negatively charged particles, called protons and electrons respectively. In
chargeless materials, every atom possesses equal number of protons and electrons. But, the positions
of these particles are different in the atom, proton lies at the nucleus and electron revolves around
the nucleus. Due to the position effect of protons and electrons, the matter shows the electric
behaviour.
The electric attraction and repulsion among the atoms, keep them at a finite distance apart, which
ultimately form a definite shape and size of that matter. The separation of atoms or molecules in
which they balance, is equilibrium distance and the condition is called equilibrium condition. At
equilibrium condition, the total potential energy of the matter can have minimum possible value.
Nature tends to minimize the potential energy of objects so that they can be stable. If the material is
extended or contracted, inter-atomic distances changes and potential energy increases. Then, it tends
to return to its original position. This behaviour of material to minimize its potential energy is known
as elastic property of matter.
8.2 Elasticity and Plasticity

The distance between any two particles remains unchanged in a rigid body when external forces are
applied to whatever extent, so that it does not deformed i.e., its size, shape, and volume remains
unaltered. However, such rigid body is an ideal conception as such bodies can't be realized in actual
practice. All materials are found to get deformed to a greater or smaller extent when suitable external
forces (deforming forces) are applied and tend to regain their original state (configuration) when
these deforming forces are removed. This property which allows a deformed body to regain its original
shape after deforming forces have been removed is called elasticity. The deformation of a body may vary
with magnitude of the force applied to it. However, if the deformation of a body at a given
temperature remains unchanged by the prolonged application of force, it is said to be perfectly elastic
body. For a body to be perfectly elastic, the deformation produced should neither increase nor
decrease at given temperature for the same magnitude of force applied to any length of time.
On the other hand, if a body remains distorted and shows no sign to regain its original configuration
even after the removal of deforming forces, it is said to be perfectly plastic body. This property of the
body is called plasticity.
There exist no such perfectly elastic or perfectly plastic bodies in nature. The nearest approach to the
former is quartz fiber and to latter is ordinary putty. All other bodies lie between these two
Elasticity |Chapter 8| 223
extremes. Remember, elasticity and plasticity are the comparative properties i.e., a body may be
more elastic or plastic when it is compared to another body.
8.3 Origin of Inter-atomic Force

The elastic potential energy between two atoms in a
matter is the function of inter-atomic distance r. The
graphical relation of elastic potential energy V and
inter-atomic separation r is shown in Fig. 8.1. At
separation r = r0, the atoms remain in equilibrium
position and the potential energy of that system has
minimum possible value. If these atoms are displaced
from equilibrium position, potential energy of that
system increase i.e., potential energy increases
whatever you do; increase or decrease the separation.
In Fig. 8.1, point C represents the minimum potential
energy. If you decrease the distance between the two
atoms from equilibrium position, potential energy
increases, but still remains negative value upto certain separation. The curve CB shows the negative
potential energy while compressing the material. If we further compress the matter, the atoms come
closer and start repelling each other and the potential energy curve rises in positive direction, as in
part of curve BA. If you extend the material, the inter-atomic distance increases, so that the potential
energy is also increased, but is never be positive as in part of curve CDE.
Note:
Elastic behaviour of solids on the basis of mechanical spring ball model:
The atoms in a solid may be regarded as mass points or small balls
connected in three-dimensional space through springs. The springs
represent the inter-atomic forces. Normally, the balls occupy the position
of minimum potential energy or zero inter-atomic force. When the ball is
displaced from its equilibrium position, the various springs connected to
it exerts a resultant force on this ball. This force tends to bring the ball to its equilibrium position.
Temperature effect on intermolecular interaction

If you look around, you'll see many things in nature. A hill is always standing at the same place at
the identical position. Similarly, the water in the river is flowing continuously. Likewise, the air is
blowing without interruption having no specific direction of movement, upward, downward, left
and right with almost equal speed. We doubt, why materials show such a different kind of
behaviour. What would be the hidden secrets behind these natural properties? In physics, these
properties are basically dealt in terms of intermolecular interaction. Inter-molecular interaction can
also be changed by changing the temperature.
At absolute zero (i.e., 1 K) temperature, all atoms in a matter remains in equilibrium position. If the
temperature is raised, atoms start vibrating, so that the inter-atomic distance varies. Due to the
variation of distance and their vibration energy, the states of a matter are changed. The inter-atomic
distance is minimum in solid state, intermediate in liquid state, and relatively large in gas.

8.4 Stress
If the forces are applied to a material in such a way to deform it, then the material is said
to be stressed. We know a body in natural state is in equilibrium under the action of internal
forces. But when external forces are applied to a body, the molecules within it are displaced i.e., the
intermolecular distance is changed. Due to this an internal reaction force is developed which tends to
oppose and balance the deforming force, until the elastic limit (to be discussed later) is reached. This
internal reaction force is called the restoring force or elastic force.
The restoring force per unit area of cross-section of the body is called stress. Obviously, the restoring force
per unit area though opposite in direction, is equal in magnitude to the deforming force per unit
area. So, stress is usually defined in terms of the deforming force per unit area of cross-section.
Deforming force (F)
i.e., Stress = Cross-sectional area (A) … (8.1)
It is a scalar quantity and its unit is Nm–2 in SI system. Its dimensional formula is [M L–1 T–2]. On the
basis of how the external forces are applied to a body, stress can be of following types.
(a) Normal stress: When the external deforming forces are applied perpendicular to the surface of
a body, the restoring force (deforming force) developed per unit area is called normal stress. If
the deforming force is such that, it increases the length of the body in the direction of applied
force, then stress developed is called tensile stress. Whereas if there is decrease in length of the
body in the direction of applied deforming force then the stress developed is called
compression stress.
(b) Tangential or Shearing stress: When the external
deforming forces act tangentially to the surface of
body, there is change in shape of the body. The
stress developed in the body in such a case is called
tangential stress or shearing stress.
If a tangential force F is applied on the upper face of
a cubical body whose lower face is rigidly fixed,
then there is change in shape of body without any
change in volume as shown in Fig. 8.2.
The stress set up in the cube is called shearing stress
and is defined as the tangential deforming force per
unit area.
Tangential force
i.e., Tangential stress = Area
(c) Bulk stress or Volume stress: When a body is acted
upon by normal deforming force over its entire surface such that there is change in volume,
then the restoring force developed per unit area is called bulk or volume stress. This is the case
when a small solid is immersed in a fluid.
Force F
i.e., Bulk stress = Area = A
which is same as pressure. Sometimes it is also called normal stress.

8.5 Strain
A body is said to be strained when there is change in configuration of a body as a result of stress. The
relative change produced in the configuration length, volume, etc., of the body due to the influence
of external deforming forces is called strain.
Mathematically, it is defined as the change in dimension of the body measured per unit dimension.
Change in dimension
i.e., Strain = Original dimension … (8.2)
Thus being the ratio between two similar quantities, it is a mere number and hence a dimensionless
quantity having no units.
This change in dimension may involve the change in length, volume and even the shape. Hence
accordingly, strain can be of following types:
(a) Longitudinal strain: The change in length per unit original length of a body due to the action of
deforming force is called longitudinal strain. If ΔL (= e) is the change in length of a body of
original length L then,
Change in length ΔL e
Longitudinal strain = Original length = L = L
L ΔL
F
A
Fig. 8.3: Longitudinal strain
(b) Volumetric strain: The change in volume per unit volume
of a body due to the effect of the deforming force is called
volumetric strain. Thus, if ΔV is the change in volume of a
body of original volume V, then
Change in volume ΔV
Volumetric strain = Original volume = V
(c) Shear strain: Shear strain is produced when deforming

force is applied parallel to a surface of a body and the
body changes its shape without changing its volume.
Mathematically, it is defined as the angle through which a
vertical line perpendicular to the fixed surface is turned
under the effect of a tangential deforming force. Δx
F
Referring to Fig. 8.5,
Δx
tan θ = X
x
Δx θ
or, θ= X (if θ is small, tan θ ≈ θ)
Fig. 8.5: Shear strain
Such shearing can happen only in case of solids.
EXAMPLE 1: A steel cable with cross-sectional area 3 cm2 has an elastic limit of 2.40 × 108 Pa. Find the maximum upward
acceleration that can be given a 1200 kg elevator supported by the cable if the stress is not exceed one third of the elastic
limit.
SOLUTION
Given,
Area of cross section of cable (A) = 3 cm2 = 3 × 10–4 m2

Elastic limit = 2.4 × 108 Pa
1
Stress = 3 × 2.4 × 108 Pa = 8.0 × 107 Pa
Mass (m) = 1200 kg
Upward acceleration (a) = ?
We have,
Stress = F/A
or, F = Stress × A
Tmax = 8.0 × 107 × 3 × 10–4 = 2.4 × 104 N
Net upward force, FN = Tmax – mg
ma = Tmax – mg
Tmax – mg 2.4 × 104 – 1200 × 9.8
a= m = 1200 = 10.2 ms–2
 Check Point: What force is required to stretch wire 1 cm2 in cross-section to double its length?
Given Y = 2 × 1011 Nm–2. Ans: 2 × 107 N
8.6 Elastic Limit

In general, almost all objects get deformed under the action of deforming force and this deformation
is found to vary with magnitude of applied force i.e., greater the deforming force, greater is the
deformation.
Also, the elastic property of matter is found to depend on the magnitude of deforming force. This
property of matter may not be preserved for all the values of deforming forces applied to it, i.e., a
body can only regain its original form completely when the deforming forces are applied without
exceeding a certain upper limit. If this upper limit is exceeded, the body gets permanently deformed.
This maximum value of the deforming force which a body can experience and still regain its original
size and shape once the force has been removed is called elastic limit.
Hooke's Law
Stretch a spring and then release it. It returns to its initial
unstretched length provided it is not overstretched (elastic limit has
not been crossed). Springs are therefore elastic because they regain
their unstretched length. When it is overstretched, it pulls out from
its coiled shape into a long wire so that it can't coil back again even
when the tension is removed.
After a careful study of the elastic behaviour of objects such as coiled
spring, metal rods, metallic wires etc., it was found that the
extension of the spring is proportional to the tension in it.
This is known as Hooke's law named after its discoverer Robert
Hooke. Since the tension applied is equal to the restoring force developed on the spring, Hooke's law
can be restated as, "Restoring force acting on a body is directly proportional to the extension produced within
elastic limit." If F be the applied force to produce an elongation 'e' on a wire of length 'l' then
according to Hooke’s law,
F∝e
Dividing both sides by area of cross-section,
F e
A ∝A

F e l
or, A∝ l ×A
l
Since A is approximately constant, we can write,
F e
A∝ l
i.e., Stress ∝ strain … (8.3)
Thus, Hooke's law can also be stated as, "within elastic limit, the
stress developed is directly proportional to the strain produced in Graph between stress and strain
the body." The graphical representation of Hooke's law is shown The body having greater modulus of
in Fig. 8.6. elasticity has larger slope in stress-strain
From equation (8.3) we can write, graph within elastic limit.
Stress
Strain = constant (E)
This constant of proportionality is known as coefficient of
elasticity or modulus of elasticity of the material of the body.
Being the ratio of stress to strain, it has same unit and
dimension as that of stress. It's value is found to depend on
the material of the body and the type of deformation Steel is more elastic than aluminium.
involved. If the modulus of elasticity of a material is larger,
then it means, a large stress will produce only a small strain.
Thus, greater the modulus of elasticity of a material body,
harder it is to change its size or shape and vice versa i.e., for
a given stress, the greater the modulus of elasticity, the more
elastic is the body. Elasticity has different meaning in physics
than that in daily life. In daily life, a material which stretches
more is said to be more elastic, but it is general conception. In
physics, a material which stretches to a lesser extent for a
The metal having larger modulus of elasticity
given load is considered to be more elastic. For example, for is used to construct bridges
the same stress applied, the extension produced on rubber is
greater than that on steel. So, steel will have larger modulus of elasticity and hence we say that steel
is more elastic than rubber.
Depending upon the type of stress applied and the deformation (strain)
produced, there are three types of modulus of elasticity.
(a) Young's modulus of elasticity (Y): When a body is subjected to a normal
L.
deforming force within elastic limit, then the ratio of normal stress
developed to the longitudinal strain produced is called Young's modulus
of elasticity. It is denoted by Y and its SI unit is Nm–2. It is different for
different materials. However, it is reasonably same for a given solid even
though the material may be in different shape.
Thus, e
Normal stress
Young's Modulus (Y) = Longitudinal strain
Let us consider a uniform wire of length L and area of cross-section A is fixed F = mg

to a rigid support from one end and a normal force F is applied to the free end
Fig. 8.7: Tensile stress and
as shown in Fig. 8.7. Let 'e' be the extension produced on the wire then, tensile strain

F
Normal stress = A
e
Longitudinal strain = L
By definition of Young's modulus, we have,

F/A FL
Y = e/L = Ae … (8.4)
If 'r' be the radius of wire, then area of cross-section, A = πr2

FL
∴ Y= … (8.5)
πr2 e
Table 8.1: Approximate value of Y, K and η for different materials (Source: University physics)
Materials Y(× 1011 Pa) K(x 1011 Pa) η(× 1011 Pa)
Aluminum 0.70 0.72 0.30
Brass 0.91 0.61 0.36
Copper 1.2 1.4 0.42
Glass 0.55 0.37 0.23
Iron 1.9 1.0 0.70
Lead 0.16 0.077 0.056
Nickel 2.1 2.6 0.77
Steel 2.0 1.6 0.84
Tungsten 3.6 2.0 1.5
EXAMPLE 2: A nylon rope used by mountaineers elongates 1.10 m under the weight of an 65.0 kg climber. If the rope is
45.0 m in length and 7.0 mm in diameter, what is Young's modulus for this material?
SOLUTION
Given,
Elongation (e) = 1.10 m mass (m) = 65.0 kg length(l) = 45.0 m
F = 65 × 9.8 = 637 N
Diameter (d) = 7.0 mm = 7.0 × 10–3 m
πd2 π
A = 4 = 4 (7.0 × 10–3)2 = 3.85 × 10–5 m2
Y=?
We have,
Fl 637 × 45
Y = eA = 1.10 × 3.85 × 10–5 = 6.7 × 108 Nm–2
 Check Point: What load when suspended from an aluminium wire 2 mm in diameter and 5 m long
will stretch it by 1 mm? Young's modulus = 7 × 1010 Nm–2? Ans: 4.485 kg
(b) Bulk modulus of elasticity/Elasticity of volume (K): When the force is applied normally and
uniformly over the surface of a body within elastic limit so that there is change in volume of the
body without change of shape then, the ratio of normal stress to volumetric strain is called Bulk
modulus of elasticity and is denoted by K. Its SI unit is N/m2 or pascal (Pa). K is sometimes
referred to as incompressibility. The Bulk modulus unlike Young's modulus and Shear modulus
(possessed by solid only) are possessed by solids, liquids and gases. However, since liquid and
gases can permanently sustain only a hydrostatic pressure, the only elasticity they possess is
Bulk modulus. The greater the bulk modulus of material, the F
harder it is to change its volume. The Bulk moduli of solids
and liquids are very large indicating that large forces are V
needed to produce even small change in volume. Gases are ΔV
more easily compressed and have correspondingly smaller
F (V - ΔV) F
bulk moduli.
Normal stress
Bulk Modulus (K) = Volumetric strain
Let us consider a spherical body of volume V and surface area A

is under the action of compressive force applied normally over F
the entire surface as shown in Fig. 8.8. Let ΔV be the decrease in Fig.8.8: Bulk modulus of elasticity
volume of the body, then,
Normal stress = Force applied per unit area
F
= Pressure (P) = A
– ΔV
and Volumetric strain = V
The negative sign indicating that if pressure increases, the volume decreases and vice-versa.
F/A
∴ K=
–ΔV/V
– PV
or, K= … (8. 6)
ΔV
3 6
EXAMPLE 3: A specimen of oil having an initial volume of 600 cm is subjected to a pressure increase of 3.6 × 10 Pa, and
3
the volume is found to decrease by 0.45 cm . What is the bulk modulus of the material? The compressibility?
SOLUTION
Given,
Volume (V) = 600 cm3= 600 × 10−6 m3 Pressure (P) = 3.6 × 106 Pa
Change in volume (ΔV) = 0.45 cm3 = 0.45 × 10–6 m3
PV
(a) Bulk modulus, K =
ΔV
3.6 × 106 × 600 × 10–6
= 0.45 × 10–6 = 4.8 × 109 Pa
1 1
(b) Compressibility, k = K = 4.8 × 109 = 2.1 × 10–10 Pa–1
 Check Point: A solid sphere of radius 10 cm is subjected to a uniform pressure = 5 × 108 Nm–2.
Determine the consequent change in volume. Bulk modulus of the material of the sphere is equal to
3.14 × 1011 Nm–2. Ans: 6.67 × 10–6 m3
8.7 Shear Modulus of Rigidity/Elasticity of Shape (η)

When deforming forces are applied tangentially within elastic limit so that there is change in shape
of the body but no change in volume, then the ratio of tangential (shear) stress to shear strain is
called shear modulus of elasticity and is usually denoted by η. Thus,
Shear stress
η = Shear strain

Let us consider a cube of length X whose lower face is
fixed and a tangential force F acts on the upper face of
area A as shown in Fig. 8.9.
F
∴ Tangential stress = A
Let the vertical sides of the cube shift through an angle

'θ' called the shear strain.
F/A F
∴ η= =
θ Aθ
From Fig. 8.9,
Δx
tan θ = X
Δx
since, θ is very small, tan θ ≈ θ = X
FX
∴ η= … (8.7)
A Δx
Though liquid and gases are compressed more under the influence of shear stress, they can't
permanently support such stress. So, shear modulus has significance only for solids. For the same
solid material, the shear modulus is roughly one third the value of the Young's modulus.
EXAMPLE 4: A cube of aluminum of each side 6 cm is subjected to a tangential (shearing) force. The top force of the cube
is sheared through 0.02 cm with respect to the bottom face. Find (i) shearing strain (ii) shearing stress and (ii) shearing
11 –2
force. Given shear modulus of elasticity, η = 2.8 × 10 dyne cm .
SOLUTION
Given, Shearing stress
(ii) Modulus of rigidity, η =Shearing strain
Length (l ) = 6 cm
Displacement (x) = 0.02 cm Shearing stress = η × shearing strain
Shear modulus (η) = 2.8 × 1011dyne cm–2 = 2.8 × 1010 × 3.33 × 10–3
= 2.8 × 1010 Nm-2 = 9.32 × 107 Nm–2
A = l = (6 × 10−2)2 = 36 × 10−4
2
(iii) Shearing force, F = shearing stress × area
(i) Shearing strain, = 9.32 × 107 × 36 × 10–4
x 0.02
θ = l = 6 = 3.33 × 10–3 rad = 3.36 × 105 N
 Check Point: A metallic cube whose each side is 10 cm is subjected to a shearing force of 100 kg f.
The top face is displaced through 0.25 cm with respect to the bottom. Calculate the shearing stress,
strain and modulus. Ans: 9.8 × 104 Nm–2, 0.025 rad and 3.92 × 106 Nm–2
8.8 Molecular Explanation of Hooke's Law

Consider a plot of intermolecular force F, against
intermolecular separation r, for a solid as shown in
Fig. 8.10.
When stress is zero, the mean separation of the molecules is 'r0'. A tensile stress acts in opposition to
the attractive forces between the molecules and is therefore capable of increasing their separation.
For values of 'r' close to 'r0', is the graph can be considered to be linear. In this region, equal increase
in tensile stress produces the equal increase in extension, which perfectly explains the consequence

of Hook's law. But, the law cannot explain the relation F(r)
between stress and strain out of this region. Note that
Hooke's law also applies to compressive stress.
Repulsive
Experimental Verification of Hooke's Law ro
and the Determination of Young's Modulus O r (molecular

Attractive separation)
Consider an experimental arrangement as shown in
Fig. 8.11 (i). It consists of two long wires P and Q
suspended from a rigid support. Both the wires are
made from same material and are of same length so the graph is very nearly linear over
that errors due to expansion as a result of this limited region.
temperature changes during the experiment are Fig. 8.10: Plot of intermolecular force vs intermolecular
avoided. At the end of the wire P, a small fixed load is separation
attached to it. Here the test wire is the wire Q, at the end of which a variable load is attached. A
vernier scale V which can slide over the reference scale M is also attached to it which measures the
extension of the wire Q.
P Q F B
Slope = b/a
a
M V
W
W1 O x
(i) (ii)
Fig. 8.11: (i) Experimental set up for verification of Hooke's law (ii) Graph of force vs extension
The initial length of the wire Q is first noted and its diameter is measured with the help of
micrometre screw gauge. Let 'L' and 'd' be the length and diameter of the wire respectively. The test
wire Q is then loaded (typically upto 100 N in five steps) and the resulting extension is measured as a
function of the load. If test wire is free of kinks at the start and the limit of proportionality is not
exceeded, the measurements can be used to produce a plot similar to the Fig. 8.11 (ii). Clearly, the
graph suggests that load is directly proportional to the extension produced which verifies Hooke's
law.
Further, we know,
Stress F/A L
Young's modulus (Y) = Strain = x/L = A(x/F)
where, F = applied load
A = area of cross-section of the wire
x = extension produced and L is original length
By measuring the slope of the graph above, we can calculate (x/F). L can be measured with an
extending ruler or a metre scale and A is obtained by determining the diameter of wire at several
places with a micrometre screw guage. Thus, knowing (x/F), L and A, we can calculate the Young's
Modulus of the material of the body.

8.9 Variation of Strain with Stress

Suppose a gradually increasing stress is applied to a wire and corresponding strain produced is
noted. If we plot a graph between the applied stress and the corresponding strain produced, we
obtain a curve as shown in Fig. 8.12 which is known as stress-strain curve.
It is seen from graph that, upto point A, there is a linear relationship between stress and strain and
hence Hooke's law is obeyed. So when the stress is removed at any point upto A, the wire recovers
its original length i.e., it returns to its initial condition of zero strain. The point A is called
proportional limit.
plastic
stress
E
B C fracture point
D F
A
A = proportional limit
B = elastic limit
elastic behaviour plastic behaviour
C = yield point
E = breaking stress
F = fracture point
OB = elastic deformation
O O' strain CE = plastic deformation
Fig. 8.12: A graph between stress and strain for a ductile metal under tension.
If the stress is further increased upto B, a large strain is seen and the wire returns to its original
length after removal of stress. But Hooke's law is not followed between A and B. The point B is called
elastic limit. When the stress is removed at any point upto B, the wire returns to its initial condition
of zero strain (position O) along BAO.
Beyond elastic limit B, there starts a large but irregular increase in strain upto D with little or no
increase in stress. The point C, where large, erratic increase in strain just starts is called yield point.
Between points C and D, the wire shows both elastic and plastic behaviour. So upon removal of
stress, the wire does not return to its original condition of zero strain along CBAO but takes path CO'
to come to position O', with a residual strain OO' or a permanent set OO' in it. If the stress is
increased beyond D, there is a large strain in the wire unless we reach to E which is completely the
plastic deformation. The point E is called breaking stress. Beyond E, even the small stress may
continue to stretch the wire until it breaks at point F which is known as fracture point.
On the basis of the elastic properties, the materials can be classified under different categories.
Materials such as copper, silver, iron, etc., which show a great range of plastic deformation beyond elastic limit
are called ductile materials. Materials such as glass, wrought iron, etc., which break soon after the elastic limit
is reached are called brittle materials. The materials in which there is not linear relationship between stress and
strain within elastic limit i.e. which do not follow Hooke's law are called elastomers. Example: Rubber.
8.10 Energy Stored in Stretched Wire

Let us consider a wire of length L suspended from a rigid support. Let a force 'F' is applied to its
lower end so as to extend it by a length 'x' as shown in Fig. 8.13. If the extension is at first increased
by dx, where dx is so small that F can be considered constant, then the small work done, dW is given
by,
dW = F dx … (8.8)
The total work done on increasing the extension from 0 to e is then,
e
W =  F dx … (8.9)
0
If the wire obeys Hooke's law, then F = kx; where k = constant.
e 1
∴ W =  kx dx = 2 ke2 …(8.10) L.
0
Alternatively, since F = ke, substituting for k in equation (8.10) gives,
1
W = 2 Fe
1 x dx
W = 2 × stretching force × extension e
When wire is stretched, work

Energy of stretched string can be done is against the internal
determined from the graphical method. F = mg
restoring force acting between
The area under F-e curve gives the elastic the particles (molecules) of the Fig. 8.13: Tensile stress and
strain energy. tensile strain
wire. This work done appears
1 as elastic potential energy in the wire which is also called as
Area = 2 area of shaded region.
the strain energy stored in the wire. On the molecular level,
1 1 this corresponds to the increased potential energy of the
= 2 AB . OB = 2 F.e
molecules which results from their increased separation.
1
∴ Strain energy = 2 Fe … (8.11)
A wire of length L and cross-sectional area A has a volume

AL and therefore,
1
2 Fe 1 F e
Strain energy per unit volume (U) = AL = 2 A × L
1
∴ Elastic energy density (U) = 2 stress × strain ... (8.12)
EXAMPLE 5: A wire 2 m long and cross-sectional area 10–6 m2 is stretched 1 mm by a force of 50 N in the elastic region.
Calculate (i) the strain (ii) the Young modulus (iii) the energy stored in the wire.
SOLUTION
Given, stress 50
∴ Young's modulus, Y = strain = 10–6 × 2000
Original length (L) = 2 m, Force(F)= 50 N
Cross-section area (A) = 10–6 m2, = 1011 Nm–2
Elongation (e) = 1 × 10–3 m 1
(iii) Energy stored in the wire, W = 2 Fe
e 10–3 1
(i) Strain = L = 2 = 200 1
= 2 × 50 × 10–3 = 0.025 J
F 50
(ii) Stress = A = 10–6
 Check Point: When the load on a wire is increased from 3 kg wt to 5 kg wt, the elongation increases
from 0.61 mm to 1.02 mm. How much work is done during the extension of the wire?
Ans: 16.35 × 10–3 J

Poisson's Ratio (σ)

When a rod or wire is subjected to a tensile force, there is increase in dimension of the rod or wire
along the direction of force. The increase in dimension per unit original dimension along the direction of
applied force is called longitudinal strain (α).
Similarly, there is decrease in dimension of the rod or wire in the direction perpendicular to applied
force. This decrease in dimension per unit original dimension perpendicular to the direction of applied force is
called lateral strain (β).
More accurately, instead of using 'increase' or 'decrease', it is preferred to use the term 'change'.
Experimentally, it is found that, lateral strain is directly proportional to the longitudinal strain within
elastic limit.
i.e, β∝α
or, β=σα
β
∴ σ= ... (8.13)
α
where, σ is the elastic constant known as Poisson's ratio.
Thus, Poisson's ratio is the ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain.
L e
d d – Δd F
Fig. 8.14: Extension of a wire demonstrating lateral and longitudinal strain
Let us consider a wire of original length 'L' and diameter 'd' is stretched by force 'F' as shown in Fig.
8.14. Let 'e' be the increase in length and Δd be the decrease in diameter. Then,
– Δd
Lateral strain = d (–ve sign shows that if length increases then diameter decreases)
e
Longitudinal strain = L
– Δd/d
or, σ = e/L
Δd L
∴ σ =–⎛d⎞ e … (8.14)
⎝ ⎠
Being just a ratio between two strains, Poisson's ratio is a pure number having no units and
dimension. It's value usually lies between 0.2 to 0.4.
Notes:
The relation between Y, K, η, and σ :
3K – 2η 9 3 1
(i) Y = 3K (1 – 2σ) (ii) Y = 2η (1 + σ) (iii) σ = (iv) Y = + K .
6K + 2η η
Elastic after Effect

Some materials such as quartz fibre, phosphor bronze, etc., regain their original configuration
instantaneously after the removal of deforming forces while other materials such as glass fibres take
appreciably long time to do so.

This temporary delay in regaining the original configuration by a body after the deforming forces have been
removed is called elastic after effect.
The elastic after effect is negligibly small for quartz fibre, phosphor bronze, etc., while it is large for
glass fibres. A glass fibre will take hours to regain its original configuration.
Elastic Fatigue
A material gradually losses its elastic strength due to the repeated alternating strains. We are familiar
with an example in our daily practice that a hard wire can be broken by bending it repeatedly in
opposite direction. This loss of elastic behaviour is called elastic fatigue or elastic tiredness.
Therefore, elastic fatigue is defined as the loss of elastic strength of a material caused due to repeated
alternating strains to which the material is subjected. For the same reason, a bridge after long use, is
declared unsafe. Similarly, due to the same reason, spring balance shows wrong reading after long
use.
Elastic Hysteresis
When a material (like rubber) is stretched a few times its natural loading B
Stress
length, it returns to its original length after removing of the forces.
A
This proverty arises from their molecular arrangements. The
elastic behaviour of a material can be studied with stress-strain unloading
curve. The stress-strain curve is distinctly different in rubber than C
that of a metallic wire. The stress-strain curve for rubber cord is O Strain
shown in Fig. 8.15. Fig. 8.15: Stress-strain curve for rubber
The rubber extends (i.e., gains strain) when deferming force (i.e., stress) is applied in it. When the
deforming force is gradually reduced, the original curve is not retracted, although the sample rubber
finally acquires its natural length. The work done by the material in returning to its original shape is
less than the workdone by the deforming force. This difference of energy is absorbed by the material
and appears as heat. This phenomenon is called elastic hysteresis.
Elastic hysteresis has an important application in shock waves. A part of energy transferred by the
deforming force is retained in a shock absorber and only a small part of it is transmitted to the body
to which the shock absorber is attached.
Consider a material subjected to a full cycle of increasing and decreasing load as shown in
Fig 8.15. For increasing load, the stress-strain curve is OAB and for decreasing load, the curve is
BCO.
The area under the curve OAB represents the work done per unit volume in stretching the rubber.
The area under the curve BCO represents the energy given up by rubber on unloading. So, the
shaded area of the hysteresis loop is the difference between these two energies which represents the
total energy lost as heat during the loading-unloading cycle.
There are some applications of elastic hysteresis:
(i) Car tyres are made with synthetic rubbers having small hysteresis loops because the tyre made
of such rubber will not get excessively heated during the journey.
(ii) A padding of vulcanized rubber having large hysteresis loop is used in shock absorber between
the vibrating system and the flat board. As the rubber is compressed and released during each
vibration, it dissipates a large amount of vibrational energy.

Factors affecting Elasticity

The factors that affect the elasticity of a material are discussed below:
(a) Effect of temperature: A change in temperature affects the elastic properties of a material. In
general, a rise in temperature results in weakening of the elastic properties and a fall in
temperature in strengthening them. However, the elasticity of invar does not change with
temperature.
(b) Effects of the presence of impurities: The effect of the addition of impurities in a material may
increase or decrease the elastic properties according as the impurities are themselves more
elastic or plastic than the materials to which they are added.
(c) Effects of hammering and rolling: Hammering and rolling breaks up the crystal grains into
smaller units, which strengthens the elastic properties.
(d) Effect of annealing: Annealing refers to a form of heat treatment applied to a metal to soften it
and then allowing it to cool slowly. Such process tends to orient the crystal grains into one
particular direction thus forming a larger crystal grains. Hence, the elasticity of the material
decreases.
Tips for MCQs
Quantitative Tips
Force F
1. Whether the stress is tangential or normal, it is determined with the formula, stress = Area = A .
dF F
Normal stress is similar to pressure. So, dP = dA , or simply P = A .
2. Formulae for the various types of strains are:
Change in length ΔL e
(i) Longitudinal strain = Original length = L = L ; where, e (= ΔL) is elongation, i.e., difference
of final length and original length.
Change in volume ΔV
(ii) Volumetric strain = Original volume = V ; where, ΔV is the difference of final volume and
original volume.
(iii) Shear strain = angle of deviation from the original position = θ
3. The strain is taken positive, if the stress increases the physical dimensions of a body. The strain is
taken negative, if the stress decreases the physical dimensions of a body.
4. Hooke’s law: Stress ∝ strain
or, Stress = constant × strain.
Stress
So, constant = Strain . This constant is called Modulus of elasticity.
Normal stress FL
5. Moduli of elasticity: (i) Young’s modulus of elasticity (Y) = Longitudional strain = Ae .
Normal stress – dP V
(i) Bulk modulus of elasticity (K) = volume strain = .
ΔV
1
The reciprocal of bulk modulus of elasticity is known as compressibility (κ) . i.e., κ = K . So
ΔV
κ = – dP V . Negative sign shows the volume contraction on applying stress.

dP
(ii) In the expansion of gas, ΔV = γVΔT. Bulk modulus , K =
γΔT
where, γ = cubical expansivity and ΔT = change in temperature.
tangential stress F
(iii) Modulus of rigidity, η = shear strain = .
Aθ
6. Total potential energy stored in the stretched wire,
1 1
W = 2 F.e = 2 stress × strain × volume of wire
1
Energy density, U = 2 stress × strain.
1 1
7. If the potential energy of stretched wire provides the kinetic energy for a missile, we use, 2 F.e = 2
mv2, where 'm' and 'v' are mass and velocity of the missile.
lateral strain – Δd/d
8. The Poisson’s ratio, σ = longitudional strain = .
ΔL/L
Conceptual Tips
1. No body is perfectly elastic or perfectly plastic. All the bodies found in nature lie between these two
limits. When the elastic behavior of a body decreases, its plastic behavior increases.
2. Stress and pressure have same dimensions: the pressure is produced due to the force applied
externally; however the stress is produced due to the restoring force (i.e., internally).
3. Hooke’s law is valid only in the linear region of the stress-strain curve. This law is not valid for large
values of stress.
4. When a wire hanging on a ceiling is stretched by a weight (F) suspended from its lower end, the
ceiling exerts a force on the wire equal and opposite to the weight F. But the tension at any cross
section A of the wire is just F and not 2F. Hence the tensile stress which is equal to the tension per
F
unit area is equal to A .
5. Elastic deformations in all bodies become plastic deformation with time.
6. As only solids have length and shape, Young’s modulus and shear modulus are relevant only for
solids.
7. As solids, liquids and gases all have volume elasticity, bulk modulus is relevant for all three states of
matter.
8. Elasticity has different meaning in physics than that in daily life. In daily life, a material which
stretches more is said to be more elastic, but it is general conception. In physics, a material which
stretches to a lesser extent for a given load is considered to be more elastic.
9. Physically, the materials which have high moduli of elasticity are those which are more elastic. It
means these materials need very large force to deform and these types of materials are used in
construction of buildings and bridges. The modulus of elasticity decreases on heating the materials.
Quick Reply
1. Why ordinary thinking on elasticity is different from physicist?
 Ordinary people think that more elastic body can be extended long length, however the meaning of
elasticity different in physics. In accordance with the thinking of physicists, it is the tendency of
regaining the shape and size after releasing stretched or compressed force.
2. What is the value of young's modulus for a perfectly rigid body?
 The young's modulus of elasticity (Y) of perfectly rigid body is infinity, because of its no extension
property.

3. What is the special character of rubber, due to which it is used as a vibration absorbs?
 The area of elastic hysterisis curve is large. It means it can absorb relatively large amount of energy
of vibration.
4. What are the unit and dimension of poisson's ratio?
 Poisson's ratio has no unit and is dimensionless.

1. What happens to the Young's modulus of elasticity of a material when the load hanging on it is
doubled?
 The Young's modulus of elasticity for a material is a constant quantity. It depends on the nature of
material, but not on what stress is applied to it. Therefore, Young's modulus of elasticity remains
same although the load hanging on it is doubled.
2. Steel bridges are declared unsafe after a few decades of use. Why?
 The long use of steel bridges makes the gradual loss of its elasticity. The loss of elastic behaviour due
to the regular elongation and contraction of materials is known as elastic fatigue. Since the material
reaches on elastic fatigue after a few decades of use, the bridges are declared as they may break at
any time.
3. Explain in terms of breaking stress, why elephant has thicker legs as compared to human beings.
 Breaking stress is the ratio of maximum load to which the wire is subjected to the original cross
sectional area.
Maximum load
∴ Breaking stress = Original cross sectional area
Maximum load = Breaking stress × Original cross-sectional area
This shows that maximum load bearing capacity of a material is directly proportional to the cross
sectional area. As the elephant has heavier load of its body, it should have larger cross sectional area
of its legs.
4. Explain why steel is said to be more elastic than rubber.
 They body which has more modulus of elasticity is known as more elastic body. In solid material, we
compare the elasticity from modulus of elasticity. From the definition of Young's modulus of
elasticity,
FL
Y = eA
For constant force applied for steel and rubber having same cross section and same length,
1
Y∝e
1
i. For steel, Ys ∝ e … (i)
s
1
ii. For rubber, Yr ∝ e … (ii)
r
Dividing equation (i) and equation (ii), we get,
Ys er
Yr = es
As we know the extension of rubber (er) is greater than extension of steel (es) for equal determing
force. Hence, Ys > Yr.
It concludes that steel is more elastic than rubber.

5. What happens to the modulus of elasticity of most of the materials with increases in temperature?
Why?
 As the temperature increases, the inter-atomic forces of attraction become weaker. For given stress, a
larger strain or deformation is produced at a higher temperature. Hence, the modulus of elasticity
decreases with increase of temperature.
6. Two wires A and B have equal lengths and are made of some material. If the diameter of wire A is
twice that of a wire B, which wire has the greater extension for a given load?
 Let d1 and d2 be the diameters of two wires A and B respectively.
Given d1 = 2d2
πd12
So, A1 = 4 and
πd22 π d1 2 1 πd12 1
A2 = 4 = 4 ⎛ 2 ⎞ = 4 ⎛ 4 ⎞ = 4 A1
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
The extension of wire is,
LF
e = YA
LF
So, e1 = YA … (i) and
1
LF
e2 = YA … (ii)
2
Dividing equation (ii) by equation (i)
e2 A 1
e1 = A 2 = 4
∴ e2 = 4e1
The extension on wire B (thinner one) is 4 times greater than that on wire A for same load.
7. Why are rubbers used as vibration absorber?
 The rubber can be compressed or stretched easily because of its coiled form of molecules. The area of
elastic hysteresis loop of rubber is large. It means the rubber can store the energy in potential form
and finally converts it into the heat energy. Thus, the rubber absorbs vibrational kinetic energy and
releases slowly to heat energy. Hence rubbers are used as vibration absorber.
Worked Out Problems

1. A spherical ball contracts in volume by 0.1%, when subjected to a normal uniform pressure of 100
atmospheres. Calculate the bulk modulus of the material of the ball.
SOLUTION
ΔV 0.1
Give, Volume strain ⎛ V ⎞ = 0.1% = 100 = 10−3
⎝ ⎠
Atmospheric pressure (P) = 100 atm
= 100 × 1.01 × 105 N m−2 = 101 × 105 N m−2
F
Hence, the normal stress ⎛A⎞ = P = 101 × 105 N m−2
⎝ ⎠
Now,
Normal stress 101 × 105
The bulk modulus (K) = Volume strain = = 101 × 108 = 1.01 × 1010 N m−2
10−3

2. The breaking stress for a metal is 15.6 × 109 Nm–2. Calculate the maximum length of the wire made of
this metal which may be suspended without breaking. The density of the metal = 7.8 × 103 kgm–3.
Take g = 9.8 Nkg–1
SOLUTION
The maximum stress that the wire can withstand is called breaking stress.
Here, breaking stress = 15.6 × 109 Nm–2
When the wire is suspended vertically it tends Now, for the wire not to break,
to break under its own weight. Let L be the Lρg > 15.6 × 109
length and A be the cross sectional area of the
15.6 × 109
wire, ∴ L > = 2.04 × 105 m = 204 km.
7.8 × 103 × 9.8
Weight of the wire,
The maximum length of the wire which may be
W = mg = Vρg = ALρg
suspended without breaking is 204 km.
Weight ALρg
Stress = A = A = Lρg
3. A uniform steel wire of density 8000 kgm-3 weight 20 g and is 2.5 m long. It lengthens by 1 mm when
stretched by a force of 80 N. Calculate the value of the Young's modulus of steel and the energy
stored in the wire.
SOLUTION
Given, m
A=
Density of steel (ρ) = 8000 kgm–3 ρl
Mass of steel (m) = 20 g = 0.0120 kg Again,
Length of wire (l) = 2.5 m F/A Fl Fl Fl2 ρ
Y = e/l = Ae = m = em
Elongation (e) = 1 mm = 1 × 10–3m e
Force (F) = 80 N ρl
Young's modules of Elasticity (Y) = ? 80 × 2.52 × 8000
= 1 × 10–3 × 0.02
Energy stored (E) = ?
We have, = 2 × 1011 N/m2
m Again,
ρ= V 1 1
E = 2 Fe = 2 × 80 × 1 × 10–3
m
ρ = Al = 40 × 10–3 J
4. A railway track uses long welded steel rails which are prevented from expanding by friction in the
clamps. If the cross-sectional area of each rail is 75 cm2. What is the elastic energy stored per
kilometer of track when its temperature is raised by 10ºC? (Linear expansivity of steel = 1.2 × 10–5 k–1,
Young modulus of steel = 2 × 1011 Nm2)
SOLUTION
Area (A) = 75 cm2 = 75 × 10–4 m2
Change in temperature (dθ) = 10ºC
Linear expansivity (α) = 1.2 × 10–5 K–1
Young modulus (Y) = 2 × 1011 N/m2
Let the original length be l
Change in length (dl) = αldθ
αldθ
∴ Strain = l = α dθ = 1.2 × 10−5 × 10 = 1.2 × 10–4
Now, Stress = strain × Y = 1.2 × 10−4 × 2 × 1011 = 2.4 × 107 N/m2
∴ Tension in railway track (F) = Stress × A = 2.4 × 107 × 75 × 10−4 = 1.8 × 105 N
1 1 α l dθ 1
Now, Energy stored per meter = 2 F × dl = 2 F × ⎛ l ⎞ = 2 × 1.8 × 105 × 1.2 × 10−4 = 10.8 J
⎝ ⎠
∴ Energy Y stored per km = 10.8 × 1000 J = 10800 J
5. A steel wire of diameter 0.8 mm and length 1 m is clamped firmly at two points A and B which are
one meter apart and in the same horizontal plane. A body is hung from the middle part of the wire
such that the middle point sags 1 cm lower from the original position. Calculate the stress applied on
the wire and the mass of the body. Given Y = 2 × 1011 Nm–2.
SOLUTION
Given, Taking half length,
Length (L) = 1 m = 100 cm Y eA
Diameter (d) = 0.8 mm = 0.08 cm F= L
Downfall (x) = 1 cm (as shown in fig.) F Ye
A= L
Here, e = BC – BD
And, BC = BD2 + CD2
= 502 + 12
∴ BC = 50.01 cm.
∴ e = 50.01 – 50 = 0.01 cm
F 2 × 1011 × 0.01
∴ A = 50
= 4 × 107 Nm–2
Also, F = 4 × 107 × 5.03 × 10–7 = 20.12 N
Here, the load is balanced by vertically upward
components of segments of wire,
i.e., 2T cos θ = mg
Originally, the wire was at horizontal 2T cos θ
length AB. When a load mg is hung from m = g
the mid-point, the wire like the ABC. 2 × 20.12 1
Here, AC = CB = 50 cm (identical length) = 9.8 × 50.01
Also, given CD = 1 cm = 8.2 × 10–2 kg.
π d2
A= 4
π (0.08 × 10–2)2
= 4 = 5.03 × 10–7 m2
6. How much force is required to punch a hole 1 cm in diameter in a steel sheet 5 mm thick whose
shearing strength is 2.76 × 108 Nm−2 ?
SOLUTION
Given,
Diameter of hole (d) = 1 cm = 0.01 m
Thickness of sheet (t) = 5 mm = 5 × 10–3 m
Shearing strength (η) = 2.76 ×108 Nm–2
Force required (F) = ?
We have,
F
Shear strength = A [Length of circumference, l = 2πr ∴ A = l × t = 2πr × t = πd.t]
F
or, 2.76 × 108 =
π.d.t
F = 2.76 × 108 × π × 0.01 × 5 × 10–3 = 4.34 × 105 N

7. A metal slab has cross-sectional area 50 × 5 cm2. Its 5 cm side is rigidly fixed and a tangential force of
105 N is applied at its upper face along the length of the slab. How much is the upper edge displaced
if shear modulus of metal is 5.6 × 103 Nm–2.
SOLUTION
Cross sectional area of slab (A) = 50 × 5 cm2 Fh
η=
= 250 cm2 = 250 × 10−4 m2 = 0.025 m2 A×x
Side length (h) = 5 cm = 0.05 m 105 × 0.05
or, 5.6 × 109 =
Tangential force (F) = 105 N 0.025 × x
Shear modulus of metal (η) = 5.6× 109 Nm–2 0.05 × 105
Displacement of upper edge (x) = ? x=
5.6 × 109 × 0.025
Tangential stress ∴ x = 3.6 × 10–5 m
We have, η = Shear strain

1. A relaxed biceps muscle requires a force of 25.0 N for an elongation of 3.0 cm; the same muscle under
maximum tension requires a force of 5000 N for the same elongation. Find Young's modulus for the
muscle tissue under each of these conditions if the muscle is assumed to be a uniform cylinder with
length 0.200 m and cross-sectional area 50.0 cm2. Ans: 3.33 × 104 Nm–2, 6.67 × 106 Nm–2
2. Two rods, one steel and the other copper, are joined end to end. Each rod is 0.750 m long and 1.50 cm
in diameter. The combination is subjected to a tensile force with magnitude 400 N. For each rod, what
is (a) the strain? (b) the elongation?
Ans: (a) 1.13 × 10 – 5 , 1.88 × 10 – 5 (b) 8.47 × 10 – 6 m, 1.41 × 10 – 5 m
3. In construction a large mobile, an artist hangs an aluminum sphere of mass 6.0 kg from a vertical
steel wire 0.50 m long and 2.5 × 10–3 cm2 in cross-sectional area. On the bottom of the sphere, he
attaches a similar steel wire, from which he hangs a brass cube of mass 10.0 kg. For each wire,
compute (a) the tensile strain and (b) the elongation.
Ans: (a) upper: 3.1 × 10 – 3 ; lower: 2.0 × 10 – 3 ; (b) upper: 1.6 mm, lower: 0.98mm
4. A steel cable with cross-sectional area 3.00 cm2 has an elastic limit of 2.40 × 108 Pa. Find the maximum
upward acceleration that can be given a 1200 kg elevator supported by the cable if the stress is not to
exceed one-third of the elastic limit. Ans:10.2 m s–2
5. A spring is extended by 30 mm when a force of 1.5 N is applied to it. Calculate the energy stored in
the spring when hanging vertically supporting a mass of 0.20 kg if the spring was unstretched before
applying the mass. Calculate the loss in potential energy of the mass.
Ans: 0.04 J, 0.08 J
6. If the Young modulus for steel is 2.00 × 1011 Nm–2, calculate the work done in stretching a steel wire
100 cm in length and of cross-sectional area 0.030 cm2 when a load of 100 N is slowly applied without
the elastic limit being reached. Ans: 8.3 × 10–3 J
7. A uniform steel wire of density 7800 kgm–3 weighs 16 g and is 250 cm long. It lengthens by 1.2 mm
when stretched by a force of 80 N. Calculate (a) the value of the Young modulus for the steel, (b) the
energy stored in the wire. Ans: 2.0 × 1011 Nm–2, 4.8 × 10–2 J
8. A wire of length 3.0 m and cross-sectional area 1.0 × 10 m has a mass of 15 kg hung on it. What is
–6 2
the stress produced in the wire? (g = 9.8 ms–2). If the Young's modulus for the material is 2.0 × 1011
Nm , what is the extension produced? When extended how much energy is stored in the wire?
–2
Ans: 1.47 × 108 Nm–2, 2.2 mm, 0.162 J
9. The rubber cord of a catapult has a cross-sectional area 1.0 mm2
and a total unstretched length 10.0
cm. It is stretched to 12.0 cm and then released to project a missile of mass 5.0 g. From energy
considerations, or otherwise, calculate the velocity of projection, taking the Young modulus for the
rubber as 5.0 × 108 N m–2. Ans: 20 ms – 1

Exercise
1. Why a body tends to compressed, if you extend it?
2. What are the unit and dimension of young's modulus of elasticity?
3. What happens in the body, if the stress in it exceeds breaking stress?
4. What is elastic hysteresis?
5. What is the value of young's modulus of elasticity for a perfectly plastic body?
6. What does the slope of force-extension graph give?
1
7. A factor 2 arises in the expression of energy stored in stretched wire. Does it have physical meaning?
8. Write the formula of energy density in terms of stress and strain.
9. Two wires of iron have different cross-sectional area. Do they have different young's modulus of
elasticity?
10. Write two familiar examples of modulus of rigidity.
11. What is basic requirement of body to be rigid?
Short Questions
1. Why interatomic forces are called short range forces?
2. Stress and pressure are both forces per unit area. Then in what respect does stress differ from
pressure?
3. What are elastic limit and breaking stress?
4. Differentiate between elasticity and plasticity?
5. On what sense, the definition of elasticity is understood by a physicist different from general
understanding of people?
6. If a wire is cut into half, what happens to its Young’s modulus of elasticity?
7. Two identical springs of steel and copper are pulled by applying equal force, then in which case
more work will have to be done?
8. A hard wire is broken by bending it repeatedly in alternating directions. Why?
9. A wire fixed at the upper end stretches by length L and radius r is Y. What is the work done in
stretching the wire?
10. Why are the springs made up of steel, not with copper?
11. Among solids, liquids and gases, which can have all three moduli of elasticity?
12. Why does the slope of stress versus strain graph give?
13. How does modulus of elasticity change with the rise of temperature?
14. What do you mean by 'Elastic after Effect'?
15. A steel wire is stretched by a weight of 400 N. If the radius of the wire is doubled, how will Young's
modulus of the wire is affected?
16. What do you understand by compressibility?
17. Compare the mechanical properties of a steel cable, made by twisting many thin wires together, with
those of solid steel rod of the same diameter.
18. What is the origin of inter-atomic force?
19. A thick wire is suspended from a rigid support, but no load is attached to its free end. Is this wire
under stress?
20. Why are springs made of steel and not of copper?
21. Why does a wire get heated when it is bent back and forth?
22. Why a spring balance does not give correct measurement, when it has been used for a long time?
23. What is elastic after effect?
24. Why is water more elastic than air?

Long Questions
1. Define stress. What are the types of stress that you have studied? Describe with suitable examples.
2. Define strain. What are the types of strain that you have studied? Describe with suitable examples.
3. Define Hooke's law and hence define modulus of elasticity.
4. Define the terms Young's modulus, Bulk modulus and modulus of rigidity. Also give their units.
1
5. Show that work done by a stretching force to produce certain extension in the wire is given by W = 2
stretching force × extension.
6. Derive the expression for the energy stored in a stretched wire. Define the term energy density of a
body under strain.
7. Define elastic limit and Young’s modulus of elasticity. Explain how would you determine Young’s
modulus of elasticity for a material in the form of a wire.
8. Define Hooke's law and elastic limit. Verify Hooke's law experimentally.
9. Define Poisson’s ratio. Derive the expression for energy stored in a stretched wire.
10. Define Young’s modulus, Bulk modulus, Modulus of rigidity and Poisson’s ratio.

LEVEL I
1. A steel wire of length 4.7 m and cross-section 3.0 × 10-5 m2 stretches by the same amount as copper
wire of length 3.5 m and cross-section 4.0 × 10-5 m2 under a given load. What is the ratio of the
Young’s modulus of steel to that of copper? Ans: 1.79
2. A 40 kg boy whose leg bones are 4 cm2 in area and 50 m long falls through a height of 2 m without
breaking his leg bones. If the bones can stand a stress of 0.9 × 108 Nm-2, calculate the Young’s
modulus for the material of the bone. [Take g = 10 ms-2]
3. A wire of cross-sectional area 4 × 10-4 m2, modulus of elasticity 2 × 1011 Nm-2 and length 1 m is
stretched between two rigid poles. A mass of 1 kg is suspended at its middle. Calculate the angle it
–3
makes with horizontal. [Take g = 10 ms-2] Ans: 5 × 10 rad
4. A steel wire 2 mm in diameter is stretched between two clamps, when its temperature is 400C.
Calculate the tension in the wire when its temperature falls to 300C. [Given: coefficient of linear
-6 -1 11 -2
expansion of steel = 11 × 10 °C and Y for steel = 2.0 × 10 dyne cm ] Ans:72.5 N
5. If the Young’s modulus of steel is 2 × 1011 Nm-2, calculate the work done in stretching a steel wire
100 cm in length and of cross-sectional area 0.03 cm2 when a load of 20 kg is slowly applied without
the elastic limit being reached. Ans: 0.032 J
6. A wire of cross-section 3.0 mm2 and natural length 50 cm is fixed at one end and a mass of 2.1 kg is
hung from the other end. Find the elastic potential energy stored in the wire in the steady state
–4
[Young’s modulus of the wire is 1.9 × 1011 Nm-2 and g = 10 ms-2] Ans: 1.9 × 10 J
7. What force would be required to stretch a wire of 3 × 10-4 m2 cross section, so that its length becomes
2.5 times its original length? Given that Young’s modulus of the material of the wire is 3.6 × 1012 dyne
cm-2. Ans: 1.62 × 108 N
8. A solid sphere of radius 10 cm is subjected to a uniform pressure equal to 5 × 108 Nm-2. Calculate the
change in volume. Bulk modulus of the material of the sphere is 3.14 × 1011 Nm-2. Ans: 6.67 × 10-6 m2
9. A wire 2 m long and cross-sectional area 10-6 m2 is stretched 1 mm by a force of 50 N in the elastic
region. Calculate (i) the strain (ii) the Young modulus (iii) the energy stored in the wire.
Ans: 1/200, 10 1 1 Nm - 2 , 0.025 J
10. A specimen of oil having an initial volume of 600 cm3
is subjected to a pressure increase of
3.6 × 106 Pa, and the volume is found to decrease by 0.45 cm3. What is the bulk modulus of the
material? The compressibility? Ans: 2.1 × 10-10 P-1

11. A uniform steel wire of density 7800 kgm–3 weights 16 g and is 250 cm. It lengthens by 1.2 mm when
a load of 8 kg is applied. Calculate the value Young's modulus for the steel and the energy stored in
the wire. Ans: 2.0× 1011 N/m2, 4.8 × 10–2 J
12. A wire of length 2.5 m and area of cross-section 1 × 10-6 m2 has a mass of 15 kg hanging on it. What is
the extension produced? How much is the energy stored in the extended wire if Young's modulus of
wire is 2 × 1011 Nm-2. Ans: 1.9 × 10–3 m, 0.14 J
13. [A circular steel wire 2.00 m long must stretch no more than 0.25 cm when a tensile force of 400 N
is applied to each end of the wire. What minimum diameter is required for the wire?
Ans: 1.43 × 10 – 3 m
14. A metal rod that is 4.00 m long and 0.50 cm2 in cross-sectional area is found to stretch 0.20 cm under
a tension of 500 N. What is Young's modulus for this material? Ans: 2.0 × 1011 Nm–2
15. A force of 20 N is applied to the ends of a wire 4 m long, and produces an extension of 0.24 mm. If
the diameter of the wire is 2 mm, calculate the stress on the wire, its strain, and the value of the
Young modulus. Ans: 6.4 × 106 N m–2, 6 × 10–5, 1.1 × 1011 Nm–2
16. What force must be applied to a steel wire 6 m long and diameter 1.6 mm to produce an extension of
1 mm? (Young modulus for steel = 2.0 × 1011 Nm–2) Ans: 67 N
17. A vertical brass rod of circular section is loaded by placing a 5 kg weight on top of it. If its length is
50 cm, its radius of cross-section 1 cm and the Young modulus of the material 3.5 × 1010 N m–2, find
(a) the contraction of the rod (b) the energy stored in it. Ans: (a) 2.27 × 10–6 m (b) 5.7 × 10–5 J
LEVEL II
1. If a compressive force of 3.0 × 104 N is exerted on the end of 20 cm long bone of cross-sectional area
3.6 cm2.
i. Will the bone break? ii. If not, by how much does it shorten?
Given compressive strength of bone = 7.7 × 108 Nm-2 and young’s modulus of bone = 1.5 × 1010 Nm-2
Ans: i. NO because the stress applied on the bone is less than its compressive strength ii. 1.11 mm
2. A load of 31.4 kg is suspended from a wire of radius 10-3 m and density 9 × 103 kgm-3. Calculate the
change in temperature of the wire if 75% of the work done is converted into heat. The Young’s
modulus and the specific heat of the material of the wire are 9.8 × 1010 Nm-2 and 490 J kg-1 K-1
1
respectively. Ans:
120
K
3. The upper face of a cube of edge 1 m moves through a distance of 1 mm relative to the lower fixed
face under the action of a tangential force of 1.5 × 108 N. Calculate the tangential stress, shear strain
8 –2 11 –2
and the modulus of rigidity. Ans: 1.5 × 10 Nm , 0.001 rad, 1.5 × 10 Nm
4. The limiting stress for a typical human bone is 0.9 × 108 Nm-2. How much energy can be absorbed by
two legs (without breaking) if each has a typical length of 50 cm and an average cross-sectional area
of 5 cm2? Ans: 144.7 J
5. The rubber cord of a catapult has a cross-sectional area of 4.0 × 10-6 m2 and a total unstretched length
10.0 cm. It is stretched to 12.0 cm and then released to project a missile of mass 5.0 g. From energy
considerations, or otherwise, calculate the velocity of projection, taking the Young's modulus for the
rubber as 5 × 108 Nm-2. Ans: 447.21 m/s
6. Two parallel steel wires A and B are fixed to rigid support at the upper ends and subjected to the
same load at the lower ends. The lengths of the wires are in the ratio 4:5 and their radii are in the
ratio 4:3. The increase in the length of the wire A is 1mm. Calculate the increase in the length of the
wire B. Ans: 2.22 mm
7. A petite young woman distributes her 500 N weight equally over the heels of her high-heeled shoes.
Each heel has an area of 0.750 cm2. (a) What is the pressure exerted on the floor by each heel? (b)
With the same pressure, how much weight could be supported by two flat-bottomed sandals, each of
area 200 cm2? Ans: (a) 6.67 × 106 Pa (b) 1.33 × 105 N

8. What stress would cause a wire to increase in length by one-tenth of one percent if the Young
modulus for the wire is 12 × 1010 Nm–2? What force would produce this stress if the diameter of the
wire is 0.56 mm? Ans: 1.2 × 108 Nm–2, 29.6 N
9. A structural steel road has a radius of 5 mm and a length of 2 m. A 1.0 × 105 N force F stretches it
along its length. Calculate (a) the stress (b) elongation and (c) strain on the rod. Given that the
–3
Young's modulus, Y of the structural steel is 2.0 × 1011 Nm–2. Ans: (a) 1.2 × 109 N m−2 (b) 0.013 m (c) 6.37 × 10
10. A composite wire of uniform diameter 2 mm consisting of a copper wire of length 2.2 m and a steel
wire of length 1.6 m stretches under a load by 0.8 mm. Calculate the load, given that the Young's
modulus for copper is 1.1 × 1011 Nm–2 and for steel is 2.0 × 1011 Nm–2. Ans: 86.69 N

1. What is the Young's modulus of elasticity for a perfectly rigid body?
a. infinity b. zero c. 1 d. –1
2. If S is stress and Y is Young's modulus of materials of a wire, the energy stored in the wire per unit
volume is
2Y S 2 S2
a. b. 2Y c. 2S Y d. 2Y
S2
3. The length of an elastic spring is a when the tension is 4 N and it is b when the tension is 5 N. The
length when the tension is 9 N is
a. a + b b. 4a + 5b c. 9g – 9b d. 9b – 9a
4. A gas has bulk modulus K and natural density ρ. If pressure P is applied, what is change in density?
K PK Pρ Kρ
a. b. c. K d. P
Pρ ρ
5. A wire of length L and area of cross-section A is made of material of Young's modulus Y. If the wire
is stretched by the amount x, the work done is
YAx2 YAx YAx2
a. 2L b. YAx2L c. 2L d. L
6. The Young's modulus of the material of the wire is 2 × 1010 N m–2. If the elongation strain is 1%, then
the energy stored in the wire per unit volume in J m–3 is
a. 106 b. 108 c. 2 × 106 d. 2 × 108
7. Two wires of the same material and same length but diameters in the ratio 1 : 2 are stretched by the
same force. The potential energy per unit volume of the two wires will be in the ratio
a. 1 : 2 b. 4 : 1 c. 2 : 1 d. 16 : 1
8. The density of a solid at normal pressure is ρ. When the solid is subjected to an excess pressure p, the
ρ'
density changes to ρ'. If the bulk modulus of the solid is k, then the ratio is
ρ
p k p k
a. 1 + k b. 1 + p c. p + k d. p + k
9. A steel rod has a radius R = 9.5 mm and length L = 81 cm. A force F = 6.2 × 104 N stretches it along its
length. What is the stress in the rod?
a. 0.95 × 108 N m–2 b. 1.1 × 108 N m–2 c. 2.2 × 108 N m–2 d. 3.2 × 108 N m–2
10. A wire having cross-sectional area 4 mm2 undergoes an extension of 0.1 mm under a certain load. If
its cross-sectional area is increased to 8 mm2 with the some length maintained under the same load,
then its extension is
a. 0.1 mm b. 0.025 mm c. 0.05 mm d. 0.25 mm
ANSWERS
1. (a) 2. (d) 3. (d) 4. (c) 5. (a) 6. (a) 7. (d) 8. (a) 9. (c) 10. (c)

UNIT 2
HEAT
The main aim of this section is to develop the skill on quantitative measurement of heat
and temperature, and their effects on various states of matter. To fulfill this aim, the
major objectives are put forth in this unit.
1. Heat and Temperature: Make the learners to know the measurement of heat
energy and temperature.
2. Thermal Expansion: Provide the knowledge of expansion effect in solid and liquid
due to heat.
3. Quantity of Heat Energy: Convey knowledge on quantitative concepts on
temperature change and phase change of substances.
4. Rate of Heat Flow: Provide the concepts on quantitative measurement of heat
transfer via various methods.
5. Ideal Gas: Make the learners to determine microscopic and macroscopic properties
of gas molecules.

Heat and Temperature | Chapter 9 | 249
HEAT AND
TEMPERATURE
9.1 Introduction
Suppose a man inside a swimming pool is holding a glass of water. The water in the glass is
maintained equally hot as the water of the pool. It means that, the temperature of water in glass he
holds is equal to the temperature of water in swimming pool. What about the quantity of heat? Does
it require equal quantity of heat to raise the temperature of both by the same degree (for example 5°C
each)? The answer is, absolutely not. Swimming pool contains more amount of water, so the water in
the pool definitely requires more amount of heat to raise its temperature to same degree. The
quantity of heat energy depends on the speed of particles and how many particles are moving (i.e.,
total mass of moving particles). It means, the heat energy is influenced by both temperature and
mass of body.
Some Information
Until the nineteenth century scientist believed that heat was a fine fluid (called caloric) hiding in the pores of a
substance which flow like any fluid (liquid or gas). According to caloric theory, every object has a certain amount of
caloric in it. When caloric is added to an object, its temperature increases, and when caloric escapes from it, its
temperature decreases. However, nobody could detect this caloric, so it was assumed to be orderless, tasteless and
invisible.
But caloric theory could not account for the heat generated by friction. If we rub two metal pieces dipped into water
in a beaker, we may actually succeed in boiling the water in the beaker. The amount of heat generated by friction
seems limitless.
Davy and Joule established that heat is a form of energy – arising from mechanical motion of material particles.
According to modern concept of heat, internal energy is the total energy (kinetic, vibrational and rotational) of all
the individual molecules of which an object is made and when this energy flows from one body to another due to
temperature difference then we call this energy as heat energy.
Heat is a form of energy which gives us the sensation of warmth. When a body absorbs heat, the
molecules of the body go on agitation known as thermal agitation. This agitation in molecules
provides kinetic energy to them. Heat energy is measured with a device, called Calorimetre.
Calorimetre does not measure the heat directly as a metre scale measures the length, but it helps us
for the calculation of different physical quantities like mass, change in temperature, specific heat,
latent heat etc., and then using the principle of calorimetry (to be discussed later), we calculate the
quantity of heat energy. The unit of quantity of heat is calorie or joule. It is also measured in British
Thermal Units (BTU).
Temperature is the measurement of degree of hotness or coldness of a body. The extent of hotness or
coldness depends on the average kinetic energy of the molecules in that body. As the temperature
increases, molecular motion increases and therefore, the kinetic energy of particles increases.

Temperature is measured with a device, called thermometer. The SI unit of temperature is kelvin (K).
For convenient measurement, Celsius and Fahrenheit units are used.
Notes:
(i). Transfer of heat from one body to another does not solely depend on difference of quantity of heat but on the
difference of temperature. Heat flows from higher temperature body to lower temperature body.
(ii) Transfer of heat energy from one body to another is a non-mechanical process.
(iii) Capital letter 'K' is used to write 'Kelvin' to symbolize the temperature scale, however unit of temperature is
written kelvin (uncapitalized form of 'k') but it is abbreviated as K. For example, 2 kelvin or 2 K temperature.
9.2 Thermal Equilibrium

When a body at higher temperature is brought in contact to another body at lower temperature, the
hot body cools down and the cold body warms up until both bodies acquire equal temperature. This
is due to the flow of heat from higher temperature body to lower temperature body. This condition
of equal temperature achieved by two bodies kept in contact is known as thermal equilibrium. Net
transfer of heat is zero when two bodies in contact are in thermal equilibrium.
Note: Although the bodies are in thermal equilibrium, heat transfers from one body to another. However, heat
transfer is taken zero because the rate of heat transfers from one body to another remains constant.
The principle of thermal equilibrium is applied in the measurement of temperature. To measure our
body temperature using a mercury thermometer, liquid mercury is used as a thermometric
substance. The liquid mercury in thermometer bulb receives heat from the body. The heat gained by
the mercury causes it to expand and hence its level rises in capillary tube. The new level of mercury
in capillary tube shows the temperature of mercury itself. Because of the thermal equilibrium
between the liquid mercury and our body, this value of temperature is also our body temperature.
The phenomenon of thermal equilibrium is also applicable in cooling heat engines.
9.3 Zeroth Law

Zeroth law states that, “if two bodies A and B are in thermal equilibrium
and, B and C are also in thermal equilibrium, then body A is in thermal
equilibrium with body C.” B
In the Fig. 9.1, body A and body B are connected with a thermal
conductor, so they come in thermal equilibrium. Also, wall between
body B and C is thermally conducting; hence these two bodies are
A C
also in thermal equilibrium. But the wall between A and C is
insulated. Although the wall between A and C is insulated, they are
also in thermal equilibrium. Fig. 9.1: Bodies in thermal equilibrium
Let TA, TB, and TC be the temperatures of bodies A, B and C respectively. If TA = TB and TB = TC, then,
TA = TC.
9.4 Thermometers and Temperature Scales

A device used to measure the temperature is called thermometer. A thermometer is usually a glass
tube essentially consisting of a bulb and a capillary tube extending out from the bulb. The bulb is
filled with a working substance called thermometric liquid which expands over the capillary with

the rise of temperature. The capillary tube is graduated externally marking equally spaced divisions.
This is known as scaling of thermometers.
Now a question arises, how is the scaling done? We determine the two extreme points, upper fixed
point and lower fixed point on some basis and then, divide the length between these points into
equal intervals.
Let us clarify with an example. Suppose, we label a thermometer on the
100° C,
basis of boiling (100°C) and freezing (0°C) point of water which Steam point
Capillary
respectively represent the upper and lower fixed points. We will now tube
divide the distance between 0 and 100 into hundred equally spaced
intervals known as degrees and the resulting scale is the Celsius scale. If we mercury
divide the same length into 180 divisions, it is called Fahrenheit scale, but 0° C,
in this scale, the lower fixed point is at 32°F and upper is at 212°F. Freezing
point of
Similarly, for Kelvin scale, we divide the same length in 100 equal divisions water
but the lower point is at 273 K and upper point is at 373 K. Thus, we see bulb
that in each scale, the same length is divided but the origin is different Fig. 9.2: A thermometer
owing to different scales of temperature. The equivalent values for Kelvin,
Celsius, and Fahrenheit scales are listed below.
Conditions kelvin (K) degree Celsius (°C) degree Fahrenheit (°F)
Water boils 373 100 212
Water freezes 273 0 32
Absolute zero 0 -273 -460
Note: The freezing point of water at standard temperature and pressure is 273.15 K. For the sake of convenience it
is written 273 K.
Let C, F, and K be the temperatures of a body in Celsius, Fahrenheit, and Kelvin scales respectively.
The relation of these scales in equivalent form is written as
C–0 F – 32 K – 273
100 –0 = 212 – 32 = 373 – 273
C F – 32 K – 273
or, 100 = 180 = 100
C F – 32 K – 273
∴ 5 = 9 = 5 … (9.1)
(i) Relation between Celsius and Fahrenheit scales,

C F – 32
5 = 9
5(F – 32)
∴ C= 9 … (9.2)
Similarly,
(ii) Relation between Celsius and Kelvin scales,
C = K – 273
∴ K = C + 273 … (9.3)

EXAMPLE 1: At what temperature will the Celsius scale reading double the Fahrenheit reading?
SOLUTION
Let x be the temperature shown by Fahrenheit 2x x – 32
scale. or, 5 = 9
i.e., F = x. or, 18x = 5x – 160
According to the question, or, 13x = – 160
C = 2x
∴ x = –12.30
From the relation of temperature scales,
So, C = 2x = – 24.60°C
C – 0 F – 32
100 = 180 It means at –24.60°C, Celsius scale reading
is double than the Fahrenheit scale.
2x x – 32
or, 100 = 180
 Check Point: What is the temperature in kelvin scale for 27° C? Ans: 300 K
Absolute Zero
Many experimental results have shown that, at constant volume, every 1°C increase or decrease in
temperature of ideal gas causes the pressure exerted by it to increase or decrease at a constant rate of
1
273.15 of its pressure at 0°C. This fact is explained by Charles' law. According to this law, volume is
directly proportional to temperature at constant pressure (i.e., V ∝ T) and this interrelationship
holds for over a large range of temperature.
Consider a certain volume of gas in a closed container.
If the temperature of the gas increases, the volume of
the gas is also increases and vice-versa. Thus, a linear
relationship is obtained between temperature and
volume as shown V-T diagram in Fig. 9.3. If the
straight line of V-T curve is extrapolated as shown in
Fig. 9.3, it meets the temperature axis at 273.15°C.
Thus, there is no volume in 273.15°C. Clearly, a
temperature below –273.15°C is impossible because the
volume of the gas would be negative which is
meaningless.
At –273.15°C, the molecular speed ceases. Hence, the lowest temperature of –273.15°C at which a gas
is supposed to have zero volume (and zero pressure) and at which entire molecular motion stops is
called the absolute zero of temperature.
Lord Kelvin suggested a new scale of temperature starting with –273.15 as its zero. This scale of
temperature is known as Kelvin scale or absolute scale. The size of degree on Kelvin scale is same as
that on Celsius scale.
Construction and Calibration of Thermometer

A thermometer has a long glass cylinder with a conducting bulb at its base and capillary tube
elongated from bulb to a certain height. The diameter of capillary tube is very small, comparable to
the diameter of our hair. Lower fixed point lies just above the bulb and upper fixed point lies near
the upper end of the capillary tube. A systematic scale is graduated between upper fixed point and
lower fixed point.
Note: Thermometer is a scale of temperature. The earliest thermometer was constructed by Galileo in 1593 and
Newton suggested the necessity of fixed points.

Calibration of Thermometer
Marking the thermometer with appropriate scale is known as calibration of thermometer.
Thermometers can be calibrated either by comparing them with other calibrated thermometers or by
checking them against known fixed points on the temperature scale. The best known fixed points are
the melting and boiling points of pure water. (Note that, the boiling point of water varies with
pressure, so this must be controlled.)
To find the lower fixed point, thermometer bulb is kept into the ice-water (melting ice) and is
allowed to contract. After two minutes, level of mercury is marked. This point is considered as the
0°C in Celsius scale and 32°F in Fahrenheit scale as shown in Fig. 9.4.
To find the upper fixed point, thermometer bulb is kept in a hypsometer containing boiling water.
The bulb should not be dipped into the boiling water, but exposed just above the water surface. Now
the mercury is let to expand upto a steady level. This steady level of expansion is considered as
100°C in Celsius scale and 212°F in Fahrenheit scale. Then, the thermometer is graduated by 100
equal parts in Celsius scale and 180 equal parts in Fahrenheit for per degree change in temperature.
Fig. 9.4: Calibration of thermometer
Notes: Fahrenheit scale is more sensitive than Celsius scale in the same calibration. Equal length of thermometer is
divided into 100 divisions in Celsius scale whereas 180 divisions in Fahrenheit scale. It makes the narrower
divisions in Fahrenheit scale that is why Fahrenheit scale is used to measure the human body temperature.
9.5 Types of Thermometers

Thermometric properties of materials are analyzed to construct a thermometer. Any phase of
substance (solid, liquid, or gas) can be used to measure the temperature. Whatever the phase, it must
be highly sensitive with temperature variation. Various properties of thermometric substance
(substance used to see the temperature variation in thermometer) are applied to construct the
thermometer. For example, the property of 'expansion on heating' is used in liquid thermometer.
Similarly 'variation of resistance' is used in resistance thermometer and 'change of pressure at
constant volume' is applied in the gas thermometer. Some of major types of thermometer are
explained below.

Liquid Thermometer
The thermometers that use liquid as working substance are called liquid thermometer. Mercury and
alcohol are such substances. The level of thermal expansion of the thermometric liquid is expressed
in the thermometer reading. The thermometric liquids should have some characteristics in common
to be used in thermometers. The liquid must have very low specific heat capacity, so that expansion
can be observed for very small rise in temperature. Also, the expansion of liquid should be uniform
for every rise in equal temperature. If the expansivity of liquid is not uniform, the temperature scale
is inaccurate in measuring the temperature. In liquid thermometer, the possible temperature
measurement can be within the range of freezing point and boiling point of that liquid.
In mercury thermometer, liquid mercury is used as thermometric liquid, whereas, in alcohol
thermometer, liquid alcohol is used. Since, the freezing point of alcohol is smaller than the freezing
point of mercury, it can be used to measure the temperature in very cold places. On the other hand,
boiling point of mercury is greater than alcohol, it can be used to measure the temperature in hot
places.
Reasons for Using Mercury as a Thermometric Liquid

Mercury is considered as the best thermometric liquid to measure the temperature for daily use. It is
advantageous to be used in temperature scales due to the following characteristics:
(i) It has low specific heat capacity, i.e., it is highly sensitive with temperature variation.
(ii) Its linear expansivity is almost uniform with the change of temperature.
(iii) The range of melting point and boiling point of mercury is high in comparison to other liquids.
The melting point is -39°C and boiling point is 357°C (in water, melting point is 0°C and boiling
point is 100°C). Therefore, long temperature range can be measured by using mercury
thermometers.
(iv) It does not stick on the capillary tube, hence the expansion is easier.
(v) It is shiny. So, temperature can be observed easily and clearly.
Reasons for Using Alcohol as a Thermometric Liquid

Alcohol is used as thermometric liquid due to the following reasons:
(i) Its freezing point is very low, so it can be taken to cold places to measure the atmospheric
temperature.
(ii) Its expansivity is very small, so it can be more sensitive than mercury thermometer.
Note: Clinical thermometer is also a liquid thermometer. The calibration of this thermometer is confined within the
temperature range of human body. Although human beings are hot blooded (constant blood temperature),
sometimes body temperature fluctuates and causes abnormality. The typical range of a clinical thermometer for
use in human ranges from 35°C to 42°C or 95°F to 110°F.
Resistance Thermometer
Resistance thermometer depends on the principle that, the resistance of a substance changes with
temperature when current is flowing through it. Resistance thermometers are designed to measure
temperatures between –250 and 700 degree Celsius.
Infrared Thermometer
It can measure very high or low surface temperatures without the need to make contact with the
body in question, which is ideal for spot checking, temperature settings within an environment.
However, there can be error up to 30 percent on reading due to this lack of contact, but this can be
corrected with a traceable accuracy setting.
Gas Thermometer
In gas thermometer, gas is used as the thermometric substances like the mercury or alcohol in liquid
thermometers. These thermometers work on the principle that, the pressure or volume varies with
the change of temperature. As the expansion of the gas is large, the gas thermometers are very
sensitive. The expansion coefficient of all gases is nearly the same, so thermometers that use different
gases as thermometric substance give same reading. Moreover gas thermometers can be used to
measure wide range of temperature. With helium gas, low temperature of about –270°C and using
nitrogen gas, high temperature of about 1600°C can be measured.
Thermoelectric Thermometer
This type of thermometer notices the difference between hot and cold junctions through the current
in the attached probes. This is a very sensitive model that can provide accurate temperature results
between –250 to 1600 degree Celsius.
Tips for MCQs
Quantitative Tips
1. Let C, F, and K be the temperatures of a body measured by Celsius, Fahrenheit, and Kelvin scales
respectively. Then the relation of these scales is summarized as:
C F – 32 K – 273
5 = 9 = 5
2. If Vt and V0 are the volumes at t°C and 0°C respectively for a given mass of gas at constant pressure P,
t
then Vt = V0 ⎛1 + 273.15⎞ .
⎝ ⎠
3. The comparative study of Celsius, Fahrenheit and Kelvin scales are explained as:
Steam point
373.15 K 100.00°C 212.00°F
Ice point
273.15 K 0.00°C 32.00°F
Absolute zero
0.00 K –273.15°C –459.69°F
4. On absolute scale of temperature, negative temperatures are not possible.
Conceptual Tips
1. 0 K is the minimum possible temperature. There is no limit to maximum temperature.
2. The branch of physics which deals with the measurement of temperature is called thermometry.
3. The branch of physics which deals with the measurement of high temperature is called pyrometry.
4. Temperature is a macroscopic concept. It is related to the average kinetic energy of a large number of
molecules forming a system. It is not possible to define the temperature for a single molecule.
5. The range of clinical thermometer is usually from 95°F to 110°F and boiling point of water is 212°F.
So, on sterilization by boiling, the capillary of thermometer will burst due to thermal expansion of
mercury in the capillary.

6. Gas thermometer is more sensitive than mercury thermometer. The coefficient of thermal expansion
of gas is very large as compared to the coefficient of expansion of mercury. For the same rise of
temperature, a gas would undergo a much larger change in volume as compared to mercury.
7. The temperature which was first defined as the degree of hotness and later on the condition
determining the flow of heat, is now regarded as one of the seven fundamental quantities like mass,
length, time, etc.
8. Zeroth law of thermodynamics was formulated by R.H. Fowler in 1931 long after the First and
Second laws of thermodynamics were stated. But as this law leads to the concept of the fundamental
quantity of temperature, so this law was called the zeroth law.
Quick Reply
1. Why Fahrenheit temperature scale is most sensitive scale?
 In Fahrenheit temperature, there are 180 divisions between upper and lower fixed points, however in
Celsius and Kelvin scales, there are 100 divisions in these fixed points. Hence, the Fahrenheit scale
can measure smaller change in temperature than that of other two scales.
2. What fractional value change in Fahrenheit scale on 1°C change in Celsius scale?
 The relation between Fahrenheit (F) and Celsius (C) scales is,
F – 32 C – 0
180 = 100
ΔF ΔC
180 = 100
ΔF 1
9 =5 [Here ΔC = 1°C)
9
ΔF = 5 = 1.8
∴ 1°C change is equivalent to 1.8°F change.

3. What is the temperature of vacuum?
 The temperature of vacuum can not be defined. The internal energy of the possible medium provides
the measurement of temperature, however this is impossible in vacuum.
4. Can the temperature of a body be negative on the Kelvin scale?
 No. This is because the absolute zero on the Kelvin scale is the minimum possible temperature. If the
temperature falls from absolute zero, volume of gas will be negative which is impossible.

1. At what point of thermometric scale does Kelvin scale reading coincide with Fahrenheit scale
reading?
 Let x be the point at which Fahrenheit and Kelvin scale show the same reading, i.e.,
F=K=x
From the relation of temperature scales,
F – 32 K – 273
180 = 100
x – 32 x – 273 9x – 5x = 2457 – 160
180 = 100 4x = 2297
x – 32 x – 273 ∴ x = 574.25
9 = 5 ∴ 574.25°F = 574.25 K
9x – 2457 = 5x – 160

5. Define absolute zero.
 The temperature of an ideal gas at which the gas
would exert no pressure at all, is known as absolute
zero. Theoretically, the gas does not exert pressure at
–273.15°C (i.e., 0 K) as shown in Fig. aside. At this
temperature, the volume of gas is ideally zero .
6. On what quantity, does transfer of heat depend, heat or temperature?

 The transfer of heat depends on the difference of temperature of two bodies, but not on the difference
of heat. If the quantity of heat is equal in two bodies, it may transfer from one body to another.
however, net transfer of heat is zero if two bodies remain in equal temperature (i.e., thermal
equilibrium).
7. Mercury boils at 357°C. How can then a mercury thermometer be used to measure temperature up to
500°C?
 The boiling point of mercury is 357°C at STP. If nitrogen is kept above the mercury, boiling point of
mercury rises above 500°C. The mercury thermometer so formed by adding nitrogen is used to
measure the temperature up to 500°C.
Worked Out Problems

1. A faulty thermometer has its fixed points marked 2° and 98°. Temperature of a body as measured by
the faulty thermometer is 64°. Find the correct temperature of the body on Celsius scale.
SOLUTION
We know,
C – 0 Temperature on faulty scale – Lower fixed point
100 = Upper fixed point – Lower fixed point
C 64 – 2 62
100 = 98 – 2 = 96
62 × 100
C = 96 = 64.6°C
∴ The correct temperature is 64.6° C.
2. A thermometer has wrong calibration. It reads the melting point of ice –12°C. It reads 72°C in place of
60°C. Calculate the temperature of boiling point of water on this scale.
SOLUTION
The relation of thermometer scales is,
⎛Given temperature – Lower fixed point⎞ ⎛Given temperature – Lower fixed point⎞
⎝ Upper fixed point – Lower fixed point ⎠faulty = ⎝ Upper fixed point – Lower fixed point ⎠correct
73 – (–12) 60 – 0
=
θ – (– 12) 100 – 0
Here, θ is the upper fixed point of faulty thermometer.
84 60 ∴ θ = 128
=
θ + 12 100 Therefore, the boiling point of water that is shown
100 × 84 by faulty thermometer is 128°C.
θ + 12 = 60
θ + 12 = 140

Exercise
1. Define the term thermometry.
2. Why should a thermometer bulb have a small heat capacity?
3. A body at higher temperature contains more heat. Is this true?
4. Why Celsius scale is called efficient scale?
5. What are the upper and lower fixed points in Kelvin scale?
6. Draw a graph for pressure versus temperature of a low density gas kept at constant volume.
7. What are the boiling point and melting point of mercury?
8. Which device is used to measure the temperature of sun and stars?
9. At what temperature, the kinetic energy of molecules is minimum possible?
10. Why should the bore of a thermometer tube be uniform?
11. Why zeroth law is named so?
12. Write the relation between Celsius, Fahrenheit, and Kelvin scale of temperature.
13. What are the advantages of Celsius, Fahrenheit and Kelvin scale of temperature?
14. Why gas thermometers are more sensitive than mercury thermometers?
15. Why can't Celsius scale and Kelvin scale show same reading?
Short Questions
1. At what temperature will wood and iron appear equally hot or equally cold?
2. Why a clinical thermometer should not be sterilized by boiling?
3. Why are gas thermometers more sensitive than mercury thermometers?
4. Can the temperature of a body be negative on the Kelvin scale?
5. The thermometer shows the temperature of its liquid in bulb. How can it be the temperature of
substance enclosed it?
6. Why is mercury used commonly as a thermometric substance? Give two reasons.
Or, why is mercury used in thermometer?
7. Water cannot be used as thermometric liquid. Why?
8. A body at higher temperature contains more heat. Comment.

1. Find the temperature when the Fahrenheit scale reading is exactly equal to the Celsius scale. Ans: – 40°
2. A faulty thermometer has its fixed points marked as 5° and 95°. The temperature of a body as
measured by it is 59°. Find the correct temperature of the body on Celsius scale. Ans: 60°C
3. Determine the temperature on the Centigrade scale for which the Fahrenheit thermometer will give
double the reading. Ans: 160°C
4. Normal temperature of a person on Fahrenheit scale is 98.6°F. What is this temperature on

(i) Kelvin scale (ii) Celsius scale? Ans: 310.15 K, 37°C)


1. At what temperature, the Centigrade and Fahrenheit scales are equal?
a. – 40°C b. 273°C c. – 273.15°C d. impossible
2. The temperature of sun is measured with
a. platinum thermometer b. gas thermometer
c. pyrometer d. vapour pressure thermometer.
3. The common mercury thermometer can be used to measure between
a. – 30°C to 100°C b. 0 to 200°C
c. – 30°C to 200°C d. – 35°C to 357°C
4. 40ºC is equal to
a. 100°F b. 102°F c. 104°F d. 106°F
5. The temperature of a body recorded by Celsius thermometer is –50°C. Its temperature recorded by
Kelvin scale is
a. 223 K b. 323 K c. 23 K d. – 50 K
6. The absolute zero temperature is
a. – 273 °C b. – 273 K c. – 273.14°C d. – 273.15°C
7. 69.8°F is equivalent to
a. 21°C b. 45°C c. 40°C d. 54°C
ANSWERS
1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (c) 5. (a) 6. (d) 7. (a)


THERMAL
EXPANSION
10.1 Introduction
The change of temperature can bring about different changes in a material. The increase in
temperature causes expansion in most of the materials while fall in temperature causes contraction.
We have been using these concepts knowingly or unknowingly in our day to day experience. For
example, a tight-lid of a bottle can be loosen by running hot water over it. This is due to the
expansion of metal lid brought about by increase in temperature. There are many other examples of
expansions. You might have noticed, the electric wires between two poles on the road side are seen
stretched in winter days but sagged in summer days. Similarly, the pendulum clock ticks slower in
summer and faster in winter. This is all because of expansion and contraction due to change in
temperature.
Different materials have different rates of expansion for the same increase in temperature. This is
why, a completely filled and tightly capped glass bottle of water cracks when heated. All these are
examples of thermal expansion. We will be discussing different types of expansion in this chapter.
Every material is composed of lots of molecules. These molecules are arranged systematically,
separated from each other by a small distance, called intermolecular space. As the molecules gain
heat energy, they execute oscillatory motion. In the molecular oscillation, they occupy greater space.
Hence, the intermolecular space of every neighbouring molecules increases. This results in greater
size of material. This increase in size of a material on heating is known as thermal expansion. As
the temperature of a material decreases (i.e. the body losses heat), molecules come closer, hence the
intermolecular space decreases and so, body gets contracted.
Notes:
(i) In some materials, heating produces contraction. This behaviour of material is called anomalous behaviour.
(ii) The increase in size of a material on heating is termed as thermal expansion (positive thermal expansion).
The decrease in size of a material on cooling is called negative thermal expansion, rather thermal contraction.
10.2 Linear Expansion

The thermal expansion in which, the length of a solid increases on heating is known as linear expansion.
Consider a solid rod of original length l1 at initial temperature of θ1. Suppose the rod expands to
length l2 when it is heated to temperature θ2. It has been experimentally observed that, the change in
length (l2 – l1) = Δl is,
(i) directly proportional to the original length,
Δl ∝ l1 . . . (10.1)
Thermal Expansion | Chapter 10 | 261
(ii) directly proportional to the change in temperature, θ1
l1
Δl ∝ (θ2 – θ1) . . . (10.2)
Combining equations (10.1) and (10.2), θ2
Δl ∝ l1 (θ2 – θ1) l2
Δl = α l1 (θ2 – θ1) . . . (10.3) Fig. 10.1: Linear expansion of a rod
The proportionality constant α is called coefficient of linear

expansion or linear expansivity of the material. Its value depends upon the nature of material and its
temperature.
Using equation (10.3),
Δl Change in Length
α= =
l1 (θ2 – θ1) Original length × Change in temperature
For l1 = 1 m and θ2 – θ1 = 1°C (or 1 K)
α = Δl
Therefore, coefficient of linear expansion of the material of a rod is defined as the change in length per unit
original length per unit change in temperature. The SI unit of α is °C–1 or K–1.
Again, from equation (10.3)
l2 – l1 = αl1 (θ2 – θ1)
l2 = l1 + α l1 (θ2 – θ1)
l2 = l1 [1 + α (θ2 – θ1)] . . . (10.4)
If initial temperature of the rod is zero (θ1 = 0°C) and for sake of convenience, let us write,
θ2 = θ, l2 = lθ and l1 = l0
The coefficient of linear expansion, then can be expressed as,
lθ – l0
α= . . . (10.5)
l0 θ
and final length of rod as,
lθ = l0 (1 + αθ) . . . (10.6)
–6 –5 –1
For most of the solids, value of α lies between 10 to 10 °C within the temperature range 0°C to
100°C.
Note:
(i) The geometrical shape of the cross section of the rod has no relation with the value of α.
(ii) The expression of linear expansion incorporates all physical quantities related to the linear dimensions of solid
like diameter, radius, circumference, perimeter, etc.
(iii) There may be a misconception that the hole in a solid may shrink on heating due to the expansion of solid into
the hole. However, it should be clear that the hole also expands on heating.
On heating
Wrong
On heating Correct
(iv) It is to be noted that change of temperature (θ2 – θ1) has equal value in Celsius scale and Kelvin scale, because
of the equal intervals between upper fixed point and lower fixed point in these scales.
EXAMPLE 1: A survey uses a steel measuring tape that is exactly 50.000 m long at a temperature of 20.0°C. What is its
length on a hot summer day when temperature is 35.0°C? Coefficient of linear expansion of steel (α) = 1.2 × 10–5 °C–1.
SOLUTION
Given,
Length of tape (l1) = 50.00 m Initial temperature (θ1) = 20°C
–5 –1
Final temperature (θ2) = 35°C, Coefficient of linear expansion (α) = 1.2 × 10 °C
We have,
l2 = l1 (1 + α (θ2 – θ1))
= 50 (1 + 1.2 × 10–5 (35 – 20))
= 50.009 m
 Check Point: A rod made by zinc has length 1 m at 0°C. Find the length of the same rod at 50°C.
Linear expansivity of Zinc = 26 × 10−6 K−1. Ans: 1.0013 m
10.3 Superficial Expansion

The thermal expansion of a solid in which its area increases on heating is known as superficial expansion. It is
also called area expansion. Area expansion can be measured in solid state materials.
Let A1 be the original surface area of a solid sheet at initial temperature θ1. Suppose, the sheet
expands to final area A2 when temperature is increased to θ2. It has been experimentally observed
that, the change in area (A2 – A1) = ΔA is, A2 = A1 + DA
(i) directly proportional to the original area,
ΔA ∝ A1 . . . (10.7)
(ii) directly proportional to the change in temperature,
A1, q1 A2, q2
ΔA ∝ (θ2 – θ1) . . . (10.8)
(i) Orginal surface (ii) Final surface
FIg. 10.2: Superficial expansion of a solid
ΔA ∝ A1 (θ2 – θ1)
ΔA = β A1 (θ2 – θ1) . . . (10.9)
The proportionality constant β is called coefficient of superficial expansion or superficial expansivity of the
material. The value of β depends on the nature of material and its temperature.
From equation (10.9), the coefficient of superficial expansion is,
ΔA
β= . . . (10.10)
A1 (θ2 – θ1)
Change in area
β = Original area × Change in temperature
For A1 = 1 m2 and θ2 – θ1 = 1°C (or 1 K)
β = ΔA
Therefore, coefficient of superficial expansion of material is defined as the change in surface area per unit
original surface area per unit change in temperature. SI unit of β is °C–1 or K–1.
Again, from equation (10.9), we get,
A2 – A1 = β A1 (θ2 – θ1)
A2 = A1 + βA1 (θ2 – θ1)
A2 = A1 {1 + β (θ2 – θ1)} . . . (10.11)

If the initial temperature of solid is zero (i.e., θ1 = 0°C) and for convenience, let us write,
θ2 = θ, A1 = A0 and A2 = Aθ
Then, the equation (10.10) reduces to,
ΔA
β= . . . (10.12)
A0 θ
and equation (10.11) reduces to,
Aθ = A0 (1 + βθ) . . . (10.13)
10.4 Cubical Expansion

The thermal expansion of a material in which its volume increases on heating is known as cubical expansion. It
is also called volume expansion. It can be measure in liquid, gas as well as solid state materials.
Consider a body of original volume V1 at initial temperature of θ1. Let V2 be the final volume of the
body at temperature θ2. It has been experimentally observed that, the change in volume of a body
(V2 – V1) = ΔV is,
(i) directly proportional to the original volume,
ΔV ∝ V1 . . . (10.14)
(ii) directly proportional to the change in temperature,
ΔV ∝ (θ2 – θ1) . . . (10.15)

ΔV ∝ V1 (θ2 – θ1)
ΔV = γ V1 (θ2 – θ1) . . . (10.16)
The proportionality constant γ is called coefficient of cubical expansion or cubical expansivity of the
material. It depends on the nature of material and its temperature.
From equation (10.16), the coefficient of cubical expansion is,
ΔV
γ= . . . (10.17)
V1 (θ2 – θ1)
Change in volume
γ = Original volume × Change in temperature
For V1 = 1 m3 and θ2 – θ1 = 1°C (= 1 K), γ = ΔV = V2 – V1

Therefore, coefficient of cubical expansion of a material is defined as the change in volume per unit original
volume per unit change in temperature. The SI unit of γ is °C–1 or K–1.
Again, taking equation (10.16), we get,
ΔV = γ V1 (θ2 – θ1) . . . (10.18)
V2 – V1 = γV1(θ2 – θ1)
V2 = V1 + γV1(θ2 – θ1)
V2 = V1 (1+ γ(θ2 – θ1)) . . . (10.19)
If the initial temperature of the material is zero (θ1 = 0°C) and for convenience, let us write,
θ2 = θ, V1 = V0 and V2 = Vθ
Then, coefficient of cubical expansion is written as,
ΔV Vθ – V0
γ= =
V0 θ V0 θ
and final volume of the material as,
Vθ = V0 (1 + γθ) . . . (10.20)
Table 10.1: Coefficient of linear expansion and cubical expansion of some of the materials.
(Source: University Physics, Sears and Zemansky)
Coefficient of Linear Coefficient of Cubical
Substances
Expansion (α) (K–1 or ºC–1) Expansion (γ) (K–1 or ºC–1)
Aluminium 2.4 × 10–5 7.20 × 10–5
Brass 2.0 × 10 –5 6.00 × 10–5
Copper 1.7 × 10 –5 5.10 × 10–5
Glass 0.9 × 10 –5 2.70 × 10–5
Invar (Nickel- Iron alloy) 0.09 × 10 –5 0.27 × 10–5
Quartz 0.04 × 10 –5 0.12 × 10–5
Steel 1.2 × 10 –5 3.60 × 10–5
Ethanol - 75 × 10–5
Carbon disulfide - 115 × 10–5
Glycerine - 49 × 10–5
Mercury - 18 × 10–5
Note: The ethanol, carbon disulfide, Glycerine and Mercury remain in liquid state at 0°C so their
coefficients of linear expansion are not mentioned in the table 10.1.
EXAMPLE 2: An underground tank with capacity of 1700 L (1.70 m3) is filled with ethanol that has an initial temperature of
19.0°C. After the ethanol has cooled off to the temperature of the tank and ground which is 10.0°C, how much air space
will there be above the ethanol in the tank? (Assume that the volume of the tank doesn't change). (Given γ for ethanol is
75 × 10–5 K–1)
SOLUTION
Given, Initial volume (V1) = 1.70 m3
Initial temperature (θ1) = 19.0°C, Final temperature (θ2) = 10.0°C
Volume of air above the ethanol, ΔV = ?
We have,
ΔV = γ V1(θ2 – θ1)
= 75 × 10–5 × 1.7× (10 – 19) = –0.011 m3
Negative sign shows the contraction of ethanol. Therefore, the volume of air space above the
ethanol is 0.011 m3 (= 11 liters)
 Check Point: Volume of a cube made of brass is 15 cm3 at 50°C. Calculate the increase in volume of
this cube at 65°C. Coefficient of cubical expansion of brass is 6.00 × 10–5/K. Ans: 0.0135 cm3
Relation of α and β
Suppose, α and β are the coefficient of linear expansion and coefficient of superficial expansion of a
2
solid respectively. Consider a square sheet of solid of length l0 and surface area A0 (=l0) as shown in
Fig. 10.2. Let the temperature of the sheet is increased by Δθ.

The final length (l) of the sheet according to equation (10.6) is,
l = l0 (1 + α Δθ) . . . (10.21)
and the final surface area (A) of the sheet according to equation (10.13) is,
A = A0 (1 + β Δθ) . . . (10.22)
Squaring equation (10.21), we get,
2
l2 = l0 (1 + α Δθ)2
A = A0 (1 + 2α Δθ + α2 Δθ2)
Since the value of α is very small, the term containing α2 can be neglected.
∴ A = A0 (1 + 2 α Δθ) . . . (10.23)
∴ β = 2α . . . (10.24)
Thus, coefficient of superficial expansion is twice the coefficient of linear expansion.
Relation of α and γ
Suppose, α and γ are the coefficient of linear expansion and coefficient of cubical expansion
respectively for a substance. Consider a cubical sample of the substance with side l0 and volume V0
3
(= l0) as shown in Fig. 10.3. Let the temperature of the cube be raised by a small amount Δθ so that the
length of each side becomes l and the volume becomes V(= l3). Final length of a side is expressed as,
l = l0 (1 + α Δθ) . . . (10.25)
and expression for final volume according to equation (10.20) is,
V = V0 (1 + γ Δθ) . . . (10.26)
Now, taking the cube of equation (10.25), we get,
3 3
l = l0 (1 + α Δθ)3
3 3
l = l0 (1 + 3α Δθ + 3α2 Δθ2 + α3 Δθ3)
V = V0 (1 + 3α Δθ + 3α2 Δθ2 + α3 Δθ3)
Since the value of α is very small, the terms containing α2 and α3 can be neglected.
∴ V = V0 (1 + 3α Δθ) . . . (10.27)
γ = 3α . . . (10.28)
Thus, coefficient of cubical expansion is three times the coefficient of linear expansion.
Notes:
β γ
(i) The relation of α, β, and γ are expressed as, α = 2 = 3
(ii) An anisotropic substance is a substance which does not exhibit the same properties in all direction.
For anisotropic solids, γ = α1 + α2 + α3 and β = α1 + α2.
Where, α1, α2, and α3 are coefficients of linear expansions in three mutually perpendicular directions.
(iii). Coefficient of cubical expansion of an ideal gas at constant pressure is derived as follows:
From ideal gas equation
PV = nRT ... (i)
Change in temperature at constant P results change in volume.
P ΔV = nR ΔT ... (ii)
Dividing (ii) by (i)

ΔV ΔT
V = T
ΔV 1 1
V .ΔT = T (in this chapter ΔT = Δθ)
ΔV
Also, γ = ,
VΔT
1
so, γ = T
Hence, for an ideal gas, the coefficient of cubical expansion is not just a numerical constant but it decreases
1
with the increase in temperature. Therefore, γ at STP, γ = 273 K .
It shows that value of γ depends on temperature.
10.5 Determination of Coefficient of Linear Expansion of a

Metal Rod by Using Pullinger's Apparatus
Pullinger's apparatus is used to determine the coefficient of
linear expansion of a given solid (for example a metal rod). S
The apparatus consists of a tall hollow wooden frame. A
metal rod whose coefficient of linear expansion is to be
A
measured is placed into the frame. Lower end of the rod is Base plate
supported with a metal plate and upper end is kept free to
expand. Steam is supplied to the hollow part of the frame to Steam inlet
provide heat for expansion in the rod. The frame contains
T
two openings for the steam inlet and steam outlet. A
thermometer T is fixed with a cork at the third opening. A Rod
G
spherometer S is placed on the top of the apparatus which is
used to measure the expansion of rod. An electric circuit
containing a galvanometer is connected between the
spherometer and the metal plate at the base of the rod. The Steam outlet
circuit is so connected that when its central screw just
touches the upper end of the rod, electric circuit becomes B
•
closed and deflection is seen in the galvanometer. •
K
At the beginning of the experiment, original length, and
Fig. 10.4: Pullinger's Apparatus
temperature of the rod are measured with a meter scale and
thermometer respectively. Initial reading of the spherometer is noted when the galvanometer shows
deflection. The deflection in galvanometer ensures that the central screw touches the upper end of
the rod. Then the screw is rotated up so as to allow the space for the expansion of the rod after
heating. Now, the steam is injected into the hollow frame and the rod is left to expand. Initially, the
temperature of the rod increases and after a while it remains constant when the rod and the steam
comes in thermal equilibrium. The steam should be supplied for some more time to let rod expand
completely. Then, final reading of spherometer is also noted.
Consider,
Initial length of the rod = L
Initial temperature of the rod = θ1
Initial reading of spherometer = X
X = (MS)1 × P + (CS)1 × LC
Where,
MS = Main scale reading
P = Pitch
CS = Circular scale reading
LC = Least count
are the spherometer readings.
Also, Final temperature of rod = θ2
Final reading of spherometer, Y = (MS)2 × P + (CS)2 × LC
Now, increase in length, Δl = Y – X
We know,
Coefficient of linear expansion,
Δl
α=
L (θ2 – θ1)
Y–X
α= . . . (10.29)
L (θ2 – θ1)
By measuring the required quantities, value of α of a rod is determined experimentally.
If we require to determine coefficient of cubical expansion, it is calculated as γ = 3α.
Effects of Thermal Expansion of Solids

There are many effects of thermal expansion of solids in our daily life. Some of them are briefly
explained below.
(i) Time error in pendulum clock

The time period of clock depends on its effective length of oscillation. In terms of formula,
l
Time period (T) = 2π g . . . (10.30)
i.e., Tα l
Further, the length of pendulum is dependent on its temperature. Specifically, the pendulum
contracts in winter, while it expands in summer. Therefore, the clock gains time in winter and loses
time in summer. Thus, thermal expansion in pendulum clock generates a time error. To overcome
this difficulty, an alloy named invar (alloy of iron and nickel), is used to make the pendulum clock,
since it has low thermal expansivity.
EXAMPLE 3: A clock with an iron pendulum keeps correct time at 20°C. How much will it lose or gain per month if
–6 –1
temperature changes to 40°C? Coefficient of cubical expansion of iron = 36 × 10 °C .
SOLUTION
Given, Now,
γ = 36 × 10–6 °C–1 l20
T20 = 2π g
γ
α = 3 = 1.2 × 10–5 °C–1
l0 (1 + 20 α)
T20 = 2π g …(i)
Let T20 and T40 be the time period of
simple pendulum at 20°C and 40°C Similarly,
respectively. If l0, l20, l40 be the lengths of l0 (1 + 40 α)
the pendulum at 0°C, 20°C, and 40°C T40 = 2π g …(ii)
respectively, then
l20 = l0 (1 + 20 α) T40 1 + 40α
T20 = 1 + 20α
l40 = l0 (1 + 40 α)
Using Binomial expansion (neglecting α2 and higher terms, since, they are negligibly small).
T40 ⎛1 + 1 40 α + …⎞ ⎛1 – 1 20 α + …⎞
∴ T =
20 ⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ 2 ⎠
= (1 + 20 α) (1 – 10α) = 1 + 20 α – 10 α – 200 α2 = 1 + 10 α (neglecting α2 term)

Fractional loss of time,
T40 – T20
T20 = 10 α = 10 × 1.2 × 10–5 = 1.2 × 10–4
As the temperature increases, time period also increases. So, the clock runs slow.
Time lost in 1 month,
= 1.2 × 10–4 × 24 × 3600 × 30 = 311.1 s = 5.2 min.
 Check Point: A clock which has brass pendulum beats seconds correctly when the temperature of the
room is 30°C. How many seconds will it gain or lose per day when the temperature of the room falls to
10°C?(α for brass = 2.0× 10–5 K–1) Ans: 17.3 s
(ii) Thermal stress

When a rod, fixed between two rigid supports is heated, it tends to
expand. However, the rigid supports prevent the rod from expansion.
Even a small thermal expansion of a solid produces a tremendous
force. In this condition, the rod acquires a compressive strain due to S1 S2
the external force provided by the rigid support at the ends. The l
Fig. 10.5: Forces set up due to
corresponding stress set up in the rod is called thermal stress.
expansion
Let l be the original length of rod that is fixed between two rigid supports S1 and S2. When the
temperature is raised by Δθ, the rod tends to expand by Δl. Due to the fixed supports, an equivalent
strain, usually compression strain is produced in the rod,
i.e., Δl = αlΔθ
Δl
l = αΔθ . . . (10.31)
∴ Compression strain = αΔθ
where, α is linear expansivity of the rod.
ΔF
Now, thermal stress = A , where, A is the cross-sectional area of the rod.
Also, we know, Young's modulus of elasticity,
ΔF/A ΔF
Y = =
Δl A. αΔθ
l
∴ ΔF = YA αΔθ . . . (10.32)
If two steel rails are fixed at their outer ends in contact with inner ends, the force between them can
easily bend the rails. It is precisely for this reason that, the rails over which the train passes have
some space between them as shown in Fig. 10.6.
Fig. 10.6: Railway leak

EXAMPLE 4: An aluminum cylinder 10 cm long, with a cross-sectional area of 20 cm2, is to be used as a spacer between two
steel walls. At 17.2°C it just slips between the walls. When it warms to 22.3°C, calculate the stress in the cylinder and the
total force it exerts on each wall, assuming that the walls are perfectly rigid and a constant distance apart. (For aluminum,
Y = 7.0 × 1010 Pa and α = 2.4 × 10–5 K–1)
SOLUTION
Given,
Original length of cylinder (L) = 10 cm Cross-sectional area (A) = 20 cm2
Initial temperature (θ1) = 17.2°C Final temperature (θ2) = 22.3°C
Stress = ? Force on each wall = ?
We have,
Young's modulus of aluminum,
F/A
Y = e/L
F e L α (θ2 – θ1)
A = Y. L = Y × L [... e = L α (θ2 – θ1)]
Stress = Y. α(θ2 – θ1)
= 7 × 1010 × 2.4 × 10–5 × (22.3 – 17.2) = 8.6 × 106 Pa.
The stress is compressible, so its value is expressed in negative sign, so,
Stress = – 8.6 × 106 Pa.
Now, total force on each wall,
F
FT = A × A = –8.6 × 106 × 20 × 10–4 = –1.7 × 104 N
 Check Point: A steel wire 4 m long and 2 mm in diameter is fixed to two rigid supports. Calculate
the increase in tension when the temperature falls to 10°C. [α for steel = 1.2 × 10–5 K–1 and Y for
steel = 2 × 1011 Nm–2] Ans: 75.4 N
Applications of Expansion of Solids

There are many advantages of thermal expansion of solids in our daily life. Some of which are
explained below.
(i) Fixing of iron rims on wooden wheels: The iron rim is made slightly smaller than the
wooden wheel on which the rim is to be fixed. To fix the iron rim on the wooden wheel, the
rim is heated till it expands to a diameter more than that of diameter of the wooden wheel.
Water is poured over the wheel to cool it. On cooling the rim contracts and grips the wheel
very tightly.
(ii) Opening a bottle cap: When hot water is poured on the metal cap of a bottle, the cap gets
loosen due to the differential expansion of cap and bottle. Hence, the cap can be removed
easily. Sometimes, we face problem in our kitchen while separating the coupled steel glasses.
To make them loose, outer glass can be heated.
(iii) Bimetallic strips used as thermostats: A bimetallic strips are made by riveting two metal
strips, usually one of brass and another of iron. The coefficient of thermal expansion of brass is
more than iron. So, the brass expands to a longer length and hence the strip bends towards
iron as shown in Fig. 10.7.
At low temperature, a point B of bimetallic strips is connected to the screw A and the electric circuit
becomes complete. As the temperature of the strips gradually increases, it slowly bends downward
and the connection between A and B is removed and electric circuit becomes incomplete.
Bimetallic strips are used in making thermo switches (called thermostats). A thermo switch is used in
automatic switching ON and OFF of the electric supply to electric appliances (electric iron, geyser,
electric oven, refrigerator, etc). Bimetallic strips are also used in fire alarm.

Fig. 10.7: Bimetallic strip (i) At normal temperature (ii) At higher temperature
10.6 Differential Expansion

When two solid rods of different materials of equal
length are heated to same temperature, the expansion
in them is not equal. This happens due to the
difference of coefficient of linear expansion of
different materials. This unequal expansion of
materials, although they are raised by equal
temperature is known as differential expansion.
Let l1 and l1' be the original lengths of two rods whose
coefficients of linear expansion are α and α' respectively at temperature θ1. Let l2 and l2' be the final
lengths of respective rods when heated to temperature θ2 as shown in Fig. 10.8.
(i) For rod 1
Δl = αl1 (θ2 – θ1)
(ii) For rod 2
Δl' = α'l1' (θ2 – θ1)
Now, differential expansion of rods
d = Δl' – Δl = α'l1' (θ2 – θ1 ) – αl1 (θ2 – θ1)
∴ d = (α'l1' – αl1) (θ2 – θ1) . . . (10.33)
For, no differential expansion, d = 0.
(α'l1' – αl1) (θ2 – θ1) = 0
α'l1' – αl1` = 0
α' l1
∴ = . . . (10.34)
α l1'
This is possible when the ratio of original length of a metal rod to another rod is equal to the ratio of
reciprocal of linear expansivity of these metals.
EXAMPLE 5: A brass rod of length 0.40 m and steel rod of length 0.60 m, both are initially at 0°C and then heated to 75°C. If
the increase in lengths is the same for both the rods, calculate the linear expansivity of brass. The linear expansivity of
-1
steel is 12 × 10-6°C .
SOLUTION
Given,
Length of bass rod at 0°C (lb) = 0.40 m
Length of steel rod at 0°C (ls) = 0.60 m
Initial temperature (θ1) = 0°C
Final temperature (θ2) = 75°C
Linear expansivity of steel (αs) = 12 × 10–6 °C-1
Linear expansivity of brass (αb) = ?
Since the increase in length is same for all temperatures, it is written as,
αb ls
=
αs lb
ls 0.60
αb = l × αs = 0.40 × 12 × 10–6 = 18 × 10–6 °C–1
b
 Check Point: Difference between the length of two rods made of steel and brass at 0°C is 20 cm.
When they are heated, it is found that their difference in length is same at all temperatures. Find
their lengths at 0°C. [α for steel = 1.2 × 10–5 K–1 and α for brass = 2.0 × 10–5 K–1] Ans: 50 cm, 30 cm
10.7 Expansion of Liquids

Liquid does not have its own definite shape. It forms the shape of vessel in
which it is kept. The independent measurement of volume of liquid is
impossible, that is the liquid needs to be kept into a vessel. Hence, the
measurement of volume of liquid always interlinked with the volume of
vessel where it is kept in.
When heat is supplied to the vessel containing liquid, the vessel initially
expands. Due to the expansion of vessel, the liquid level is observed
decreasing at first. If the heat is supplied continuously, the liquid inside the
vessel also expands. Since the cubical expansivity of liquid is greater than
solid, the level of liquid rises up from the initial level as shown in the Fig.
10.8.
Let the water is filled upto level A in the vessel. On heating, the level of
water falls to level B due to the expansion of vessel initially. On further
heating, the liquid rises to level C as shown in Fig. 10.9. Here, the expansion
of liquid is apparently seen as the volume VAC. However, the real expansion
of liquid is VBC and hence VAB is the expansion of vessel.
Here, VAC = Apparent expansion of liquid
VBC = Real expansion of liquid
VAB = Expansion of vessel
From Fig. 10.9, we can write,
VBC = VAC + VAB . . . (10.35)
i.e., Real expansion of liquid = Apparent expansion of liquid + Expansion of vessel
Coefficient of Real Expansion

The real increase in volume per unit original volume for 1 K (or 1°C) rise in temperature is called coefficient of
real expansion. It is denoted by γr. It is also called absolute expansivity.
Real increase in volume
∴ γr = Original volume × Rise in temperature
VBC
∴ γr = . . . (10.36)
V × Δθ
Where, V is the original volume of liquid in the vessel.
Coefficient of Apparent Expansion

The apparent increase in volume per unit original volume for 1 K (or 1°C) rise in temperature is called
coefficient of apparent expansion. It is denoted by γa.
Apparent increase in volume
γa = Original volume × Rise in temperature

VAC
γa = . . . (10.37)
V × Δθ
In the same fashion, the cubical expansivity of vessel is
VAB
γv = . . . (10.38)
V × Δθ
Using equations (10.36), (10.37) and (10.38) in equation (10.35), we get,
γrVΔθ = γa VΔθ + γv VΔθ
γrVΔθ = (γa + γv) VΔθ
∴ γr = γa + γv . . . (10.39)
This expression provides the relation between the real expansivity, apparent expansivity, and
expansivity of vessel.
10.8 Effects of Temperature on Density of Solids and Liquids

Density of a material is defined as its mass per unit volume. The density of a material remains
constant at constant temperature. If the material gains heat, its volume expands, but the mass
remains same. Hence, its value changes.
Let m be the total mass of a body and V be its volume. Then, density is defined as
m
Density (ρ) = V . . . (10.40)
Let ρo and ρ be the densities of a material at temperature θ and θ + Δθ respectively. Let, mo be the
mass of the material at 0°C. Now, corresponding volumes are defined by,
mo m
Vo = and V=
ρo ρ
mo = Voρo and m = Vρ
Since mass remains constant,
mo = m
Voρo = Vρ . . . (10.41)
Also, V = Vo(1 + γ Δθ) . . . (10.42)
Where, γ is coefficient of cubical expansion of a material
Now, using equation (10.42) in equation (10.41), we get,
Voρo = Vo(1 + γΔθ)ρ
ρo = ρ(1 + γΔθ)
ρo
ρ=
1 + γΔθ
∴ ρ = ρo (1 + γΔθ)–1 . . . (10.43)
Using Binomial theorem and neglecting higher terms, we get,
(1 + γΔθ)–1 = 1 - γΔθ
Then, equation (10.43) becomes,
∴ ρ = ρo(1 – γΔθ) . . . (10.44)
Clearly, ρ < ρo, so the density decreases with rise in temperature for a material, (except for the
anomalous expansion).

EXAMPLE 6: A liquid of mass 2.5 kg at temperature 20ºC is heated to 40ºC. Find the difference in its densities at these
temperature. The density of the given liquid at 20ºC is 13.6 g/cc and cubical expansivity is 19 × 10–5 ºC–1.
SOLUTION
Given, We have,
Mass of liquid (m) = 2.5 kg ρ1
ρ2 =
Initial temperature (θ1) = 20 ºC 1 + γ (θ2 – θ1)
Initial density (ρ1) = 13.6 g/cc 13.6
= = 13.54 g/cc
Final temperature (θ2) = 40ºC 1 + 19 × 10–5 × 20
Final density (ρ2) = ? Difference of density = ρ2 – ρ1
= 13.60 – 13.54 = 0.06 g/cc
 Check Point: Steel has density 7800 kg m−3 at 0°C. What is its density at 100°C? Given linear
expansivity of steel is 1.2 × 10−5 K−1. Ans: 7790.6 kg m−3
10.9 Measurement of Absolute Expansivity of a Liquid

(By Dulong and Petit's Experiment)
Dulong and Petit's apparatus to determine the absolute expansivity (real expansivity) of a liquid
consists of U-shaped glass tube. The liquid whose absolute expansivity is to be measured is poured
into arms of the tube, which are initially at equal height. Now, one arm of tube is surrounded with
ice-water jacket and another arm is surrounded with steam jacket. The temperature of each jacket is
noted with the help of thermometers fitted to them. A wet cotton is put on the middle of base arm of
the tube as shown in Fig. 10.10. The wet cotton does not allow the heat transfer from hotter arm to
cooler arm.
As the two arms are maintained at the different temperatures, the density of liquid is also different.
However, the pressure on the bottom of both arms remains equal, because they are connected to a
common base. To maintain the equal pressure for the liquid of different densities, the heights of
liquid in these arms must also be different.
For cooler arm (i.e. left arm)
ho = height of liquid and ρo = density of liquid
So, total pressure at the bottom of cooler arm is,
PB = h0ρ0g + Patm . . . (10.45)
where, Patm = atmospheric pressure on liquid surface
Also for hotter arm (i.e., right arm)
hθ = height of liquid and ρθ = density of liquid at θ°C
Therefore, total pressure at the bottom of hotter arm,
PC = hθρθg + Patm . . . (10.46)
Since pressure remains constant at the common base points, (i.e., PB = PC)
hoρog + Patm = hθρθg + Patm
or, hoρog = hθρθg
or, hoρo = hθρθ
ρo
Also, ρθ =
1 + γΔθ
where, γ is absolute expansivity of liquid.
ρo
So, hoρo = hθ
(1 + γΔθ)
hθ
or, ho =
(1 + γΔθ)

or, ho(1 + γΔθ) = hθ
or, ho + ho γΔθ = hθ
or, hoγΔθ = hθ – ho
h θ – ho
∴ γ = . . . (10.47)
ho Δθ
This is the expression of determining absolute expansivity of liquid.
T1
Stirrer A D
o o
Ice water o o
steam inlet
T2
Ice water θ
X Y hθ
h0
Cold water
steam outlet
C
B
wet cloth
Fig. 10.10: Apparatus for absolute expansivity of liquid
EXAMPLE 7: In a Dulong and Petit's experiment, the height of a liquid column at 0ºC was 65 cm and at 100ºC was 66.18 cm.
Calculate the coefficient of real expansion of liquid.
SOLUTION
Given,
Initial temperature (θ1) = 0ºC
Final temperature (θ2) = 100ºC
Height of 0º C (h0) = 65 cm
Height of 100ºC (hθ) = 66.18 cm
hθ – h0 66.18 – 65
Coefficient of real expansion, γ = = = 0.00018 ºC–1
h0θ 65 × 100
10.10 Anomalous Expansion of Water

Almost all liquids expand on heating; however, water contracts when it is heated from 0°C to 4°C.
Above 4°C, it behaves like other liquids. Since it contracts on rising temperature from 0°C to 4°C, its
volume decreases, hence its density increases. This peculiar behaviour of water is known as
anomalous expansion of water. At 4°C, the volume of water is minimum but density is maximum.
The variation of volume and density with temperature are shown in Fig. 10.11.

Fig. 10.11: Thermal expansion of water
Importance of Anomalous Expansion of Water for Aquatic Environment

The anomalous behaviour of water is the reason that the lakes freeze from top down rather from the
bottom up. Various layers of water are formed in lakes and
ponds in accordance with temperature gradient. In cold 0°C ice
regions, the temperature of surrounding atmosphere when
0°C water
falls below the temperature of water surface, it losses heat.
As the water on the surface cools, it becomes denser 1°C water
("heavier") than lower water and sinks to the bottom. But the 2°C water
situation is different when temperature becomes 4ºC. The 3°C water
density of water is maximum at this temperature and 4°C water
gradually decreases as we go to the freezing point. Below
4ºC, further cooling makes the water on the surface less Fig. 10.12: Layers of water at different
temperatures
dense ("lighter") than the lower water, so it stays on the
surface until it freezes. Thus, the water on the surface freezes while lower water is still liquid.
The anomalous property of water has an important environmental effect. As the water density is
maximum at 4°C and gradually decreases upto 0°C, layers of water at different temperatures are
formed from the bottom to top of lake. The upper layer can be at 0°C while the bottom layer is still at
4°C. The temperature gradually increases from top to bottom as shown in Fig. 10.12.
The uppermost layer of water loses the heat to the cold atmosphere and freezes. As soon as the water
freezes to ice, it insulates the heat flowing out from the layer beneath the ice and prevents from
freezing. Hence, the aquatic animals can live in this favourable environment (i.e., liquid
environment).
Tips for MCQs
Quantitative Tips
1. The expressions for linear, superficial and cubical expansions of substance are summarized in the
table below.
Dimension/condition Final Change in Coefficients
Δl
length l2 = l1 + l1αΔθ Δl = l1αΔθ α=
l1Δθ
ΔA
Surface area A2 = A1 + A1βΔθ ΔA = A1βΔθ β=
A1Δθ
ΔV
Volume V2 = V1 + V1γΔθ ΔV = V1γΔθ γ=
V1Δθ

If the problem is asked for the diameter of a ring, its rule is exactly similar to the linear expansion,
d2 = d1 (1 + αΔθ)
2. Relation between linear expansivity, superficial expansivity and cubical expansivity is,
β γ
α=2 =3.
3. Tension or force on a wall due to the expansion of rod, F = YAα(θ2 – θ1) where Y is the Young’s
modulus of elasticity.
4. If two materials of different initial lengths having different linear expansivity expand equally, the
l1 α'
relation is represented by l' = .
1 α
5. The relation of real expansivity, apparent expansivity and expansivity of vessel is written as,
γr = γa + γv, since γ = 3α, we write for the expansion of vessel, γv = 3αv.
6. As the temperature increases, the density of a material decreases except anomalous expansion, so
ρ0
ρθ = = ρ0 (1 – γΔθ).
1 + γΔθ
Conceptual Tips
1. The three coefficients of expansion α, β, and γ are not constant for a given solid. Their values depend
on the temperature range.
2. The temperature coefficient of resistance α is positive for metals and alloys and negative for
semiconductors and insulators.
1
3. For the ideal gas γ varies inversely with temperature, at θ = 0°C or 273 K, γ = 273.
4. Similar to anomalous expansion of water, silver iodide also contracts on heating from 80°C to 140°C.
5. The substances which have very low thermal expansion are used to make the pendulum clock. For
example: invar
6. The coefficient of linear expansion α is greater for metals than for alloys.
7. Since the thermal expansivity of liquid is greater than the thermal expansivity of solid, the liquid
overflows from vessel.
8. For most of the solids, the value of α lies between 10–6 K–1 to 10–5 K–1 in the temperature range 0°C to
100°C. The value of α is more for ionic solids than that for non-ionic solids.
9. The coefficient of linear expansion of a solid rod is independent of the geometrical shape of its cross-
section.
10. Bad conductors are suitable to make the measuring scale. If the measuring scales are made with
metals, they may show wrong results.
Quick Reply
1. What is the cubical expansivity of a liquid while freezing?
 The cubical expansivity γ is,
ΔV
γ=
VΔθ
In freezing, temperature does not change, i.e., Δθ = 0.
ΔV
Hence, γ = = ∞.
V×0
2. Why pendulum made of invar are used in clocks?
 The invar is an alloy. It has low value of coefficient of linear expansion. So, the length of pendulum
remains almost the same in different seasons. Thus, the clocks give reasonably correct time.

3. Why are wooden scales preferred to measure the length?
 Wood has very low coefficient of thermal expansion so that the length does not change appreciably
in summer and winter season. Therefore, accurate measurement is possible. Moreover, the metal has
comparatively high coefficient of thermal expansion so that measurement of same length differs in
hot days and cold days.
4. Are the three coefficients of expansion α, β, and γ are universal constants?
 No. The three coefficients of expansion α, β, and γ are not universal constants. Their values depend
on the nature of material and temperature range.
–5
5. What do you mean by coefficient of cubical expansion of mercury is 1.8 × 10 °C–1?
–5
 It means that 1.8 × 10 m3 volume is changed when temperature of 1 m3 volume of mercury is raised
by 1°C.

1. Two bodies made of the same material have the same external dimensions and appearance, but one
is solid and the other is hollow. When they are heated, is the overall volume expansion same or
different?
 For constant temperature range: Expansion of a material depends on three factors (i) original
dimension (ii) difference of temperature and (iii) nature of substance (i.e., coefficient of volume
expansion), but it does not depend on the mass of the material in same dimension. If two bodies
made of the same material have the same external dimensions and appearance, the overall volume
expansions remains same whether one is solid and the other is hollow.
For constant heat added: The mass of solid body is greater than hollow body, if they are made of
same material having same external dimensions and appearance. If the same amount of heat is
added, the rise of temperature is lower in solid than hollow body. Since the rise in temperature is low
in solid body, its cubical expansion is also low in comparison with hollow body.
2. Does the coefficient of linear expansion depend on length? Explain.
 No. The coefficient of linear expansion of a solid is
l2 – l1 Δl
α= =
l1 (θ2 – θ1) l1 (θ2 – θ1)
Here, Δl = change in length
l1 = original length
Δl
For every degree change in temperature, l remains constant. It concludes that 'α' does not depend
1
on original length. α, however, depends on the nature of materials of the body.
3. Frozen water pipes often burst, will a mercury thermometer break if the temperature of the
thermometer is brought below the freezing point of mercury?
 The volume of ice at 0°C is greater than water at same temperature. It means water expands on
freezing. This results to burst the pipes. But in case of mercury, it does not obey the anomalous
expansion, i.e., it contracts on freezing. Hence, the thermometer is not broken if the temperature of
the thermometer is brought below the freezing point of mercury.
4. Why iron rims are heated red hot before being put on cart wheels?
 The radius of the iron rim is smaller than the radius of the cart wheel. When the iron rim is heated, its
size becomes larger than the wheel. After the rim has been planted on the wheel and is allowed to
cool, it fits tightly on the wheel due to thermal contraction.

5. The difference between length of certain brass rod and that of a steel rod is claimed to be constant at
all temperature. Is this possible?
 Yes. This is possible when the ratio of original length of brass rod to steel rod is equal to the ratio of
linear expansivity of steel to linear expansivity of brass. Let 'b' and 's' denote subscript for brass and
steel. Then by definition;
Δlb = lbαb Δθ ... (i)
Δls = lsαs Δθ ... (ii)
Now, Δlb = Δls is achieved only when
lb αs
ls = αb
Thus, this condition must be satisfied so that the difference in length at all temperatures are equal for
brass and steel.
6. Does the cubical expansivity of a liquid depend on its original volume? Explain.
 No. The coefficient of cubical expansion is defined as
V2 – V1 ΔV
γ= =
V1(θ2 – θ1) V1 Δθ
Here, ΔV = change in volume
V1 = original volume
ΔV
In every degree rise in temperature, V remains constant. Hence, γ remains constant at all volume of
1
a liquid.
7. Two identical rectangular strips of copper and steel are riveted together to form a bimetallic strip.
What will happen on heating?
 The coefficient of linear expansion of copper is greater than that of iron. Therefore, copper strip
expands more than the iron strip at the same temperature change. As the two strips are riveted
together, the bimetallic strip bends as to allow more expansion in the copper strip which makes the
outer side of the bent bimetallic strip.
Worked Out Problems

1. A steel rod of original length 55 cm at temperature 20°C is heated to 80°C. Calculate the total length
at temperature 80°C. Also, find the change in length of the rod. Coefficient of linear expansion of
steel = 12 × 10–6 °C–1.
SOLUTION
Given, We have,
Initial length (l1) = 55 cm l2 = l1 (1 + α (θ2 – θ1))
Initial temperature (θ1) = 20°C = 55 (1 + 12 × 10–6 (80 – 20))
Final temperature (θ2) = 80°C = 55 (1 + 12 × 10–6 × 60)
–6 –
Coefficient of linear expansion (α)=12×10 °C = 55.04 cm
Final length (l2) = ? Change in length, Δl = l2 – l1
Change in length (Δl) = ? = 55.04 – 55 = 0.04 cm

2. Railway lines are laid with gaps to allow for expansion. If the gap between steel rails 50 m long be
3.60 cm at 10°C, at what temperature will the lines just touch? Given, coefficient of linear expansion
of steel is 12 × 10–6 °C–1.
SOLUTION
Given, 3.60 × 10–2 = 50 × 12 × 10–6 (θ2 – 10)
Steel length (l1) = 50 m 3.60 × 10–2
Change in length (Δl) = 3.60 cm = 3.60× 10–2 m or, θ2 – 10 =
50 × 12 × 10–6
Coefficient of linear expansion(α)=12×10–6 °C–1 or, θ2 – 10 = 60
∴ θ2 = 70°C
Change in length, Δl = l1 α (θ2 – θ1)
3. A blacksmith fixes iron ring on the rim of the wooden wheel of a bullock cart. The diameters of the
rim and the iron ring are 5.243 m and 5.231 m respectively at 27°C. To what temperature should the
ring be heated so as to fit the rim of the wheel? (Given: α for iron = 1.20 × 10–5°C–1)
SOLUTION
Given,
Initial temperature (θ1) = 27°C d2 – d1 5.243 – 5.231
θ2 – θ1 = =
Initial diameter (d1) = 5.231 m αd1 1.20 × 10–5 × 5.231
Final diameter (d2) = 5.243 m θ2 – 27 = 191
Change in diameter, d2 – d1 = α d1 (θ2 – θ1) ∴ θ2 = 191 + 27 = 218°C
4. A steel wire of uniform cross-section of 1 mm2 is heated to 70°C and stretched by tying its two ends
rigidly. Calculate the tension in the wire when the temperature falls from 70°C to 35°C. Coefficient of
linear expansion of steel is 1.1 × 10–5°C–1 and the Young's modulus is 2.0 × 1011 Nm–2.
SOLUTION
Given, = 38.5 × 10–5
Cross-sectional area of wire (A) = 1 mm2 If T is the tension in the wire due to the
= 10–6 m2 decrease in temperature, then,
Change of temperature (Δθ) = 70 – 35 = 35°C T T
Stress = A = –6
10
Coefficient of linear expansion(α)=1.1×10–5°C–1
Now, Stress = Y × Strain
Young's modulus of wire (Y) = 2.0 × 1011 Nm–2
T
Now, increase in length, Δl = l1 α Δθ = 2.0 × 1011 × 38.5 × 10–5
10–6
Δl
∴ Strain = l = αΔθ = 1.1 × 10–5 × 35 T = 77.0 N
1
5. A steel wire 8 m long and 4 mm in diameter is fixed to two rigid supports. Calculate the increase in
tension when the temperature falls by 10°C. [Given: Linear expansivity of steel (α) = 12. × 10–6 K-1 and
Young's modulus for steel (Y) = 2 × 1011 Nm–2]
SOLUTION
Given,
Length of wire (l) = 8 m
Diameter of wire (d) = 4 mm = 4 × 10–3 m
Change in temperature (θ) = 10°C YAΔl πd2
Linear expansivity of steel (α) = 12 × 10–6 K-1
or, F = l = Y 4 Δθ. α
Young's modulus for steel (Y) = 2 × 1011 Nm–2 π (4 × 10–3)2
= 2 × 1011 × 4 × 10 × 12 × 10–6
We have,
F/A Fl F = 301.6 N
Y= =
Δl/l A Δl This is required increase in tension.

6. A glass vessel of volume 50 cm3 is filled with mercury and is heated from 20°C to 60°C. What volume
of mercury will overflow? [Given: Linear expansivity of glass (αg) = 1.8 × 10–6 K–1 and volume
expansivity of mercury (γm) = 1.8 ×10–4 K–1]
SOLUTION
Given,
Volume of glass (Vg) = 50 cm3 Temperature change (Δθ) = 60ºC – 20ºC = 40ºC
Linear expansivity of glass (αg) = 1.8 × 10–6 K–1 Volume expansivity of mercury (γHg) = 1.8 ×10–4 K–1
Volume of mercury overflow = ?
After heating,
Volume of mercury over flow = V(γm – 3 αg) × Δθ
= 50 (1.8 × 10–4 – 3 × 1.8 × 10–6) × 40
= 0.35 cm3
7. The pendulum of a clock is made of brass. If the clock keeps correct time at 15°C, how many seconds
per day will it lose at 20°C? [Given: Linear expansivity of brass (α) = 0.000018°C–1]
SOLUTION
Given,
Linear expansivity (α) = 0.000018°C–1
Loss in time per day = ?
Let, T15 and T20 be the time periods at 15°C and 20°C.
l20 This is the lose in time per sec.
T20 = 2π g …(i) ∴ Lose in time per day
= 0.000045 × 60 × 60 × 24 = 3.89 s
l15
T15 = 2π …(ii) Alternative method
g
1
Dividing equation (i) by equation (ii) Time lost in 1 s = 2 × α × Δθ
T20 l20 l15(1 + αΔθ) 1
T15 = l15 = l15 = 2 × 0.000018 × 5 = 4.5 × 10–5 s
T20
Time lost in 1 day = 4.5 × 10–5 × 24 ×60×60
T15 = 1 + α Δ θ
= 3.89 s
= 1 + 0.000018 × 5 = 1.000045
T20 – T15
T15 = 0.000045
8. The length of an iron rod is measured by a brass scale. When both of them are at 10°C, the measured
length is 50 cm. What is the length of the rod at 40°C when measured by the brass scale at 40°C?
− − − −
(α for brass = 24 × 10 6 °C 1, α for iron = 16 × 10 6 °C 1)
SOLUTION
Given, Length of brass at 10°C (l10) = 50 cm
Length of bass at 40°C (l40) = ? = 50 [1 + 16 × 10–6 (40 – 10)] = 50.024 cm
Initial temperature (θ1) = 10°C Length of one cm division of the brass scale at
40°C
= 1[1 + 24 × 10–6 (40 – 10)] = 1.00072 cm
Linear expansivity of brass (αb) = 24× 10–6°C–1
∴ Length of the rod as measured by the brass
Linear expansivity of iron (αi) = 16 × 10–6°C–1 50.024
Now, Length of iron rod at 40°C scale at 40°C = 1.0072 = 49.988 cm.

9. A silica bulb of negligible expansivity holds 340 g of mercury at 0ºC when full. Some steel balls are
introduced and the remaining space is occupied at 0ºC by 255.0 g of mercury. On heating the bulb
and its contents to 100ºC, 4.800 g of mercury over flow. Find the linear expansivity of steel.
[Cubical expansivity of mercury = 180 × 10–6 K–1] [Density of mercury of 0ºC = 13.6 g/cc]
SOLUTION
Here, Volume of 340 g of mercury at 0ºC 4.800
= 13.6 × (1 + 180 × 10 × 100)
–6
340
= 13.6 cm3 = 25 cm3
= 0.3593 cc
Volume of mercury in the bulb after the balls But volume of mercury overflowed = expansion of
255 mercury + expansion of steel balls
were introduced = 13.6 = 18.75 cc
or, 0.3593 = 18.75 × 180 × 10–6 × 100 + 6.25 γs × 100
∴ Volume of steel ball = 25 – 18.75 = 6.25 cc or, 625 γs = 0.3593 – 0.3375
4.800 or, 625 γs = 0.0218
Volume of mercury overflowed =
ρ100 or, γs = 0.0000348
4.800 4.800 (1 + γθ) γs
= ρ = ∴ αs = 3 = 11.6 × 10–6 /K
0 ρ0
1 + γθ
10. Aniline is a liquid which does not mix with water, and when a small quantity of it is poured into a
beaker of water at 20°C it sinks to the bottom, the densities of the two liquids at 20°C being 1021 and
998 kgm–3 respectively. To what temperatures must the beaker and its contents be uniformly heated
so that the aniline will form a globule which just floats in the water? (The mean absolute expansivity
of aniline and water over the temperature range concerned are 0.00085 K–1 and 0.00045 K–1
respectively.
SOLUTION
Given,
Density of benzene at 0° C, ρb0 =9.0 × 102 kg m–3
Density of wood at 0° C, ρw0 = 8.8 × 102 kg m–3
Cubical expansivity of benzene, γb = 1.2×10–3K–1
Cubical expansivity of water, γw = 1.5 × 10–4 K–1
Suppose the wood will sink in benzene at θ° C, then we can write
0
θ ρb
Density of benzene at θ° C, ρb =
1 + γb θ
θ 9.0 × 102
or, ρb = ... (i)
1 + 1.2 × 10–3 θ
θ ρw0
and the density of wood at θ° C, ρw =
1 + γw θ
θ 8.8 × 102
or, ρw = ... (ii)
1 + 1.5 × 10–4 θ
Wood will just sink in benzene at θ° C, when their densities are equal at the same temperature.
θ θ
ρb = ρw
9 × 102 8.8 × 102
or, =
1 + 1.2 × 10 θ 1 + 1.5 × 10–4 θ
–3
or, 9 + 1.5 × 9 × 10–4 θ = 8.8 + 8.8 × 1.2 × 10–3 θ

0.2 = 8.8 × 1.2 × 10–3 θ – 1.5 × 9 × 10–4 θ
0.2
or, θ = 9.2 × 10–3 = 21.715° C
∴ The required temperature = θ = 21.7° C


1. The Humber Bridge in England has the world's longest single span, 1410 m in length. Calculate the
change in length of the steel deck of the span when the temperature increases from –5.0°C to 18.0°C.
Ans: 0.389 m
2. A U.S. one-cent coin has a diameter of 1.9000 cm at 20.0°C. The coin is made of a metal alloy (mostly
zinc) for which the coefficient of linear expansion is 2.6 × 10–5 K–1. What would its diameter be (a) on
a hot day in Death Valley (48.0°C)? (b) on a cold night in mountains of Greenland (–53.0°C)?
Ans: 1.9014 cm, 1.8964 cm
3. A metal rod is 40.125 cm long at 20.0°C and 40.148 cm long at 45.0°C. Calculate the average
–5 –1
coefficient of linear expansion of the rod for this temperature range. Ans: 2.3 × 10 °C
4. A steel tank is completely filled with 2.80 m3 of ethanol when both the tank and the ethanol are at
temperature of 32.0°C. When the tank and its contents have cooled to 18.0°C, what additional volume
of ethanol can be put into the tank? Ans: 0.29 m3
5. A machinist bores a hole of diameter 1.350 cm in a steel plate at a temperature of 25°C. What is the
cross-sectional area of the hole (a) at 25°C; (b) when the temperature of the plate is increased to
175°C? Assume the coefficient of linear expansion remains constant over this temperature range.
Ans: 1.431 cm 2 , 1.437 cm 2
6. The markings on an aluminum ruler and a brass ruler are perfectly aligned at 0°C. How far apart will
the 20.0 cm marks be on the two rulers at 100°C, if precise alignment of the left-hand ends of the
rulers is maintained? Ans: 0.010 cm
7. A brass rod is 185 cm long and 1.60 cm in diameter. What force must be applied to each end of the
4
rod to prevent it from contracting when it is cooled from 120°C to 10°C? Ans: 3.78 × 10 N
8. (a) A wire that is 1.50 m long at 20°C is found to increase in length by 1.9 cm when warmed to 420°C.
Compute its average coefficient of linear expansion for this temperature range. (b) The wire is
stretched just taut (zero tension) at 420°C. Find the stress in the wire if it is cooled to 20°C without
being allowed to contract. Young's modulus for the wire is 2.0 × 1011 Pa.
9 –2
Ans: 3.2 × 10 – 5 °C – 1 , 2.59 × 10 Nm
9. A 'thermal tap' used in certain apparatus consists of a silica rod which fits tightly inside an
aluminium tube whose internal diameter is 8 mm at 0°C. When the temperature is raised, the fit is no
longer exact. Calculate what change in temperature is necessary to produce a channel whose cross -
section is equal to that of a tube of 1 mm internal diameter.
Linear expansivity of silica = 8 × 10–6 K–1
Linear expansivity of aluminium = 26 × 10–6 K–1 Ans: 434 K
10. The pendulum of a clock is made of brass whose linear expansivity is 1.9 × 10–5 K–1. If the clock keeps
correct time at 15°C, how many seconds per day will it lose at 20°C? Ans: 4.1 s
11. A steel cylinder has an aluminium alloy piston and at a temperature of 20° C the internal diameter of
the cylinder is exactly 10 cm. There is an all-round clearance of 0.05 mm between the piston and
cylinder wall. At what temperature will the fit be perfect? (The linear expansivity of steel and
aluminium alloy are 1.2 × 10–5 K–1 and 1.6 × 10–5 K–1 respectively). Ans: 271°C
12. Using the following data, determine the temperature at which wood will just sink in benzene.
Density of benzene at 0°C = 9.0 × 102 kg m–3, density of wood at 0°C = 8.8 × 102 kg m–3, Cubical
expansivity of benzene (γb) = 1.2 × 103 K–1 and Cubical expansivity of wood (γw) = 1.5 × 10–4 K–1.
Ans: 21.7° C

Exercise
1. Does linear expansivity depends on temperature range?
2. Why does a material expand on heating?
3. What is the order in length of linear expansivity of solid?
4. What is the relation between linear, superficial and cubical expansivity?
5. Write two uses of thermal expansion.
6. Draw a graph of volume and temperature of water showing anomalous property of water.
7. Write the common device in which principle of differential expansion is used.
8. Why does density of a solid or liquid change on heating?
9. What are the units and dimensions of linear expansivity and cubical expansivity?
10. Write the formula to show the relationship between real expansivity and apparent expansivity?
11. Why ice floats is cold water?
12. Liquid has only cubical expansivity, but not the linear expansivity, why?
Short Questions
1. Pendulum clocks generally gains time in winter and loses time in summer, why?
2. Why must telephone or power lines necessarily slag a little?
3. Why does the level of liquid fall initially when it is heated in a pot?
4. Explain why a beaker filled with water at 4°C overflows if the temperature is decreased or increased?
γ
5. A liquid of cubical expansivity γ is heated in a vessel having linear expansivity 3 . What would be the
effect on the level of liquid?
6. The iron ring to be put on the rim of a cart wheel has always slightly smaller diameter than that of
wheel, why?
7. Why is it sometimes possible to loosen caps on screw top bottles by dipping the cap briefly in hot
water?
8. Why do frozen pipes burst on winter?
9. Explain why a column of mercury in thermometer first decends slightly and then rises when placed
in hot water?
10. Why are glass windows possible to be cracked in very cold region?
11. When a metallic blocks with hole in it is heated, why does not the material around the hole expand
into the hole and make it smaller?
12. Frozen water pipes often burst. Will a alcohol thermometer break if the temperature drops below the
freezing point of alcohol?
13. Explain the significance of anomalous expansion of water with an example observed in nature.
14. Define the coefficient of cubical expansion of a solid and write an expression for the variation of its
density with temperature.
15. A small space is left between two rails on a railway track, why?
16. Name four physical changes that can take place when a body is heated.
Long Questions
1. A body of initial temperature θ1°C is heated to final temperature θ2°C. Derive an expression for the
final length for the body of linear expansivity α.
2. A body of initial volume V1 at initial temperature θ1°C is heated to final temperature θ2°C. Derive an
expression for final volume V2 of a body having cubical expansivity γ.
3. Define coefficient of linear expansion and coefficient of cubical expansion. Derive the relation
between them.
4. Explain the experiment that determines the coefficient of linear expansion of a metal rod.
5. Define real expansiviy and apparent expansivity of a liquid. Derive their relation.
6. Define absolute expansivity of a liquid. Describe Dulong's and Petit's experiment to find the absolute
expansivity of a liquid.
7. Do all substances expand on heating? Explain the anomalous expansion of water. What is the
environmental significance of anomalous expansion of water?
8. Describe the variation of density with temperature on various substances. Derive the expression for
it.
9. Does cubical expansivity depend upon the initial volume of a solid? Write the unit of this
expansivity. Also derive its relation with superficial expansivity.

Required constants and their values
Linear expansivity of steel = 12 × 10-6 K-1, Linear expansivity of zinc = 26 × 10-6 K-1
Linear expansivity of brass = 19 × 10 -6 K-1, Linear expansivity of copper = 17 × 10-6 K-1
Linear expansivity of aluminium = 26 × 10-6 K-1, Linear expansivity for iron = 16 × 10-6 K-1
Cubical expansivity for benzene is = 12.4 × 10-4°C-1, Cubical expansivity of mercury = 1.8 × 10-4 K-1
Linear expansivity of glass = 9 × 10-6 °C-1 Young's modulus for steel = 2 × 1011 Nm-2
LEVEL I
1. The cross section of a steel rod is 10 cm2 at 10°C. What is the final cross section of the rod when it is
heated to 50°C? Ans: 10.0096 cm2
2. What should be the initial lengths of steel and copper rods so that the length of steel rod is 5 cm
larger than the copper rod at all temperatures? Ans: 17 cm, 12 cm
6. An iron sphere has a radius of 10 cm at a temperature of 0°C. Calculate the change in volume of the
sphere if it is heated to 100°C. Ans: 1.383 cm3
7. How much mercury must be placed inside the glass vessel of capacity 500 cc, so that the volume of
the space unoccupied by mercury always remains constant? Ans: 75 cc
8. An Aluminum rod when measured with a steel scale, both being at 25°C appears to be 1 m long. If
the scale is correct at 0°C, what will be the length of the rod at 0°C? Ans: 99.96 cm
9. A bottle is filled with 250 cc of benzene at 30°C. If the bottle is cooled to 0°C, how much air space
will there be above the bottle? Neglect the expansion of the bottle. Ans: 8.7 cc
10. A pendulum clock consists of an iron rod connected to a small, heavy bob. If it is designed to keep
correct time at 20ºC, how fast or slow will it go in 24 hours at 40ºC? Coefficient of linear expansion of
iron = 1.6 × 10–5 ºC. Ans: 13.8 s
11. A circular hole of diameter 2.00 cm is made in an aluminium plate at 0ºC. What will be the diameter
at 100ºC? α for aluminum = 2.3 × 10–5 /ºC. Ans: 2.0046 cm
12. The densities of wood and benzene at 0ºC are 880 kgm–3 and 900 kgm–3 respectively. The coefficients
of volume expansion are 1.2 × 10–3 ºC–1 for wood and 1.5 × 10–3 ºC–1 for benzene. At what temperature
will a piece of wood just sink in benzene? Ans: 83 oC
13. A steel wire of cross sectional area 0.5 mm2 is held between two fixed supports. If the wire is just taut
at 20ºC, determine the tension when the temperature falls to 0ºC. Ans: 24 N
14. A glass flask with volume 200 cm3 is filled to the brim with mercury at 20°C. How much mercury
overflows when the temperature of the system is raised to 100°C? The coefficient of linear expansion
of the glass is 0.40 × 10–5 K–1. Ans: 2.7 cm3

15. The pendulum shaft of a clock is made of brass. What is the fractional change in length of the shaft
when it is cooled from 19.50°C to 5.00°C? [Given: α for brass is 1.9 × 10–5°C–1] Ans: 2.9 × 10–4
16. A copper cylinder is initially at 20.0°C. At what temperature will its volume be 0.15% larger than is at
20.0°C? Ans: 49.41°C
LEVEL II
1. A glass vessel contains when full 544 grams of mercury at 0°C. The mass of mercury which fills it at
100°C is 535.45 g. Calculate the cubical expansivity of glass. Ans: 1.6 × 10–4 K-1
2. A blacksmith fixes iron on the rim of the wooden wheel of a bullock cart. The diameters of the rim
and the iron ring are 5.243 m and 5.231 m respectively at 27°C. To what temperature should the ring
be heated so as to fit the rim of the wheel? Ans: 218°C
3. A glass flask of volume 400 cm3 is just filled with mercury at 0°C. How much mercury overflows
when the temperature of the system is raised to 80°C? Ans: 5.76 cm3
length is 50 cm. What is the length of the rod at 40°C when measured by the same scale at 40°C?
Ans: 49.988 cm
5. A meter scale is made up of steel and measures correct length at 16ºC. What will be the percentage
error if this scale is used (a) on a summer day when the temperature is 46ºC and (b) on a winter day
when the temperature is 6ºC? Coefficient of linear expansion of steel = 11 × 10–6 ºC–1.
Ans:0.033%, 0.011%
6. A pendulum clock having copper rod keeps time at 20ºC. It gains 15 seconds per day if cooled to 0ºC.
Calculate the coefficient of linear expansion of copper. Ans: 1.7 × 10–5 0C–1
7. A glass Vessel measures exactly 10 cm × 10 cm × 10 cm at 0ºC. It is filled completely with mercury at
this temperature. When the temperature is raised to 10ºC, 1.6 cm3 of mercury overflow. Calculate the
coefficients of volume expansion of mercury. Coefficient of linear expansion of glass is 6.5 × 10–6 ºC.
Ans: 1.8 × 10 – 4 o C – 1
8. A steel ball initially at a pressure of 1.0 × 105
Pa is heated from 20ºC to 120ºC keeping its volume
constant. Find the pressure inside the ball. Coefficient of linear expansion of steel is 12 × 10–6 ºC–1 and
bulk modulus of steel is 1.6 × 1011 Nm–2. Ans: 5.8 × 108 Pa
9. At a temperature of 0ºC, the mass and volume of a fluid are 825 kg and 1.17 m . The coefficient of
3
volume expansion is 1.26 × 10–3 (ºC)–1. (a) What is the density of the fluid at this temperature?
(b) What is the density of the fluid when the temperature has risen to 20ºC?
Ans: 705.13 kg m–3, 687.80 kg m–3
10. The brass bar and the aluminum bar in the drawing the each attached to an immovable wall. At 28ºC
the air gap between the rods is 1.3 × 10–3 m. At what temperature will the gap be closed? Ans: 49oC
11. If they are just to touch on a summer day when their temperature is 33.0°C? (b) If the rails are
originally laid in contact, what is the stress in them on a summer day when their temperature is
–3 12 –2
33.0°C? Ans: 5.04 × 10 m, 8.4 × 10 Nm
12. A steel rod of original length 55 cm at temperature 20°C is heated to 80°C. Calculate the total length
at temperature 80°C. Also, find the change in length of the rod. Coefficient of linear expansion of
steel = 12 × 10–6 °C–1. Ans: 0.04 cm
13. Railway lines are laid with gaps to allow for expansion. If the gap between steel rails 50 m long be
3.60 cm at 10°C, at what temperature will the lines just touch? Given, coefficient of linear expansion
of steel is 12 × 10–6 °C–1. Ans: 70°C
14. A blacksmith fixes iron ring on the rim of the wooden wheel of a bullock cart. The diameters of the
rim and the iron ring are 5.243 m and 5.231 m respectively at 27°C. To what temperature should the
ring be heated so as to fit the rim of the wheel? (Given: α for iron = 1.20 × 10–5°C–1) Ans: 218°C

15. A steel wire 8 m long and 4 mm in diameter is fixed to two rigid supports. Calculate the increase in
tension when the temperature falls by 10°C. [Given: Linear expansivity of steel (α) = 12. × 10–6 K-1 and
Young's modulus for steel (Y) = 2 × 1011 Nm–2] Ans: 301.6 N
length is 50 cm. What is the length of the rod at 40°C when measured by the brass scale at 40°C?
− − − −
(α for brass = 24 × 10 6 °C 1, α for iron = 16 × 10 6 °C 1) Ans: 49.988 cm

1. 0.1 m3 of water at 80°C is mixed with 0.3 m3 of water at 60°C. The final temperature is
a. 65°C b. 70°C c. 60°C d. 75°C
2. The density of water at 20°C is 998 kg m–3 and at 40°C it is 992 kg m–3. The coefficient of cubical
expansion of water is nearest to
a. 2 × 10–4 °C–1 b. 4 × 10–4 °C–1 c. 6 × 10–4 °C–1 d. 3 × 10–4 °C–1
3. An ideal gas is expanding such that PT2 = constant. The coefficient of volume expansion of the gas is
1 2 3 4
a. T b. T c. T d. T
4. A bar of steel is 20 cm at 20°C, at 21°C it will be (α for steel = 1.2 × 10–5 °C–1)
a. 1.2 × 10–5 cm shorter b. 1.2 × 10–5 cm longer
c. 12 × 10–5 cm shorter d. 12 × 10–5 cm longer
5. At constant pressure, the ratio of increase in volume of an ideal gas per degree rise in Kelvin
temperature to its original volume is (T = absolute temperature of gas)
1 1
a. T2 b. T c. T d. 2
T
6. Two rods of materials A and B are of same length. Linear expansivity of A and cubical expansivity of
B are 12 × 10–6 K–1 and 3 × 10–5 K–1 respectively. If both the rods are heated from the same
temperature to 80°C, the length of the rod A will be
a. larger than rod B b. double than length of rod B
c. equal to the length of the rod B d. shorter than the length of rod B
7. What happens when water at 4°C is heated further?
a. mass increases slightly b. mass decreases slightly
c. volume increases slightly d. volume decreases slightly
8. When a body is heated, then maximum rise will be in its
a. length b. surface area c. volume d. density
9. If an anisotropic solid has coefficient of linear expansion αx, αy and αz for three mutually
perpendicular directions in the solid, its coefficient of volume expansion will be
2
a. (αx αy αz)1/3 b. αx + αy + αz c. (αx2 + αy2 + αz2)1/2 d. ( αx + αy + αz)
10. A metal rod of Young's modulus λ and coefficient if thermal expansion α is held between two fixed
supports such that its length remains invariant. If its temperature is raised by t°C, the linear stress
developed in it is
αt λ 1
a. b. c. λαt d.
λ αt λαt
ANSWERS
1. (a) 2. (d) 3. (b) 4. (b) 5. (c) 6. (a) 7. (c) 8. (c) 9. (b) 10. (c)


QUANTITY OF
HEAT ENERGY
11.1 Introduction
Heat is a form of energy that is transferred from one body at higher temperature to another body at
lower temperature. On hot days, we feel warm, as we receive heat from the surroundings, and in
chilly cold days, we feel cold, as our body losses heat to the surroundings. We use heat for cooking
foods, boiling water, drying clothes, keeping body warm, melting things etc. Heat energy is the most
common form of energy that we experience every moment in our lives, however, the concept of heat
measurement is a quite complicated task. It can only be measured during its transition from one
body to another or change in phase. How can you measure the amount of heat in your tea cup? You
cannot measure directly the heat, as the measurement of temperature by observing the mercury level
in thermometer, rather we need calculation. There must be the transfer of heat from tea to the
surroundings to measure it, that is, in the form of heat lost. The change of temperature when
multiplied with heat capacity of tea, the quantity of heat lost can be calculated. Since the heat is
measured in transition state, it is also called "energy in transition".
Calorimetry is a branch of physics that deals with the measurement of heat. The word calorimetry is coined
from the word calorie (in abbreviation 'cal'). Calorie is defined as the amount of heat energy required
to raise the temperature of one gram of water by 1°C (particularly from 14.5°C to 15.5°C, since the
heat capacity depends on temperature). Calorie is widely used in practice, although it belongs
neither to SI nor to CGS system. According to the recommendation of international committee on
weights and measurements, joule is the SI unit of heat energy as all other forms of energy like light
energy, electric energy, sound energy etc., whereas, erg is the CGS unit of heat energy, but, it is not
taken, usually in practice.
Mechanical Equivalent of Heat

As the heat is produced from the mechanical work, quantity of heat can be measured from its
mechanical equivalent. Sir James Prescott Joule (1818 - 1889) attempted to relate the heat energy with
mechanical work. He stirred the water vigorously with a paddle wheel to warm the water. Then, he
observed that the temperature rise in water is directly proportional to the amount of work done on it.
In terms of mathematical relation, the finding of Joule's observation is written as
W∝Q
where, W = mechanical work done
Q = quantity of heat produced
W = JQ . . . (11.1)
where, J is proportionality constant. It is called Joule's constant or Joule's mechanical
equivalent of heat.
J = 4.18 joules/cal

In 1845, Joule specified the numerical value for the amount of mechanical work required to produce
a unit of heat. In his research paper entitled "The Mechanical Equivalent of Heat", in particular, Joule
had experimented on the amount of mechanical work generated by friction needed to raise the
temperature of a pound of water by one degree Fahrenheit and found a consistent value of 778.24
foot pound force (4.1550 Jcal–1). He contended that motion and heat are mutually interchanged.
Though a standardised value of 4.1860 Jcal–1 was established in the early 20th century, it was
ultimately realized that the constant is simply the specific heat of water, a quantity of heat that varies
with temperature between the values of 4.17 and 4.22 Jg–1 ºC–1.
EXAMPLE 1: What energy in calorie is absorbed by a hail stone of mass 20 g when drops from a height of 400 m on the
earth's surface?
SOLUTION
Given,
Height (h) = 400 m
Mass (m) = 20 g = 20 × 10−3 kg
If the potential energy is completely converted into the heat energy, then,
W = mgh
= 20 × 10−3 × 9.8 × 400
= 78.4 J
Also, J = 4.2 J cal−1
W 78.4
Q = J = 4.2 =18.67 cal
11.2 Calorimeter
The device which is used to measure the
amount of heat is known as calorimeter. It
consists of a copper vessel provided with a
copper stirrer. The vessel is kept into a
wooden frame. The gap between the wood and
the vessel is filled with insulating material like
wool, wooden dust, etc. Thus, the calorimeter
gets thermally insulated from the
surroundings. The loss of heat due to radiation
is further reduced by polishing the outer
surface of the copper vessel and the inner
surface of the wooden frame. The lid is
provided with holes for inserting a
thermometer and a stirrer into the calorimeter
as shown in Fig. 11.1.
11.3 Principle of Calorimetry (The Law of Mixture)

The principle of calorimetry states that, "the heat gained by the cold body must be equal to the heat lost by
the hot body, provided there is no exchange of heat with the surroundings."
i.e., Heat gained by cold body = Heat lost by hot body.
This equation is useful to determine the specific heat capacity and specific latent heat of different
substances.
Quantity of Heat Energy | Chapter 11 | 289
Heat Capacity
Heat capacity of a substance is defined as the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of any mass of
the substance through 1°C.
For a body of mass m whose temperature is raised by Δθ, heat capacity is written as
ΔQ mS Δθ
C= =
Δθ Δθ
C = mS . . . (11.2)
where, S is the specific heat capacity of a substance.
Specific Heat Capacity

If equal quantity of heat is added to equal mass of different substances, the temperature change will
not be the same. It implies that, every substance has a unique value of heat absorbed or heat rejected
if we change the temperature of unit mass by one unit. This quantity is referred to as the specific heat
capacity.
Let ΔQ be the quantity of heat absorbed or rejected by a substance of mass m so that the temperature
change is Δθ. Then, the amount of heat absorbed or rejected is,
ΔQ ∝ m
and, ΔQ ∝ Δθ
Combining,
ΔQ ∝ mΔθ
or, ΔQ = SmΔθ
or, ΔQ = mSΔθ . . . (11.3)
The proportionality constant S is called specific heat capacity.
ΔQ
Now, S =
mΔθ
For m = 1 kg and Δθ = 1°C (or 1 K)
Then, S = ΔQ . . . (11.4)
Hence, specific heat capacity of a substance is defined as the quantity of heat required to change the
temperature of unit mass of the substance through 1°C (or 1 K).
Its SI unit is Jkg–1K–1 (or Jkg–1°C–1) and it is also
written in cal g–1K–1 (or calg–1°C–1).
Specific heat capacity of a material is not constant
even for a material. It depends on temperature
interval. For example, the specific heat capacity of
substance between the temperature intervals of
20°C to 30°C may be different from that between
the interval 30°C to 40°C. The specific heat capacity
of water is considered 4200 Jkg–1 °C–1, however this
value is the average value of S in the temperature
range 0°C to 100°C. The specific heat capacity of
water with respect to temperature is shown in Fig.
11.2.
Note: Actually, the specific heat capacity of water is approximately 4190 Jkg–1°C–1. For convenience in calculation,
it is written 4200 Jkg–1°C–1 within the temperature interval 0°C to 100°C.

Approximate specific heats of some materials (Source: University Physics, Sears and Zemansky)
Substance Specific heat (Jkg–1K–1)
Aluminium 910
Copper 390
Ethanol 2428
Ice (near 0ºC) 2100
Iron 470
Lead 130
Marble (CaCo3) 879
Mercury 138
Salt (NaCl) 849
Silver 234
Water 4190
EXAMPLE 2: During a bout with the flu an 80 kg man ran a fever of 39.0°C instead of the normal body temperature of
37.0°C. Assuming that the human body is mostly water, how much heat is required to raise his temperature by that
amount?
SOLUTION
Given, Q =?
Mass (m) = 80 kg We have,
Final temperature (θ2) = 39.0°C Q = mS (θ2 – θ1)
Initial temperature (θ1) = 37.0°C = 80 × 4200 × (39 – 37)
S = 4200 J kg–1 °C−1 = 6.7 × 105 J
 Check Point: How much heat does 100 g of copper give off as it cools from 95°C to 25°C? Specific
heat capacity of copper = 400 Jkg-1°C-1 = 0.095 calg-1°C-1 Ans: 2793 J
Applications of high specific heat of water

Water has high specific heat capacity. Due to this property, it takes a long time to heat and also the
time to cool. Hence, it can be used in both heating and cooling purposes. Some important
applications of such property of water as high specific heat capacity are mentioned below.
1. In hot water bag: We use water in hot water bag in order to get rid of cold effect from our body.
Since it has large specific heat capacity, it can provide large quantity of heat for relatively long
time.
2. Maintaining the temperature in hot blooded animals: Living body is composed with high
content of water. Due to the high specific heat capacity of water, the temperature of blood does
not fluctuate easily, which helps to maintain constant temperature in hot blooded animals. As a
result, the body mechanisms regulate properly at any weather conditions.
3. Cooling agents: Due to its high specific heat capacity, it can be used to absorb the excess heat
from the mechanical engines. As it has high specific heat capacity, its temperature does not rise
appreciably, although large amount of heat is absorbed. Water can be used as the cooling agent
in vehicles, particle accelerators x-ray machines, etc.
4. Land breezes and sea breezes: Many natural phenomena occur depending on the high specific
heat capacity of water. The specific heat capacity of water is about five times greater than the
sand. Due to this fact, the temperature of sand varies easily than the water, which enables to
produce the land breezes at night and sea breezes at day time.

Applications of low specific heat capacity of cooking oil and massage oil
The substance with low specific heat capacity gets heated or cooled quicker than the high specific
heat materials. They have several advantages in our daily life. Cooking oil, and massage oil have low
specific heat capacity, generally below 2000 J kg–1 °C–1. Some important applications are as below.
1. Since the cooking oil has low specific heat capacity, its temperature rises quickly during cooking
food. This helps cooking time faster as well as helps in proper cooking.
2. Massage oil has the similar character as the cooking oil. When the massage oil is applied on
body surface and rub on it, the temperature rises immediately, so that our body feels
comfortable.
Water Equivalent
The water equivalent of a body is defined as the mass of water which requires the same amount of heat as is
required by the given body for the same rise in temperature. In other words, it is the mass of water having
the same heat capacity as a given body.
Suppose a substance has specific heat capacity 600 Jkg–1 °C–1. If 4200 J of heat is supplied to 7 kg mass
of such substance, the temperature rise can be 1°C. We know that 4200 J is also required for 1 kg of
water to raise its temperature by 1°C. It means 1 kg of water is equivalent to 7 kg of given substance
in terms of heat absorbed or rejected. So, in general water equivalent of a substance of mass m and
specific heat capacity S can be written as,
w = mS . . . (11.5)
The unit of water equivalent is kg.
Warning: Water equivalent is merely the mass of water which is numerically equal to the product of mass and
specific heat capacity of any of the other substances. So, the unit of water equivalent is not similar to the unit of
heat capacity (= mS), rather its unit is kg.
Notes: Specific heat capacity and heat capacity are different physical quantities. In specific heat capacity the value
of mass is specified (i.e., mass must be 1 kg) but any value of mass is considered in heat capacity.
11.4 Determination of Specific Heat Capacity of a Solid by the

Method of Mixture
Regnault's apparatus can be used to determine the specific heat capacity of a solid heavier than
water. The principle, procedure and calculation are described as follows:
Principle: This experiment is based on the principle of calorimetry (or the law of mixture). According
to this principle, "if there is no exchange of heat with the surrounding, heat gained by cold body is equal to
the heat lost by hot body."
Procedure: To start with, a calorimeter with a stirrer is weighed and about two third of calorimeter is
filled with water so that the experimental solid may be completely immersed in water. Then the
mass of water is also determined by subtracting the mass of empty calorimeter with stirrer from total
mass of calorimeter with stirrer containing water. The experimental solid whose specific heat
capacity is to be measured is weighed and then suspended in a steam chamber. Steam is prepared by
boiling water in a separate boiler and is passed through the steam chamber. The initial temperature
of water is noted. Initial temperature of solid is also noted. Now, the experimental solid is kept into
the water in calorimeter. Finally, the maximum temperature of the mixture is also noted. The
experimental setup is shown in Fig. 11.3.

T1 T2
Suspension string
I
Steam
Water
Experimental solid
O
Steam
(i) Steam chamber (ii) Calorimeter
Fig. 11.3: Regnault's apparatus to determine the specific heat capacity of a solid
Calculation
Let, the mass of calorimeter and stirrer = m1
the mass of calorimeter and stirrer and water = m1'
mass of water = m2 = m1' – m1
mass of experimental solid = m3
specific heat capacity of calorimeter with stirrer = S1
specific heat capacity of water = S2
specific heat capacity of solid = S3
initial temperature of calorimeter and water = θ1
initial temperature of solid = θ2
final temperature of mixture = θ
We have,
Heat gained by calorimeter with stirrer = m1S1 (θ – θ1)
Also, Heat gain by water = m2S2 (θ – θ1)
Total heat gained = m1S1 (θ – θ1) + m2 S2 (θ – θ1) . . . (11.6)
Again, Heat loss by experimental solid = m3S3 (θ2 – θ) . . . (11.7)
From the principle of calorimetry,
Heat lost by hot body = Heat gained by cold body
or, m3S3 (θ2 – θ) = (m1S1 + m2S2) (θ – θ1)
(m1S1 + m2S2) (θ – θ1)
∴ S3 = . . . (11.8)
m3 (θ2 – θ)
Knowing the specific heat capacity of water and that of material of calorimeter, the specific heat
capacity of given solid can be determined.

11.5 Newton's Law of Cooling

Like many different fields of physics, Newton has made remarkable contribution in the field of heat
also. He investigated heat lost by a body in air and formulated a
law in calorimetry which is known as Newton's law of cooling.
According to this law, "the rate of loss of heat is directly proportional
to the difference of temperature of a body and its surroundings."
Let θ and θ0 be the initial temperatures of a body and its
surroundings respectively. If θ > θ0, the body losses heat to its
surroundings. If the body losses dQ amount of heat in small time
interval dt, Newton's law of cooling is written as,
dQ
−
dt ∝ (θ – θ0)
The negative sign shows that the quantity of heat is reduced
when time of heat loss increases.
dQ
−
dt = k (θ – θ0) . . . (11.9)
The proportionality constant k depends on the material of the body and on its surface area exposed
to the surroundings.
If the body of mass m requires dQ amount of heat to raise
the temperature by dθ, then, dQ
In formula, dt = k(θ – θ0)
dQ = mSdθ . . . (11.10)
where, S is the specific heat capacity of the body. Using msdθ
equation (11.9) in equation (11.10), we get, dt = k(θ – θ0)
dθ Here, dθ is the difference of temperature
– mS dt = k (θ – θ0) within time dt. For example: If the
substance is cooled 100°C to 90°C in dt (=
dθ k 5 min, say), dθ = 100 – 90 = 10°C.
or, = – (θ – θ 0)
dt mS Also, θ is taken averaging these two
dθ k 100 + 90
or, = – mS dt . . . (11.11) temperatures, like 2 = 95°C.
θ – θ0
Integrating both sides, we get and θ0 is the surrounding temperature.
k
loge (θ – θ0) = – mS t + C . . . (11.12)
where, C is integration constant.
The graph between loge (θ – θ0) and t gives straight line with negative slope and intercept C as shown
in Fig. 11.4.
Note: Newton’s law of cooling tells that rate of heat loss by a body is directly proportional to the difference of
temperature of the body and its surroundings. Therefore, the rate of heat loss is not similar for all equal
temperature range (for example: rate of heat loss by a body for temperature range 80°C to 79°C is not equal to
the rate of heat loss by that body for temperature range 60°C to 59°C) in the same surroundings.
For example,
( dQ
) (
dt for temperature range 80°C to 79°C >
dQ
dt for temperature range 60°C to 59°C ) .

EXAMPLE 3: You are designing an electronic circuit element made of 23 mg of silicon. The electronic current through it
–3
adds energy at the rate of 7.4 mW = 7.4 × 10 J/s. If your design doesn't allow any heat transfer out of the element, at what
rate does its temperature increase? The specific heat of silicon is 705 J/kg K.
SOLUTION
Given, We have,
Mass (m) = 23 mg = 23 × 10–6 kg dQ dθ
dQ dt = mS dt
Rate of energy added ⎛ dt ⎞ = 7.4 × 10–3 J/s
⎝ ⎠ dθ dQ/dt
S = 705 J kg–1 K–1 dt = mS
dθ 7.4 × 10–3
dt = ? = 23 × 10–6 × 705 = 0.46 K/s
EXAMPLE 4: A substance takes 3 minutes in cooling from 50° C to 45° C and takes 5 minutes in cooling 45° C to 40° C.
What is the temperature of the surroundings?
SOLUTION
Given, Moreover,
Time to cool from 50°C to 45°C,
⎛dθ⎞ =
50 – 45 5
=3
t1 = 3 min, ⎝ dt ⎠1 3
Time to cool from 45°C to 40°C, and
t2 = 5 min
Average temperature between 50°C ⎛dθ⎞ = 45 – 40 = 5 = 1
50 + 45
⎝ dt ⎠2 5 5
and 45°C = 2 = 47.5°C Dividing (i) by (ii) we get
Average temperature between 45°C ⎛dθ⎞
40 + 45 ⎝ dt ⎠1 (47.5 – θ)
and 40°C = = 42.5°C =
2 ⎛dθ⎞ (42.5 – θ)
Let θ be the temperature of ⎝ dt ⎠2
surrounding, 5 (47.5 – θ)
From Newton's law of cooling, or, 3 = (42.5 – θ)
⎛dQ⎞ = k(47.5 – θ) or, 212.5 – 5θ = 142.5 – 3θ
⎝ dt ⎠1
or, 70 = 2θ
dθ
or, ms ⎛ dt ⎞ = k(47.5 – θ) …(i)
⎝ ⎠1 ∴ θ = 35°C
dθ The temperature of the surroundings is 35°C.
Similarly, ms ⎛ dt ⎞ = k(42.5 – θ) …(ii)
⎝ ⎠2
 Check Point: A body cools from 80ºC to 50ºC in 5 min. Calculate the time it takes to cool from 60ºC
to 30ºC. The temperature of the surroundings is 20ºC. Ans: 9 min
11.6 Measurement of Specific Heat Capacity of a Liquid by the

Method of Cooling
The experimental arrangement to measure the specific heat of liquid is shown in Fig. 11.5. The
principle, procedure and calculation is mentioned below:
Principle: This experiment works on the principle of Newton's law of cooling. According to this
principle, "when two liquids are cooled under identical condition, the rates of cooling are equal."
Procedure: To start with, two identical calorimeters A and B are taken and the weight of each is
noted. Calorimeter A is filled with water and calorimeter B is filled with liquid whose specific heat
capacity is to be measured. The mass of water and mass of liquid are measured. Both calorimeters

are kept inside a box such that they are in identical condition in every respect. Now, both the
calorimeters are heated upto the equal temperature and are left to cool upto same temperature. Time
interval for cooling of water and liquid are noted.
T3
T1 T2
Inlet
Constant temperature enclosure

A B
Outlet
Fig. 11.5: Experimental arrangement to determine specific heat capacity of a liquid
Calculation:
Mass of calorimeter A = m1
Mass of calorimeter B = m2
Mass of water in A = m3
Mass of liquid in B = m4
Specific heat capacity of calorimeters = S1
Specific heat capacity of water = S2
Specific heat capacity of liquid = S3
Initial temperature of both water and liquid = θ1
Final temperature of both water and liquid = θ2
Time required for water to cool from θ1 to θ2 = t1
Time required for liquid to cool from θ1 to θ2 = t2
Now, heat lost by calorimeter A and water
= m1S1(θ1 – θ2) + m3S2 (θ1 – θ2)
= (m1S1 + m3S2) (θ1 – θ2)
Now, rate of cooling of water and calorimeter A
⎛dQ⎞ = (m1S1 + m3S2) (θ1 – θ2) . . . (11.13)
⎝ dt ⎠1 t1
Similarly, heat lost by calorimeter B and liquid
⎛dQ⎞ = (m2S1 + m4S3) (θ1 – θ2) . . . (11.14)
⎝ dt ⎠2 t2

From the Newton's law of cooling,
⎛dQ⎞ = ⎛dQ⎞
⎝ dt ⎠1 ⎝ dt ⎠2
(m1S1 + m3S2) (θ1 – θ2) (m2S1 + m4S3) (θ1 – θ2)
or, t1 = t2
t2
or, m2S1 + m4S3 = t (m1S1 + m3S2)
1
t2
or, m4S3 = t (m1S1 + m3S2) – m2S1
1
1 t2
∴ S3 = m t (m1S1 + m3S2) – m2S1 . . . (11.15)
4  1 
Knowing the value of specific heat capacity of water and calorimeters, specific heat capacity of liquid
is calculated.
The time of cooling for the water and given liquid can be calculated from the graph of temperature
versus time, as shown in Fig. 11.6.
11.7 Change of Phase

Most of the substances have three states: solid, liquid and gaseous. A transition from one of the three
states (phases) of a matter to any of another state is called a change of phase (or change of state or
phase transition). When a solid is heated, it is converted into liquid and when a liquid is heated, it is
converted into gaseous state. On cooling, gaseous state is converted into liquid and liquid is
converted into solid.
Heat shows two major effects: temperature change and phase transition. At the condition of phase
transition, temperature of the substance remains constant and at the condition of temperature
change, phase remains the same. The change of phase from solid to liquid is called melting and that
from liquid to solid is called freezing. Practically, melting and freezing temperatures are same. Both
the solid and liquid phases of the substance coexist in thermal equilibrium during change of phase
from solid to liquid. The temperature at which the
solid and liquid states of the substance coexist in
thermal equilibrium with each other is called its
melting point.
The change of phase from liquid to gas is called
vaporization. Both the liquid and gaseous states
of the substance coexist in thermal equilibrium
during the change of phase from liquid to gas.
The temperature at which the liquid and the gas
phases of the substance coexist is called its boiling
point.
Fig. 11.7: Change of phase
All substances may not show all three states at
all temperatures and pressures. In some substance, liquid state does not exist, the solid directly
changes to gas and vice-versa. The change from solid states to gas states without passing through the liquid
states is called sublimation. During the sublimation process, both the solid and gas states of a substance
coexist in thermal equilibrium. Conversion of solid-liquid-gas phase of a substance is shown in the
Fig. 11.7.

Notes:
(i) The conversion of gaseous state to liquid state is known as condensation. Similarly, change of liquid to solid
state is called freezing.
(ii) When two different states of a substance are in thermal equilibrium, heat does not flow. For example, if water
at 0°C is mixed with ice at 0°C, heat does not pass from water to ice, although the water contains more amount
of heat than ice of equal mass.
(iii) Water can evaporate below its boiling point. This happens due to the unsaturation condition of the atmosphere.
Evaporation takes place below the boiling point in water resources like rivers, lakes and seas.
Effect of Pressure on Melting Point of Substance

In general, most of the substances expand on melting. But, there are certain exceptions in which the
heating effect causes contraction. The effects of pressure on melting point of such substances are also
quite peculiar. They are explained separately as below.
1. In the common substances that expand on heating, the melting point increases as the pressure
on it increases.
2. In the substance that contracts on heating, the melting point decreases on increasing pressure.
One interesting phenomenon is explained at the end of this chapter which is termed as
"Regelation".
Effect of Pressure on Boiling Point of Substance

As the liquid is heated, it evaporates out. The pressure of liquid vapour gradually increases as the
temperature increases. Vapour pressure acts against the atmospheric pressure and forces the
atmosphere upward. The liquid boils when vapour pressure exceeds the atmospheric pressure. Since
the atmospheric pressure is low at high altitude region, the liquid boils at low temperature at this
region. It means that the boiling point of liquid increases as the pressure increases. This is why, we
need more time to cook food at mountainous region than the low altitude region. Due to this reason,
food is cooked faster in pressure cooker than in open pot.
11.8 Latent Heat

The amount of heat required to convert a substance from one state to another state at a given
temperature is known as latent heat. The amount of heat required to convert unit mass of a substance
from one state to another state without change in temperature is known as specific latent heat of the
substance.
The heat required during the change of phase of a substance depends on its mass,
i.e., Q ∝ m
or, Q = Lm
∴ Q = mL . . . (11.16)
where, the proportionality constant L is called specific latent heat (or simply latent heat). It is
characteristic of the substance. Its SI unit is Jkg–1. The value of L depends on the pressure at which it
is measured. The latent heat for a solid-liquid phase change is called the latent heat of fusion and that
for a liquid-gas phase change is called the latent heat of vaporization.

m
Boiling point Phase change
a
ste
o
100 C
ge
an
Temperature (oC)
ch
re
tu
ra
pe
m
Te
Melting water + steam
point Phase change
0oC water
ice + water
ice
Heat energy
Fig 11.8: Temperature versus heat energy for water (not to scale)
The variation of temperature with heat energy for given quantity of water is shown in Fig. 11.8.
The conclusions drawn from Fig. 11.8 are summarized as below:
1. When heat is added or removed during a change of phase, the temperature remains constant.
Also phase remains same as the temperature change.
2. The slopes of the phase lines are not all the same. This indicates that specific heats of the various
phases of a substance are not equal. In Temperature-Heat graph, greater the slope shows
smaller specific heat capacity of that substance. Therefore, the slope for water line is smaller
than the slope for ice line. The specific heat of water (= 4200 Jkg–1 °C–1) > the specific heat of ice
(= 2100 J kg–1 °C–1). The slope in Temperature-Heat graph is zero for specific latent heat.
Notes:
(i) The latent heat of fusion of ice is 80 cal/g. It means that 80 calorie heat energy must be added to convert 1 g of
ice into water at constant temperature. Conversely, same amount of energy is released when 1 g of water is
freezes into ice remaining same temperature.
(ii) The latent heat of evaporation of water is 540 cal/g. It means that 540 calorie heat energy is required to convert
1 g of water into steam, temperature remaining same.
(iii) The amount of heat required for phase transition from solid to liquid is equal to the heat lost for phase
transition from liquid to solid. Same rule is also obeyed in evaporation and condensation.
(iv) Total heat required to convert solid state to gas state can be determined using the following formula.
Solid below Solid at Liquid at Liquid at Gas at

melting point melting point melting point boiling point boiling point
of liquid
Q1 = mSΔθ Q2 = mL Q3 = mSΔθ Q4 = mL
Total heat required (Q) = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 + Q4

It is noted that S for Q1 is different from Q3. Also L for Q2 is different from Q4.
(v) In formula Q = ± mL, the positive sign is used when the material melts/boils, the negative sign is used when it
freezes/condenses.

Specific latent heat of fusion and vaporization of some materials (for 1 atm pressure)
(Source: University Physics, Sears and Zemansky)
Substance Specific heat (Jkg–1K–1)
Aluminium 910
Copper 390
Ethanol 2428
Ice (near 0ºC) 2100
Iron 470
Lead 130
Marble (CaCo3) 879
Mercury 138
Salt (NaCl) 849
Silver 234
Water 4190
EXAMPLE 5: An ice cube tray of negligible mass contains 0.350 kg of water at 18°C. How much heat must be removed
to cool the water to be 0°C and freeze it? Express your answer in joules and calories. Specific heat capacity of water is
4200 J kg–1 °C–1 and latent heat of fusion of ice is 3.36 × 105 J kg–1.
SOLUTION
Given, Q = mS (θ1 – 0) + mL
Mass of ice cube (m1) = 0.350 kg = 0.35 × 4200 (18 –0) + 0.35 × 3.36 × 105
Initial temperature of water (θ1) = 18°C = 1.44 × 105 J
Final temperature (θ2) = 0°C And in calorie,
S = 4200 J kg–1 °C–1 , L = 3.36 × 105 J kg–1 1.44 × 105
Q = 4.2 = 3.43 × 104 cal
Heat that must be removed to cool the
water to 0°C and freeze it is,
 Check Point: What is the result of mixing 5 g of ice at – 5ºC to 20 g of water at 90ºC? (Given Si
= 2100 Jkg–1ºC–1 and Li = 3.36 × 105 Jkg–1) Ans: 55.50C, 25 g
Measurement of Latent Heat of Fusion of Ice by the Method of Mixture

Latent heat of fusion of ice is defined as the amount of heat
required by 1 kg of ice at melting point to change to water at the
same temperature. The principle, procedure and calculation is
described as below:
Principle: This experiment depends on the principle of
calorimetry (or the law of mixture). According to this principle, "if
there is no exchange of heat with the surrounding, heat gained by cold
body is equal to the heat lost by hot body."
Procedure: At first, a calorimeter with stirrer is weighed and
about two third part of calorimeter is filled with water. The mass
of water is determined by subtracting mass of empty calorimeter
with stirrer from mass of calorimeter with stirrer and water. The
initial temperature of water and calorimeter is noted. A piece of Fig. 11.9: Measurement of specific
melting ice (0°C ice) is kept and is mixed with water with the help latent heat of fusion of ice
of stirrer until ice is completely melted. Then, the final

temperature of mixture is measured. Finally, the mass of ice is determined by subtracting mass of
calorimeter with stirrer and water from total mass of calorimeter with stirrer, water and ice. The
experimental setup is shown in Fig. 11.9.
Calculation:
Let the mass of calorimeter + stirrer = m1
Mass of calorimeter + stirrer + water = m1'
Mass of water = m1' – m1 = m2
Mass of calorimeter + stirrer + water + ice = m2'
Mass of ice = m2' – m1' = m3
Latent heat of fusion of ice = L
Specific heat capacity of calorimeter = S1
Specific heat capacity of water = S2
Initial temperature of calorimeter and water = θ1
Final temperature of mixture = θ2
Now,
Heat lost by calorimeter with stirrer,
Q1 = m1S1 (θ1 – θ2) . . . (11.17)
Heat lost by water
Q2 = m2S2 (θ1 – θ2) . . . (11.18)
Total heat lost by water and calorimeter
Q = Q1 + Q2
or, Q = m1S1 (θ1 – θ2) + m2S2 (θ1 – θ2)
or, Q = (m1S1 + m2S2) (θ1 – θ2)
∴ Q = (m1S1 + m2S2) (θ1 – θ2) . . . (11.19)
Now, heat gained by ice to melt,
Q1' = m3L . . . (11.20)
and heat gained by ice to be at θ2
Q2' = m3S2 (θ2 – 0)
(Here, melting point of ice is considered 0°C)
Q2' = m3S2θ2 . . . (11.21)
∴ Total heat gained by ice,
Q' = Q1' + Q2'
Q1' = m3L + m3S2 θ2 . . . (11.22)
Here, the heat gained by ice is equal to the heat lost by calorimeter and water,
m3L + m3S2 θ2= (m1S1 + m2S2) (θ1 – θ2)
or, m3L = (m1S1 + m2S2) (θ1 – θ2) – m3S2θ2
1
∴ L = m [(m1S1 + m2S2) (θ1 – θ2)] – S2θ2 . . . (11.23)
3
Knowing the specific heat capacity of water and calorimeter, the latent heat of fusion of ice can be
obtained.
Latent Heat of Evaporation of Water

Latent heat of evaporation of water is defined as the amount of heat required to convert 1 kg of water
at boiling point to steam at same temperature. The principle, procedure and calculation of the
experiment is described below:
Principle: This experiment depends on the principle of calorimetry (or the law of mixture).
According to this principle, "if there is no exchange of heat with the surrounding, heat gained by cold body
is equal to the heat lost by hot body."
Procedure: To start with, a calorimeter with
steam
a stirrer is weighed and about two third of
trap
calorimeter is filled with water. The mass of
water is determined by subtracting mass of
empty calorimeter and stirrer from total
mass of calorimeter, stirrer and water. The
initial temperature of calorimeter and water
is noted. Some water is boiled separately in
a boiler to generate the steam which is then
passed to the calorimeter as shown in Fig. heat
11.10. The steam is left to be condensed for shield
some time. After a certain time, the supply
of steam is stopped. Now, mass of steam is Fig. 11.10: Measurement of specific latent heat of
calculated. Finally, the temperature of the vaporization of water
mixture is noted. The experimental setup is shown in Fig. 11.10.
Calculation:
Let, the mass of calorimeter + stirrer = m1
mass of calorimeter + stirrer + water = m1'
mass of water = m1' – m1 = m2
mass of calorimeter + stirrer + water + steam = m2'
∴ mass of steam = m2' – m1' = m3
specific heat capacity of calorimeter = S1
specific heat capacity of water = S2
latent heat of evaporation = L
initial temperature of calorimeter and water = θ1
initial temperature of steam = θ2 = Boiling point of water
final temperature of mixture = θ
Now, heat gained by calorimeter and stirrer
Q1 = m1S1 (θ – θ1) . . . (11.24)
Heat gained by water
Q2 = m2S2 (θ – θ1) . . . (11.25)
Total heat gained by calorimeter, stirrer and water
Q = Q1 + Q2
or, Q = m1S1 (θ – θ1) + m2S2 (θ – θ1)
∴ Q = (m1S1 + m2S2) (θ – θ1) . . . (11.26)
Also, heat lost by steam to be condensed,
Q1' = m3L . . . (11.27)
Heat lost by condensed water to become θ°C
Q2' = m3S2 (θ2 – θ) . . . (11.28)
Total heat lost
Q' = Q1' + Q2'
∴ Q' = m3L + m3S2 (θ2 – θ) . . . (11.29)
From the principle of calorimetry
Heat lost = Heat gained
or, m3L + m3S2(θ2 – θ) = (m1S1 + m2S2) (θ – θ1)
or, m3L = (m1S1 + m2S2) (θ – θ1) – m3S2 (θ2 – θ1)
(m1S1 + m2S2) (θ – θ1)
∴ L= m3 – S2 (θ2 – θ) . . . (11.30)
By knowing the specific heat capacity of material of calorimeter and water, the latent heat of
evaporation of water can be determined.
EXAMPLE 6: An open container holds 0.550 kg of ice at –15.0°C. The mass of the container can be ignored. Heat is
supplied to the container at the constant rate of 800 J/min for 500 min. (a) After how many minutes does the ice start to
melt? (b) After how many minutes, from the time when heating is first started, does the temperature begin to rise above
0°C?
SOLUTION
Given, (b) Heat required to melt the ice
Mass (m) = 0.550 kg Q2 = m Lf = 0.55 × 3.36 × 105 = 184800 J
Initial temperature of ice = –15.0°C Now, total heat required for the
Rate of heat supplied = 800 J/min temperature to rise upto 0°C water,
Time of heat supply = 500 min Q = Q1 + Q2
Specific heat of ice (Si) = 2100 J kg–1 K–1 = 17325 + 184800 = 202125 J
Heat required to be 0°C ice,
Now total time required to be 0°C water
Q1 = mS (0 – (–15)) = 0.55 × 2100 × 15 from the beginning of heating is,
= 17325 J
202125
Energy = 800 = 252.65 min.
(a) We know, power = Time
Obviously, the temperature has crossed 0°C
17325
Time required to be 0°C ice = 800 after 252.65 min.
= 21.65 min
 Check Point: Calculate how much steam from water boiling at 100°C will just melt 50 g of wax at
20°C. [Melting point of wax = 55°C, specific heat of wax = 0.7 calg-1°C-1, specific latent heat of fusion
of wax = 35 cal g-1] Ans: 5.5 × 10-3 kg
EXAMPLE 7: Find the result of mixing 0.8 kg of ice at –10°C with 0.8 kg of water at 80°C. [Given: Specific heat capacity of
water (Sw) = 4200 Jkg–1 °C–1, specific heat capacity of ice (Si) = 2100 J kg–1 °C–1 and specific latent heat of ice (Li)
= 336 × 103 Jkg–1]
SOLUTION
Given,
Mass of ice (mi) = 0.8 kg
Mass of water (mw) = 0.8 kg
Temperature of ice (θi) = – 10°C
Temperature of water (θw) = 80°C
Specific heat capacity of water (Sw) = 4200 Jkg–1 °C–1
Specific heat capacity of ice (Si) = 2100 J kg–1 °C–1
Specific latent heat of ice (Li) = 336 × 103 Jkg–1
Total amount of heat required to be water at 0° C,
(Q1) = mi Si(0 – θi) + mi Li
= 0.8 × 2100 × {0 – (–10)} + 0.8 × 336 × 103 = 285600 J
Total amount of heat lost by water in cooling from 80°C to 0°C,
(Q2) = mwSw (80 – 0) = 0.8 × 4200 × 80 = 268800 J

Since, Q1 > Q2, ice does not melt completely,
Total heat available = 268800 J
Heat absorbed on rising temperature of ice from –10°C to 0°C is,
= mi Si(0 – θi)
= 0.8 × 2100 × {0 – (–10)} = 16800 J
Now excess heat available to melt the ice,
= 268800 J – 16800 J = 252000 J
Let m be the amount of ice melted by the available excess heat,
mLi = 2522000
252000 252000
m = Li = = 0.75 kg
336 × 103
So, the result of mixing consists of 0.75 + 0.8 = 1.55 kg of water and 0.05 kg of ice and final
temperature of mixture is 0°C.
 Check Point: 10 g of steam at 100ºC is passed into a mixture 10 g of water and 5 g of ice at 0ºC.
Find the resulting temperature of the mixture. (Latent heat of fusion of ice = 80 cal/g, latent heat of
steam = 540 cal/g) (Ans: The heat consumed by ice and water is not sufficient to condense the steam
completely. So, the final temperature of the mixture can not decrease below 100ºC. Therefore, final
temperature of the mixture is 100ºC.)
Regelation
Regelation is the phenomenon of melting under pressure and freezing again when pressure is
reduced. Regelation was discovered by Michael Faraday. It occurs only for substances such as ice,
that have the property of
expanding upon freezing. The
melting points of those substances
decrease with increase in external
pressure. The melting point of ice
falls by 0.0072ºC for each
additional 1 atm of pressure
applied. For example, a pressure
500 atmospheres is needed for ice
to melt at – 4ºC.
Consider a cubical ice block,
Fig. 11.11: Regelation of ice block
supported at two ends by two
blocks maintained at certain height. A metal string supporting two heavy loads at its ends is passed
over the block of ice. The string now presses the ice block and the ice under the string starts melting,
because of the decrease in melting point due to increase in pressure. The water thus formed is free
from the pressure of the string. As soon as the water is formed it looses, its heat to the surrounding
ice and thus freezes again. Similar process continues until the string is completely emerged out from
the block without making it into pieces as shown in Fig. 11.11.
11.9 Vapours and Gases

The formulation of kinetic theory is actually true in case of ideal gases. However, in many situations,
this theory is applicable not only to ideal gases but also to non ideal gases, liquids and solids.
According to kinetic theory of gases, molecules do not have intermolecular attraction rather they
interact only during collisions. This assumption is obeyed at a low pressure and at high temperature
where average separation between the molecules is sufficiently large. In such situation, the potential

energy due to intermolecular attraction is negligible as compared to average kinetic energy of the
molecules. If the pressure is increased and temperature is decreased, the attraction energy between
the molecules becomes significant. The gradual increase of attraction among the molecules liquefies
the gas. Therefore, the gas can be liquefied either by increasing pressure or decreasing temperature.
If the temperature is sufficiently high, the kinetic energy of gas molecules is significantly large so that
the change of pressure cannot solely convert the gas into liquid. The temperature above which this
condition is achieved is known as critical temperature of the substance. That's why, the gas is treated
differently than vapour although they are considered the same phase of matter. In reality, vapours
and gases are two different states of matter. A vapour above the critical temperature is a gas. To
liquefy a gas, it must be cooled upto or below its critical temperature. A gas below the critical
temperature for a substance is a vapour. Vapour can be liquefied under pressure alone.
11.10 Evaporation and Boiling

The liquid molecules are always in random motion. During their motion, they collide with the solid
surfaces like wall of containers. In this process, the direction and speed of the molecules change
frequently. Some molecules on the surface of liquid may escape from the surface of liquid. After
being released, the molecules from the liquid surface get free to travel in space. Thus, a process in
which molecules leave slowly from the surface is known as evaporation. The escaping molecules
gain energy from other liquid molecules.
The energy of vapour is greater than the energy of liquid of same amount of a substance. This is
because extra energy is required to break the intermolecular attraction in liquid state to change it to
vapour. If heat is supplied to liquid, the kinetic energy of entire liquid molecules increases. A stage
will be reached in which the molecules anywhere in the liquid can form vapour bubbles. These
bubbles float on the surface of liquid and finally come out.
This phenomenon is called boiling and the temperature at
which boiling occurs is called boiling point.
Effects of Temperature on Pressure of Vapour

If the apparatus in Fig. 11.12 is warmed uniformly, the ether
above the mercury is gradually evaporated. So, the pressure
on the tube increases. It means the pressure of saturated
vapour rises with temperature. Fig. 11.12 shows the effect of
heating a saturated vapour. As the liquid is heated more and
more, the pressure rises rapidly. As soon as all the liquid has
evaporated the vapour becomes unsaturated, and its pressure
rises more steadily along a straight line BA.
Notes:
(i) Saturated vapours do not obey Boyle's law, their pressure is independent of their volume.
(ii) Unsaturated vapours roughly obeys Boyle's law and Charles' law.
(iii) A liquid boils when its saturated vapour pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure.
(iv) The air pressure decrease as the altitude increases, so water boils at lower temperature at the top of Mount
Everest, with respect to sea level. Therefore, boiling point of liquid decreases with altitude. It is the reason why
food does not cook properly at the top of Mt. Everest.
(v) The equation for real gas can be expressed by the general relation,
PV = A + BP + CP2 + ……
Where, the coefficients A, B and C are called 'virial coefficients' which are functions of temperature. At
moderate temperature, the gas obeys the relation,
PV = A + BP
and at low temperature, PV = A = RT

11.11 Triple Point

Triple point of a substance is defined as a point in a phase diagram at which all three states of the
substance coexist. A typical phase diagram or P-T diagram shows the relationship of pressure and
temperature, phase of a substance.
The curve in a phase diagram, which distinguishes the solid state and liquid state of a substance is
known as fusion line (fusion curve, XO). Similarly, the curve which separates the liquid state and
gaseous state of a substance is known as vaporization line (vaporization curve, YO). Also, the
sublimation line (sublimation curve, ZO) distinguishes the solid state and gaseous state of a
substance as shown in Fig. 19.4.
P(atm) P(atm)
X'
X
fusion curve
fusion curve
Tc
218 Y'
Y Tc
water solid liquid
steam vaporization
curve curve
ice
Ttr O
0.006 O sublimation
steam
sublimation curve Ttr vapour
curve
Z T(oC) Z' T(oC)
0.01 (ii)
(i)
Fig 11.13: Phase diagram (i) for water (ii) for substance like CO2
To study the characteristics of phases of a matter at different values of temperatures and pressures,
two types of lines, horizontal lines and vertical lines, can be drawn in the phase diagram as shown in
Fig. 11.13. Horizontal lines study the characteristics of phases at constant pressure and varying
temperature. Vertical lines show the characteristics of phases at constant temperature and varying
pressure.
Let S and A be the horizontal lines that represent the
variations of temperature of a gas at constant
pressures PS and PA. The line S is drawn below the
critical point which intersects only sublimation line.
It shows that if the pressure is kept below the triple
point value, no liquid phase of a substance exists.
Also, the line drawn above the triple point (but
below the critical point), the line A, in Fig. 11.13,
intersects fusion line and vapourization line. It
means all three states of a substance can be achieved
if temperature is varied taking pressure constant
above the triple point as shown in Fig. 11.14.
If we study the variation of pressure taking temperature constant, similar characteristics can be
observed as we explained in previous paragraphs (i.e., the line D intersects only sublimation line and
the line B intersects both fusion line and vapourization line). Lines D and B are drawn in Fig. 11.14 to
explain the phase transition at constant temperatures TD and TB respectively with varying pressures.
Moreover, liquid-vapour phase transition occurs only when the temperature and pressure are less
than a particular point. This point corresponds to the end point at the top of vapourisation curve, it is
called the critical point and corresponding values of P and T are called critical pressure (Pc) and
critical temperature (Tc) respectively. When the temperature of substance is above the critical
temperature, the gas phase can not be converted into liquid phase by changing only the pressure.
The Triple Point is a Single Point for a Substance

If someone asks you, what is the boiling point of water? You may answer, 100°C. Do you think, you
answered correct? No, your answer is incomplete. Your answer should be the boiling point of water
is 100°C at pressure 760 mm of Hg. The boiling point of water (or any substance) is not constant, it
depends on pressure applied to it. Hence, a locus (i.e., vaporization curve) is observed in phase
diagram for the boiling point of water (or any substance). Similar phenomena are observed in fusion
curve and sublimation curve. What would be in triple point? Is it a locus or a single point? It is
explained below.
Initially, consider a phase diagram in which there are
many triple points for a substance. Let the points A, B
and C in Fig. 11.15 are triple points.
In Fig. 11.15, XB curve (fusion curve) shows that the
matter in the shaded area ABC must remain in the
solid state. Likewise, the evaporation curve, YA,
shows that the matter in the area ABC must remain in
liquid state. Also, the sublimation curve, ZC, shows
that the area ABC contains the gaseous state of
matter. It is well known fact that a can remain only in
one state, not all state at a certain temperature and
pressure (can a person be, man and woman at a time? impossible). Hence our assumption of
"existence of many triple points for a substance" is impossible.
Notes: In modern thermometry, the triple point of water is chosen to be one of the fixed points. As it is
characterized by a unique temperature and pressure, so it is preferred over the conventional fixed
points namely the melting point and boiling point of water. The melting point of ice and boiling point
of water both changes with pressure. Moreover, the presence of impurities changes their values. But
triple point of water is independent of the external factors.
Triple point data for several substances are given in following table:
Substance Temperature (K) Pressure (Pa)
Hydrogen 13.80 0.704 × 105
Nitrogen 63.18 0.125 × 105
Oxygen 54.36 0.0152 × 105
Carbondioxide 216.55 5.17 × 105
Water 273.16 0.00610 × 105
Tips for MCQs
Quantitative Tips
1. The thermal work done is related with heat energy by: W = JH. Where J is called mechanical
equivalent of heat.
2. Heat gained or heat lost by a substance of mass m is calculated with the formula:

(i) Q = mSΔθ, (for phase of the substance remaining the same) where, S is specific heat capacity
and Δθ is the change of temperature.
(ii) Q = mL, (for temperature remaining the same) where, L is called specific latent heat.
Notes:
(i) Specific heat capacity is also denoted by c (for the principal specific heat capacity) and C (for the molar specific
heat capacity). In this book the symbol c and C are used for the specific heat capacities in first law of
thermodynamics and second law of thermodynamics, otherwise symbol S is used.
(ii) Also what we write specific heat capacity, here is actually principal specific heat capacity, but for simplicity
we do not use the word principal in all chapters except thermodynamics.
3. According to the principle of calorimetry, Heat gained = Heat lost.
4. Water equivalent, w = mS (gram) and heat capacity = mS (cal°C–1). Numerically water equivalent is
equal to heat capacity.
Conceptual Tips
1. Mechanical equivalent of heat J is not a physical quantity. It is just a conversion factor.
2. Since the mass of a substance is taken fixed (i.e. 1 kg), the heat required to raise its temperature by
unit degree is known as specific heat capacity (similar explanation for specific latent heat).
3. In Temperature-Heat graph, the longer the line greater the amount of heat required to convert from
one phase to another for a substance.
4. The phenomenon in which ice melts when pressure is increased and again freezes when pressure is
removed is called regelation (re = again, gelare = freeze).
5. When water and ice are kept inside a single container, we should not always expect that ice changes
to water. Different situations may arrive depending upon their masses and temperatures.
(i) If water and ice are in thermal equilibrium, water does not supply heat to ice and hence it will
not melt.
(ii) If the amount of ice is more and its temperature is very low compared to water, the amount of
heat required to raise its temperature upon melting point (from any temperature say –θ°C to
0°C) and hence to melt it must be compared to the heat lost by water when its temperature
reduces to melting point of ice.
(a) If the heat required by ice to raise its temperature upto melting point is greater than the
heat lost by water to achieve this temperature, then ice does not melt completely. (The
final temperature may be 0°C or below).
(b) If these two quantities of heat (but not the temperature) are equal, then ice melts
completely but the temperature of the mixture remains at melting point of ice (i.e. at 0°C).
(c) If the heat lost by water is numerically greater than the heat required by ice to melt, then
the ice melts completely and the temperature of the mixture is greater than the melting
point of ice.
6. The fusion line of water has negative slope; it is because melting point of ice decreases with increase
in pressure. But the fusion line of carbon-dioxide has positive slope because melting point of dry ice
increases with increase in pressure.
7. Triple point is single for any substance, hence this point is suitable to calibrate the thermometers as a
reference.
8. Gas cannot be liquefied at all temperature by changing pressure alone. It can be liquefied only when
its temperature is below its critical temperature.
9. Critical temperature is the temperature of a substance in a gaseous state below which the gas can be
liquefied by pressure only, and above which the gas cannot be liquefied. In this sense, vapour and
gas are different forms of substance.

Quick Reply
1. Copper has specific heat capacity 390 Jkg–1 K–1. What is its water equivalent?
4200
 Water has specific heat capacity 4200 Jkg–1K–1. So, the water equivalent is 390 = 10.77 kg.
2. What nature of graph we get in "variation of temperature versus time" in Newton's law of cooling?
 The mathematical relation between variation of temperature and time is,
k
loge(θ – θo) = mS t + C
k
– mS t + C
i.e., θ – θo = e
This shows that the nature is exponential.
3. If you take equal mass of ice at 0°C and water at 100°C, ice is found melting faster than the
evaporation of water to steam, why?
 The latent heat of evaporation of water (Lv = 540 cal/g) and the latent heat of fusion of ice (Li = 80
cal/g). Therefore, this happens.
4. Why do you feel cold in the mouth when you eat halls?
 Halls need certain heat energy to melt. When it is kept into the mouth, it takes some energy. It means
our body loses heat energy to melt the halls. Since the mouth loses heat, we feel cold.
5. Differentiate between fusion curve between H2O and CO2.
 In water (H2O), the slope of fusion curve in P-T diagram is negative, while the sloped of fusion curve
of CO2 in P-T diagram is positive.
6. Does heat capacity and specific heat capacity have same meaning?
 No. Mass is specified 1 kg in specific heat capacity, but any amount of mass can be taken in heat
capacity. So, heat capacity of a substance can be different in same temperature range, however
specific heat capacity remains same in such condition.
7. Why does the temperature of ice fall when some salt is added to it?
 When salt is added to the ice, the ice provides latent heat to the salt to melt. Since the ice loses heat,
its temperature falls down.
8. A thermos bottle containing water is vigorously shaken. What will be the effect on the temperature of
water?
 As the water is vigorously shaken, some of work done against the viscous force will be converted
into heat, i.e., W = JH. Therefore, the temperature will increase.

1. Why does food cook faster in a pressure cooker than in an open pot?
 The boiling temperature of water increases as the pressure on it increases. In pressure cooker, the
vapour pressure is very high (many times of atmospheric pressure). So, the temperature of water in it
becomes greater than 100°C before boiling. Obviously, the water contains greater amount of heat.
Since, the temperature into the pressure cooker is greater than the temperature in an open pot and
also aided by the absorption of liquid and moisture into food quickly under increased pressure the
food cooks faster in a pressure cooker than in an open pot.
2. Why can you get a more severe burn from steam at 100°C than from water at 100°C?
 To convert water into steam at 100°C, latent heat should be provided to water. It means that the
quantity of heat in steam is greater than the quantity of heat in same mass of water. Therefore, you
can get more severe burn from steam at 100°C than water at same temperature.
3. If you add heat to an object, do you necessarily increase its temperature? Justify
Steam
your answer.
Temperature
 If heat is added to an object, there may be change in temperature or change in Phase change
ter
phase of matter. Heat does only one job at a time, whether the temperature is
wa
increased or phase is changed, but not both at a time. Therefore, it does not
O Heat energy
necessarily increase its temperature, if heat is added to an object. Also for
appreciable increase in temperature, numerically the mass and specific heat parameters play role of
the body.
4. Two bodies of specific heats S1 and S2 having same heat capacities are combined to form a single
composite body. What is the specific heat of the composite body?
 Let m1 and m2 be the masses of two bodies of specific heats S1 and S2 respectively. According to the
question,
(m1 + m2)S = m1S1 + m2S2 m1S1
where, S = combined specific heat Also, m2 = S
2
For same heat capacity, m1S1 = m2S2
2m1S1 2m1S1
∴ (m1+m2) S = 2m1S1 So, S = m1S1 = S1
2m1S1 m1 + S m1 ⎛1 + S ⎞
S =m +m 2 ⎝ 2⎠
1 2
Similarly, taking the specific heat capacity of ∴ 2S1S2

S= S +S
second body. 1 2
2m2S2
or, S = m +m
1 2
5. A child should be wrapped with thick clothes to protect from cold, why?
 The rate of fall of temperature is proportional to the ratio of surface area to the volume of the body.
dθ Area dθ 1
i.e., – dt ∝ Volume implies – dt ∝ L . Hence, for bodies with similar nature of the surface, the rate of
fall of temperature is inversely proportional to its linear dimension. A child cools faster than adult.
Therefore, a small child in winter is wrapped more thoroughly with clothes to prevent from cooling.
6. Why is spark produced when two stones are stricken against one another?
 When two rocks are stricken, the mechanical work is observed, which is seen in the form of increased
kinetic energy. If the point of collision is tiny, the so called mechanical energy is converted into heat
energy i.e., W = JH through the friction and hence the fragment of rock flakes off and flies away still
very hot, called spark.
7. Distinguish between gas and vapour.
 In ordinary sense, gas and vapour are treated as similar, but they are clearly distinct states of matter.
These two states are distinguished with a temperature, called critical temperature. A vapour above
the critical temperature is called gas and a gas below the critical temperature is called vapour. A gas
cannot be liquefied simply changing the pressure alone, however the vapour can be liquified by
changing the pressure alone.
8. Define triple point.
 A point on a P-T diagram at which all the three states of a substance can coexist in equilibrium is
known as triple point. For example, the values of pressure and temperature corresponding to triple
point for water are 0.0061 × 105 Pa and 273.16 K.
9. Why is the triple point of water chosen as a standard fixed point in modern thermometry?
 In modern thermometry, the triple point of water is chosen to be one of the fixed points as it is
characterized by a unique temperature and pressure. So, it is preferred over the conventional fixed
points namely the melting point and boiling point of water. The melting point of ice and boiling
point of water both changes with pressure. Moreover, the presence of impurities changes their
values. But triple point of water is independent of the external factors.

Worked Out Problems

1. A sphere of a metal of 0.050 kg is placed for sufficient time in a vessel containing boiling water, so
that the sphere is at 95°C. It is then immediately transferred to 0.14 kg copper calorimeter containing
0.20 kg of water at 22°C. The temperature of water rises and attains a steady state at 25°C. Calculate
the specific heat capacity of given metal. [Specific heat capacity of copper = 390 Jkg–1°C–1]
SOLUTION
Given, Mass of metal sphere (m) = 0.050 kg
The fall of temperature of metal sphere
Δθ1 = 95 – 25 = 70°C Also, specific heat capacity of water (Sw)
Let, the specific heat capacity of metal = S = 4200 J kg–1 °C–1
So, the heat loss by metal sphere is,
Specific heat capacity of copper (Sc) = 390 Jkg–1 °C–1
Q1 = mSΔθ1
Heat gained by water and calorimeter,
= 0.050 × S × 70 = 3.5 S
Mass of water, mw = 0.20 kg Q2 = mw Sw Δθ2 + mc Sc Δθ2
Mass of calorimeter, mc = 0.14 kg = 0.20 × 4200 × 3 + 0.14 × 390 × 3
Initial temperature of water and calorimeter = 2683.8 J
= 22°C From the principle of calorimetry,
Final temperature of the mixture = 25°C Heat lost = Heat gained
Rise in temperature of water and calorimeter 3.5 S = 2683.8
Δθ2 = 25 – 22 = 3°C ∴ S = 766.8 Jkg–1°C–1
2. A body cools in 10 minutes from 60°C to 40°C. What will be its temperature after the next 10
minutes? The temperature of the surroundings is 10°C. Assume that Newton's law of cooling holds
good throughout the process.
SOLUTION
In first case, θ0 = 10°C
Initial temperature of body (θ1) = 60°C t = 10 min = 600 s
Final temperature (θ2) = 40°C (40 – θ2) 40 + θ2
mS 600 = k ⎛ 2 – 10⎞ … (ii)
Temperature of surrounding (θ0) = 10°C ⎝ ⎠
t = 10 min = 600 s Dividing equation (i) by (ii), we get
According to Newton's law of cooling, 20 40
(θ1 – θ2) θ1 + θ2 =
mS = k ⎛ 2 – θ0⎞ 40 – θ2 40 + θ2
t ⎝ ⎠ 2 – 10
(60 – 40) 60 + 40
or, mS 600 =k⎛ 2 – 10⎞ 1 4
⎝ ⎠ or,
40 – θ2
=
20 + θ2
20
or, mS 600 = k × 40… (i) or, 20 + θ2 = 160 – 4 θ2
or, 5 θ2 = 140
In second case,
∴ θ2 = 28°C
θ1 = 40°C θ2 = ?
3. How much heat is required to convert 5 kg of ice at –10°C into steam at 100°C?
[Given: Specific heat capacity of ice (Si) = 2100 Jkg–1°C–1, specific latent heat of ice (Li) = 336000 Jkg–1
and specific heat capacity of water (Sw) = 4200 Jkg–1°C–1]
SOLUTION
Given,
Mass of ice (mi) = 5 kg
Specific heat capacity of ice (Si) = 2100 J kg–1°C–1
Specific latent heat of ice (Li) = 336000 Jkg–1
Specific heat capacity of water (Sw) = 4200 Jkg–1°C–1
Amount of heat required (Q) = ?
–10°C 0°C 0°C 100°C 100°C
Ice Ice Water Water Steam
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4
Amount of heat required to convert ice from Q3 = mw Sw (100 – 0) = 5 × 4200 × 100

–10°C to 0°C is = 2100000 J
Q1 = mi Si (0 – (–10)) = 5 × 2100 × 10 = 105000J Amount of heat required to convert water at 100°C
Amount of heat required to convert ice from to steam at 100°C.
0°C to water at 0°C Q4 = mwL = 5 × 2.26 × 106 = 11.30 × 106 J
Q2 = mi Li = 5 × 336000 = 1680000 J Total heat required to convert 5 kg of ice from –
Amount of heat required to convert water at 10°C to steam at 100°C is
0°C to water at 100°C Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q 3 + Q 4
Q3 = mwsw (100 − 0) = 105000 + 1680000 + 2100000 + 11300000
Q3 = 5 × 4200 × 100 = 1.52 × 107 J
Q3 = 2100000 J
4. From what height should a block of ice be dropped in order that it may melt completely?
SOLUTION
Given, Mass of ice = mi
Height to be dropped for completely melt = h
Specific latent heat of ice (Li) = 336000 J kg–1
To be completely melted, the P.E. lost by the ice block must be equal to latent heat of ice of that block.
i.e., migh = miLi
Li 336000
or, h = g = 9.8 = 3.43 × 104 m
∴ To be completely melted, a block of ice should be dropped from 3.43 × 104 m height.
5. Ice at 0ºC is added to 200 g of water initially at 70ºC in a vacuum flask. When 50 g of ice has been
added and has all melted. The temperature of the flask and content is 40ºC when a further 80 g of ice
has been added and melted the temperature of whole becomes 10ºC. Calculate the specific latent heat
of fusion of ice, neglecting any heat lost of the surroundings.
SOLUTION
Let C be the heat capacity of the given flask (i.e., C = mS of flask)
Here, the problem has to be solved in two steps.
Step I: The mixture achieve s the final Now, Heat gained by added ice to be water at
temperature at 40°C. 10°C.
Here, heat gained by ice to be water at 40°C. Q3 = miLi + mi Sw (10 – 0)
Q1 = miLi + mi Sw (40 – 0) = 0.080 × L + 0.080 × 4200 × 10
= 0.05 L + 0.05 × 4200 × 40 = 0.080 L + 3360
= 0.05 L + 8400 Heat lost by water and flask,
Heat lost by water and the flask, Q4 = mwSw (40 – 10) + C(40 – 10)
Q2 = mwSw (70 – 40) + C(70 – 40) = 0.25 × 4200 × 30 + 30 C
= 0.2 × 4200 × 30 + C × 30 = 25200+ 30 C = 31500 + 30 C
Now, from principle of calorimetry, From the principle of calorimetry,
0.05L + 8400 = 25200 + 30 C Heat gained (Q3) = Heat lost (Q4)
0.05 L = 30 C + 16800 … (1) 0.080 L + 3360 = 31500 + 30 C
Step II: The mixture achieves the final 0.080 L = 30 C + 28140 …(2)
temperature at 10°C. Subtracting (1) from (2), we get
Here, the 80 g of ice has been added in the 0.030 L = 11340
mixture, from step I. total mass of water at L = 3.78 × 105 Jkg–1
40°C is Hence, the latent heat of fusion of ice is
= 2009g + 50g = 250 g = 0.25 kg 3.78 × 105 J kg–1

6. Before going in for his annual physical, a 70.0 kg man whose body temperature is 37.0°C consumes
an entire 0.355 L can of soft drink (mostly water) at 12.0°C. (a) What will be his body temperature
after equilibrium is attained? Ignore any heating by the man's metabolism. The specific heat capacity
of the man's body is 3480 Jkg–1K–1. (b) Is the change in his body temperature great enough to be
measured by a medical thermometer?
SOLUTION
Given, ∴ Heat lost by body = heat gained by cold
For man drink
m1 = 70.0 kg m1S1(37 – θ)= m2S2 (θ – 12)
θ1 = 37.0°C 70 × 3480 (37 – θ) = 0.355 × 4200 (θ – 12)
S1 = 3480 J kg–1 °C–1 163.4 (37 – θ) = θ – 12
For water (cold drinks) 6045.07 – 163.4 θ = θ – 12
m2 = 0.355 L = 0.355 kg θ = 36.9°C
θ2 = 12.0°C b. Since, the body temperature can lie between
a. Let the final temperature at equilibrium 35°C to 42°C, the value 36.9°C lies within the
= θ. range.
7. Evaporation of sweat is an important mechanism for temperature control in some warm-blooded
animals. (a) What mass of water must evaporate from the skin of a 70.00 kg man to cool his body
1.00°C? The heat of vaporization of water at body temperature (37°C) is 2.42 × 106 Jkg–1K–1. The
specific heat capacity of a typical human body is 3480 Jkg–1K–1. (b) What volume of water must the
man drink to replenish the evaporated water?
SOLUTION
Given, (a) Let m be the mass of water evaporated.
Mass of man (M) = 70.00 kg Now,
Initial pressure (θ1) = 37°C m SΔθ = M Lv
Final temperature (θ2) = 1°C mS Δ θ 70 × 3480 × (37 –1)
M= Lv = 2.42 × 106 = 3.6 kg
Specific heat of man's body (S) = 3480 J
kg–1°C–1 (b) Same amount of water must be drunk to
Latent heat of evaporation of body (Lv) replenish, since density of water is 1000 kg m–3.
= 2.42 × 106 J kg–1 The volume he drinks, V = 3.6 L

1. A geologist working in the field drinks her morning coffee out of an aluminum cup. The cup has a
mass of 0.120 kg and is initially at 20.0°C when she pours 0.300 kg of coffee initially at 70.0°C. What is
the final temperature after the coffee attains thermal equilibrium? (Assume that coffee has the same
specific heat as water and that there is no heat exchange with the surroundings). Ans: 66.0°C
2. A heavy copper pot of mass 2.0 kg (including the copper lid) is at a temperature of 150°C, you pour
0.10 kg of water at 25°C into the pot, then quickly close the lid of the pot so that no steam can escape.
Find the final temperature of the pot and its contents, and determine the phase (liquid or gas) of the
water. Assume that no heat is lost to the surroundings. Ans: 100°C, 3.2 g of steam
3. While running, a 70 kg student generates thermal energy at a rate of 1200 W. To maintain a constant
body temperature of 37°C, this energy must be removed by perspiration or other mechanisms. If
these mechanisms failed and the heat could not flow out of the student's body, for what amount of
time could a student run before irreversible body damage occurs? (Protein structures in the body are
irreversibly damaged if body temperature rises to 44°C or above. The specific heat capacity of a
typical human body is 3780 J/kg.K, slightly less than that of water. The difference is due to the
presence of protein, fat, and minerals, which have lower specific heat capacities.) Ans: 1.5 s

4. A nail is driven into a board increases in temperature. If we assume that 60% of the kinetic energy
delivered by a 1.80 kg hammer with a speed of 7.80 m/s is transformed into heat that flows into the
nail and does not flow out, what is the temperature increase of an 8.00 g aluminum nail after it is
struck ten times? Ans: 45.1°C
5. A 500 g chunk of an unknown metal, which has been in boiling water for several minutes, is quickly
dropped into an insulating Styrofoam containing 1.00 kg of water at room temperature (20.0°C).
After waiting and gently stirring for 5.00 minutes, you observe that the water's temperature has
reached a constant value of 22.0°C. Assuming that the Styrofoam absorbs a negligibly small amount
of heat and that no heat was lost to the surroundings, what is the specific heat of the metal?
–1 –1
Ans: 215 J Kg °C
6. What is the amount of heat input to your skin when it receives the heat released (a) by 25.0 g of steam
initially at 100.0°C, when it is cooled to skin temperature (34.0°C)? (b) by 25.0 g of water initially at
100.0°C, when it is cooled to 34.0°C? (c) what does this tell you about the relative severity of steam
4 3
and hot water burns? Ans: 6.36 × 10 J, 6.93 × 10 J
7. What must the initial speed of a lead bullet be at a temperature of 25°C so that the heat developed
when it is brought to rest will be just sufficient to melt it? Assume that all the initial mechanical
energy of the bullet is converted to heat and that no heat flows from the bullet to its surroundings.
(Typical rifles have muzzle speeds that exceed the speed of sound in air, which is 347 m/s at 25°C.)
Ans: 357 ms–1
8. In a physics lab experiment a student immersed 200 one-cent coins (each having a mass of 3.00 g) in
boiling water. After they reached thermal equilibrium, she fished them out and dropped them into
0.240 kg of water at 20.0°C in an insulated container of negligible mass. What was the final
temperature of the coins? (One-cent coins are made of a metal alloy–mostly zinc–with a specific heat
capacity of 390 Jkg–1K–1.) Ans: 35°C
9. A glass vial containing a 16.0 g sample of an enzyme is cooled in an ice bath. The bath contains water
and 0.120 kg of ice. The sample has specific heat capacity 2250 Jkg–1K–1, the glass vial has mass 6.0 gm
and specific heat capacity 2800 Jkg–1K–1. How much ice melts in cooling the enzyme sample from
–3
room temperature (19.5°C) to the temperature of the ice bath? Ans: 3.06 × 10 kg
10. A 4.00 kg silver ingot is taken from a furnace, where its temperature is 750°C, and placed on a large
block of ice at 0°C. Assuming that all the heat is given up by the silver is used to melt the ice, how
much ice is melted? Ans: 2.09 kg
11. A vessel whose walls are thermally insulated contains 2.40 kg of water and 0.450 kg of ice, all at a
temperature of 0.0°C. The outlet of a tube leading from a boiler in which water is boiling at
atmospheric pressure is inserted into the water. How many grams of steam must condense inside the
vessel (also at atmospheric pressure) to raise the temperature of the system to 28.0°C? You can ignore
the heat transferred to the container. Ans:189 g
12. A pan filled with hot food cools from 94°C to 86°C in 2 minutes when the room temperature is at
20°C. How long will it take to cool from 71°C to 69°C? Ans: 2.8 min
Exercise
1. Define the term specific heat capacity of a material. Write its unit and dimension.
2. What do you mean by change of phase of a substance?
3. Is mechanical equivalent of heat (J) a physical quantity?
4. Tea gets cooled, when sugar is added to it, why?
5. A calorimeter is made of metal but not of glass, why?
6. Tea cools faster in winter than summer, why?
8. What is the temperature above which steam will not condense to water even if it is compressed
isothermally to very large pressure?

9. What is critical temperature?
10. Does heat capacity and specific heat capacity have same meaning?
11. Milk boils faster than water, why?
12. State is 'principle of mixture'.
13. What do you mean by latent heat of fusion of ice is 80 cal/g?
14. Why is it harmful wet clothes on body?
15. Explain why a person feels cooling when he pours a little spirit on his hand.
16. Why does the temperature of ice fall when some salt is added to it?
17. A thermos bottle containing water is vigorously shaken. What will be the effect on the temperature of
water?
18. What is the significance of negative slope of ice line of water?
19. What do you mean by triple point of water?
Short Questions
1. Define water equivalent. Does its value equal to heat capacity? Explain.
2. Water is used as cooling agent, why?
3. State the law of mixture in Calorimetry.
4. Can a given amount of mechanical energy be completely converted into heat?
5. Why water is preferred to any other liquid in the hot water bottles?
6. Which molecules, the molecules of 0°C ice or of 0°C water, have more potential energy and why?
7. What is regelation?
8. Does ice melt when it is mixed with water at 0°C? Explain.
9. We feel cold when snow starts melting than during snow fall, why?
10. Why fusion of ice makes a line (or locus) in P-V diagram?
11. What is the triple point of water?
12. What are critical temperature and pressure for Co2? What are their significance?
13. How many triple points are possible for a substance? Give reason.
14. What is the effect of pressure on melting point of a solid?
15. Can a gas be liquefied at any temperature by the increase of pressure alone?
16. How does the boiling point of water change with pressure?
17. How can water be boiled in a paper cup?
18. During high fever, a wet cloth is kept on the forehead of a person. Why?
19. Explain why water remains cool in earthen pot in summer?
20. Ground nuts are fried along with sand, why?
21. If you wet your hand and pick up an ice tray that is below 0°C, your hands may stick to it. This does
not happened to wood, why?
22. When pressure is increased, the melting point of ice is decreased. On the other hand, the melting
point of wax increases with increase in pressure. Why?
23. What is meant by 'superheated water' and 'super cooled vapour'?
24. A match stick can be lightened by rubbing it against a rough surface. Why?
25. Why do the brake drums of a car get heated, when the car moves down a hill at a constant speed?
26. Give an example of a system in which no heat is transferred to or from the system but the
temperature of the system changes.
27. Why does evaporation causes cooling?
28. Why boiling point of liquid increases on increasing pressure?

Long Questions
1. Define specific heat capacity. Explain the experiment that determines the specific heat capacity of
solid by the method of mixture.
2. State and explain Newton's law of cooling.
3. State Newton's law of cooling. Use this law to determine the specific heat capacity of a liquid.
4. Define Latent heat of fusion of ice. Explain the experiment that determines the latent heat of fusion of
ice.
5. Define Latent heat of evaporation of water. Explain the experiment that determines the later heat of
evaporation of water.
6. Define triple point. Show that there is only one triple point for a substance.

Required Constants and their values
1 cal = 4.2 J
1 Jkg-1K-1 = 1 Jkg-1oC-1
Specific heat capacity of ice = 2100 Jkg–1°C–1 = 0.5 calg-1oC-1
Specific heat capacity of ice = 4200 Jkg–1°C–1 = 1 calg-1oC-1
Specific heat capacity of copper = 400 Jkg-1°C-1 = 0.095 calg-1°C-1
Specific heat capacity of aluminum = 910 Jkg-1°C-1 = 0.22 calg-1°C-1
Specific heat capacity of iron = 470 Jkg°C-1 = 0.11 calg-1°C-1
Latent heat of fusion of ice = 3.36 x 105 Jkg-1 = 80 calg-1
Latent heat of evaporation of water = 2.26 x 106 Jkg-1 = 540 calg-1
LEVEL I
1. A ball of copper weighing 400 g is transferred from a furnace to 1 kg of water at 20°C. The
temperature of water rise to 50°C. What is the original temperature of the ball? Ans: 837.5°C
2. How much heat is required to change 10 kg of ice at -10°C to steam at 100°C? Ans: 7250 k cal
3. 25 g of water at 100°C is mixed with 25 g of ice at 0°C. Find the resulting temperature. Ans: 10°C
4. What is the result of mixing 20 g of water at 90°C with 10 g of ice at -10°C? Ans: 31.7°C
5. What is the result of mixing 100 g of ice at 0°C and 100 g of water at 100°C? Ans: 10°C
6. 0.02 kg of ice and 0.1 kg of water at 0°C are in a container. Steam at 100°C is passed in until all the ice
is just melted. How much water is now in the container? Ans: 0.1225 kg
7. A metal of mass 0.1 kg at 100°C is dropped into 0.08 kg of water at 20°C contained in a calorimeter of
mass 0.12 kg and specific heat capacity 400 JkgK-1. The temperature of the calorimeter and its content
rose to 30°C. Compute the specific heat capacity of the metal. Ans: 548.6 Jkg–1K-1
8. How much heat is required to convert 10 g ice at - 10°C into steam at 100°C? (Specific heat capacity of
ice is 0.5 calg-1 °C-1, latent heat of fusion of ice = 80 cal/g. Ans: 30450 J
9. In very cold weather a significant mechanisms for heat loss by the human body is energy expended
in warming the air taken into the lungs with each breath. (a) On a cold winter day when the
temperature is –20°C, what is the amount of heat needed to warm to body temperature (37°C) the
0.50 L of air exchanged with each breath? Assume that the specific heat capacity of air is 1020 J/kg. K
and that 1.0 L of air has mass 1.3 × 10–3 kg. (b) How much heat is lost per hour if the respiration rate
4
is 20 breaths per minute? Ans: 38 J, 4.6 × 10 J
10. An aluminum tea kettle with mass 1.50 kg and containing 1.80 kg of water is placed on a stove. If no
heat is lost to the surroundings, how much heat must be added to raise the temperature from 20°C to
5
85.0°C? Ans: 5.79 × 10 J

11. How much heat is required to convert 12.0 g of ice at –10.0°C to steam at 100.0°C? Express your
5
answer in joules. Ans: 3.65 × 10 J
12. An insulated beaker with negligible mass contains 0.250 kg of water at a temperature of 75.0°C. How
many kilograms of ice at a temperature of –20.0°C must be dropped in the water so that the final
temperature of the system will be 30.0°C? Ans: 0.0940 kg
LEVEL II
1. Aluminum can of mass 500 g contains 117.5 g of water at temperature of 20°C. A 200 g block of iron
at 75°C is dropped into the can; find the final temperature, assuming no heat loss to the surrounding.
Ans: 25°C
2. 2.7 g of ice at 0°C is added to 60 g of water contained in a copper calorimeter weighing 56 g. If the
temperature of the calorimeter with its contents changed from 20°C to 16°C, Find the sp. latent heat
of fusion of ice. Ans: 3.36 × 105 Jkg-1
3. 10 g of ice at -20oC is mixed with 10 g of water at 40°C. Calculate the final temperature of the mixture.
Ans: 0°C, can not melt
4. How much steam must be passed into a mixture of ice and water in order to melt 10 g of ice?
Ans: 1.25 × 10 - 3 g
5. A piece of metal weighing 50 g and specific heat capacity 0.11 calg-1°C-1
is heated to 100°C. The metal
is dropped to a calorimeter containing 60 g of liquid. The temperature of the calorimeter with its
content changes from 23.5°C to 30°C. If the water equivalent of the calorimeter is 10 g, calculate the
specific heat capacity of the liquid. Ans: 3.36 × 103 Jkg–1K-1
6. An engineer is working on a new engine design. One of the moving parts contains 1.60 kg of
aluminum and 0.30 kg of iron and is designed to operate at 210°C. How much heat is required to
5
raise its temperature from 20° to 210°C? Ans: 3.03 × 10 J
7. A copper pot with mass 0.500 kg contains 0.170 kg of water at a temperature of 20.0°C. A 0.250 kg
block of iron at 85.0°C is dropped into the pot. Find the final temperature, assuming no heat loss to
the surroundings. Ans: 27.4°C
8. A laboratory technician drops a 0.0850 kg sample of unknown material, at a temperature of 100.0°C,
into a calorimeter. The calorimeter can, initially at 19.0°C is made of 0.150 kg of copper and contains
0.200 kg of water. The final temperature of the calorimeter can is 26.1°C. Compute the specific heat
–1
capacity of the sample. Ans: 1016 Jkg–1 K
9. From what height a block of ice be dropped in order that it may completely melt. It is assumed that
20% of energy of fall is retained by ice. [L = 80 cal/g]. Ans: 168000 m
10. A ball of copper weighing 400 g is transferred from a furnace to a copper calorimeter of mass 300 g
and containing 1 kg of water at 20°C. The temperature of water rises to 50°C. What is the original
temperature of the ball? [Specific heat capacity of copper = 400 Jkg–1°C–1] Ans: 860°C
11. In an experiment on the specific heat of a metal, a 200 g block of metal at 150ºC is dropped in a
copper calorimeter of mass 270 g containing 150 cm3 of water at 27ºC. The final temperature is 40ºC.
Calculate the specific heat of the metal. [Sc = 390 J/kg-1 °C, Sw = 4200 J/kg-1 °C] Ans: 434.5 Jkg-1 °C–1
12. A caliometer of mass 50 g is filled one after another by water and kerosene. Water takes 4 mins in
cooling from 40 to 32ºC and Kerosene takes 3 min in cooling through same temperature. If mass of
water is 20 g and that of kerosene is 30 g, find specific heat capacity of kerosene.
[Specific heat of caliometer = 0.094 cal/gºC] Ans: 0.46 cal g-1 ºC-1
13. Equal volumes of two liquids have same heat capacity. The specific gravity of 1 liquid is 0.78 and
st
another liquid is 0.8. If specific heat capacity of 1st liquid is 0.9 cal g–1 °C–1. Find specific heat capacity
of 2nd liquid. Ans: 0.8775 cal g–1ºC–1


1. 50 g of ice at 0°C mixed with 50 g of water 80°C. The final temperature of the mixture will be:
a. 40°C b. 50°C c. 0°C d. 80°C
2. A 10 kg iron bar (specific heat 0.11 cal/g°C) at 80°C is placed on a block of ice (latent heat of fusion 80
cal/g). How much ice melts?
a. 1.1 kg b. 10 kg c. 16 kg d. 60 kg
3. 10 gm of ice at –10°C is converted into steam at 100°C. The amount of heat required in calories is
a. 725 b. 7250 c. 350 d. 3000
4. Melting point of ice
a. Decrease with decrease of pressure b. Increase with the increase of pressure
c. Is independent of pressure d. Decrease with the increase of pressure
5. Heat required to convert 1 g of ice at 0°C into steam at 100°C is
a. 100 cal b. 0.01 kcal c. 720 cal d. 1 kcal
6. When ice is melting,
a. it absorbs heat from surrounding b. it gives heat to the surrounding
c. there is no relation with surrounding d. heat may be given or absorbed
7. The ratio of the densities of the two bodies is 3:4 and specific heat is in the ratio 4:3. The ratio of their
thermal capacities per unit volume is
a. 9 : 16 b. 16 : 9 c. 1 : 1 d. 3 : 2
8. When liquid changes into vapor, on increasing pressure the boiling point of the liquid
a. increases b. decreases
c. cannot be predicted d. may be increase or decrease
9. A body A of mass 0.5 kg and specific heat 0.85 calg-1 °C-1 is at temperature of 60°C. Another body B of
mass 0.3 kg and specific heat 0.9 calg-1 °C-1 is at a temperature of 90°C. When they are connected by a
conducting rod, heat will flow from
a. A to B b. heat can't flow c. B to A d. first (a) then (c)
10. A body cools from 80°C to 64°C in 5 minutes and same body cools from 80°C to 52°C in 10 minutes.
What is the temperature of surroundings?
a. 24°C b. 280°C c. 22°C d. 25°C
11. 0.1 m3 of water at 80°C is mixed with 0.3 m3 of water at 60°C. The final temperature of the mixture is
a. 65°C b. 70°C c. 60°C d. 75°C
12. A piece of ice (heat capacity = 2100 J kg °C and latent heat = 3.36 × 105 J kg–1) of mass m gram is at
–1 –1
– 5°C at atmospheric pressure. It is given 420 J of heat so that the ice starts melting. Finally when the
ice-water mixture is in equilibrium, it is found that 1 g of ice has melted. Assuming there is no other
heat exchange in the process, the value of m is
a. 2 g b. 4 g c. 6 g d. 8 g
13. Certain amount of heat is given to 100 g of copper to increase its temperature by 21°C. If the same
amount of heat is given to 50 g of water, then the rise in its temperature is
(Specific heat capacity of copper = 400 J kg–1 K–1 and that for water = 4200 J kg–1 K–1)
a. 4°C b. 5.25°C c. 8°C d. 6°C
ANSWERS
1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (d) 5. (c) 6. (a) 7. (c)
8. (a) 9. (c) 10. (a) 11. (a) 12. (d) 13. (a)

RATE OF HEAT FLOW
12.1 Introduction
We have come across many situations in which we have felt
the heat or burnt the part of our body. Such sensations of
heat are felt even if we do not actually touch its source. For
Conduction
example, when you touch a cooking pan kept over a burning
Convection
gas stove with your bare hand, you will burn your hand.
Why does this happen? Well, the answer is very simple. The
heat is transferred to our hand from gas stove through
the pan.
Radiation
We have also seen many situation in which we get heat from
Fig. 12.1: Transfer of heat
far away sources without heating intervening medium. Even
more interstingly, heat travels through vacum. Thus, we see that movement of heat from one place to
another place commonly known as transfer of heat, involves different mechanisms.
Heat energy may be transferred with the molecular oscillation, molecular translation or even in the
absence of any medium. Based on the mechanism; heat transfer is categorized into three classes:
conduction, convection, and radiation.
Mechanism of Heat Transfer
Conduction Convection Radiation

Conduction occurs Convection occurs due to actual Radiation occurs due to
within a body or between motion of molecules, specifically, the transfer of heat in the
two bodies in thermal contact in liquid and gas medium absence of any medium
12.2 Conduction
Conduction is a mechanism in which heat is transferred due to the vibration of particles about their
equilibrium position without actual movement of particles within the material medium.
If one end of a metal rod is put in a flame, the other end of the rod will soon become so hot that it is
impossible to hold it any more with bare hands. In this mechanism, the molecules of the rod which
directly face the flame gains heat and start vibrating. The vibrated molecules collide with
neighbouring molecules and they also start vibrating. Likewise, the process goes with repetition to
the new molecules. Thus, the heat energy travels from one end to another end in a conductor. It
should be noted that, to transfer the heat, temperature of two ends of rod must be maintained at
Rate of Heat Flow | Chapter 12 | 319
different values. The ability to conduct heat differs widely from substance to substance. Gases are
poor thermal conductors. Liquid have conductivities intermediate between conducting solids and
gases.
Quantitative Explanation of Heat Flow

Consider a metal rod of original length x and uniform cross sectional area A as shown in
Fig. 12.2. The ends of the rod are maintained at temperatures θ1 and θ2, such that, θ1 > θ2. It has been
Q
experimentally observed that in the steady state, the rate of flow of heat (or heat current) t is,
(a) Directly proportional to the cross sectional area A,

Q
t ∝A . . . (12.1)
(b) Directly proportional to the temperature difference of two
ends,
Q
t ∝ (θ1 – θ2) . . . (12.2)
(c) Inversely proportional to the distance x between hot and cold ends,
Q 1
t ∝x . . . (12.3)
Combining equations (12.1), (12.2) and (12.3), we get,
Q A (θ1 – θ2)
t ∝ x
Q A(θ1 – θ2)
t =k x . . . (12.4)
The proportionality constant k is called coefficient of thermal conductivity of the material used. It
depends on the nature of material.
Now, total heat transfer at time t is,
k A (θ1 – θ2) t
Q= x . . . (12.5)
Coefficient of thermal conductivity
⎛Q⎞ x
Qx ⎝t⎠
k= =
A(θ1 – θ2) t A (θ1 – θ2)
For A = 1 m2, x = 1 m, t = 1 s and θ1 – θ2 = 1°C or 1 K,
k=Q
Therefore, the coefficient of thermal conductivity of a material is defined as the quantity of heat flowing per
second through a body having unit length and unit cross sectional area in the steady state when the difference
of temperature between two ends of the rod is 1°C or 1 K.
Concept of Temperature Gradient

Temperature gradient is defined as the rate of change of temperature with distance between hot and
cold surfaces. If dθ temperature difference occurs for distance dx, the temperature gradient is
dθ
defined by dx .
dθ θ1 – θ2
∴ dx = x2 – x1 , for θ1 > θ2 . . . (12.6)

In the Fig. 12.2, when we take x1 = 0 and x2 = x,
If two conductors are connected end to end
dθ θ1 – θ2 and other two free ends are maintained at
dx = x different temperature, heat flows from hot
Now, equation (12.5) is written as, end to cold end. As per the junction part,
dθ temperature remains almost equal in both
Q = kA ⎛dx⎞ t conductors and rate of heat flow from the
⎝ ⎠
dQ
Q hotter body ⎛ dt ⎞ 1 is equal to the rate of
k= ⎝ ⎠
dθ
A dx t dQ
heat gained by the cooler body ⎛ dt ⎞ 2. In
⎝ ⎠
such condition,
⎛ Q⎞ ⎛dQ⎞1 = ⎛dQ⎞2 and the common
⎝At⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠
∴ k= … (12.7)
dθ temperature at the junction is equal, i.e., θ.
dx
Therefore, coefficient of thermal conductivity is also defined
as the ratio of rate of heat energy transfer per unit cross
sectional area to temperature gradient.
Rate of heat energy transfer per unit cross sectional area

∴ k= Temperature gradient
The unit of coefficient of thermal conductivity k is Wm–1K–1 and its dimension is [MLT–3K–1].
EXAMPLE 1: One end of an insulated metal rod is maintained at 100°C, and the other end is maintained at 0°C by an ice-
water mixture. The rod is 60.0 cm long and has a cross-sectional area of 1.25 cm2. The heat conducted by the rod melts 8.50
g of ice in 10.0 min. Find the thermal conductivity k of the metal. Latent heat of fusion of ice = 3.36 × 105 J kg–1.
SOLUTION
Given, This heat is used to melt the ice. So,
Temperature of hot end (θ1) = 100°C k A (θ1 – θ2)t
Temperature of cold end (θ2) = 0°C x = mLf
Length (x) = 60.0 cm = 0.60 m k × 1.25 × 10-4 (100 – 0) × 600
Cross-sectional area (A) = 1.25 cm2 = or, 0.60
1.25 × 10-4 m2
= 8.50 × 10-3 × 3.36 ×105
Mass of ice melted (m) = 8.50 g
= 8.50 × 10-3 kg 2856
or, k = 7.5
Time (t) = 10.0 min = 600 s
k=? k = 381 Wm-1K-1
Now,
k A (θ1 – θ2)t
Q= x … (i)
 Check Point: When excessive heat is produced within the body, it must be transferred to the skin
and dispersed if the temperature at the body interior is to be maintained at the normal value of
37.0ºC. One possible mechanism for transfer is conduction through body fat. Suppose heat travels
through 0.030 m of fat in reaching the skin, which has a total surface area of 1.7 m2 and a
temperature of 34.0ºC. Find the amount of heat that reaches the skin in half an hour. Given thermal
conductivity of body fat is 0.20 Js–1m–1ºC–1. Ans: 6.1 × 104 J

Note: Thermal resistance:
Q kA (θ1– θ2)
t = x
Q θ1 – θ2 V
or, t = (x/kA) , (x = length of conductor). In current electricity, I = R , as the current flows due to the
difference of potential, heat flows due to the difference of temperature. So, we can compare the heat current
with electric current.
V
Comparing with I = R (Ohm's law)
x
We find, R = kA , which is called thermal resistance.
Thermal conductivity of some substances (Source: University Physics, Sears and Zemansky)
Thermal Conductivity k Thermal Conductivity k
Substances Substances
(W m –1 K–1) (W m –1 K–1)
Aluminium 205.0 Ice 1.6
Brass 109.0 Styrofoam 0.01
Copper 385.0 Wood 0.12 – 0.04
Lead 34.7 Air 0.024
Mercury 8.3
Argon 0.016
Silver 406.0
Helium 0.14
Steel 50.2
Hydrogen 0.14
Cork 0.04
0.8 Oxygen 0.023
Glass
Applications of Thermal Conductivity

The key applications of thermal conductivity are listed below:
1. Due to the fact that the thermal conductivity of brass is more than that of wood, a brass knob
becomes cooler than wood in winter.
2. Woolen clothes contain air in their pores. Since air is bad conductor of heat, it prevents the
heat loss from our body. Thus, woolen clothes keep us warm.
3. Since the new quilt contains more pores than old quilt, new quilt is warmer than old quilt.
4. Cooking utensils are manufactured with wooden handles because wood is bad conductor of
heat.
5. Eskimos build double walled houses to warm from inside. This is because the air within the
walls does not allow heat to be conducted away to the outside air.
6. Two thin blankets are warmer than single blanket of same thickness. This happens because air
is enclosed between the two blankets, which prevents the loss of heat.
7. A vacuum is created between two walls of thermos flask to keep the liquid at constant
temperature. This prevents the heat loss to surroundings through the mechanism of
conduction and convection.
12.3 Determination of Coefficient of Thermal Conductivity of a

Metal Rod by Searle's Method
Principle: This experiment works on the principle of thermal conduction. The rate of heat transfer
through a conductor is given by equation (12.4) as,
Q A (θ1 – θ2)
t =k x

k A (θ1 – θ2) t
∴ Q = x . . . (12.8)
In the steady state heat gain by liquid of mass (m) and specific heat capacity (S) is given by,
Q' = mSΔθ . . . (12.9)
where Δθ in the rise in temperature at time t.
The apparatus is so arranged that the heat transferred by the rod is allowed to be absorbed by water
flowing in a conducting pipe. Following relation is applied to determine the thermal conductivity of
the metal.
Q = Q'
Experiment
The Searle's apparatus to determine the coefficient of thermal conductivity k consists of a insulating
frame, a given metal rod, four thermometers, steam encloser and a conducting water pipe as shown
in Fig. 12.3. The metal rod whose thermal conductivity is to be measured is fitted into an insulating
frame. A steam encloser is connected at one end and a conducting pipe (for example copper pipe) is
rounded at another end of the rod. Thermometers T1 and T2 are placed at two points of rod. Mercury
is kept at the connection of thermometers and rod to enhance the efficient conduction. Thermometers
T3 and T4 are kept at hot reservoir and cold reservoir of water circulating pipe.
T3 T4
Water outlet, I2 Water inlet, I1

T1 T2
Steam Copper tube
inlet
Insulating
material
X Y
Steam
chamber A x
Steam outlet
Fig. 12.3: Searle's Apparatus
One end of the rod is heated with steam. Then, heat is transferred to another end by conduction.
When the steady state is reached in heat flow, the rate of heat loss by rod is equal to the rate of heat
gain by water.
Let A be the cross sectional area of the given rod and θ1 and θ2 be the temperatures of the two ends of
the rod as measured by thermometers T1 and T2 respectively. Also, θ3 and θ4 be the temperatures
measured by thermometers T3 and T4 respectively. Thermometers T1 and T2 are separated by distance
x. Insulating frame prevents the loss of heat from metal surface.
Now, the rate of heat loss by rod is,
Q k A (θ1 – θ2)
t = x

k A (θ1 – θ2)t
Q = x . . . (12.10)
Heat gain by water at time t is,

Q = mS (θ3 – θ4) . . . (12.11)
where, m is the mass of water collected in time t that comes out from water outlet, I2.
S = specific heat capacity of water
Equating equations (12.10) and (12.11), we get,
k A (θ1 – θ2) t
x = mS (θ3 – θ4)
mS (θ3 – θ4) x
k= . . . (12.12)
A (θ1 – θ2) t
By measuring the physical quantities on the right hand side of equation (12.12), coefficient of thermal
conductivity of the rod is determined.
12.4 Convection
Convection is a mechanism of heat transfer in which heat is transferred from a region of high temperature to a
region of lower temperature by the actual motion of matter. Convection is possible only in liquids and
gases. This process can be categorized into two types: natural and forced.
Natural convection: If the
Day Night
material flows due to
difference of density caused
by thermal expansion, the
process is called natural or Air Current Air Current
free convection. The natural (Sea breeze) (land breeze)
convection in the atmosphere
plays a dominant role in
determining the daily
Ocean Land Ocean Land
weather, and convection in
the oceans is an important Land warmer than water Water warmer than land
global heat transfer
mechanism. A natural Fig. 12.4: Convection cycles
convection cycle in oceans is
shown in Fig. 12.4.
Forced convection: If the material is forced to move by a blower or pump, the process is called
forced convection. In the human body, the heart acts as the pump that circulates blood through
different parts of the body, transferring heat by forced convection and maintaining the temperature
of body constant. The common examples of forced convection are: forced air heating system in home,
ventilations system in rooms, the human circulatory system, and the cooling system of automobile
system.
Convection heat transfer is very complex process. There is no simple equation to describe it as
compared to conduction.
In convection, the heat current H is
(a) directly proportional to the surface area
H∝A . . . (12.13)

5 th
(b) directly proportional to the ⎛4⎞ power of temperature difference,
⎝⎠
H ∝ (dθ)5/4 . . . (12.14)
H ∝ A (dθ)5/4
H = hA (dθ)5/4 … (12.15)
Here, h is called convection coefficient.
The value of h depends on nature of fluid that takes part in convection.
12.5 Radiation
The transfer of heat from one place to another in a straight line without heating the intervening medium is
called radiation. Conduction and convection require some materials as a transport medium. This
means heat transfer is impossible by the method of conduction and convection in vacuum. Radiation
is the mechanism through which we receive heat from the sun. Heat flow through radiation is
accompanied by electromagnetic waves which travel with the speed of light in vacuum. The energy
so radiated in the form of electromagnetic waves is called radiant energy. Similarly, we feel the
warmth of nearby fire due to radiation.
Nature of Thermal Radiation

The energy emitted by a body in the form of radiation by virtue of its temperature is called thermal
radiation. Thermal radiation belongs to the electromagnetic family. Its property is similar to radio
waves, visible lights, ultraviolet rays, x-rays, and γ-rays. It exhibits the phenomena of reflection,
refraction, interference, diffraction, and polarization.
Some properties of thermal radiation are listed below:
(a) It can travel in vacuum.
(b) It travels equally in all directions in a homogenous medium.
(c) It travels with the speed of light.
(d) It follows inverse square law.
(e) It does not heat the medium through which it passes.
12.6 Reflection, Transmission and Absorption Coefficients of

Heat Radiation
Consider a heat radiation incident on the surface of a diathermous
substance (which has ability to transmit the heat radiation) as shown
in Fig. 12.5. When the radiation falls on the surface of a substance, a
part of it is reflected, a part is absorbed and remaining part is
transmitted. Suppose some amount of heat radiation Q is incident on
the given surface. Let R, A, and T be the reflected, absorbed and
transmitted part of radiation respectively from the substance.
From conservation of energy,
Q=R+A+T

Dividing both sides by Q, we get
R A T Q
Q+Q+Q=Q
∴ r + a + t = 1. . . . (12.16)
R
where, r = Q is called reflectance or reflection coefficient.
It is defined as the amount of reflected heat radiation per unit heat energy incident on the surface.
A
a = Q is called absorption coefficient or absorptance. It is defined as the amount of absorbed heat
T
radiation per unit heat energy incident on the surface and, t = Q is called transmission coefficient. It
is defined as the amount of transmitted heat radiation per unit heat energy incident on the surface.
12.7 Black Body

A perfectly black body is the one which completely absorbs the heat radiations of all wave lengths falling on it.
A perfectly black body neither reflects nor transmits any radiation, so its absorption coefficient (or
absorption) is unity. Since it absorbs all incident radiation, the body is named 'black'.
A body that is a good absorber must also be a good emitter. The black body not only absorbs energy
but also radiates energy to its surroundings. An ideal absorber absorbs all the radiation that is
incident on its surface, consequently, it can radiate all the absorbed energy. Such an ideal body is
called ideal black body. The sun emits radiation of all wavelengths. So, it may be regarded as black
body, even though it looks white. Therefore, it is not essential that a perfectly black body should
appear black.
A perfectly black body can not be realized in practice. The nearest approach to a perfectly black body
is a surface coated with lamp black or platinum black. Such a surface absorbs 96% to 98% of the
incident radiation.
Ferry's Black Body

Ferry's black body is artificially constructed black body for
accurate experimental work. This black body is made with
closed double walled hollow sphere having a tiny aperture
(hole) O and a conical projection P opposite to the aperture as O
shown in Fig.12.6. The projection prevents the direct reflection
of incident radiation and multiple reflections occur in inner P
wall of the sphere. Thus, almost all radiation is absorbed into
the wall.
Radiation falling on the hole is completely absorbed. When Fig 12.6: Ferry's Black Body
the sphere is heated, black body radiation emerges from the
hole. So, it is the hole which is to be regarded as a black body and not the total enclosure.
Note: Reflection and radiation are completely different phenomena. In reflection, waves return from the surface of
body, hence energy is not imparted in the body i.e., no temperature change. However, in radiation, the body initially
absorbs the energy and temperature changes. Then, the heat radiation emerges in accordance with the temperature
difference between the absorber and the surrounding.
Emissivity
Emissivity is defined as the ratio of rate of heat energy radiated per unit surface area of a black body to the rate
of heat energy radiated per unit surface area of a perfectly black body. It is denoted by 'e'. It is dimensionless
quantity.
Rate of heat energy radiated per unit surface area of a black body
∴ Emissivity (e) = Rate of heat energy radiated per unit surface area of a perfectly black body
(i) for e < 1, the black body is not perfectly black.

(ii) for e = 1, the black body is perfectly black body.
(iii) for e > 1, the black body is impossible.
12.8 Stefan's Law of Black Body Radiation

Stefan's law of black body radiation states that, "total amount of heat energy radiated per second per unit
surface area of a perfect black body is directly proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature of
the surface of the body."
Let E be the amount of heat energy radiated per second per unit surface of a perfect black body
shown in Fig. 12.7 (i) whose absolute temperature of the surface is T. Then,
E ∝ T4
E = σT4 . . . (12.17)
where, the proportionality constant σ is called Stefan's constant.
If the graph is drawn between E and T4, a straight line passing through the origin is obtained
which is as shown in Fig. 12.7 (ii).
Its value in SI system is 5.67 × 10–8 Wm–2K–4.
Also, we have,
Q
E = tA . . . (12.18)
where, Q = Amount of heat transfer at time 't'
A = Surface area of heat source
Q
In the expression, t is called heat current or radiated power of a black body.
Q
So, t = P
P
∴ E=A . . . (12.19)
Using equation (12.19) in equation (12.17), we, get,

P 4
A = σT
∴ P = σAT4 . . . (12.20)
E
r
Black body
T
T4
O
(i) (ii)
Fig. 12.7: (i) Black body radiation (ii) Graph of E versus T4

No body is perfectly black, so to find the heat current, we should multiply the right hand side of
equation (12.20) with emissivity (e).
So, for any black body,
P = eσAT4 . . . (12.21)
Stefan derived this law experimentally in 1879. Five years later, in 1884, Boltzmann generalized this
formula incorporating the thermodynamical consideration. So, the generalized formula by
Boltzmann is known as Stefan-Boltzmann's law.
The Stefan-Boltzmann law states that, "the total amount of heat energy radiated per second per unit surface
area of a perfectly black body is directly proportional to the difference of fourth power of absolute temperature of
the body and its surroundings."
Consider a black body at absolute temperature T surrounded by another black body at absolute
temperature T0. Then, Stefan-Boltzmann law is stated as,
4
E ∝ (T4 – T0 )
4
or, E = σ (T4 – T0 )
P 4
Also, A = σ (T4 – T0 )
4
or, P = σ A (T4 – T0 )
For any black body,
4
P = σ eA (T4 – T0 ) . . . (12.22)
EXAMPLE 2: A thin square steel plate, 10 cm on a side, is heated in a blacksmith's forge to a temperature of 800°C. If the
emissivity is 0.60, what is the total rate of radiation energy?
SOLUTION
Given,
Area of plate (A) = 2 × (0.10 × 0.10) = 0.02 m2
Temperature (T) = 800°C = 1073 K
Emissivity (e) = 0.60
Stefan's constant (σ) = 5.67 × 10–8 Wm–2 K–4
Power (P) = ?
We have,
P = eσAT4 = 0.6 × 5.67 × 10–8 × 0.02 × (1073)4 = 902 W
 Check Point: The supergiant star Betelgeuse has a surface temperature of about 2900 K and emits a
radiant power of approximately 4 × 1030 W. Assuming the Betelgeuse is a perfect emitter (e = 1) and
spherical, find its radius. Given σ = 5.67 × 10–8 W m–2K–4. Ans: 3 × 1011 m
EXAMPLE 3: The emissivity of tungsten is 0.35. A tungsten sphere with radius 1.50 cm is suspended within a large
evacuated enclosure whose walls are at 290 K. What power input is required to maintain the sphere at atmosphere of 300 K
if heat conduction along the supports is neglected?
SOLUTION
Emissivity (e) = 0.35 = 4π × (1.50 × 10-2)2 = 2.83 × 10-3 m2
Radius (r) = 1.50 cm = 1.5 × 10–2 m P =?
Temperature of enclosure (T0) = 290 K Now, P = eσA(T4 – T04)
Temperature of body (T) = 300 K, = 0.35 × 5.67 × 10-8 × 2.83 × 10-3 (3004 – 2904)
σ = 5.67 × 10-8 Wm-2K-4 = 0.06 W
A = 4πr2

 Check Point: One half of a kilogram of liquid water at 0ºC is placed outside on a day when a
temperature is – 12ºC. Assume that heat is lost from the water only means of radiation and that the
emissivity of the radiating surface is 0.60. How long does it take for the water to freeze into ice at
0ºC when surface area from which the radiation occurs is 0.035 m2. (Given Lf = 33.5 × 104 Jkg–1,
σ = 5.67 × 10–8 Wm–2K–4) Ans: 42.7 h
Note:
(i) Stefan's law is also called Stefan's fourth power law.
(ii) Stefan's constant is also called Stefan's-Boltzmann constant.
(iii) Every body, even at ordinary temperatures, emits energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation. At ordinary
temperatures, say 20°C, nearly all the energy is carried by infrared waves with wavelength much larger than
those of visible light (wavelength of visible light ranges 400 nm–700 nm). As the temperature rises, the
wavelengths shift to shorter values. At 800°C, a body emits radiation within the visible range, and appears
"red hot". At 3000°C, the temperature of an incandescent lamp filament, the radiation contains enough visible
light so the body appears "white-hot".
(iv) Wien’s Displacement Law: Wavelength λm corresponding to maximum energy emission by a black body at
b
absolute temperature T is given by λm = T , where b is Wien’s constant, b = 0.002898 mK.
12.9 Deducing Newton's Law of Cooling from

Stefan-Boltzmann's Law
Newton's law of cooling can be deduced from Stefan-Boltzmann law.
We know, from Stefan-Boltzmann Law for perfectly black body,
E = σ (T4 – T04)
= σ (T2 – T02) (T2 + T02)
= σ (T – T0) (T + T0) (T2 + T02)
If T ≈ T0,
E = σ (T – T0) (2T0) (2T02) = 4 σ T03 (T – T0)
If A is the total surface area, then loss of heat energy per unit time per unit area.
dQ
E = dt. A = 4 σ T03 (T – T0)
dQ
Hence, dt = 4σAT03 (T – T0)
Taking the temperature of surrounding as constant,
dQ
dt ∝ (T – T0)
This is Newton's law of cooling.
12.10 Solar Constant

Solar constant is defined as "the amount of solar energy received per second per unit area of a perfectly black
surface placed at a mean distance of the earth from the sun, in the absence of atmosphere and at right angles to
the direction of sun rays." It is denoted by S. Solar constant is used to determine the temperature of the
sun.
Let R be the radius of the sun and r be the mean distance of earth from the sun.
The amount of heat energy radiated by the sun per second,
P1 = 4πR2E
Also, the total energy received by a sphere of radius r per second, P2 = 4πr2S

For no absorbing medium between the earth and the sun,
P1 = P2
4πR2E = 4πr2S
R2σT4 = r2S, (∵ E = σT4)
Where, T = Temperature of the sun
r2 S
∴ T4 = R 2
σ
1/4
r 2S
T = ⎛R⎞  … (12.23)
⎝ ⎠ σ
EXAMPLE 4: Calculate the apparent temperature of the sun from the following information:
Sun's radius: 7.04 × 105 km. Distance from earth: 14.72 × 107 km
Solar constant: 1400 W m–2, Stefan constant: 5.7 × 10–8 W m–2 K–4
SOLUTION
Suppose T be the apparent temperature of the sun. Then
Total energy per second radiated from sun's surface = A σ T4 = 4πrs2 σ T4
Energy received by a surface per m2 per second placed at a distance of 14.72 × 107 km
4π rs2 σ T4 (7.04 × 105)2
= = σ T4
4π × (14.72 × 1407)2 (14.72 × 107)2
(7.04 × 105)2
or, (14.72 × 107)2 σ T4 = 1400
1400 (14.72 × 107)2
or, T4 = 5.7 × 10–8 × (7.04 × 105)2
∴ T4 = 1073.8 × 1012
or, T = (1073.8 × 1012)1/4 = 5724.4 K = 5451.4°C
Hence, the required apparent temperature of the sun is 5451.4°C.
Tips for MCQs
Quantitative Tips
dQ kA (θ1 – θ2)
1. The rate of heat conduction is calculated from the formula: dt = x .
2. The flow of heat per unit time in conductor is called heat current. The ratio of the temperature
difference between the ends of a conductor to the heat current through it is called the thermal
dθ x
resistance, R = dQ/dt = kA .
dθ dQ/dt
3. The rate of fall of temperature with distance (temperature gradient), dx = kA .
4. If two conductors are connected end to end and two free ends are maintained at different
temperatures, the temperature at the junction point is same. At that point, the rate of heat flow from
dQ dQ dQ dQ
hotter body ⎛ dt ⎞1is equal to the rate of heat gain by colder body ⎛ dt ⎞2. In this case, ⎛ dt ⎞1 = ⎛ dt ⎞2
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
5. The amount of heat energy radiated per second per unit area by a perfectly black body at absolute
temperature T is E = σT4. This equation is called Stefan’s law.
Q/t Power radiated P
Here, E = A = Surface area = A .
Therefore, P = σAT4. For any black body, the Stefan’s law is generalized as, P = eσAT4, where e is
called emissivity of a black body.

6. Stefan’s law is modified to Stefan-Boltzmann law including the temperature of enclosure T0, as
E = σ(T4 – T04). For any black body, P = e σA (T4 – T04).
r2S 1/4
7. Surface temperature of the sun is calculated as, T = ⎡ 2 ⎤ , where S is solar constant, r is the mean
⎣ σ⎦
R
distance of earth’s surface from the sun and R is the radius of the sun.
Conceptual Tips
1. Thermal conductivity of metal is much greater than that of insulators. Gas has poor thermal
conductivity.
2. The state of the rod when temperature of every cross section of the rod becomes constant and there is
no further absorption of heat in any part is called steady state.
3. The electromagnetic radiation emitted by a body by virtue of its temperature is called thermal
radiation or radiant energy.
4. The word radiation is used in two meanings. It refers to the process by which the energy is emitted
by a body, is transmitted in space and falls on another body. It also refers to the energy itself which is
being transmitted in space.
5. The cylindrical bulb has a greater surface area than a spherical bulb of the same volume. Hence the
thermometer with elongated bulb will respond to temperature changes more quickly than the one
with a spherical bulb.
6. Newton's law of cooling deals mainly with cooling caused by convection on the other hand, Stefan-
Boltzmann law deals with cooling by radiation.
7. Diathermanous substance are those which allows thermal radiation to pass through them easily.
Examples: dry air, glass.
8. Athermanous substances are those which absorbs thermal radiation as it pass through them.
Examples: water, wood, liquid, and solid materials. It is not necessary that a substance which is
opaque to light must be athermanous.
9. Electrons contribute largely both towards the flow of electricity and the flow of heat. A good
conductor contains a large number of free electrons. So, it is both a good conductor of heat and
electricity.
10. Insulators do not have free electrons inside them. So, electrons have no contribution towards their
thermal conductivity.
11. The body at room temperature emits the radiation, but the wavelength is much larger than our
visible range, so they cannot be visualized. Visible radiation is detected when temperature becomes
approximately 800°C.
Quick Reply
1. Which method of heat flow occurs while water boils?
 During boiling of water, hot water molecules move up from bottom of vessel to the surface of water.
In such process, water molecules move themselves from one point to another. Hence, the heat flows
by convection method.
2. Water pipes used in the room are painted black. Why?
 The body of good absorber is also a good radiator. A black painted pipe absorbs the heat from the
hot water flowing through it, then radiates to the room so that it keeps the room warm.
3. Heat is generated continuously in an electrical heater but its temperature becomes constant after
sometime. Why?
 When the electrical heater is switched on, a stage is quickly reached when the rate at which heat is
generated by electric current becomes equal to the rate of heat loss in terms of radiation. This is a
cause of thermal equilibrium.

4. Why do electrons in insulators not contribute towards its thermal conductivity?
 Free electrons are responsible to the flow of heat. Since insulators do not have free electrons inside
them, bound electrons have no contribution towards their thermal conductivity.
5. Birds often swell their feathers in winter. Why?
 On swelling the feathers, air is trapped into the gap of feathers. Since air is a bad conductor of heat,
the heat is prevented emitting from the body surface of bird to the surroundings. Hence, the body
remains warm during the cold climate.
6. Why do the metal utensils have wooden handles?
 Wood is a bad conductor of heat. Wooden handle does not allow heat to be conducted from the hot
utensils to the hand. So, we can easily hold the hot utensils with its help.

1. Although aluminum is a good conductor of heat, how can an aluminum foil with shiny surface be
used to keep food hot for longer time?
 The surface of aluminum foil is made very shiny. Hence its reflection coefficient is relatively high
such that maximum proportion of heat reflects back from the inner surface of foil. Although it is
good conductor of heat, it cannot absorb any more heat due to shiny surface. Since the heat traps into
the foil, the food remains hot for longer time.
2. Why are good absorbers always good emitters?
 Temperature is the effect of heat. When a body absorbs heat its temperature rises up. Also, from
Stefan's law, amount of heat emitted per unit time per unit surface area is directly proportional to the
fourth power of absolute temperature,
4
i.e., E∝T .
It means hotter body can emit greater amount of heat than relatively cold one. Hence, good absorbers
are always good emitter. Therefore the sun is also considered as good absorber.
3. During the winter, the animals curl into a ball. Explain why.
 The amount of heat radiated per second per unit surface area by a black body is directly proportional
to the difference of fourth power of temperature of the body and its surroundings.
4 4
i.e., E ∝ (T – T0 )
4 4
E = σ (T – T0 )
Where, T = Temperature of black body
T0 = Temperature of its surrounding
P
E = A , P = power radiated
4 4
∴ P = Aσ (T – T0 )
This shows that rate of energy dissipated by a black body depends on its surface area. The surface
area is minimum in spherical shape for a given volume. Hence, to avoid the excessive loss of heat
from the body, animals curl into a ball.
4. Why are the polar regions much cooler than the equatorial regions despite the fact that the polar
regions are periodically tilted towards the sun?
 The heat energy received by the earth depends on the angle made by heat radiation on the surface.
I
The heat energy received is E = r2 cos θ, i.e., E ∝ cos θ, where, θ is the angle made by incident ray of
radiation with the surface of the earth. At the equator θ → 0. So, cos θ ≈ 1 but at the poles, the angle is
some how oblique (i.e., θ > 0). Hence, cos θ < 1. Due to this reason, the polar region is cooler than
equatorial region.

5. Air is a bad conductor of heat. Why do you feel cool without cloth in your body?
 We have two arguments in this context. The evaporation of moisture from skin in the form of sweat
is enhanced if the insulating layer of air between cloth and skin is removed i.e., without cloth in the
body. The second point relies on the fact that though the air is a bad conductor of heat, through the
process of convection, effective heat transfer from the body will be enhanced which is responsible
lowering of body temperature.
6. A solid sphere and a hollow sphere of equal radius made of same material are heated to same
temperature and allowed to cool in the same environment. Which of them starts cooling faster?
 Rate of heat loss by any sphere is,
dT
–m S ⎛ dt ⎞ = σ A (T – T0 )
4 4
⎝ ⎠
dT ⎛σ A (T – T0 )⎞ 1
4 4
– dt =
⎝ S ⎠m
The quantities within the bracket are constant for the given condition. Hence,
dT 1
– dt ∝ m
Since the hollow sphere has less mass, its rate of cooling will be faster.
7. Two metal rods A and B are of equal lengths. Each rod has its ends at temperature T1 and T2. What is
the condition that will ensure equal rate of flow of heat through the rods A and B?
 Let x be the length of each rod. The rates of flow of heat through the rods A and B will be equal if
k1 A1 (T1 – T1) k2 A2 (T1 – T2)
x = x
k1 A1 = k2 A2
A1 k2
A2 = k1
Hence, for equal rates of flow of heat, the area of cross-section of the two rods should be inversely
proportional to their coefficient of thermal conductivities.
8. How convection currents are set up at the bottom of the chimney of the lamp?
 Small holes are provided at the bottom of the chimney of the lamp to produce the convection
currents of air. The hot air and burnt gases rise upwards through the chimney. Fresh air enters
through the holes provided at the bottom. In the absence of these holes, convection current will not
be set up and the lamp would go off.
9. Can we boil water inside an earth satellite?
 The convection currents are only possible in the presence of gravity. The boiling of water relies on the
fact that a liquid becomes lighter or on being hot and rises up, which is convection that is absent in
the condition of weightlessness. Thus, the boiling of water by the so called process of convection is
not possible in a satellite.
10. The earth constantly receives heat radiation from the sun and gets warmed up. Why does the earth
not get as hot as the sun?
 The sun is located at very large distance from the sun, hence it receives only a small fraction of the
heat radiation emitted by the sun. Further, due to the loss of heat from the surface of earth due to
convection and radiation also causes the earth not become as hot as the sun.

Worked Out Problems

1. Calculate the rate of loss of heat through a glass window of area 200 cm2 and thickness 0.5 cm when
temperature inside is 35°C and outside –5°C, coefficient of thermal conductivity of glass is
2.2 × 10–3 cal s–1cm–1K–1.
SOLUTION
Given, Q kA (θ1 – θ2)
Area (A) = 200 cm2 Rate of loss of heat, t = x
Thickness (x) = 0.5 cm
2.2 × 10–3 × 200 × 40
Difference of temperature (θ1 – θ2) = 0.5 = 35.2 cals–1.
= 35 – (–5) = 40°C
Thermal conductivity (k)= 2.2 × 10–3 cals–1cm–1K
2. Estimate the rate at which ice would melt in a wooden box 2.5 cm thick of inside measurement
100 cm × 60 cm × 40 cm assuming that the external temperature is 35°C and thermal conductivity of
wood is 0.168 Wm-1K-1.
SOLUTION
Given, Inside measurement of a wooden box is 100 cm × 60 cm × 40 cm
∴ Total surface area of the walls of the wooden box,
A = 2 [100 × 60 + 60 × 40 + 40 × 100] dQ 0.168 × 2.48 × (35 – 0)
= 24800 cm2 = 2.48 m2 or, dt = 2.5 × 10–2 = 583.29
Thickness of wooden box (x) = 2.5 cm
Inside the box, the rate of heat gained by ice is
= 2.5 × 10–2 m
583.29 W.
External temperature (θ1) = 35° C
If L is the latent heat of fusion of ice, then rate of
Internal temperature (θ2) = 0° C
melting of ice is,
The flow of heat into the box in time dt is dQ.
dm dQ/dt 583.29
then,
dt = L = 336 × 103
kA (θ1 – θ2) dt
dQ = x = 1.74 × 10–3 kgs–1
3. Calculate the theoretical percentage change in heat loss by conduction achieved by replacing a single
glass window by a double window consisting of two sheets of glass separated by 10 mm of air. In
each case the glass is 2 mm thick. (The ratio of the thermal conductivities of glass and air is 3:1)
SOLUTION
kg
 k = 3 : 1, kg = 3 ka
a
10 mm of air is equivalent to 3 × 10 or 30 mm of glass.

In the case of single glass,
heat loss per second is given by
⎛Q⎞ = kg A(θ2 ––3θ1)
⎝ t ⎠1 2 × 10
In the case of double window, total ⎛Q⎞ – ⎛Q⎞ ⎛ ⎛Q⎞ ⎞
⎝ t ⎠1 ⎝ t ⎠2 ⎝ t ⎠2
× 100% = ⎜1 – Q ⎟ × 100
equivalent glass thickness =2 + 2 + 30 =34 mm
=
Heat loss per second is given by, Q
⎛ ⎞ ⎜ ⎛ ⎞⎟
⎛Q⎞ = kg A(θ2 ––3θ1) ⎝ t ⎠1 ⎝ ⎝ t ⎠1 ⎠
⎝ t ⎠2 34 × 10 2
= ⎛1 – 34⎞ × 100 = 94.1%
Percentage change in heat loss, ⎝ ⎠

4. The element of an electric fire with an output of 1.5 kW is a cylinder of 0.3 m long and 0.04 m in
radius. Calculate its temperature if it behaves as a black body.
SOLUTION
Power of electric fire (P) = 1.5 kW = 1500 W We have, P = σAT4
Length of cylinder (l) = 0.3 m Also, A = 2πrl
Radius of cylinder (r) = 0.04 m or, 1500 = 5.67 × 10–8 × 2π × r × l × T4
or, 1500 = 5.67 × 10–8 × 2π × 0.04 × 0.3 × T4
Stefan's constant (σ) = 5.67 × 10–8 W m–2 K–4
1500
Temperature of cylinder (T) = ? or, T4 = = 3.51 × 1011
5.67 × 10–8 × 2π × 0.3 × 0.04
5. A carpenter builds an exterior house wall with a layer of wood 3.0 cm thick in the outside and layer
of Styrofoam insulation 2.2 cm thick on the inside wall surface. The wood has k = 0.080 W/m· K and
the Styrofoam has k = 0.010 W/m· K. The interior surface temperature is 19.0°C, and the exterior
surface temperature is –10.0°C. (a) What is the temperature at the plane where the wood meets
Styrofoam? (b) What is the rate of heat flow per square meter through this wall?
SOLUTION
Given, 0.080(θ + 10) 0.010(19 – θ)
=
For wood, 3 × 10–2 2.2 × 10–2
x1 = 3.0 cm = 3.0 × 10–2 m 0.027 (θ + 10) = 0.0045 (19 – θ)
k1 = 0.080 Wm-1K-1 6.57θ = – 39.67
θ1 = – 10.0°C θ = – 6.0°C
For Styrofoam b. Now,
x2 = 2.2 cm = 2.2 × 10–2 m
⎛dQ⎞ k2 A(19 – (–6)) 0.010 × A × 25
k2 = 0.010 Wm-1K-1 ⎝ dt ⎠Styroform = x2 = 2.2 × 10-2
θ2 = 19.0°C dQ/dt
a. Rate of heat transferred by Styrofoam is ∴ A = 11.36 Wm-2
equal to the rate of heat gained by wood.
k1A (θ + 10) k2A (19 – θ)
x1 = x2
6. What is the ratio of the energy per second radiated by the filament of a lamp at 2500 K to that
radiated at 2000 K, assuming the filament is a black body radiator? The filament of a particular
electric lamp can be considered as a 90% black body radiator. Calculate the energy per second
radiated when its temperature is 2000 K if its surface area is 10–6 m2. [Stefan constant = 5.7 × 10–8
W m–2 K–4]
SOLUTION
Given, Dividing Eq. (i) by (ii), we get
T1 = 2500 K and T2 = 2000 K P1 T14 ⎛2500⎞4
P1 P2 = T24 = ⎝2000⎠ = 2.44
P2 = ? Also, we know,
Emissivity, e = 90% = 0.9 P = σ AT4 . e
T = 2000 K, A = 10–6 m2 = 5.7 × 10– 8 × 10– 6 (2000)4 × 0.9
Energy per second radidated, P = ? ∴ P = 0.82 watt
We know,
P1 = σAT14 . . . (i)
and P2 = σAT24 . . . (ii)

7. A metal sphere of 1 cm diameter, whose surface acts as a black body, is placed at the focus of a
concave mirror with aperture of diameter 60 cm directed towards the sun. If the solar radiation
falling normally on the earth is at the rate of 0.14 watt cm–2. Stefan's constant is taken as 6 × 10–8 W
m–2 K–4 and the mean temperature of the surroundings is 27° C. Calculate the maximum temperature
which the sphere could attain.
SOLUTION
Diameter of the sphere, d = 1 cm = 0.01 m
Diameter of concave mirror, d' = 60 cm
π d'2 π
∴ Area of concave mirror, A = 4 = 4 × (60)2 cm2
Power (or energy per second) falling on the earth's surface = 0.14 W cm–2
π
∴ The power (or energy per second) falling on the mirror = 0.14 × 4 × (60)2 watt
Let T be the maximum temperature that the sphere attains, then the maximum energy loss per
second = σ(T4 – T04) A
where T0 = 27°C = 300 K is the temperature of the surrounding.
Then we can write,
(60)2
σ(T4 – T04) A = 0.14 × π 4
(60)2
or 6 × 10–8 [T4 – (300)4] 4π (0.5 × 10–2)2 = 0.14 × π 4
0.14 × (60)2
or T4 – (300)4 = 4 × 4 (0.5 × 10–2)2 × 6 × 10–8
or T4 – (300)4 = 21 × 1012
or T4 = 21 × 1012 + (300)4
or T4 = 21 × 1012 + 81 × 108
or T = (210081 × 108)1/4
∴ T = 2140.9 K = 2141 K
Hence the required temperature of the sphere that would attain is 2141 K.

1. A Styrofoam box is used to keep drinks cold at a picnic which has total wall area (including the lid)
of 0.80 m2 and wall thickness 2.0 cm. It is filled with ice, water and cans of omni-cola at 0°C. What is
the rate of heat flow into the box if the temperature of the outside wall is 30°C? How much ice melts
in one day? Ans: 12 W, 3.1 kg
2. A steel bar 10.00 cm long is welded end to end to a copper bar 12.0 cm long. Both bars are insulated
perfectly on their sides. Each bar has a square cross section, 2.00 cm on a side. The free end of the
steel bar is maintained at 100°C by placing it in contact with steam, and the free end of the copper bar
is maintained at 0°C by contact with ice. Find the temperature at the junction of the two bars and the
total rate of heat flow. Ans: 12.7°C, 15.9 W
3. An electric kitchen range has a total wall area of 1.40 m2 and is insulated with a layer of fiberglass 4.0
cm thick. The inside surface of fiberglass has a temperature of 175°C and its outside surface is 35°C.
The fiberglass has a thermal conductivity of 0.040 W/m· K. (a) What is the heat current through the
insulation, assuming it may be treated as a flat slab with an area of 1.40 m2? (b) What electric-power
input to the heating element is required to maintain this temperature? Ans: 196 W
4. You are asked to design a cylindrical steel rod 50.0 cm long, with a circular cross-section, that will
conduct 150 J/s from a furnace at 400°C to a container of boiling water under one atmosphere. What
must the rod's diameter be? Ans: 7.96 cm

5. A rod 1.300 m long consists of a 0.800 m length of aluminum joined end-to-end to a 0.500 m length of
brass. The free end of the aluminum section is maintained at 150.0°C and the free end of the brass
piece is maintained at 12.0°C. No heat is lost through the sides of the rod. At a steady state, what is
the temperature T of the point where the two metals are joined? Ans: 90.2°C
6. Size of a Light-Bulb Filament: The operating temperature of a tungsten filament in an incandescent

light bulb is 2450 K, and its emissivity is 0.35. Find the surface area of the filament of a 150-W bulb if
all the electrical energy consumed by the bulb is radiated by the filament as electromagnetic waves.
(Only a fraction of the radiation appears as visible light) Ans: 2.1 cm2
7. Assuming that the thermal insulation provided by a woolen glove is equivalent to a layer of
quiescent air 3 mm thick, determine the heat loss per minute from a man's hand, surface area 200 cm2
on a winter's day when the atmospheric air temperature is – 3°C. The skin temperature is to be taken
as 34°C and thermal conductivity of air as 24 × 10–3 W m–1 K–1. Ans: 335.2 J/min
8. A bar 0.2 m in length and of cross-sectional area 2.5 × 10–4 m2 is ideally lagged. One end is maintained
at 373 K while the other is maintained at 273 K by immersing in melting ice. Calculate the rate at
which the ice melts owing to the flow of heat along the bar. Thermal conductivity of the material of
the bar = 4.0 × 102 W m–1 K–1.[Specific latent heat of fusion of ice = 3.4 × 105 Jkg–1]
Ans: 1.47 × 10 – 4 kg s – 1
9. One face of a sheet of cork 3 mm thick is placed in contact with one face of a sheet of glass 5 mm
thick, both sheets being 20 cm square. The outer faces of this square composite sheet are maintained
at 100°C and 20°C, the glass being at the higher mean temperature. Find (i) the temperature of the
glass cork interface and (ii) the rate at which heat is conducted across the sheet. [Thermal conductivity
of cork = 6.3 × 10–2 W m–1 K–1, thermal conductivity of glass = 7.2 × 10–1 W m–1K–1]
Ans: (i) 89.82°C (ii) 57.6 W
10. The sun is a black body of surface temperature about 6000 K. If the sun's radius is 7 × 108 m, calculate
the energy radiated per second from its surface. The earth is about 1.5 × 1011 m from the sun.
Assuming all the radiation from sun falls on a sphere of this radius, estimate the energy per second
per meter square received by the earth. [Stefan constant = 5.7 × 10–8 Wm–2 K–4]
Ans: 4.55 × 10 2 6 watt m – 2 , 1609 Wm – 2
11. A sphere of radius 2.00 cm with a black surface is cooled and then suspended in a large evacuated
enclosure the black walls of which are maintained at 27°C. If the rate of change of thermal energy of
the sphere is 1.85 Js–1 when the temperature is – 73°C. Calculate a value for the Stefan constant.
Ans: 5.6 × 10 – 8 Wm – 2 K – 4
12. If each square cm of the sun's surface radiates energy at the rate 6.3 × 103 J s–1 cm–2 and the Stefan
constant is 5.7 × 10– 8 W m–2K–4. Calculate the temperature of the sun. Ans: 5493°C
Exercise
1. What are diathermanous substances?
2. What is radiant energy?
3. Which law deals with cooling by radiation?
4. Write the formula in order to determine the surface temperature of the earth?
5. What is temperature gradient?
6. Define coefficient of thermal conductivity. Derive its SI unit.
7. Why snow is a better heat-insulator than ice?
8. A hole in the cavity of a radiator is a black body. Why?
9. Out of the three mechanisms of transmission of heat, which one is fastest?
10. In what respect is the thermal radiation different from light?

11. In which method of heat flow, no particle medium is required?
12. Brass knob feels cooler than wood in winter, why?
13. Write two properties of thermal radiation.
14. What are the unit and dimension of Stefan's constant?
Short Questions
1. Ice covered in gunny bag does not melt for a long time. Why?
2. What are the three mechanisms of transmission of heat energy from one point to another?
3. The bulb of mercury thermometer is made cylindrical but not spherical shape. Why?
4. Why Eskimos make double-walled ice houses?
5. The iron desks appear to be colder than the wooden desk in winter, why?
6. Why stainless steel cooking pans are provided with extra copper bottom?
7. Why small holes are provided at the bottom of the chimney of the lamp?
8. Why do we feel cold without clothes, although air is poor conductor of heat?
9. Why is it more hotter above the fire than by its side?
10. Black body radiation is white. Explain.
11. The sun is considered as a black body. Why?
12. Why a body with large reflectivity is a poor emitter?
13. Why rooms are provided with ventilators near the roof?
14. Air is poor conductor of heat, why do we not feel warm without clothes?
15. What is a black body? How is it realized in practice?
16. Why are two thin blankets warmer than a single blanket of double the thickness?
17. Define steady state and temperature gradient.
18. Why is white cloth more comfortable in summer than black one?
19. A squirrel wraps its bushy tail round its body during its winter sleep. Why?
20. Why does a piece of red glass when heated and taken out glow with green light?
Long Questions
1. Define thermal conductivity of a substance. Derive an expression for it in steady state.
2. Define temperature gradient in a conductor. Derive its relation with thermal conductivity of a
substance.
3. Define thermal conductivity. Describe Searle's experiment to determine the thermal conductivity of a
conductor.
4. Define perfectly black body. State and explain Stefan's law of black body radiation.
5. Can perfectly black body be realized in practice? State and explain Stefan Boltzmann's law of black
body radiation.
6. What is radiation and how does this mode of heat transfer differ from conduction and convection?
7. Discuss the methods of heat transmission. Define reflection, transmission, and absorption coefficient
of heat radiation and relate them.

Thermal conductivity of air = 24 x 10 -3 Wm-1K-1 Thermal conductivity of wood = 0.169 Wm-1K-1
Thermal conductivity of rubber = 0.13 Wm-1K-1 Thermal conductivity of cardboard = 0.05 Wm-1K-1
Stefan's constant = 5.7 x 10 -8 Wm-2 K-4
LEVEL I
1. A small hole is made in hollow sphere whose walls are at 723°C, Find the total energy radiated per
second per cm2. Ans: 5.61 J

2. Consider the sun as a perfect sphere of radius 6.8 × 108 m. Calculate the energy radiated by the sun in
one minute. Surface temperature of the sun = 6200 K. Ans: 2.921 × 1028 J
3. A sheet of rubber and a sheet of cardboard, each 2 mm thick, are pressed together and their outer
faces are maintained respectively at 0°C and 30°C. Find the quantity of heat which flows in one hour
across a piece of the composite sheet of area 100 cm2? Ans: 43884 J
4. The element of an electric fire, with an output of 1 kW, is a cylinder 25 cm long and 1.5 cm diameter.
Calculate its temperature when in use if it behaves as a perfect black body. Ans: 1104.67 K
5. Each square cm of the sun's surface radiates energy at the rate of 6.3 x 10 3 J s-1 cm-2. Calculate the
temperature of the sun's surface in degree Celsius. Ans: 5766 K
6. One end of a 0.25 m long metal bar is in steam and the other in contact with ice. If 12 × 10–3 kg of ice
melts per minute, what is the thermal conductivity of the metal? Given: Cross- section of the bar
= 5 × 10–4 m2 and latent heat of ice is 80 kcal/kg. Ans: 80 cal s–1m–1K–1
7. Calculate the temperature in kelvin at which a perfect black body radiates at the rate of 5.67 W cm–2,
Stefan's constant is 5.67 × 10–5 erg s–1cm–2K–1. Ans: 1000 K
8. Suppose the surface area of a person's body is 1.8 m2 and the room temperature is 22°C. The skin
temperature is 29°C and the emissivity of the skin is about 0.97 for the relevant region of
electromagnetic radiation. Estimate the rate of heat radiation from the body of the person.
Ans: 73.73 Js–1
9. Assuming that the thermal insulation provided by a woolen glove is equivalent to a layer of
quiescent air 3 mm thick, determine the heat loss per minute from a man's hand, surface area 200 cm2
on a winter day when the atmospheric air temperature is -3°C. The skin temperature is to be taken as
35°C and thermal conductivity of air as 24 × 10–3 Wm–1K–1. Ans: 364.8 J
10. The sun is a black body of surface temperature about 6000 K. If the sun's radius is 7 × 108 m, calculate
the energy per second radiated from its surface. (Stefan's constant = 5.7 × 10-8 Wm-2K-4)
Ans: 4.55 × 1026 W
11. What is the rate of energy radiation per unit area of a black body at a temperature of (a) 273 K? (b)
2730 K? Ans: 314.94 Wm–2, 3.15 × 106 Wm–2
12. The element of a 1 kW electric fire has a surface area of 0.006 m2. Estimate its working temperature.
–8 –2 –4
[The Stefan Constant = 5.7 × 10 Wm K ] Ans: 1300 K
13. Estimate the power loss through unit area from a perfectly black body at 327°C to the surrounding
environment at 27°C. Ans: 6889.05 W
LEVEL II
1. A copper rod 50 cm long and of diameter 4 cm is covered with insulating materials. One of its end is
maintained at 100°C and other end is places in a vessel containing ice at 0°C. It is found that 87.8 g of
ice is melted in 5 minutes. Calculate the thermal conductivity of copper. Ans: 0.93 cal/s cm °C
2. A filament of an electric lamp can be considered as a 90% black body radiator. Calculate the energy
per second radiated when its temperature is 2000 K if its surface area is 10 -6 m2. Ans: 0.82 W
3. The sun is a black body of surface temperature about 6000 K. If the sun's radius is 7×108 m, calculate
the energy per sec radiated from its surface. The earth is about 1.5 × 1011 m from the sun. Assuming
all the radiation from the sun falls on a sphere of this radius, estimate the energy per second per unit
area received by the earth. Ans: 1609 Wm-2
4. What is the ratio of the energy per second radiated by the filament of a lamp at 2500 K to that
radiated at 2000 K assuming that the filament is a black body radiator? Ans: 2.44
5. A metal sphere of 1 cm diameter, whose surface acts as a black body is placed at the focus of a
concave mirror with aperture of diameter 60 cm directed towards the sun. If the solar radiation
falling normally on the earth is at the rate of 0.14 W cm-2. The mean temperature of the surrounding
is 27°C, calculate the maximum temperature which the sphere could attain. Ans: 2140.69 K

6. A metal sphere with a black surface and diameter 3 cm is cooled to 73°C and placed inside an
enclosure at a temperature of 127°C. Calculate the initial rate of rise of temperature of the sphere
assuming it to be a black body.
Density of metal = 7500 kg m-3
heat of metal = 500 Jkg-1K-1 Ans: 0.073 Ks-1
7. A later of ice 0.15 m thick has formed on the surface of a deep pond. If the temperature of the upper
surface of ice is constant and equal to that of the air which is –12°C, determine the time it will take for
the thickness of ice to increase by 0.2 mm. Given density of ice = 0.91 × 103 kg m–3 and thermal
conductivity of ice = 0.5 cal s–1 m–1 K–1 Ans: 6 min 4 s
8. A pot with a steel bottom 8.5 mm thick rest on a hot stove. The area of the bottom of the pot is 0.15
m2. The water inside the pot is at 100ºC and 390 g of water is evaporated every 3 minute. Find the
temperature of lower surface of the pot which is in contact with the stove. [k = 50.2 W/mK, Lv =
2256 × 103 J/kg] Ans: 105.5°C
9. Suppose that the rod is made of copper, is 45.0 cm long, and has a cross-sectional area of 1.25
cm2. Let TH = 100.0°C and TC = 0.0°C. (a) What is the final steady state temperature gradient along
the rod? (b) What is the heat current in the rod in the final steady state? (c) What is the final steady
state temperature at a point in the rod 12.0 cm from its left end? Ans: 222 K/m, 10.7 W, 73.3°C
10. A closed metal vessel contains water (i) at 30°C and then (ii) at 75°C. The vessel has a surface area of
0.5 m2 and a uniform thickness of 4 mm. If the outside temperature is 15°C. Calculate the heat loss
per minute by conduction in each case. [Thermal conductivity of metal = 400 Wm–1 K–1]
Ans: (i) 4.5 × 10 7 J, (ii) 1.8 × 10 8 J
11. The silica cylinder of a radiant wall heater is 0.6 m long and has a radius of 6 mm. If it is rated at 1.5
kW, estimate its temperature when operating. [The Stefan constant, σ = 6 × 10– 8 W m–2 K–4]
Ans: 1025 K
12. A roof measures 20 m × 50 m and is blackened. If the temperature of the sun's surface is 6000 K,
Stefan's constant = 5.72 × 10–8 Wm–2K–4, the radius of the sun is 7.8 × 108 m and the distance of the
sun from the earth is 1.5 × 1011 m, calculate how much solar energy is incident on the roof per
minute, assuming that half is lost in passing through the earths' atmosphere, the roof being normal to
the sun's rays. Ans: 6.0315 × 107 J
13. A solid copper sphere of diameter 10mm is cooled to a temperature of 150 K and is then placed in an
enclosure maintained at 290 K. Assuming that all interchange of heat is by radiation, calculate the
initial rate of rise of temperature of the sphere, treating it as black body. Ans: 0.068 K
14. A layer of ice 2 cm thick is formed on a pond. The temperature of air is –10°C. Calculate how long it
will take for the thickness of ice to increase by 1 mm. Density of ice = 1 g cm–3, Latent heat of
ice = 80 calg–1, conductivity of ice = 0.008 cals–1cm–1°C–1. Ans: 2.05 cm
15. An ice box is made of wood 1.75 cm thick lined inside with cork 2 cm thick. If the temperature of
inner surface of the cork is steady at 0°C and that of the outer surface of the wood is steady at 12°C;
what is the temperature of the interface? The thermal conductivity of wood is five times that of cork.
Ans: 10.2°C
16. A slab of stone of area 0.36 m2 and thickness 10 cm is exposed on the lower surface to steam at 100°C.
A block of ice at 0°C rests on the upper surface of the slab. In one hour, 4.8 kg of ice is melted.
Calculate the thermal conductivity of stone. Ans: 1.24 Wm–1K–1


1. If the absolute temperature of a radiating body is suddenly halved, the radiating power will reduce
approximately by
a. 25% b. 12.5% c. 6.25% d. 3.12%
2. Which relation for emissive power and temperature is correct?
a. E ∝ T b. E ∝ T2 c. E ∝ T4 d. E ∝ T–4
3. Unit of the coefficient of thermal conductivity is
a. watt K–1 m–1 b. joule s K–1 c. watt K m–3 d. joule s–1K
4. If temperature of black body is increased by 50%, percentage increased in emitted radiation is
a. 50 b. 100 c. 500 d. 400
5. The energy emitted per second by a black body at 1227°C is E. Its temperature is raised to 4227°C.
The energy emitted per second is
a. 81 E b. 3 E c. 9 E d. 27 E
6. Two rods of equal length and diameter have thermal conductivities 2 and 3 units. If they are joined in
series, the thermal conductivity of the combination will be
a. 1 unit b. 5 units c. 6 units d. 2.4 units
7. If the temperature of the sun were to increase from T to 2T and its radius from R to 2R, then the ratio
of the radiant energy received on earth to what it was previously will be
a. 4 b. 16 c. 32 d. 64
8. Two spherical black bodies of radii r1 and r2, at temperatures T1 and T2 respectively, radiate same
r1
power. Then r must be equal to
2
a. (T1/T2)2 b. (T2/T1)2 c. (T1/T2)4 d. (T2/T1)4

9. Temperatures of two stars are in ratio 3:2. If wavelength of maximum radiation from first body is
4000 Å, what is corresponding wavelength of second body?
a. 9000 Å b. 6000 Å c. 2000 Å d. 8000 Å
10. A body cools from 80°C to 64°C in 5 min and same body cools from 80°C to 52°C in 10 min. What is
the temperature of the surrounding?
a. 24°C b. 28°C c. 22°C d. 25°C
11. The amount of heat energy radiated by a metal at temperature T is E. When the temperature is
increased to 3T, energy radiated is
a. 81 E b. 9 E c. 3 E d. 27 E
12. The rate of loss of heat by radiation from a solid body does not depend on its
a. temperature b. surface area
c. nature of the surface d. heat capacity
13. As the temperature of a body is raised, the maximum energy radiated tends to be associated with
shorter wavelengths. What is this law known as?
a. Kirchhoff's law b. Stefan's law
c. Stefan-Boltzmann law d. Wien's displacement law
ANSWERS
1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (d) 5. (a) 6. (d) 7. (d)
8. (b) 9. (b) 10. (a) 11. (a) 12. (d) 13. (d)


IDEAL GAS
13.1 Introduction
Matter usually exists in three different states; solid, liquid and gas. There is one more state of matter,
called plasma state, but study of plasma state is beyond the range of this book. Generally, all the
substances in these states expand on heating and contract on cooling which we call the thermal
properties. We have so far dealt with the expansion of solids and liquids in previous chapters. We
will mainly focus on the thermal properties of gases, here.
Thermal properties are broadly classified under two categories (a) macroscopic properties, (b)
microscopic properties. The thermal properties associated to temperature, pressure, volume and total
mass of substance are called macroscopic (or large scale) properties whereas the thermal properties
associated to masses, kinetic energies and momenta of individual molecules are microscopic (small
scale) properties.
The macroscopic and microscopic properties are closely related. Knowing the macroscopic behaviour
of a substance, the microscopic properties can be studied. For example it is almost impossible to
study the kinetic energy of single molecule (microscopic property) directly but by knowing the
temperature of the system as a whole, we can estimate the kinetic energy of individual molecule.
° = 10–10 m). In solid, atoms are tightly packed, spacing
The size of an atom is about an angstrom (1 A
between two molecules may be few angstrom (≈ 2 A ° ). In liquids, the inter-atomic spacing is about the
same as the solid but they are not rigidly fixed, and hence they flow. In gases, the inter-atomic
° ). So, the molecules practically do not feel the influence of each
distance is relatively large (≈ 10 A
other until they collide. The mean free path (average distance travelled by a molecule between two
successive collisions) is of the order of thousands of angstroms. Thus, the atoms are much free in
gases and can travel long distances without colliding.
Ideal Gases and Real Gases

An ideal gas is a theoretical gas whose molecules occupy negligible space and have interactions only
by elastic nature. Ideal gas obeys the gas laws strictly. Real gas is a practical gas whose molecules
interact with non-hypothetical nature. At low pressure and high temperature, most real gases
behaved quantitatively like ideal gas. So, for most applications, ideal gas approximation can be used
with reasonable accuracy.

Some important differences between the ideal gases and real gases are as follows:
Ideal Gases Real Gases
The hypothetical gases that do not exist The gases that exist practically in nature are
practically in nature are called ideal gases. called real gases.
Gas laws like Boyle's law and Charles' law For low pressure and high temperature of a
are derived considering the properties of given mass of gas, the properties of real gases
ideal gases. can be considered similar to ideal gases.
Otherwise, real gases do not follow ideal gas
properties.
Interatomic force in ideal gases is equal to Inter atomic force in real gases is non zero and
zero. significant.
Measurement of Quantity of Substance: Mole

One mole of any pure chemical element or compound contains a definite number of atoms or
molecules. One mole is the amount of substance that contains as many elementary entities (atoms or
molecules) as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of Carbon-12.
The number of atoms or molecules in a mole is called Avogadro's number, it is denoted by NA.
NA = 6.02214199 × 1023 atoms or molecules / mole
Atoms or molecules is written in that sense, some elements remaining in atomic form like He and
some other remain in molecular form like H2, O2, etc.
(For simplicity, NA = 6.023 × 1023 atoms or molecules /mole)
The mass of one mole of a substance is called molar mass. It is denoted by M. It is determined by
multiplying the mass of single molecule with Avogadro's number NA.
M = NA μ . . . (13.1)
where, μ = mass of single molecule
Then, total mass (m) of substance in a certain volume is calculated by,
m = nM . . . (13.2)
where, n = number of moles in a given volume.
Moreover, total number of molecules in a given volume of a substance is calculated as,
N = nNA . . . (13.3)
EXAMPLE 1: Find the mass of a single hydrogen atom and the mass of an oxygen molecule. (Given NA = 6.023 ×
1023/mole). Mass per mole of hydrogen atom and oxygen atom are 1.008 g and 16 g respectively.
SOLUTION
(i) For hydrogen atom
The mass per mole of atomic hydrogen
MH = 1.008 g/mol.
1.008
∴ mass of hydrogen atom (mH) = 6.023 × 1023 = 1.67 × 10–24 g
(ii) For oxygen molecule,
The mass per mole of oxygen atom = 16.0 g
The mass per mole of oxygen molecule = 32.0 g
Now, mass of single molecule of oxygen,
32
M = 6.023 × 1023 = 53.1 × 10–24 g
 Check Point: Find the mass of Nitrogen molecule. (Molar mass of nitrogen is 28 g)
Ans: 4.65 × 10−23 g/molecule

Ideal Gas | Chapter 13 | 343
13.2 Boyle's Law

The effect of change of volume on the pressure of a certain mass of a gas at constant temperature was
studied by scientist Robert Boyle in 1662 A.D. He related the pressure and volume of a certain mass
of gas which is termed as Boyle's law. This law states that "the pressure exerted by a gas is inversely
proportional to its volume at constant temperature."
Let P be the pressure exerted by a gas of volume V. Then, according to Boyle's law,
1
P ∝ V (constant T)
k
or, P = V , where, k is proportionality constant
∴ PV = constant . . . (13.4)
Let P1 be the initial pressure exerted by gas at volume V1. Suppose the volume of gas is changed to
V2, then pressure of gas is changed to P2, keeping temperature constant. Now, the equation (13.4) is
generalized as,
P1V1 = P2V2 . . . (13.5)
1
The graph of pressure P versus reciprocal of V ⎛i.e., V⎞ is shown in Fig. 13.1 (i).
⎝ ⎠
1
Fig. 13.1: Graphical relation of pressure and volume (i) P and V (ii) P and V
Since, PV = k
1
∴ P = k ⎛V⎞ + 0
⎝ ⎠
Comparing with straight line equation,
y = mx + c
1
The graph between P and V must be straight line with zero intercept, i.e, it must pass through origin.
Also, the graph between P and V is shown in Fig 13.1 (ii).
For V → 0 P→∞
and for V → ∞ P→0
EXAMPLE 2: A cylindrical tank has a tight-fitting piston that allows the volume of the tank to be changed. The tank
originally contains 0.110 m3 of air at a pressure of 3.40 atm. The piston is slowly pulled out until the volume of the gas is
increased to 0.390 m3. If the temperature remains constant, what is the final value of the pressure?
SOLUTION
Given,
Initial volume (V1) = 0.110 m3
Initial pressure (P1) = 3.40 atm
= 3.40 × 1.01 × 105 = 3.40 × 105 Nm–2

Final volume (V2) = 0.390 m3
P2 = ?
From Boyle's law,
P1V1 = P2V2
P1V1 3.40 × 105 × 0.110
P2 = V = 0.390
2
9.60 × 104
= 9.60 × 104 Nm–2 = 1.01 × 105 atm = 0.95 atm
 Check Point: A gas at 27°C in a cylinder has a volume of 4 liter and pressure 100 Nm−2. Then the
gas is compressed at constant temperature, so that the pressure is 150 N m−2. Calculate the change in
volume. Ans: 1.33 liters
13.3 Charles' Law

Jacques Charles in 1787 formulated the relationship between volume and temperature of a certain
mass of gas at constant pressure and hence the law derived from such relationship is named Charles'
law. From the similar fashion, the relationship between pressure and temperature at constant
volume can be derived.
(i) Charles' law at constant pressure

1
This law states that, "the volume of certain mass of a gas increases or decreases by 273 parts of its volume at
1
0°C for each 1°C rise or fall in temperature at constant pressure." The factor 273 is equivalent to volume
coefficient γp for a gas.
Let V0 be the volume of certain mass of a gas at 0°C and Vθ be that for θ°C rise in temperature.
According to this law,
1
Vθ = V0 ⎛1 + 273 (θ – 0)⎞
⎝ ⎠
θ
or, Vθ = V0⎛1 + 273⎞
⎝ ⎠
Vθ 273 + θ
or, V0 = 273
Vθ Tθ
∴ V0 = T0 . . . (13.6)
where, Tθ = (273 + θ) K
T0 = 273 K
V
It means, T = constant
Hence, V ∝ T.
Therefore, Charles' law for constant pressure is also defined as "the volume of certain mass of a gas at
constant pressure is directly proportional to the absolute temperature."
The graph between volume and temperature of a certain mass of gas is shown in Fig. 13.2(i).
It should be noted that the volume of a gas is theoretically zero at absolute zero temperature (i.e., 0 K
= – 273.15°C). This condition can not be achieved practically but can be found extrapolating the
curve.

(ii) Charles' law at constant volume
1
This law states that, "the pressure of certain mass of a gas increases or decreases by 273 parts of its pressure
1
at 0°C for each 1°C rise or fall in temperature at constant volume". The factor 273 is also equivalent to
pressure coefficient γv for a gas. This law is also known as Gay-Lussac's law.
Let P0 be the pressure of a certain mass of a gas at 0°C and Pθ be that for θ°C rise in temperature.
According to this law,
1
Pθ = P0 ⎛1 + 273 (θ – 0)⎞
⎝ ⎠
θ
or, Pθ = P0 ⎛1 + 273⎞
⎝ ⎠
Pθ 273 + θ
or, P0 = 273
Pθ Tθ
∴ P0 =T . . . (13.7)
0
where, Tθ = (273 + θ) K
T0 = 273 K
P
It means, T = constant
Hence, P ∝ T
Therefore, Charles' law for constant volume is also defined as "the pressure exerted by a certain mass of
gas at constant volume is directly proportional to the absolute temperature."
EXAMPLE 3: A 3.00 L tank contains air at 3.00 atm and 20.0°C. The tank is sealed and cooled until the pressure is 1.00
atm. (a) What is the temperature then in degrees Celsius? Assume that the volume of the tank is constant. (b) If the
temperature is kept at the value found in part (a) and the gas is compressed, what is the volume when the pressure again
becomes 3.00 atm?
SOLUTION
Given, (b) P2 = 1.01 × 105 Nm–2
Initial volume (V1) = 3.00 L = 3 × 10–3 m3 P3 = 3.03 × 105 Nm-2
Initial pressure (P1) = 3.00 atm V2 = 3 × 10–3 m3
=3 × 1.01 × 105 = 3.03 × 105 N V3 = ?
Initial temperature (T1) = 20.0°C = 293 K Taking temperature constant,
P2 = 1.00 atm = 1.01 × 105 Nm–2 P2 V2 = P3 V3
(a) For constant volume, T2 = ? 1.01 × 105 × 3 × 10–3 = 3.03 × 105 × V3
P1 P2 1.01 × 105 × 3 × 10–3
T1 = T2 V3 = 3.03 × 105
P2 T1 1.01 × 105 × 293 = 10–3 m3
T2 = P = 3.03 × 105 = 97.67 K
1
 Check Point: A gas at 27°C in a cylinder has a volume of 4 liter and pressure 100 Nm−2. Then the
gas is compressed at constant temperature, so that the pressure is 150 N m−2. It is then heated at
constant volume, so that temperature becomes 127°C. Calculate new pressure. Ans: 200 Nm−2
Absolute zero temperature with support of V-T graph

Absolute zero temperature is the lowest possible temperature. It has not been achieved
experimentally. At such extreme temperature, molecular motions like vibrational, translational and
rotational cease.
At fixed pressure, when the volume is varied, the volume-temperature relationship traces a straight
line on the graph. If the V-T graphs are plotted fixing pressure at different values, the straight line
intersect at different points of axis towards the volume. However, on moving towards zero volume
all lines intersect at a point on the temperature axis which is –273.15°C as shown in Fig. 13.2(ii). This
common termination point in V–T graph at which the volume is zero, gives the absolute zero
temperature. Each line in the graph of volume versus temperature is known as isobar.
Fig. 13.2 (ii) : V-T Diagram
13.4 Relation between Volume Coefficient (γp)

and Pressure Coefficient (γv)
According to Charles' Law at constant pressure, the volume coefficient γp is defined as:
Volume at θ°C – Volume at 0°C 1
γp = Volume at 0°C ×
θ
Vθ –V0
∴ γp = . . . (13.8)
V0θ
Also, from Gay-Lussac's law (or Charles' law at constant volume), the pressure coefficient γv is
defined as,
Pressure at θ°C – Pressure at 0°C
γv = Pressure at 0°C
P θ – P0
γv = . . . (13.9)
P0θ
To derive the relation between γp and γv, we take a certain mass of gas in a cylinder. Consider P0 and
V0 be the pressure and volume of gas in a cylinder at 0°C.
Initially, the volume of a gas is changed keeping pressure constant,
Using equation (13.8), we get,
Vθ = V0 (1 + γpθ) . . . (13.10)
Also, the volume of gas is changed in such a way that it again goes to initial volume V0 on changing
pressure to Pθ keeping temperature constant.
From Boyle's law,
P0Vθ = PθV0 . . . (13.11)
P0V0 (1 + γp) = Pθ V0
Pθ = P0 (1 + γpθ) . . . (13.12)
From equation (13.9), we can have,
Pθ = P0 (1 + γvθ) . . . (13.13)

γ p = γv . . . (13.14)
It concludes that, if a given mass of gas obeys the Boyle's law and Charles' law, then the volume
coefficient and pressure coefficient must be equal.
13.5 Equation of State for an Ideal Gas

The effect on pressure due to the change of volume for a given mass of gas at constant temperature is
formulated by Boyle's law. Also, the effect on volume due to the change in temperature at constant
pressure is studied by Charles' law. The combination of Boyle's law and Charles' law gives the
equation of state for an ideal gas.
Suppose a certain mass of gas is kept inside an air tight vessel as shown in Fig. 13.3, where P1, V1 and
T1 are the initial pressure, volume and temperature of the gas respectively. Let this gas is allowed to
expand isothermally (T1 constant) so that its pressure and volume changes to P2 and V respectively
as shown in Fig. 13.3 (ii) following Boyle's law.
Fig. 13.3: Variation of pressure, volume and temperature for a given mass of gas.
Again let the gas be allowed to expand such that the pressure P2 remains constant but volume (V)
and temperature (T1) changes to V2 and T2 respectively following Charles' law as in
Fig. 13.3 (iii).
Change of state from (i) to (ii)
P1V1 = P2V
P1V1
V= P . . . (13.15)
2
Change of state from (ii) to (iii)

V V2
T1 = T2
V2T1
V= T . . . (13.16)
2

P1V1 V2T1
P2 = T2
P1V1 P2V2
T1 = T2 . . . (13.17)
This equation is called combined gas equation.
In an ideal gas, the volume is proportional to the number of moles (n), keeping the pressure and
temperature constant. In addition, the pressure is proportional to the absolute temperature keeping
the volume and number of moles constant. Therefore, the combined gas equation generalized for n
moles of an ideal gas is,
PV
T ∝n

PV
T = Rn
PV = nRT . . . (13.18)
The proportionality constant R is called universal gas constant. The equation (13.18) is known as ideal
gas equation.
Universal Gas Constant 'R'
The ideal gas equation is,
PV = nRT
The constant R is called universal gas constant
PV
∴ R = nT . . . (13.19)
The product of pressure and volume gives work done. i.e. work done = PV.
Workdone
So, R = Number of moles × Temperature
A condition often arrives in ideal gas
Unit of R equation. If two bulbs of equal volume are
joule –1 –1 joined with a narrow tube and one bulb is
SI unit of R = mole × kelvin = J mol K
heated or cooled, following conditions
Dimension of R should be considered.
2 –2 i. The volume of gas into the narrow tube
[ML T ] 1 2 –2 –1
Dimension of R = = [M L T K ] is taken negligible.
[K]
ii. Change of volume of the bulbs are taken
negligible at all temperature.
Numerical Value of R iii. Sum of mass of gas in two bulbs
Consider one mole of a gas, at STP, remains same, whatever the change in
n =1 pressure and temperature.
P = 760 mm of Hg = 1.01 × 105 Nm–2 iv. When temperature of one bulb is
–3
V = 22.4 liters = 22.4 × 10 m3 changed, the gas pressure in it is also
T = 273.15 K changed. Then, to maintain equal
PV pressure in both bulbs, some mass of
R = nT . . . (13.20) gas is transferred to the cold bulb (so,
5 5 two bulbs contain unequal masses of
1.01 × 10 × 22 .4 × 10 –1 –1
= 1 × 273.15 = 8.314472 Jmol K gas). Hence, overall pressure in both
bulbs changes, but the distribution of
Usually, the value of R is taken in three digit pressure is equal in both bulbs at all
significant value, so
temperatures.
–1 –1
R = 8.31 Jmol K
Physical meaning of R
Physical meaning of R is the energy change per kelvin per
mole of a gas. The value of R might be seen different for
different gases, but it was an idealized model, its value
remains same for all gas, at least, at sufficiently high
temperature and low pressure.
Gas constant per unit molar mass (r)
The universal gas constant (R) per unit molar mass (M) is called gas constant per unit molar
mass (r).

R
∴ r=M
From ideal gas equation,

PV= nRT
R
or, PV= nM ⎛M⎞T
⎝ ⎠
PV = mrT . . . (13.21)
R
where, m = nM and r = M
EXAMPLE 4: Find the number of molecules and the number of moles in one cubic meter of air at 1 atmospheric pressure
and 0°C.
SOLUTION
Given, Now, from ideal gas equation, PV = nRT
Initial pressure (P) = 1.01 × 105 Nm–2 PV 1.01 × 105 × 1
n = RT = 8.31 × 273 = 44.5 mol.
Initial volume (V) = 1 m 3
Initial temperature (T) = 0°C = 273 K Number of molecules (N) = n NA

R = 8.31 Jmol–1 K–1 = 44.5 × 6.023 × 1023 = 2.68 × 1025
 Check Point: A balloon partially filled with helium has a volume of 30 cm3, at the earth's surface,
where pressure is 76 cm of Hg and temperature is 27°C, what will be the increase in volume of gas if
balloon rises to a height, where pressure is 7.6 cm of Hg temperature is −54°C? Ans: 189 m3
13.6 Dalton's Law of Partial Pressure

It states that the total pressure exerted by a mixture of non-reacting gases occupying a given volume is equal
to the sum of partial pressures of the individual gases.
Let P1, P2 and P3 be the partial pressures exerted by three different gases. According to Dalton's law
of partial pressure, total pressure P of the mixture of gases, P is,
P = P1 + P2 + P3
Proof: Let us consider a container of volume V, containing three different gases of 'n' mole with n1, n2
and n3 of each gas. As they are kept in the same container, temperature is same for all gases.
Now, total amount of gas in the mixture,
n = n1 + n2 + n3
According to ideal gas equation,
PV = nRT
= (n1 + n2 + n3) RT
= n1RT + n2RT + n3RT
The gas of each type occupies the same volume V as they expand into the same container, we can
write,
P1V = n1RT
P2V = n2RT
P3V = n3RT
So, PV = P1V + P2V + P3V
∴ P = P1 + P2 + P3
For the mixture of m-number of different gases,
P = P1 + P2 + P3 + ............... + Pm
This proves the Dalton's law of partial pressure.

EXAMPLE 5: Two flaks having capacities 250 cm3 and 450 cm3 are connected by a closed stop-clock. The smaller flask
contains neon gas at a pressure of 500 mm of mercury. The bigger flask contains helium gas at a pressure of 950 mm of
mercury. The stop clock is now opened so that the gases mix. What is the final pressure in the system? (Assume constant
temperature)
SOLUTION
For neon gas,
Initial volume (V1) = 250 cm3
Final volume (V1 + V2) = (250 + 450) cm3
Initial pressure (P1) = 500 mm
Final pressure (P1' ) = ?
P1' (V1 + V2) = P1V1
V1 250
P1' = P1 ⎛V + V ⎞ = 500 ⎛250 + 450⎞ = 178.6 mm
⎝ 1 2⎠ ⎝ ⎠
For helium gas,
Initial volume (V2)= 450 cm3
Final volume = V1 + V2 = (250 + 450) cm3
Original pressure (P2) = 950 mm
Final pressure (P2' ) = ?
P2' (V1 + V2) = P2V2
V2 450
P2' = P2 ⎛V + V ⎞ = 950 × ⎛250 + 450⎞ = 610.7 mm
⎝ 1 2⎠ ⎝ ⎠
Total pressure, P = P1' + P2' = 178.6 + 610.7 = 789.3 mm of Hg
13.7 Kinetic Molecular Model of an Ideal Gas

The molecular model is a basic mathematical tool that connects the macroscopic properties of
matters like pressure, volume and temperature with its atomic or molecular structure and behaviour.
In kinetic molecular model of an ideal gas, a large number of molecules are considered bouncing into
a closed container and the motion of particles is considered as Brownian motion (i.e., the motion of
particles is random). This model deals the relationship of ideal gas equation with the Newton's laws
of motion and is applied to predict the thermodynamic properties of the gases like molecular heat
capacity free energy, entropy of ideal gas.
For this model, certain important assumptions about the motion of molecules are considered. These
assumptions are also known as assumptions of kinetic theory of gases. They are pointed below.
1. A container with volume V contains very large number of identical molecules N, each with
mass m.
2. The gas molecules behave as rigid, elastic and smooth spheres.
3. The size of gas molecules is small in comparison to the average distance between particles and
the dimensions of the container.
4. The molecules of a gas are in a state of continuous random motion. They move with all
possible velocities in all possible directions. They obey Newton's laws of motion.
5. The molecules collide with one another and also with the walls of the container. These
collisions are perfectly elastic.
6. The molecular density of the gas remains unchanged throughout the volume of container.
7. A molecule moves with uniform velocity between two successive collisions. The average
distance traveled by a molecule between two successive collisions is called the mean free path.

8. The molecules do not exert any force of attraction or repulsion. So, the molecules do not
possess any potential energy. Their energy is wholly kinetic.
9. The time spent by a molecule in a collision is very small as compared to the time elapsed
between two consecutive collisions.
13.8 Pressure Exerted by Gas

If a ball is thrown against a wall, it exerts force. With the
similar fashion, gas particles exert force on the wall due
to frequent collision as they are also considered the tiny w
c
spherical balls. The particles of a gas are in a state of v
continuous random motion. When a gas is kept into a u
l
container, its particles collide with one another, also with
the walls. Whenever a particle collides on the wall, it l
returns with a changed momentum so that an equal l
momentum is also transferred to the wall. According to
Fig. 13.4: Motion of a gas molecule in a cube
second law of motion, the rate of transfer of momentum
to the wall is equal to the force exerted on it. Number of particles is so great and strikes the wall so
often that the effect of their individual impact appears as a continuous force. Thus, a steady force is
exerted on the wall. The force exerted per unit area of the wall is the pressure of the gas. Hence, the
gas exerts pressure due to the continuous collisions of its particles with the walls of the container.
Force exerted by gas
P = Surface area of wall
F
i.e., P=A . . . (13.22)
Consider an ideal gas enclosed in a cubical vessel of side 'l'. The motion of gas molecules into the
cube is three dimensional. Let u, v, and w be the components of velocity of a gas molecule along x, y
and z directions. So, square net velocity of a molecule is,
c2 = u2 + v2 + w2 . . . (13.23)
There are several external and internal factors associated in the motion of gas molecules. The
physical collisions, electrostatic interactions, and many physical factors affect them to go in random
motion. Moreover, significantly large number of molecules within a small volume and their
frequently changing velocity pattern make impossible to measure the velocity of single molecule in a
such short interval of time. So, the velocity of molecules is expressed in terms of mean velocity. Let ū,
v̄, and w̄ be the mean velocity of a molecule along x, y, and z-axis respectively. Mean velocity of a
gas molecule is also expressed in mean square velocity or mean square speed (¯ c2) as,
c¯2 = ū2 + v̄2 + w̄2 . . . (13.24)
Since the motion of gas molecules is random, the mean square velocity of a molecule along all
directions is considered same.
So,
ū2 = v̄2 = w̄2 . . . (13.25)
∴ c2 = ū2 + ū2 + ū2
¯
= 3ū2
1 2
∴ ū2 = 3 ¯ c . . . (13.26)

As we know, force exerted by a molecule on the wall is the rate of change of momentum of a
molecule,
mu – m (–u)
∴ F= t
2mu
= t . . . (13.27)
Here, m = mass of a gas molecule
t = time of two successive collision of a gas molecule after returning from opposite wall
Now,
2l
t= u . . . (13. 28)
2mu. u
∴ F = 2l
mu2
F = l . . . (13.29)
Also, surface area of wall,
A = l2 . . . (13.30)
Using equation (13.29) and (13.30) in equation (13.22), we get,
mu2
P = l. l2
mu2
∴ P = l3 . . . (13.31)
This expression gives the pressure exerted by a molecule.
Let N be the number of gas molecules in the cube. Suppose m1, m2, m3, ..... mN be the masses of gas
molecules and u1, u2, u3, ....... uN be the speeds of respective molecules along a direction. Then, the
pressure exerted by N number of molecules is,
2 2 2 2
m1u1 m2u2 m3u3 mNuN
P= l3 + l3 + l3 + ... + l3
For a gas, mass of gas molecules is taken equal. So,
m1 = m2 = m3 = ... = mN = m
m
P = l3 (u21 + u22 + u23 + ... + uN2 )
Mean square velocity of gas molecules along a direction is,
u21 + u 22 + u 23 + ... + u N2
ū =
2
N
∴ u12 + u22 + u32 + ... + uN2 = Nū2 . . . (13.32)
Using equation (13. 32) in equation (13.31), we get,
m
P = l3 Nū2
Nm
∴ P = l3 ū2 . . . (13.33)
Also, using equation (13.26) in equation (13.33), we get,
Nm¯ c2
P = 3l3
Nm¯ c2
∴ P = 3V . . . (13.34)
where, V = l3 = volume of cube
This expression determines the pressure exerted by gas on the wall of the cube.
1 Nm 2
P =3 ⎛ V ⎞ ¯
⎝ ⎠c
1
P = 3 ρ c¯2 . . . (13.35)
Nm
where, ρ is the density of a gas, ρ = V
Root Mean Square Speed (RMS speed)

1 2
The pressure exerted by gas on the wall of the cube is, P = 3 ρ ¯
c,
3P
So, c¯2 =
ρ
3P
∴ c¯2 =
ρ
c¯2 is called root mean square speed of gas molecules. It is also denoted by crms.
The rms speed of gas molecule is,
3P
crms = . . . (13.36)
ρ
Relation of rms Speed and Temperature of a Gas

The rms speed of gas molecules is,
3P
crms =
ρ
3PV
or, crms =
ρV
where, V = volume of gas in a cube
We know, from ideal gas equation,
PV = nRT,
3nRT
So, crms = m
where, m = total mass of gas in the cube (careful in symbol, m, here m represents total mass of
gass)
Also, m = n M
Where, n = number of moles
M = molar mass of a gas.
3 nRT
∴ crms = nM
3RT
crms = M . . . (13.37)
For a gas, R and M are constant. So,
crms ∝ T
Root mean square speed of a gas molecule is directly proportional to the square root of absolute
temperature.
Let c1 and c2 be the root mean square speed of gas molecules at constant temperatures T1 and T2
respectively. Then,
c1 T1
c2 = T2 . . . (13.38)

Solve yourself
(i) Let M1 and M2 be the molar mass of two different gases at constant temperature, T. Then, the rms speeds of
these gases are related with molar masses as,
c1 M2
c2 = M1
(ii) Also, if ρ1 and ρ2 be the densities of two gases at same pressure, P then, the rms speed of molecules of these
gases are related with densities as,
c1 ρ2
c2 = ρ1
EXAMPLE 6: Five gas molecules chosen at random are found to have speeds of 500, 600, 700, 800 and 900 ms–1. Find the
rms speed. Is it same as the average speed?
SOLUTION
Given, Now,
Speed of five molecules are, crms = 5.10 × 105 = 714 ms–1
v1 = 500 ms–1, v2 = 600 ms–1 v3 = 700 ms–1 Now, average speed is,
v4 = 800 ms–1, v5 = 900 ms–1, n = 5 500 + 600 + 700 + 800 + 900
(i) To find the rms speed of molecule, vav = 5
v12 + v22 + v32 + v42 + v52 vav = 700 ms –1
c2rms= n This shows that average speed and rms
(500)2 + (600)2 + (700)2+ (800)2+ (900)2 speed are not same.
= 5
= 5.10 × 105 ms–2
 Check Point: If the rms speed of a nitrogen molecule at a certain temperature is 980 m/s. What is
the temperature of the gas? (Relative molar mass of nitrogen is 28 and molar gas constant = 8.31
Jmol−1 K−1) Ans: 806°C
Kinetic Energy and Temperature

Heat energy provides the driving force to the molecules of a substance. Larger the heat energy
added, greater is the kinetic energy achieved by the molecules. Thus, temperature variation directly
influences the kinetic energy of gas molecules. In fact, temper is the cause of kinetic energy of gas
molecules.
The pressure exerted by gas molecules on the walls of the cube is,
1 Nm ¯ c2
P =3 V
1
or, PV = 3 Nm ¯c2
3PV
or, N = m ¯ c2
Also, N = nNA, NA = Avogadro's number and PV = nRT

3nRT
∴ nNA = m ¯ c2
3RT
or, m¯c2 = N
A
1 3 R
or, 2m¯ c2 = 2 ⎛N ⎞ T
⎝ A⎠

1 3
or, 2 m c¯ = 2 kBT
2 . . . (13.39)
R
where, kB ⎛= N ⎞ is called Boltzmann constant.
⎝ A ⎠
The term in the left hand side of equation (13.39) gives the average translation kinetic energy per
molecule.
1
Et = 2 m ¯
c2
3
so, Et = 2 kBT, [from equation (13.39)]
i.e. Et ∝ T.
The graphical representation of the variation of mean translation
kinetic energy with temperature is shown in Fig. 13.5.
Value of kB
R 8.31
kB = N = = 1.38 × 10–23 JK–1
A 6.023 × 1023
Boltzmann constant (kB) is defined as the gas constant for a molecule of a gas.
13.9 Derivation of Gas Laws From Kinetic Theory of Gases

1. Boyle's Law
According to kinetic theory of gases Determination of particle density
1 Nm ¯
c2 (number of particles per unit volume).
P = 3 V , where, m is the mass of a molecule We know, pressure exerted by gas,
of gas. 1 Nm¯ c2
P=3 V
Also, ∝ T, for a gas.
c2
¯
1 N 1
If temperature T is taken constant, P=3⎛ ⎞.2×2m¯
c2
PV = constant ⎝V⎠
2 N 3 1 3
1 = 3 ⎛ ⎞ . 2 k3T (... 2 m ¯
c2 = 2 kBT)
i.e., P ∝ V ⎝V ⎠
N⎞
=⎛
This is the expression for Boyle's law. ⎝ V ⎠ kB T
N⎞ P
Therefore, particle density ⎛
2. Charles' Law ⎝ V ⎠ = kB T
i. At constant pressure
According to kinetic theory of gases,
1 Nm ¯ c2
P=3 V , where, m is the mass of a gas molecule.
1 Nm c¯2
or, V=3 P
c2 and c¯2 ∝ T
At constant pressure, for a given mass of gas, V ∝ ¯
∴ V∝T
This is the expression for Charles' law.
ii. At constant volume

1 Nm ¯c2
P = 3 V , where, m is the mass of a gas molecule.
At constant volume, for a given mass of gas, P ∝ ¯ c2 ∝ T
c2 and ¯
∴ P∝T
3. Ideal Gas Equation

1 Nm ¯
c2
P = 3 V , where, m is the mass of a gas molecule.
1
or, PV = 3 Nm ¯
c2
or, 3PV = Nm c¯2

3 1
or, 2 PV = n NA . 2 m ¯
c2
3 3 ⎛ 1 2 3 ⎞
or, 2 PV = n NA 2 kBT c = 2 kBT⎟
⎜∵ m ¯
⎝ 2 ⎠
3 3 R
or, 2 PV = 2 n NA. NA T
∴ PV = n RT . . . (13.40)
This is the expression of ideal gas equation.
13.10 Degrees of Freedom

The total number of coordinates or independent quantities required to completely specify the
position and configuration (arrangement of constituent particles in space) of a dynamic system is
known as the degrees of freedom of that system.
A molecule free to move in space needs three coordinates to specify the location. If it is constrained
to move in a plane, it needs two coordinates to locate it and if the molecule moves in a line, it needs
only one coordinate. Equivalently, it can be expressed in another way. We say that it has one degree
of freedom for motion in line. Similarly, there are two degrees of freedom for motion in a plane and
three degrees of freedom for motion in space.
If a system consists of two free particles, the system has six degrees of freedom. Degrees of freedom
is reduced, if the number of independent relations between the constituent particles is involved. In
general, the number of degrees of freedom of a mechanical system is equal to the total number of
coordinates required to specify the positions of all the constituent particles minus the number of
independent relations between the constituent particles. If N be the number of particles in a system
and Z be the number of independent relations between them, then the number 'f' for degrees of
freedom is given by,
f = 3N – Z
The degrees of freedom of a molecule for different substance are given below.
Substances Causes Number of degrees of freedom
Rigid body Translation and rotation 6
Monoatomic gas Translation motion 3
Diatomic gas Translation and rotation 5

13.11 Law of Equipartition of Energy

For a dynamic system in thermal equilibrium, the energy of the system is equally distributed among
various degrees of freedom and energy associated with each degrees of freedom per molecule is
1
2 kBT, where kB is Boltzmann constant.
The kinetic energy of a molecule is
1 1 1
Et = 2 mu2 + 2 mv2 + 2 mw2 . . . (13.41)
Where, u, v and w are the velocities of a molecule along x, y and z-directions respectively. For a gas
in thermal equilibrium, the average value of energy denoted by <Et> is,
<Et> = < 1
2 mu
2
> < +
1
2 mv
2
> <
+
1
2 mw
2
> 3
= 2 kBT
The average kinetic energy of a molecule along each of the three components is the same,
< > 1
2 mu
2
1
= 2 kBT
< > 1
2 mv
2
1
= 2 kBT
< > 1
2 mw
2
1
= 2 kBT
1
Therefore, energy associated with each molecule per degree of freedom is 2 kBT.
For the system in thermal equilibrium,
1
2 kBT = constant
This expression is termed as equipartion principle.
13.12 Specific Heat Capacities of Solids and Gases

(i) Specific Heat Capacities of Solids
Consider a solid crystal consisting of N identical atoms. Each atom is bound to an equilibrium
position by interatomic forces and vibrates about its equilibrium position. Each atom has three
degrees of freedom, corresponding to its three components of velocity. According to the
1
equipartition principle, each atom has an average kinetic energy of 2 kBT for each degree of freedom.
In solid, each atom has potential energy in addition to kinetic energy. In them, the average kinetic
energy is equal to the average potential energy which is associated with the elastic deformation.
3
Therefore, the average kinetic energy of an atom = 2 kBT
3
and average potential energy = 2 kBT
3 3
∴ Total energy= 2 kBT + 2 kBT
∴ Et = 3kBT . . . (13.42)
For N number of atoms,
R
Et = 3N kBT = 3 nNA. N T = 3nRT
A

Now, molar heat capacity at constant volume for n = 1 is,
dEt d dT
CV = dT = dT (3RT) = 3R dT
∴ CV = 3R . . . (13.43)
(ii) Specific Heat Capacity of Gases
(a) Monatomic Gas
According to the law of equipartition of energy, the energy associated with each degree of freedom
1
of a molecule = 2 kBT. The molecule of a monatomic gas has only three translation degrees of
3
freedom. Thus, the average energy of a molecule at temperature T is 2 kBT.
The total internal energy of a mole of such gas is,
U = Average energy of a molecule × Avogadro number
3
= 2 kBT × NA
3 R
= 2 N T × NA
A
3
∴ U = 2 RT
The molar specific heat capacity at constant volume,
dU d 3
CV = dT = dT ⎛2 RT⎞
⎝ ⎠
3 3
CV = 2 R = 2 × 8.31 = 12.47 J mol–1 K–1
Molar specific heat at constant pressure,

3 5
CP = CV + R = 2 R + R = 2 R
Molar heat ratio,

5
R
CP 2 5
γ = C = 3 = 3 = 1.67
V
2R
(b) Diatomic Gas
A diatomic molecule, treated as a rigid rotator like a dumb bell, has five degrees of freedom: 3
translation and 2 rotational. Using the law of equipartition energy, the total internal energy of a mole
of such gas is,
5
U = 2 kBT × NA
5 RT 5
U = 2 N × NA = 2 RT
A
Molar heat capacity at constant volume is,
dU d 5 5 dT 5 5
CV = dT = dT ⎛2 RT⎞ = 2 R dT = 2 R = 2 × 8.31 =20.78 J mol–1 K–1
⎝ ⎠
Also, molar heat capacity at constant pressure is,
5 7
CP = CV + R = 2 R + R = 2 R

Now, molar heat ratio,
7
R
CP 2 7
γ = C = 5 = 5 = 1.4
V
2R
Note: The value of molar heat ratio is numerically equal to the specific heat ratio of a gas at constant pressure to
that at constant volume.
13.13 Mean free Path

In the calculation of pressure exerted by gas molecules, we
have so far considered the collision of gas molecules on
λ2
the wall, but ignored the collision among the molecules.
λ1
But in reality, the molecules often collide with other λ3
molecules in short interval of time which results change in
magnitude and direction of their velocities. Due to the
frequent collision of molecules, the path traced by them is
completely zigzag as shown in Fig. 13.6. This type of
λ4
haphazard motion is termed as Brownian motion and the
linear path between two successive collisions of the λN
molecules is called free path. The term 'free' is used in the
Fig. 13.6: Random motion of gas molecule
sense that, molecules are free to travel between two
successive collisions. It is almost impossible to measure the free path of individual molecule, since
many molecules collide at a time within a certain volume of gas. So, mean value of free path is
calculated using the statistical averages. This average distance traversed by a molecule between two
successive collisions is known as mean free path. It is denoted by λ.

Let, there are N number of molecules in a certain volume V. If λ1, λ2, λ3, ……., λN are the free
paths of N molecules, then total distance travelled by the molecules at small time dt is,
–
λ1 + λ2 + λ3 + ……. + λN = v dt . . . (13.44)
–
Where, v is the average speed of the molecules.
–
For mean path traversed by a molecule λ is,
– λ1 + λ2 + λ3 + ……. + λN
λ= N
– vdt
∴ λ= N . . . (13.45)
This is the required expression for mean free path for a molecule.
EXAMPLE 7: Assume the average speed of the oxygen molecules is v = 450 m/s. What is the average time 't' between
successive collision for any given molecule? At what rate does the molecule collide; that is what is its frequency? (Mean
free path for O2 = 1.1 × 10-7 m)
SOLUTION
We know,
Mean free path (λ) = speed × total time
λ=v×t
λ 1.1 × 10–7 m
or, t = v = 450 m/s = 2.44 × 10–10 s
1 1
Also, frequency f = t = = 4.1 × 109 s–1
2.44 × 10–10 s

Tips for MCQs
Quantitative Tips
1. Boyle’s law: at constant temperature, PV = constant, or, P1V1 = P2V2.
V V1 V2
2. Charles’ law: at constant pressure, T = constant, or, T = T .
1 2
P P1 P2
3. Gay Lussac’s law: at constant volume, T = constant, or, T = T . This law is known as Charles’ law at
1 2
constant volume.
P1V1 P2V2
4. Equation of state : T = T
1 2
5. Ideal gas equation: PV = nRT, where R is the universal gas constant.

6. The ideal gas equation can be expressed in terms of mass of gas: PV = mrT, where 'r' is called gas
constant per unit molar mass.
R
7. The Boltzmann’s constant, kB = N = 1.38 × 10–23 JK–1.
A
c1 + c2 + c3 + …… + cN
8. The average speed of gas molecules: cav = N .
2 2 2 2
c1 + c2 + c3 + …… + cN
9. Rms speed of gas molecules: crms = N .
1 m
10. Pressure exerted by a gas: P = 3 V c¯2, where 'm' is the mass of a gas in volume V, c¯2 is the mean
square velocity of gas molecules.
3P
11 The root mean square speed of gas molecules: crms = , where ρ is the density of given mass of gas.
ρ
1 3
12. The mean kinetic energy per molecule of a gas: Ek = 2 mc̄2 = 2 kBT.
Molar mass
13. Avogadro’s number, NA = Mass of 1 molecule = 6.023 × 1023.
total mass of gas m
14. Number of mole of substance, n = molar mass =M.
15. Let c1 and c2 be the rms speeds of gas molecules in a given mass of gas at temperatures T1 and T2
c1 T1
respectively. Then the relation of rms speeds and temperatures is: c = T2 .
2
c1 ρ2
16. Similarly the relation of rms speeds with densities of gas and molar masses is written as: c =
2 ρ1
c1 M2
and c = M1 .
2
17. Degrees of freedom of a system: f = 3N – Z, where N = number of particles in a system and

Z = number of independent relations.
Conceptual Tips
1. Microscopic and macroscopic characteristics of matters:
Microscopic behavior: speed, kinetic energy, mass of single molecule, etc.
Macroscopic behavior: Temperature, Pressure, Volume, and Total mass.
2. A gas which strictly obeys all the gas laws is called ideal gas or perfect gas.
3. Absolute zero of temperature may be defined as that temperature at which the velocities of the gas
molecules become zero.
4. At low pressure and high temperature, the real gas obeys ideal gas equation.
5. The law of equipartition theory holds good for all degrees of freedom whether translational,
rotational or vibrational.
6. Each square term in the total energy expression of a molecule contributes towards one degree of
freedom.
(i) A monatomic gas molecule has only translational kinetic energy, so it has three degrees of
freedom.
(ii) A diatomic gas has two rotational kinetic energy in addition to three translational kinetic
energy. So, total degrees of freedom for diatomic molecule is 5.
(iii) Diatomic molecule like CO has a mode of vibration even at moderate temperatures, its degrees
of freedom is 7.
7. At high temperature (more than 5000 K) the diatomic molecule possesses additional two degrees of
freedom. If the temperature is below 70 K, then the diatomic gas behaves like a monatomic gas.
8. Each translational and rotational degree of freedom corresponds to one mode of absorption of energy
1
and has energy 2 kBT. Each vibrational frequency has two modes of energy (kinetic and potential)
1
with corresponding energy equal to 2 × 2 kBT = kBT.
Quick Reply
1. How many number of molecules are there in 2 mole of hydrogen?
 Total number of molecules, N = nNA
in two moles, n = 2, N = 2 × 6.023 × 1023
= 1.20 × 1024
2. Is there same number of atoms in 1 mole of hydrogen and 1 mole of helium?
 No. A hydrogen molecule contains two atoms, however a helium molecule has only one atom.
Although the number of molecules is same in one mole of substance, number of atoms can be
different. Hence, one mole of hydrogen contains 2 × 6.023 × 1023 atoms and one mole of helium
contains 6.023 × 1023.
3. What is the physical meaning of R?
 Physical meaning of R is the energy change per Kelvin per mole of gas. Its value is 8.314472Jmol–1K–1.
4. Draw the graph between kinetic energy of gas and its temperature.
 The mathematical relation between kinetic energy of gas molecule and the temperature is,
3
Ek = 2 kBT
i.e., Ek α T
In graph, a straight line passes through the origin.
5. What is the relation of rms speed and molar mass of a gas?
 The rms speed of gas molecule in terms of molar mass is,
3RT
Crms = M
1
At constant temperature, Crms α
M


1. Why do the gases at low temperature and high pressure show large deviations from ideal behaviour?
 At low temperature and high pressure, the molecules of gas come closer, hence the interatomic
attraction among them is appreciable. In this case, the gas completely loses the ideal gas behaviour as
postulated in kinetic theory of gases. Moreover, the volume occupied by the gas molecules cannot be
neglected in comparison to the total volume of gas in a system. Hence real gases show large
deviation from ideal behaviour.
2. Air is filled in a vessel at 50°C. To what temperature should it be heated in order that half of air may
escape out from the vessel?
 Here, Initial temperature of gas is,
T1 = 50°C = 273 + 50 = 323 K
Initial volume of air (V1) = V
Let T2 be the temperature of gas at which half of air escapes out. Half air escapes means half volume
remains. The volume is doubled as it heated to T2 from T1.
Now, Final volume (V2) = V + V = 2V
We know, at constant pressure,
V2 T2
V1 = T1
V2T1 323
T2 = V = 2V. V = 646 K
1
∴ At 646 K (=373°C) temperature, half of the air may escape out from the vessel.
3. Molecules of different gases have equal average kinetic energies, provided their temperature is the
same. Do these molecules have equal velocities also?
 The kinetic energy of gas molecule depends Where, m = mass of a molecule of a gas
on its temperature. From kinetic theory of c̄ = rms speed of a molecule
gases the kinetic energy of a molecule is kB = Boltzmann constant
1 3 T = Temperature of gas
2 m¯ c2 = 2 kBT
It is provided that temperature remains same This shows that velocity of a gas molecule (crms) is
for different gases inversely proportional to its square root of mass.
3kB T This shows that light molecule has greater
c¯2 = m
velocity for constant temperature.
1
∴ crms ∝
m
4. At absolute zero temperature, why the kinetic energy is zero?
 At absolute zero, the gas does not provide pressure on the wall. From ideal gas equation,
PV = nRT
For, T = 0 K, P = 0
It means that molecules remains at rest, i.e. speed of molecules becomes zero. Since the speed is zero,
1
kinetic energy ⎛2 m¯ 2⎞
⎝ c ⎠ of gas molecules is also zero.
Moreover,
1 3
2 m¯c2 = 2 kBT
1
For, T = 0 K, 2 m¯c2 = 0

5. Which has more molecules: A kilogram of hydrogen or a kilogram of oxygen?
 Let m be the mass of a substance and M be its molar mass. Then,
m = nM
where, n = number of moles of substance
N
Also, n = N
A
Where, N = Total number of molecules of the substance in mass m

and NA = Avogadro's number (which is constant)
N
∴ m=N M
A
mNA
N= M
For equal mass of hydrogen and oxygen,
1
∴ NαM
As we know, Moxygen > Mhydrogen
Noxygen < Nhydrogen
Therefore, a kilogram of hydrogen contains more atoms than a kilogram of oxygen.
6. Two ideal gases at absolute temperatures T1 and T2 are mixed. There is no loss of energy to the
surroundings. The masses of molecules are M1 and M2. The number of molecules in the gases are n1
and n2 respectively. What is the temperature of the mixture?
 The kinetic energy of gas 1,
3
Ek1 = 2 kB T1 × n1
and kinetic energy of gas 2,
3 ∴ Ek = Ek1 + Ek2
Ek2 = 2 kB T2 × n2
3 3 3
Let T be the average temperature of the 2 kB (n1 + n2) T = 2 kB T1 × n1 + 2 kB T2 × n2
mixture. Then, total kinetic energy of the 3
mixture is = 2 kB (T1n1 + T2n2)
3 n1T1 + n2T2
Ek = 2 kB (n1 + n2) T T= n1 + n2 .
7. What is Avogadro's number (NA)? Write its importance.
 Avogadro's number is the number of atoms present in one gram atoms of an element or the number
of molecules present in one gram molecule of the substance. In general, it is also known by number
of particles present in one mole of substance. Its value is NA = 6.023 × 1023.
Importance of Avogadro's number (NA):
(i) To calculate actual weight of one atom of an element.
(ii) To calculate actual weight of one molecule of substance.
(iii) To calculate the number of atoms present in given amount of element.
(iv) To calculate the number of molecules present in given amount of substance.
(v) To calculate the number of molecules present in given volume of gas.
8. Mention the different ways of increasing the number of molecular collisions per unit time in a gas.
 The number of collisions per unit time can be increased by:
(i) increasing the temperature of the gas.
(ii) decreasing the volume of the gas.
(iii) increasing the number of molecules in a given volume.
(iv) increasing the pressure of the gas.

9. At a given temperature, equal masses of monatomic and diatomic gases are supplied equal quantities
of heat. Which of the two gases will suffer a larger temperature rise?
 Monatomic gas will suffer a larger temperature rise. The degree of freedom associated with the
molecules play a great role in this regard. In case of monatomic gas, the heat supplied is used entirely
to increase the translational kinetic energy of the molecules. In case of diatomic gas, the heat supplied
is used to increase the translational, rotational and sometimes even the vibrational kinetic energy of
the molecules. It is only the translational kinetic energy which increases the temperature.
10. Write the unit of the universal gas constant and give its physical meaning?
 From ideal gas equation, Nm–2m³ Nm
Unit of R = mol. K = mol. K
PV = nRT
–1 –1
PV Unit of R = J mol K
R = nT
Pressure × Volume
Where, R = Universal gas constant Also, R = Number of moles × Temperature
P = Pressure of gas Work done
V = Volume of gas = Number of moles × Temperature
T = Temperature of gas Therefore, the physical meaning of R is the
n = number of moles of gas work done by (or on) a gas per mole per
kelvin.
11. In the kinetic theory of gases, they do not take into account the changes in gravitational potential
energy of the molecule?
–GMm⎞
 The mass of a gas molecule is very small. Therefore, the gravitational potential energy ⎛U =
⎝ r ⎠
1
for a gas molecule is negligible with respect to the kinetic energy ⎛EK = 2 m c̄ 2⎞ of it. As the name of
⎝ ⎠
theory kinetic theory of gases, only kinetic energy of gas is considered in calculation, but not the
gravitational potential energy.
12. Absolute zero temperature is not zero energy temperature. Explain.
 The kinetic energy of a gas molecule is,
1 3
Ek = 2 m c¯2 = 2 kBT
At T = 0 K, kinetic energy of gas molecules is zero. However, the molecules experience some
interatomic potential energy due to their electrical attraction. Hence, internal energy of gas cannot be
zero, although absolute zero temperature is maintained in it.
Worked Out Problems

1. Calculate the temperature at which the root mean square velocity of nitrogen molecules will be equal
to 8 kms–1. Molecular weight of nitrogen = 28.
SOLUTION
Given, rms velocity (crms) = 8 kms–1 2 3RT
crms = M
= 8 × 103 ms–1
2
Molar gas constant (R) = 8.31 J mol–1 K–1 M crms
T = 3R
Molecular weight (M) = 28 × 10–3 kg
2
The rms velocity is, 28 × 10–3 × (8 × 103)
= 3 × 8.31
3RT
crms = M = 71881 K.

2. The total lungs volume for a typical physical student is 6.00 L. A physics student fills her lungs with
air at an absolute pressure of 1.00 atm. Then, holding her breath, she compresses her chest cavity,
decreasing her lungs volume to 5.70 L. What is the pressure of the air in her lungs then? Assume that
the temperature of the air remains constant?
SOLUTION
Given, P1 V1
P2 = V2
V1 = 6.00 L = 6.00 × 10–3 m3
P1 = 1.00 atm = 1.01 × 105 Nm–2 1.01 × 105 × 6 × 10–3
= = 1.06 × 105 Pa
V2 = 5.70 L = 5.70 × 10–3 m3 5.70 × 10–3
P2 = ? 1.06 × 105
Here, the temperature is given constant = 1.01 × 105 atm = 1.05 atm
From Boyle's law
P1 V1 = P2 V2
3. Two glass bulbs of equal volume are joined by a narrow tube and are filled with a gas at STP. When
one bulb is kept in melting ice and the other is placed in a hot bath, the new pressure is 877.6 mm of
Hg. Calculate the temperature of the bath.
SOLUTION
Given,
Initial pressure of the gas at STP (P1) = 760 mm Hg
Final pressure of the gas in both bulbs (P2) = 877.6 mm Hg
Suppose V be the volume of each bulb and θ be the temperature of hot bath,
P1V
Mass of gas at STP in each bulb = r × 273
Total mass of gas at STP in both the bulbs 2P1 P2 P2
2 P1V or, 273 – 273 =
= r × 273 ... (i) (273 + θ)
P2
P2V or, (273 + θ) = 2P
Final mass of gas in melting ice = r × 273 ... (ii) ⎛ – P2 ⎞
1
⎝273 273⎠
P2V
Final mass of gas in hot bath = ... (iii) P2
r(273 + θ) 273 + θ = (2P – P ) × 273
1 2
We know, total mass of the substance remains
constant. So, 877.6 239584.8
= 2 × 760 – 877.6 × 273 = 642.4
Initial total mass of gas at STP in both the bulbs
= final total mass of the gas in both bulbs θ = 373 – 273
2P1V P2V P2V θ = 100°C
or, r × 273 = r × 273 +
r(273 + θ) Temperature of hot bath is 100°C.
2P1 P2 P2
or, 273 = 273 +
(273 + θ)
4. A cylinder of gas has a mass of 10 kg and pressure of 8 atmosphere at 27°C. When some gas is used
in a cold room at -3°C, the gas remaining in the cylinder at this temperature has a pressure of 6.4
atmospheres. Calculate the mass of gas used.
SOLUTION
Given,
Mass of gas (m1) = 10 kg
Temperature of gas (T1) = 27°C = 300 K
Pressure of the gas (P1) = 8 atm
= 8 × 1.01 × 105 N/m2 = 8.08 × 105 N m–2

Some gas is used at –3°C P2V

and r = m T … (ii)
Let remaining mass of the gas = m2 2 2
Temperature of gas (T2) = – 3°C = 270 K Equating equation (i) and (ii), we get
Pressure of gas (P2) = 6.4 atm P1V P2V
m1T1 = m2T2
= 6.4 × 1.01 × 105 N/m2
P2T1m1
Let, V be the volume of the cylinder and r be or, m2 = P T
1 2
the gas constant per unit molar mass.
6.4 × 1.01 × 105 × 300 × 10
P1V = = 8.9 kg
Then, r = m T … (i) 8.08 × 105 × 270
1 1
Mass of gas used = m1 – m2 = 10 – 8.9 = 1.1 kg.
5. Air at 273 K and 1.01 × 105 N/m2 pressure contains 2.70 × 1025 molecules per cubic meter. How many
molecules per cubic meter will there be at a place where the temperature is 223 K and pressure is
1.33 × 104 N/m2?
SOLUTION
Given, We have,
First case, ⎛N⎞1 = P1 … (i)
Temperature (T1) = 273 K ⎝ V ⎠ kBT1
Pressure (P1) = 1.01 × 105 N/m2
⎛N⎞2 = P2 … (ii)
N ⎝ V ⎠ kBT2
No. of molecules ⎛ V ⎞1
⎝ ⎠ Dividing (ii) by (i), we get,
= 2.7 × 1025 molecules/m3
or, ⎛N⎞2 = ⎛P2T1⎞ × ⎛N⎞1
Second case, ⎝V ⎠ ⎝P1T2⎠ ⎝ V ⎠
Temperature (T2) = 223 K 1.33 × 104
= 1.01 × 105 ×
Pressure (P2) = 1.33 × 10 N/m
4 2
N 2.7 × 1025 × 273

No. of molecules ⎛ V ⎞2 = ? = 4.35 × 1024
⎝ ⎠ 223
(Remember, here, N = number of molecules molecules/m3.
per unit volume)
6. A barometer has 10 cm of air above mercury column which stands 72 cm high above the mercury
level in the reservior. On lowering the tube into the reservior, the air column becomes 8 cm and
mercury column 71 cm. Calculate the atmospheric pressure.
SOLUTION
Let A be the cross-sectional area of the barometer tube and P be the atmospheric pressure.
In the first case,
Volume, V1 = 10 × A cm3
Pressure of air inside the tube,
P1 = (P – 72) cm
In second case, volume V2 = 8 × A cm3
Pressure inside tube P2 = (P – 71) cm3 8 cm
10 cm
Applying Boyle's law and assuming temperature to be constant
P1V1 = P2V2 72 cm 71 cm
or, (P– 72) × 10A = (P – 71) × 8A
or, 10P – 8P = 720 – 568
152
∴ P = 2 = 76 cm of Hg

7. A pressure cooker of 5 litre capacity contains air at STP. The vessel is heated to 100ºC with its valve
closed. What will be the pressure of air inside the vessel? What fraction of mass of air will escape if
the valve was opened to the atmosphere.
SOLUTION
Initially, (For second case when valve is open)
P1 = 1 atm 1 atm × 5 liter = n × R × 373 (At condition
V1 = 5 liter when the valve is open P2 becomes 1 atm)
T1 = 273 K 1 atm × 5 liter
Finally, P2 = ? n=
373 × R
V2 = 5 liter Initially, PV = nRT
T2 = 373 K 1 atm × 5 liter = nR × 273
P1V1 P2V2 1 atm × 5 liter
Now, T = T n=
1 2 273 × R
P1 P2 Now, since PV = nRT
or, T1 = T2 m
P1T2 PV = M RT
or, P2 = T
1 Where, M = molar mass which is same in both
1.01 × 105 × 373 cases
or, P2 = 273 Mfinal 273
∴ P2 = 1038.388 mm Hg ∴ Minitial = 373
Second part, 273
Volume of air remaining inside vessel is 5 Escaped fraction = 1 – 373 ≈ 0.27
liter at 1 atm.
PV = nRT

1. What is the average translational kinetic energy of a molecule of an ideal gas at a temperature of
27°C? What is the total random translational kinetic energy of the molecules in one mole of this gas?
What is the root mean square speed of oxygen molecules at this temperature?
–24 –1
Ans: 6.21 × 10 J, 3740 J, 484 ms
2. A 20.0 L tank contains 0.225 kg of helium at 13.0°C. The molar mass of helium is 4.00 g/mol. (a) How
many moles of helium are in the tank? (b) What is the pressure in the tank, in pascals and in
6
atmospheres? Ans: 56.2 mol, 6.81 × 10 Pa, 67.34 atm
3. Helium gas with a volume of 2.60 L, under a pressure of 1.30 atm and at a temperature of 41.0°C, is
warmed until both pressure and volume are doubled. (a) What is the final temperature? (b) How
many grams of helium are there? The molar mass of helium is 4.00 g/mol. Ans: 983°C, 5.23 × 10–4 kg
4. How many moles are there in a 1.00 kg bottle of water? How many molecules? The molar mass of
25
water is 13.0 g/mol. Ans: 55.6, 3.35 × 10 molecules
5. At what temperature is the root-mean-square speed of nitrogen molecules equal to the root-mean-
square speed of hydrogen molecules at 20.0°C? The molar mass of H2 is twice the molar mass of
hydrogen atoms, and similarly for N2. (Molar mass of nitrogen and hydrogen are 28 and 2
respectively. Ans: 3829°C
6. Two vessels of capacity 1.0 litre are connected by a tube of negligible volume. Together they contain
3.42 × 10–4 kg of helium at a pressure of 800 mm of mercury and temperature 27°C. Calculate (i) a
value for the constant r for helium. (ii) the pressure developed in the apparatus if one vessel is cooled
to 0°C and the other heated to 100°C, assuming that the capacity of each vessel is unchanged.
Ans: 2086 J kg – 1 K – 1 , 844 mm of Hg

7. What volume of liquid oxygen (density 1140 kgm–3) may be made by liquefying completely the
contents of a cylinder of gaseous oxygen containing 100 litres of oxygen at 120 atmospheres pressure
and 20°C? Assume that oxygen behaves as an ideal gas in this latter region of pressure and
temperature.
[1 atmosphere = 1.01 × 105 Nm–2, molar gas constant = 8.31 J mol–1 K–1 and relative molecular mass of
oxygen = 32]. Ans: 0.014 m3
8. A sealed bottle full of water is placed in a strong container full of air at standard atmospheric
pressure 1.0 × 105 Nm–2, and at a temperature of 10°C. The temperature of the container is raised to
and maintained at 100°C. Neglecting the expansion of the bottle and the container. What is the
pressure in the container? If the bottle breaks, what will the pressure be?
Ans: 1.36 × 10 5 Nm – 2 , 2.36 × 10 5 Nm – 2
9. Air at 273 K and 1.01 × 105 Nm–2 pressure contains 2.7 × 1025 molecules per cubic metre. How many
molecules per cubic metre will there be at a place where the temperature is 223 K and the pressure is
1.33 × 10–4 Nm–2? Ans: 4.35 × 1016 m–3
10. Calculate the pressure in mm of mercury exerted by hydrogen gas if the number of molecules per
cm3 is 6.8 × 1015 and the root mean square speed of the molecules is 1.9 × 103 m/s.
[Avogadro constant = 6.02 × 1023 mol–1, relative molecular mass of hydrogen = 2.02]
Ans: 0.21 mm of Hg
11. Calculate a value for the root mean square speed of thermal agitation of the molecules of helium in a
vessel at 0°C. [Density of helium at STP = 0.1785 kg/m3, 1 atmosphere = 1.013 × 105Nm–2]
If the total translational kinetic energy of all the molecules of helium in the vessel is 5 × 10–6 J, what is
the temperature in another vessel which contains twice the mass of helium and in which the total
kinetic energy is 10–5 J? Ans: 1304.8 m/s, 273 K
Exercise
1. At what condition, Boyle's law holds good?
2. State Charles' law.
3. Write the formula for ideal gas.
4. Write the relation of rms speed and density of gas.
5. Define Avogadro's number and write its value.
6. What is the volume of a gas at temperature absolute zero?
7. What do you mean by Brownian motion?
8. What is the difference between average speed and rms speed of the gas molecules?
9. What is the effect of temperature on the rms speed of gas molecules?
10. Calculate the total random kinetic energy for one mole of gas at constant volume.
11. Is their difference of number of molecules in 2 mole of hydrogen and 2 mole of oxygen?
Short Questions
1. Is temperature a macroscopic or microscopic concept?
2. Absolute zero temperature is not zero energy temperature. Explain.
3. What are the characteristics of a gas to be an ideal?
4. Do you expect the gas in cooking gas cylinder to obey the ideal gas equation?
5. When a car is driven some distance, the air pressure in the tyre increases. Why?
6. What is the temperature at which all molecular motion ceases?
7. At what conditions, real gases obey the ideal gas equation, PV = nRT?
8. Why the temperature rises when the gas is suddenly compressed?
9. When the volume of a gas is increased, the pressure is decreased. Why?
10. The velocity of air molecules is nearly 500 ms-1. But the smell of a scent spreads very slowly. Why?
11. A vessel is filled with a mixture of two different gases. Will the mean kinetic energy per molecule of
both the gases be equal?
12. A molecule possess translational and rotational energy. How many degrees of freedom associated
with such a molecule?
13. A container has equal number of molecules of hydrogen and carbon dioxide. If a fine hole is made in
the container, then which of the two gases shall leak out rapidly?
14. What is the physical meaning of universal gas constant R? Write its unit. Find its value.
15. What type of motion is associated with the molecules in a gas?
16. Why do you consider an ideal gas while formulating the pressure in the light of kinetic theory of
gases?
17. Why does the cycle tube burst sometimes in summer?
18. In the kinetic theory of gases, they do not take into account the changes in gravitational potential
energy of the molecule?
19. At a constant temperature, the volume of a vessel is compressed to half. How will the rms speed of
the gas in it change?
20. What is the difference between a real and an ideal gas? Explain in the basis of hypothesis of the
kinetic theory?
21. Which of the two has larger specific heat - monatomic or diatomic gas at room temperature?
Long Questions
1. State and prove Boyle's law of gas.
2. State and explain Charles' law for (a) constant volume and (b) constant pressure.
3. State Boyle's law and Charles' law. Use these laws to derive the ideal gas equation.
4. Write the postulates of kinetic theory of gases. Derive the expression for pressure exerted by gas on
the walls of a cube.
5. Define root mean square speed of gas. Derive the expression for it.
6. Using the formula of pressure exerted by gas, derive the relation of root mean square speed of gas
with temperature of gas.
7. What is universal gas constant? Derive the expression for kinetic energy of a gas molecules.
8. Derive Boyle's law, Charles' law and combined gas equation from kinetic theory of gases.
9. Define volume coefficient and pressure coefficient. How pressure coefficient and volume coefficient
are related.
10. Define the relation of kinetic energy of a gas molecule with the absolute temperature.

Universal gas constant (R) = 8.31 J mol-1K-1 Avogadro's constant (NA) = 6.02 × 1023 mol-1
1 Atmosphere = 760 mm of Hg = 1.01 × 105 Nm-2 Molar mass of Hydrogen = 2 g/mol
Molar mass of Oxygen = 32 g/mol Mass of an oxygen molecule = 32 × 1.66 × 10-27 kg
LEVEL I
1. Calculate the number of molecules in each cubic meter of a gas at 1 atm and 27ºC. 1 atm = 1.0 × 105
Pa. Ans: 2.4 × 1025
2. Consider a sample of oxygen at 300 K. Find the average time taken by a molecule to travel a distance
equal to the circumference of the earth. Radius of the earth 6400 km. Ans: 23.1 h
3. A sample of 0.177 g of an ideal gas occupies 1000 cm at STP. Calculate the rms speed of the gas
3
molecules. Ans: 1300 ms–1

4. A cylinder contains 150 c.c. of gas at a pressure 750 mm of Hg and temperature 10°C. Calculate the
volume of gas at STP. Ans: 143 c.c.
5. Taking the molar gas constant R = 8.31 J mol-1 K-1, estimate the molar volume of the gas at STP.
Ans: 22.4 L
6. 14 g of Nitrogen, 32 g of Oxygen and 2 g of Hydrogen are placed in an enclosure of volume
1 m3. Calculate the pressure exerted by the mixture at 27°C. Ans: 6232.5 N/m2
7. Calculate the average KE of a molecule of Oxygen gas at 300 K. Ans: 6.21 × 10-21 J
8. Calculate the rms speed of thermal agitation of the molecules of helium at 30°C. [Density of Helium
at STP is 0.1785 kgm-3] Ans: 1372.6 m/s
9. By what factor will the rms speed of a particular gas molecule increase, if the temperature is
increased from 100°C to 200°C? Ans: 1.126
10. One mole of Hydrogen gas and one mole of Nitrogen gas are in adjacent containers at the same
temperature T and pressure P. If the rms speed of Hydrogen molecule is 1850 m/s, what would be
the rms speed of the nitrogen? Ans: 494.4 m/s
11. Calculate the total translational KE of 5 moles of an ideal gas at 127°C. Ans:2.49 × 104 J
12. What is the average KE of the molecules of a gas (a) at 0°C and (b) 100°C.
Ans: 565 × 10 - 2 3 J and 771 × 10 - 2 3 J
13. A large cylindrical tank consists 0.750 of nitrogen gas at 27°C and 1.50 × 105 Pa (absolute
m3
pressure). The tank has a tight fitting piston that allows the volume to be changed. What will be the
pressure if the volume is decreased to 0.480 m3 and the temperature is increased to 157°C?
5
Ans: 3.36 × 10 Pa
14. A container of gas has a volume of 0.1 m3 at a pressure of 2.0 × 105 Nm–2 and temperature of 27°C. (i)
Find the new pressure if the gas is heated at constant volume to 87°C. (ii) The gas pressure is now
reduced to 1.0 × 105 Nm–2 at constant temperature; what is the volume of the gas? (iii) The gas is
cooled to – 73°C at constant pressure. Find the new volume of the gas.
Ans: 2.4 × 10 5 Nm – 2 , 0.24 m 3 , 0.13 m 3
15. Assuming the density of nitrogen at STP to be 1.251 kg/m3, find the root mean square velocity of the
nitrogen molecules at 127°C. Ans: 597 m/s
16. Two bulbs of equal volume are joined by a narrow tube and are filled with gas at STP. When one
bulb is kept in melting ice and the other in boiling water, calculate the new pressure of the gas.
Ans: 877.65 mm of Hg
LEVEL II
1. The pressure in the helium gas cylinder is initially 30 atm. After blowing up many balloons, the
pressure has decreased to 6 atm. What fraction of the original gas remains in the cylinder? Assume
the temperature remains constant. Ans: 1/5
2. A vessel of 5 litres capacity contains air at STP. The vessel is heated to 100°C with its valve closed.
What will be the new pressure? What fraction of mass of air will escape if the valve was opened to
the atmosphere? Ans: 1038.4 mm, 0.27
3. Helium gas with volume 2.60 L under a pressure 1.30 atm and temperature of 41.0°C is warmed until
both pressure and volume is doubled (a) what is the final temperature (b) how many grams of
helium are there? The molar mass of helium is 4.00 g/mol. Ans: 983°C, 0.52 g
4. A vessel contains a mixture of 8 g of oxygen and 7 g of nitrogen at temperature 27°C. If the pressure
of the mixture is 1 atmosphere, calculate its density. Ans: 1.22 kg-3
5. Air at STP contains 2.7 × 1025 molecules per cubic meter. How many molecules per cubic meter will
there be at a place where the temperature is -182°C and pressure 3.03 × 105 Nm-2? Ans: 24.3 × 1025
6. Helium gas occupies a volume of 0.08 m3 at a pressure of 105 Nm-2 and temperature 27°C. Calculate
(i) the mass of Helium (ii) the rms speed of its molecules (iii) the rms speed at 327°C (iv) the rms
speed of Hydrogen at 27°C and 327°C.
Ans: (i) 12.85 g, (ii) 1366.6 m/s,( iii) 1932.6 m/s, (iv) 1932.6 m/s, 2733.1 m/s

7. Find the average magnitude of linear momentum of a helium molecule in a sample of helium gas at
0ºC. Mass of helium molecule is 6.64 × 10–27 kg and Boltzmann constant is 1.38 × 10–23 JK–1.
Ans: 8.0 × 10 – 2 4 kgs – 1
8. Oxygen is filled in a closed metal Jar of volume 1.0 × at a pressure of 1.5 × 105 Pa and
10–3 m3
temperature 400 K. The Jar has a small leak in it. The atmospheric pressure is 1.0 × 105 Pa and the
atmospheric temperature is 300 K. Find the mass of the gas that leaks out by the time the pressure
and the temperature inside the Jar equalise with surroundings. Ans: 0.16 g
9. An air bubble of radius 2.0 mm is formed at the bottom of a 3.3 m deep river. Calculate the radius of
the bubble as it comes to the surface. Atmosphere pressure is 1.0 × 105 Pa and density of water is
1000 kgm–3. Ans: 2.2 mm
10. A mixture of hydrogen and oxygen has volume 2000 cm3, temperature 300 K, pressure 100 kPa and
mass 0.76 g. Calculate the mass of hydrogen and oxygen in the mixture. Ans: 0.12 g and 0.64 g
11. Calculate the root mean square speed at 0°C of (i) hydrogen molecules and (ii) oxygen molecules,
assuming 1 mole of a gas occupies a volume of 2 × 10–2 m3 at 0°C and 105 Nm–2 pressure. [Relative
molecular mass of hydrogen and oxygen = 2 and 32 respectively]. Ans: 1732.05 m/s, 433.01 m/s
12. Assuming helium molecules have a root mean square speed of 900 m/s at 27°C and 105 N m–2
pressure, calculate root mean square speed at (i) 127°C and 105 Nm–2 pressure (ii) 27°C and 2 × 105 N
m–2 pressure. Ans: 1039.23 m/s, 900 m/s
13. Helium gas occupies a volume of 0.04 m3 at a pressure of 2 × 105 Nm-2 and temperature 300 K.
Calculate the mass of the helium and root mean square speed of its molecules. (Relative molecular
mass of helium = 4, molar gas constant = 8.3 J mol-1 K-1) Ans: 1364 m/s

1. The temperature of an ideal gas is increased from 120 K to 480 K. If at 120 K, the rms velocity of the
gas molecules is v, at 480 K, it becomes
v v
a. 4 v b. 2 v c. 2 d. 4
2. At room temperature, the rms speed of the molecules of a certain diatomic gas is found to be
1920 ms–1. The gas is
a. H2 b. F2 c. O2 d. Cl2
3. Two molecules of a gas have speed of 1 km s–1 and 9 km s–1 respectively. What is the root mean
square speed of these two molecules?
a. 5 kms–1 b. 5 kms–1 c. 82 kms–1 d.
41 kms–1
Cp
4. The speed of sound in gas is v. The rms speed of molecules of this gas is c. If γ = Cv , the ratio of v to c
is
3 3 γ
a. b. 0.33 γ c. d. 3
γ γ
5. At what temperature, the mean kinetic energy of O2 will be the same as that of H2 molecules at
–73°C?
a. 127°C b. 527°C c. – 73°C d. – 173°C
6. The kinetic energy of 1 gm molecules of a gas, at normal temperature and pressure, is
(R = 8.31 Jmol–1 K–1)
a. 3.4 × 103 J b. 2.73 × 103 J c. 1.2 × 102 J d. 0.66 × 102 J
7. A monatomic gas is kept at room temperature 300 K. Calculate the average kinetic energy of gas
molecule. (Use kB = 1.38 × 10–23 JK–1).
a. 0.138 eV b. 0.062 eV c. 0.039 eV d. 0.013 eV

8. The molecules in an ideal gas at 27°C have a certain mean velocity. At what approximate
temperature, will the mean velocity be doubled?
a. 54°C b. 327°C c. 1200°C d. 927°C
9. A mass of gas at a pressure of 50 cm of Hg is heated from 27°C to 97°C. If the volume is maintained
constant, the pressure exerted by the gas will be …… cm of Hg.
a. 50 b. 40 c. 61.67 d. 71.2
10. A gas has a pressure P, volume V and temperature 500 K. The pressure is doubled at constant volume
and then the volume is reduced to one quarter at constant pressure. The final temperature of the gas
is
a. 125 b. 250 c. 500 d. 1000
5
11. A gas at pressure 1 × 10 Pa and temperature 27°C has ρ = 0.09 kg/m3. Calculate the ρ of the gas
when the pressure and temperature changes to 4 × 105 Pa and 127°C respectively.
a. 0.94 kg/m3 b. 0.27 kg/m3 c. 0.36 kg/m3 d. 0.15 kg/m3
12. A close vessel containing ideal gas is maintained at a certain temperature and pressure. If both the
temperature and pressure are doubled, then the volume will be:
a. remain unchanged b. doubled
c. quadrupled d. halve
13. The crms of a gas is vo, when initial pressure P0 is doubled at constant temperature T0. Then, the new
crms will be
a. vo b. 2vo c. vo/2 d. 4vo
14. At constant T, the graph of P vs. 1/V is
a. straight line b. parabola c. ellipse d. circle.
15. The rms speed of gas molecules in equilibrium at temperature T
a. proportional to T b. proportional to T
c. proportional to T2 d. zero
ANSWERS
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (d) 5. (c) 6. (a) 7. (c) 8. (d)
9. (c) 10. (b) 11. (b) 12. (a) 13. (a) 14. (a) 15. (a)


UNIT 3
GEOMETRIC OPTICS
The main aim of this section is to provide some fundamental knowledge on geometric
optics with some basic phenomenon like reflection, refraction and dispersion of light. To
fulfil this aim, the major objectives are put forth in this unit.
1. Reflection at Curved Mirrors: Make the students to know the basic laws of reflection
of light and applications on smooth curved surface.
2. Reflection at Plane Surface: Convey the knowledge about the properties of light
during the medium change with some real life applications.
3. Refraction Through Prisms: Make understand the learners on basic rules of
refraction through prism.
4. Lenses: Provide the basic concepts of lens designing, its refraction properties and
the daily applications.
5. Dispersion: Give the concept of combination of different colours to form a white light
and its effect on optical devices.

Reflection at Curved Mirrors |Chapter 14| 375
REFLECTION
AT CURVED MIRRORS
14.1 Introduction
Light is a form of energy that gives the sensation of vision on eye. The light incident from an object
enters into our eye and image of that object is formed on retina. This phenomenon makes the object
visible. Though our eyes and the object have no visible link, the object is visualized by our eyes and
light is responsible to create this link. Thus, eye enables us to see the objects around us.
We see the objects around us due to the reflection of light. Light coming from a light source gets
reflected from a surface and enters into our eyes. Our eye, forms the images of these objects in
accordance with the information carried by the light.
Some Terms
i. Luminous objects: The objects that emit light of their own are known as luminous objects. For
example: sun, stars, electric bulb, torch light, etc.
ii. Non-luminous objects: The objects which do not emit light of their own are known as non-
luminous objects. For example: moon, planets, stone, wood, water, etc. Light coming from such
objects is the result of reflection of light falling on its surface from a luminous object.
iii. Transparent objects: The objects which allow light through them are known as transparent
objects. Air, clean water, glass and diamond are the examples of transparent objects. Air is
totally transparent object. Clean water, glass and diamond allow maximum intensity to pass but
they also reflect a small part of light, hence they are visible.
iv. Translucent objects: The objects which allow light to pass partially from one side to another are
known as translucent objects. Kerosened paper, thick white plastic, etc., are the examples of
translucent objects.
v. Opaque objects: The objects which do not allow light to pass through them are known as
opaque objects. A concrete wall, wooden door, dark plastics, thick curtain, etc., are the opaque
objects.
14.2 Reflection of Light

When light travelling in a medium falls on the surface of another medium, three different
phenomena can be observed. A part of light is absorbed in the medium, a part is transmitted from
the medium and some part of it returns back to the same medium. This phenomenon of returning
back of light to the first medium from the surface of second medium is known as reflection of light.
Reflection occurs on all media whether the medium is transparent, translucent or opaque. The
luminous objects have their own light so they are visible, but non-luminous objects are visible only
after the reflection of light from their surfaces.
Most of the objects in nature are non-luminous. So, reflection phenomenon is very important to
visualize the objects around us. If an object allows all incident light to pass though it, it cannot be
visualized. Air is an example of such substance which does not reflect the light, rather it transmits all
incident light. So, we can't see air.

Some Terms Associated to Reflection

Some of the basic terminologies associated to reflection of light are explained in reference to the
following Fig. 14.1.
i. Incident ray: The ray of light coming from a source
which strikes the reflecting surface is known as
incident ray. In Fig. 14.1, AO is the incident ray.
ii. Reflected ray: The ray of light which returns back to
the same medium after reflection is known as reflected
ray. In Fig. 14.1, OB is the reflected ray.
iii. Normal: The perpendicular line drawn to the surface at
the point of incidence (or reflection) is known as
normal. In Fig. 14.1, ON is normal.
iv. Reflecting surface: Any boundary surface from which
the rays of light incident on it return back is called
reflecting surface. In Fig. 14.1, XY is reflecting surface.
v. Angle of incidence: The angle formed between the
incident ray and normal at the point of incidence is
known as the angle of incidence (or incident angle). It is denoted by 'i'. In Fig. 14.1, ∠AON (= i),
is the incident angle.
vi. Angle of reflection: The angle formed between the reflected ray and normal at the point of
incidence is known as the angle of reflection (or reflected angle). It is denoted by 'r'. In Fig. 14.1,
∠BON ( = r) is the angle of reflection.
vii. Glancing angle: The angle made by the incident ray with the reflecting surface is known as the
glancing angle. It is denoted by 'g'. In Fig. 14.1, ∠AOX (= g) is the glancing angle.
viii. Angle of deviation: Angle of deviation is the angular measure of deviation of light from its
original direction due to the presence of boundary separating two media. In case of reflection,
the angle of deviation is the angle formed between reflected ray and original direction of
incident ray. It is denoted by 'δ'. In Fig. 14.1, ∠BOC (= δ) is the angle of deviation.
Reversibility of Light
When the final path of the light is reversed, then it
retraces its original initial path. This phenomenon is
known as reversibility of light. In Fig. 14.2, if the ray of
light BO is made to return along the same path by
putting a stop of some kind perpendicular to it, then it
retraces its initial direction along OA.
Laws of Reflection
When a light ray is incident on the surface of a
material, it is reflected back to the same medium
satisfying certain fundamental properties, which are called the laws of reflection of light. They are
stated below:
i. The incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal at the point of incidence all lie in the same
plane.
ii. The angle of incidence (i) and angle of reflection (r) are equal, i.e., i = r.
iii. A normally incident ray on a surface is reflected back along the same initial path of incidence.

14.3 Regular Reflection and Diffuse Reflection

The reflection pattern of light depends on the nature of reflecting surface. Reflecting surfaces may be
smooth (like plane mirror) or rough (like concrete wall). Depending on the nature of reflecting
surface (smoothness or roughness), reflection phenomenon can be divided into two types: (i) Regular
reflection (ii) Diffuse reflection.
Regular Reflection
Regular reflection is a type of reflection that takes place from a smooth surface when light rays
coming from an object are intercepted by such surfaces. The normals drawn at each point of
incidence are parallel to each other. Also, when parallel rays of light are incident on such surfaces,
they are rendered parallel after reflection from it. A clear image of an object is formed on the
reflecting surface if regular reflection takes place from it. The pattern of regular reflection is shown in
Fig. 14.3. Mirrors can reflect the light regularly.
N1
O I
N2
(i)
(ii)
Fig. 14.3: Regular reflection
Diffuse Reflection
The reflection of light in which parallel rays of light incident on a surface are reflected in all possible
directions is known as diffuse reflection. The laws of reflections are still valid in such reflections
because laws of reflection are followed at the
point of incidence only. Diffuse reflection takes
place on rough surfaces. Usually, surfaces that
produce diffuse reflection do not form any
image. Even if they form, the image is not clear.
The pattern of diffuse reflection is shown in
Fig. 14.4.
The diffuse reflection has an important role in
daily life. This reflection makes the object
visible. In the absence of diffuse reflection, an
object appears either dark or very bright. Due to the diffusion of light though dust particles, the
general illumination of objects are observed by our eyes. In the absence of diffuse reflection, our own
shadow would appear completely dark. Most of the reflections which we observe in our daily life are
the mixing of both regular and diffuse reflection. One interesting thing to note is that, we see our
image on mirror due to regular reflection but we see the mirror itself due to the diffuse reflection.
Moreover, diffuse reflection helps us to see any object clearly whereas the regular reflection helps to
form clear image on the reflecting surface.

14.4 Relation between Glancing Angle (g) and Angle of Deviation (δ)
Consider a light ray AO that strikes on a reflector at point O as shown in Fig. 14.5. The light ray gets
reflected back into the same medium through the path OB. Let XY be the reflecting surface and OC
be the original path of incident ray.
In Fig 14.5, ∠AOX = g = glancing angle
∠ BOC = δ = angle of deviation
ON = Normal on plane of reflection
Here,
∠XOA + ∠AON = ∠YOB + ∠BON
But,
∠AON = ∠BON (... i = r)
∴ ∠XOA = ∠YOB . . . (14.1)
Also,
∠XOA = ∠YOC
(vertically opposite angle) . . . (14.2)
Therefore,
∠BOC = ∠YOB + ∠YOC
= ∠XOA + ∠XOA [from equations (14.1) and (14.2)]
= 2 ∠XOA
∴ δ = 2g . . . (14.3)
This concludes that the angle of deviation in a reflection is always double than the glancing angle.
Points to be remembered:
i. i + g = 90º
i.e., g = 90º – i
ii. For normal incidence, i = 0, g = 90º
δ = 2g = 2 × 90º = 180º
14.5 Rotation of Light

If a reflecting surface is rotated through a certain angle
keeping the incident ray same, the reflected ray is also
observed rotating. This rotation of reflected ray due to the
rotational effect of reflecting surface is known as rotation of
light. Rotation of light does not mean that it travels in a curve
path, rather it means that the light changes its path with
certain angle as it reflects from a rotating surface.
Consider a light ray AO incident on XY plane making
glancing angle 'g'. Let ON be the normal on the surface XY.
Also, OB be the reflected ray which has made the angle of
deviation 'δ' with the original path. Now, the reflecting plane XY is rotated through an angle 'θ' so
that X'Y' be the new plane of reflection and OB' be the reflected ray after rotation of plane as shown
in Fig. 14.6.
i. For the initial plane XY,
∠BOC = 2 ∠AOX
(... angle of deviation is double than the glancing angle)

∴ δ = 2g . . . (14.4)
ii. For reflecting plane X'Y',
∠B'OC = 2 ∠AOX'
= 2(∠AOX + ∠X'OX)
∴ δ' = 2(g + θ) . . . (14.5)
Here, ∠BOB' = α is the angle of rotation of light due to the rotation of mirror with angle 'θ'. So,
α = δ' – δ
= 2(g + θ) – 2g
= 2g + 2θ – 2g
∴ α = 2θ . . . (14.6)
This concludes that, the angle of rotation of reflected light is always double than the angle of rotation
of mirror. In reality, when the reflected plane is rotated through angle 'θ', the normal on the plane is
also rotated by same angle 'θ'. This results in reflected angle making 'θ' rotation in normal and 'θ'
rotation in mirror, hence a total 2θ angle of rotation in the reflected light.
14.6 Inclined Mirrors

When two plane mirrors are arranged forming certain angle to each other then such an arrangement
of mirrors is called inclined mirrors. In the beginning, both the mirrors form images independently
for an object placed in between them. Then each image formed by the individual mirror acts as the
object for one another, so that their corresponding images are formed by the mirrors. This process
proceeds up to the conditions at which image formed by both of them coincide. Thus, multiple
images of an object are formed as a result of successive reflections.
Conditions for Multiple Images

360 360
i. If is even, the number of images formed, n = – 1.
θ θ
360
ii. If is odd, the following situation arises:
θ
360
a. If the object lies symmetrically between two mirrors, then the number of images, n= –1
θ
360
b. If the object lies asymmetrically, then the number of images, n = .
θ
360 360
iii. If the plane mirrors are parallel to each other, then the number of images, n = = 0 = ∞.
θ
14.7 Object Distance and Image Distance

The perpendicular distance of object from the mirror is called object distance. It is denoted by u.
Similarly, the perpendicular distance of image from the mirror is called image distance. It is denoted
by v. In plane mirror, the image distance and object distance are equal. The relation between the
object distance and image distance are shown in Fig. 14.7.
Consider an object O in front of a plane mirror XY. Let OA and OB be two incident rays on the plane
mirror at two points A and B respectively. After reflection, a virtual image I is formed behind the
mirror after producing the reflected light rays to backward of mirror as shown in Fig. 14.7
In the given Fig. 14.7,

OX = u (object distance)
XI = v (image distance)
Also, ΔOAX and ΔIAX are congruent. So,
OX = XI
∴ u=v
The image is formed behind the mirror. But, it is well known
that light does not go behind the mirror, but reflects back to the
same medium. Therefore, the image formed behind the mirror
is always virtual. Conventionally, the image distance is written
with a negative sign, i.e.,
u = –v
14.8 Real Object and Virtual Object

If an object lies in front of a reflecting mirror, the object is said to be a real object. The light rays
incident from the real object really falls on the reflecting plane of the mirror. In plane mirror, virtual
image is formed for a real object as shown in Fig. 14.8 (i).
It is very interesting fact that the object can be virtual. If the light rays appear coming in the
converging pattern from an object, the object is known as virtual object. In such conditions, the real
object does not lie at the position where it appears, reflection or refraction makes it so.
Consider converging rays of light AB, CD, EF, and GH are incident on the reflecting surface of plane
mirror. After reflection, the rays meet at point I in front of mirror as shown in Fig. 14.8 (ii). If we
extend the converging rays behind the mirror, they meet at point I. But the light rays actually meet at
point I after reflection. In such condition, the point O acts as the virtual object for the real image I.
14.9 Real Image and Virtual Image

The image formed due to convergence of real rays of light is known as real image. But, if the image is
formed due to the convergence of virtually produced rays, the image is known as virtual image. The
plane mirror forms virtual image for real object and real image for the virtual object. Formation of
real image and virtual image are shown in Fig. 14.8.
14.10 Maximum Size of Mirror to See the Full Image

Consider a plane mirror M1M2 in front of a person of height HF. Here, 'H' refers to Head and 'F'
refers to foot of a person. To see the full image, light rays coming from the head (H) and foot (F)
must approach on eyes at a time, as shown in Fig. 14.9.
Let AM1 and BM2 be the normals at HF from two edges M1 and M2 of the mirror.
Here, Δs HM1A and EM1A are congruent triangles. So,
HA = AE . . . (14.7)
Similarly, Δs FM2B and EM2B are also congruent triangles. So,
FB = EB . . . (14.8)
As AM1 and BM2 are normals, we have,
AB = M1M2 . . . (14.9)
Now, in Fig. 14.9,
HF = HA + AE + EB + BF . . . (14.10)
Applying equations (14.7) and (14.8) in equation (14.10), we get
HF = AE + AE + EB + EB
= 2AE + 2EB
= 2(AE + EB)
= 2AB
= 2M1M2 [using equation (14.9)]
or, HF = 2M1M2
1
∴ M1M2 = 2 HF
1
i.e., Size of mirror = 2 height of a person
∴ To see the full image ourselves in a plane mirror, the size of the mirror must be half of our
height.
14.11 Reflection at Curved Mirrors

A mirror whose reflecting surface is curved is called a curved
mirror and the curved surface may be either concave, convex
or cylindrical.
Spherical mirror: If the reflecting surface of a mirror is a F
P
portion of a hollow spherical glass, the mirror is called a C
spherical mirror. There are two types of a spherical mirror:
(i) Concave mirror
(ii) Convex mirror
Fig. 14.10: Reflection from a concave mirror
Concave Mirror: The literal meaning of concave is
curving inward. A spherical mirror whose reflecting surface is curving inward is called concave
mirror as shown in Fig. 14.10. This means, for such
mirrors, the reflecting surface is inner curved portion
whereas outer curved portion is coated with silver. This
mirror is also called converging mirror because parallel
rays of light incident on it converge at a point after
reflection from it. P F C
Convex Mirror: The literal meaning of convex is bulging
out or curving outward. A spherical mirror whose
reflecting surface is curving outward is called convex
mirror as shown in Fig. 14.11. This means, for such Fig. 14.11: Reflection from a convex mirror

mirrors, the reflecting surface is the outer curved portion whereas inner curved portion is
coated with silver. This mirror is also called diverging mirror because parallel rays of light
incident on it diverge and hence appear to converge at a point after reflection from it.
Terminologies for Spherical Mirrors

Aperture: The effective width of a spherical mirror from which reflection can take place is called its aperture. It
is the breadth (width) of a mirror. In the Fig. 14.12, the distance AB is the aperture of spherical
mirror.
Pole: The geometric centre of the spherical mirror is called its pole. It is denoted by 'P'.
Centre of curvature: The centre of sphere, of which the spherical mirror is a part is called centre of curvature
of the mirror. It is denoted by 'C'. The normal at any point of the mirror passes through the centre of
curvature. For a concave mirror, it lies in front of the mirror but for a convex mirror, it lies behind the
mirror.
Fig. 14.12: (i) Concave mirror (ii) Convex mirror
Radius of curvature: The radius of a sphere, of which the spherical mirror is a part is called the radius of
curvature of the mirror. It is denoted by 'R'. Thus, the distance between centre of curvature and pole of
the mirror is called radius of curvature.
Principal axis: The line passing through the pole and centre of curvature is called principal axis of the mirror.
Focus: The point on the principal axis of mirror where the rays of light parallel to it either pass (as in concave
mirror) or appear to converge (as in convex mirror) after reflection from it is called focus of the mirror. It is
denoted by 'F'.
Fig. 14.13: Reflection from concave mirror Fig. 14.14: Reflection from convex mirror
From Fig. 14.12 to 14.14,

P = pole
F = focus or focal point
C = centre of curvature
PC = radius of curvature (R)
PF = focal length (f)
AB = aperture
For a concave mirror, focus lies in front of the mirror and for a convex mirror, it lies behind the
reflecting surface (mirror). Thus, the focus of a concave mirror is real and that of convex mirror is
virtual.
Focal length: The distance between the pole and principal focus of the mirror is called focal length. It is
denoted by f.
14.12 Relation Between Focal Length and Radius of Curvature

For a spherical mirror (both concave and convex), the focal length is half of its radius of curvature.
Proof:
i. Concave Mirror
Consider a light ray AB, incident parallel and close to the
A i B
principal axis CP of a concave mirror. The ray AB after r
reflection from point B of mirror passes through a point F on
the principal axis known as focus. The normal at B can be α
P
C F
drawn, taking a straight line passing through the center of
curvature (C) of the mirror. Clearly, the laws of reflection are
followed at this point of incidence as shown in Fig. 14.15.
f
In Fig. 14.15, focal length (f) = FP R
and radius of curvature (R) = CP Fig. 14.15: Reflection from concave mirror
Again, in Fig. 14.15,

∠ABC = ∠CBF (∵ i = r) . . . (14.11)
But, ∠ABC = ∠BCF (alternate angles) . . . (14.12)
∴ ∠CBF = ∠BCF (∵ α = i = r) . . . (14.13)
This shows that ΔFBC is an isosceles triangle. So,
CF = BF . . . (14.14)
If the aperture of the mirror is taken very small, then the points B and P lie very close to each other,
so that BF and FP are nearly equal,
i.e., BF = FP . . . (14.15)
Therefore, using equation (14.15) in equation (14.14), we get,
CF = FP . . . (14.16)
CP = CF + FP
or, CP = FP + FP
or, R = f + f
∴ R=2f . . . (14.17)
This equation (14.17) is the required expression for the relation of radius of curvature (R) and focal
length ( f ) for a concave mirror.
ii. Convex Mirror

Consider a light ray AB, incident parallel and close to the principal axis PC of a convex mirror. The
ray AB after reflection from point B of mirror diverges away from the principal axis. If the reflected
ray is produced virtually beyond the mirror, a virtual focus F appears behind it. The normal at B can
be drawn, taking a straight line passing through the centre of curvature (C) behind the mirror.

Clearly, the laws of reflection are followed at this point of incidence as shown in Fig. 14.16. For a
convex mirror radius curvature and focal length are taken negative.
In Fig. 14.16, focal length = FP = – f
and radius of curvature = CP = – R
Again, in Fig. 14.16,
∠ABN = ∠NBD (∵ i = r)
But ∠ABN = ∠BCF = i (corresponding angles) . . . (14.18)
Also, from Fig. 14.16
∠CBF = ∠NBD (vertically opposite angles) D
. . . (14.19)
This shows that, ΔFBC is an isosceles triangle. So, N
r
CF = BF . . . (14.20) A i
If the aperture of the mirror is taken very small, then the B
r
points B and P lie very close to each other so that BF and FP i
P F C
are nearly equal,
i.e., BF = FP . . . (14.21)
f
Therefore, using equation (14.21) in equation (14.20), we get,
R
CF = FP . . . (14.22)
Fig. 14.16: Reflection from convex mirror
CP = CF + FP
or, CP = FP + FP
or, –R=–f–f
or, –R=–2f
∴ R= 2f . . . (14.23)
This equation (14.23) is the required expression for the relation of radius of curvature (R) and focal
length ( f ) of a convex mirror.
The focal length of a mirror is always equal to half of its radius and its value does not depend on the medium in
which the mirror is placed and hence if a mirror is placed in water or oil its focal length still remains the same.
This is because the laws of reflection are same in all medium.
Sign Conventions (sign rules)

To study the terms involved in position and nature of object and image, some important concepts of
sign conventions are essential. Object distance, image distance, focal length and radius of curvature
are essential terms to describe the position and nature of object and image produced by the mirror.
Some important sign conventions are mentioned below.
(i) The pole of a mirror is taken as the origin to measure all required distances.
(ii) All distance measured in front of the mirror is taken positive and the distance measured behind
the mirror is taken negative.
(iii) For focal length ( f )
(a) The focus of a concave mirror lies in front of the mirror, so that the focal length (f) for
concave mirror is taken positive.
(b) The convex mirror does not have real focus. The focus is produced behind the mirror, so
that the focal length ( f ) for convex mirror is taken negative.
(iv) For object distance (u)
(a) The object distance for real object is assigned positive, since the object is placed in front of
the mirror.
(b) The object distance of virtual object is assigned negative, since the object is considered
behind the mirror.
(v) For image distance (v)
(a) The image distance for real image is assigned positive, since the image is formed by
intersection of real rays in front of mirror.
(b) The image distance for virtual image is assigned negative, since the image is formed
behind the mirror due to the intersection of virtually produced rays.
14.13 Graphical Methods of Mirrors

In geometrical optics, we consider the path of light as the rays. Only a few rays out of many rays
falling on reflecting surface are considered, and the intersecting point of rays after reflection is found
out. The image is drawn considering the point of intersection of reflected rays. The diagram showing
the relation between an object and its image considering the path of light as rays in mirror is known
as graphical method of mirror. We can determine the position and size of an image formed by a
mirror using graphical method.
Rules for Tracing an Image of an Object

Following rules can be applied to obtain the image of an object formed by any mirror.
(i) A real object is considered at a certain distance in front of a mirror on the principal axis.
(ii) Two light rays are drawn from a point of the object, usually from the top. Among these two,
one of the rays is parallel with the principal axis and the other strikes exactly at the pole of the
mirror.
(iii) The ray which is parallel to the principal axis passes through the focus after reflection from the
mirror and the ray which is incident on pole gets reflected with angle of reflection (r) equal to
the angle of incidence (i) at pole P.
(iv) Finally, an image in the form of line is drawn considering its one end to be the intersecting point
of two reflected rays and the other end to be a point on the principal axis lying exactly below
the former point.
Concave Mirror
i. An object is at infinity.
Properties of an image F
P
(a) The image is at focus (F). C
(b) It is real.
(c) It is inverted.
(d) It is highly diminished.
Fig. 14.17: Object at infinity
ii. An object is beyond C (= 2F).
Properties of an image
B
(a) The image is between focus (F) and centre of curvature
(R).
A’ F
(b) It is real. P
A C
(c) It is inverted.
B’
(d) It is diminished.
Fig. 14.18:
Fig. Object
24.18: beyond
Object CC
beyond

iii. An object is at C (= 2F) v. An object is at F

Properties of an image Properties of an image
(a) The image is at C. (a) The image is formed at infinity.
(b) It is real. (b) It is be real.
(c) It is inverted. (c) It is inverted.
(d) Its size is same as object. (d) It is highly magnified.
B
B
A
P
AC F C F
P
A’
B’
to ∞
Fig. 14.19:
Fig. Object
24.19: at at
Object CC Fig.
Fig. 24.21:
24.21: Object
Object at F F
beyond
iv. An object is between F and C vi. An object is between F and P

Properties of an image Properties of an image
(a) The image is beyond the centre of (a) The image is behind the mirror.
curvature (C). (b) It is virtual.
(b) It is real. (c) It is erect.
(c) It is inverted. (d) It is magnified.
(d) It is larger than object. B'
B B
A’ C F C F A P A'
P
A
B’
Fig.
Fig.14.22:
24.22:Object
Objectbetween
betweenFFand
andPP
Fig. 14.20:
24.20: Object between F and C
Convex Mirror
i. An object is at infinity
P C
(a) The image is at focus. F
(b) It is virtual.
(c) It is erect.
(d) It is highly diminished.

ii. An object is at any finite distance
(a) The image is between focus (F) and pole. B
B'
(b) It is virtual.
(c) It is erect. A P A' F C
Real Image in a Convex Mirror

Fig. 14.24:
When converging rays of light are incident, then image formed is real as shown inObject at finite
the Fig. distance
14.25.
(Real image) I P O (Virtual object)
Fig. 14.25: Real image formed by a convex mirror
Marginal and paraxial rays

The rays which are nearly parallel and close to principal axis are known as paraxial, whereas the rays
that are far from the principal axis are called marginal rays.
14.14 Spherical Aberration and Parabolic Mirror

In case of spherical mirrors especially of wide aperture, when a wide beam of rays are incident on it,
only the paraxial rays get focused at focal point. The marginal rays do not converge at a single point
after reflection. These rays are focused at different points all of which lie in a curve known as caustic
curve as shown in Fig. 14.26. Again, when a source of light is placed at focus of such wide aperture
mirror, the reflected rays are not rendered parallel.
C'
4
3
2
1
P P
F C F
1
2
3
4
C"
(i) (ii)
Fig. 14.26: (i) Spherical aberration in a spherical mirror (ii) No aberration in a parabolic mirror
Both of these effect lead to the distortion in the image. Such distortion in image produced due to the
inability of mirror (also in lens) to focus marginal and paraxial rays at a single point is known as
spherical aberration. In order to avoid such distortions special types of mirrors are preferred to
devise different optical devices such as astronomical telescopes, flashlights and headlights in vehicle
etc. The parabolic mirror is a mirror whose reflecting surface is parabolic. On such mirrors, spherical
aberration is absent as it can focus both marginal and paraxial rays at a single point. Also, a source of
light placed at the focus of such mirrors, produces reflected rays which are parallel to each other.
These properties of the parabolic mirror are the main reason for using it in astronomical telescope.

Similarly, the use of parabolic mirrors in headlight or flash light of vehicle intensifies the reflected
beam and can travel to longer distance without appreciable loss due to scattering.
14.15 Mirror Formula

The formula which shows the relation between object distance, image distance and focal length of a mirror is
called mirror formula and it is given by,
X
1 1 1
ƒ = u + v B M
Proof: C
A’ F
P
i. Concave Mirror (Real Image Condition) A N
Consider a concave mirror of aperture XY and pole P. A

real object AB is placed at distance AP beyond the focus (F)
of the mirror. As the object is placed beyond F of concave Y
B’
mirror, a real and inverted image A'B' will be formed at the Fig. 14.27: Real image formed by concave mirror
same side of object as shown in Fig. 14.27. A normal MN is
drawn on the principal axis from reflecting point M of the mirror.
Here,
AP = u = object distance
A'P = v = image distance
A'B' = hi = height (size) of image
AB = ho = height (size) of object
FP = f = focal length of mirror
(i) In Fig. 14.27, ΔBAP and ΔB'A'P are similar triangles. So,
A'B' A'P
AB = AP
A'B' v
∴ AB = u . . . (14.24)
(ii) In Fig. 14.27, ΔB'A'F and ΔMNF are also similar triangles. So,
A'B' A'F
MN = FN
Here, MN = AB and FN ≈ FP, we have,
A'B' A'P – FP
=
AB FP
A'B' v – f
∴ AB = f . . . (14.25)

v v–f
u= f
or, vf = uv – uf
or, vf + uf = uv
Dividing both sides by uvf, we get,
vf uf uv
or, uvf + uvf = uvf

1 1 1
∴ u+v= f . . . (14.26)
This is required mirror formula.

EXAMPLE 1: An object is placed at a distance of 30 cm from a concave mirror of radius of curvature 40 cm. Find the nature,
and position of the image.
SOLUTION
Given, 1 1 1
Object distance (u) = 30 cm 30 + v = 20
Radius of curvature (R) = 40 cm 1 1 1 3–2 1
R 40 v = 20 – 30 = 60 = 60
So, focal length (f) = 2 = 2 = 20 cm
∴ v = 60 cm
Image distance (v) = ? The image formed is real, inverted, and
We have, magnified. It lies in front of the mirror at a
1 1 1 distance 60 cm from it.
u +v = f
 Check Point: An object is placed 10 cm in front of a concave mirror of radius of curvature 10 cm.
Find the position, nature of image. Ans: 10 cm, real
B'
ii. Concave Mirror (Virtual Image Condition) X
Consider a concave mirror of aperture XY and pole P. A
real object AB is placed at distance AP in between the B M
focus (F) and pole (P) of the mirror. As the object is

N
placed nearer than F of concave mirror, a virtual and C F A P A'
erect image A'B' will be formed at the opposite side of
object as shown in Fig. 14.28. A normal MN is drawn on
the principal axis from reflecting point M of the mirror. Y
Here, Fig. 14.28: Virtual image formed by a concave mirror
A'P = – v = image distance (image is virtual)
FP = f = focal length of mirror
(i) In Fig. 14.28, ΔBAP and ΔB'A'P are similar
triangles. So,
A'B' A'P
AB = AP
A'B' –v
∴ AB = u … (14.27)
A'B' A'F
=
MN FN
A'B' A'P + FP
=
AB FP
A'B' – v + f –(v – f)
∴ AB = f = f … (14.28)

Equating equation (14.27) and (14.28), we get,
– v – (v – f )
or, u = f
or, vf = uv – uf
or, vf + uf = uv
vf uf uv
or, uvf + uvf = uvf
1 1 1
∴ u+v= f … (14.29)
This is the required mirror formula.

EXAMPLE 2: An object is placed in front of a concave mirror of radius of curvature 40 cm at a distance of 10 cm. Find the
position, nature of the image.
SOLUTION
Given, Radius of curvature (R) = 40 cm 1 1 1
or,
Object distance (u) = 10 cm 10 + v = 20
Image distance (v) = ? 1 1 1
or,
We know, v = 20 – 10
R = 2f 1 1–2
or,
∴
R
f =2 = 2
40 v = 20
1 1
∴
∴ f = 20 cm v = – 20
From mirror formula,
∴ v = – 20 cm
1 1 1
This shows that the image is virtual and
u+v= f
formed 20 cm behind the mirror.
 Check Point: An object is virtual and is placed at a distance of 15 cm from a convex mirror and
image is formed at a distance of 5 cm from the mirror. Calculate the radius of curvature of the mirror.
Ans: 15 cm
X
iii. Convex Mirror (Virtual Image Condition)
Consider a convex mirror of aperture XY and pole P. A M
B
real object AB is placed at distance AP in front of the B'
mirror. A virtual and erect image A'B' will be formed at the
opposite side of object as shown in Fig. 14.29. A normal A P N A' F C
MN is drawn on the principal axis from reflecting point M
of the mirror.
Here, Y
Fig. 14.29: Virtual image formed by a convex mirror
A'P = – v = image distance (image is virtual)
FP = – f = focal length of mirror (negative sign is assigned for convex mirror)
(i) In Fig. 14.29, ΔBAP and ΔB'A'P are similar triangles. So,
A'B' A'P
=
AB AP

A'B' –v
∴ AB = u . . . (14.30)
A'B' A'F
MN = FN
A'B' FP – A'P
=
AB FP
A'B' – f – (– v) –(v – f)
∴ AB = –f = f . . . (14.31)
– v – (v – f )
u = f
or, vf = uv – uf
or, vf + uf = uv
vf uf uv
or, uvf +
uvf = uvf
1 1 1
∴ u+v= f . . . (14.32)
This is the required mirror formula.

EXAMPLE 3: A metre scale is placed along the axis of a convex mirror of focal length 25 cm, its nearer end being at
distance of 50 cm. Calculate the size of the image formed.
SOLUTION
Given,
Length of a metre scale (L) = 1 m = 100 cm
Focal length of convex mirror (f) = – 25 cm
The nearest end of scale from the mirror (u) = 50 cm
The farthest end of scale from the mirror (u') = 100 + 50 = 150 cm
Now,
The image of nearest end (v) = ?
The image of farthest end (v') = ?
Length of image = v – v' = ?
i. For nearest end 1 3
or,
1 1 1 v = – 50
u+v= f 50
1 1 1 or, v=– 3
or, 50 + v = – 25
∴ v = – 16.67 cm
1 1 1 –2 –1
or, v = – 25 – 50 = 50
ii. For farthest end 1 7

or,
1 1 1 v' = – 150
u' + v' = f 150
1 1 1 or, v' = – 7 = –21.43 cm
or, 150 + v' = – 25
Length of image = v – v'
1 1 1 –6 – 1 = –16.67 – (–21.43) = 4.76 cm
or, v' = – 25 – 150 = 150
 Check Point: An object is placed 16 cm from a convex mirror of focal length 10 cm. Calculate the
image distance. Ans: – 6.15 cm

14.16 Linear Magnification

Depending on the positions of object on the principal axis, the image of various size and nature are
formed by mirror. The size of image compared to the size of object defines the magnification. The
term magnification here does not refer to the increase in size, rather it is used commonly to address
the increase or decrease in size of image as compared to size of object. Generally, an object is placed
vertically on the principal axis of the mirror. So, the size here refers to the vertical height. Thus, the
linear magnification is defined as the ratio of the size of image to the size of the object. It is denoted
by 'm'.
Size of image (hi)
∴ Linear magnification (m) =
Size of object (ho)
hi
i.e., m = h
o
Being ratio of two similar quantities, it has no unit.

Linear magnification 'm' can be greater than, equal to or smaller than 1. If 'm' is greater than 1, then
the size of image formed is greater than that of object. If 'm' is equal to 1, then the size of image
formed is equal to the size of object. If the magnification is less than 1, the size of image formed is
smaller than size of object. The magnification also carries plus or minus sign in front of it. If it carries
plus sign, both image and object are real and if it carries minus sign, either image or object is virtual.
Magnification can also be defined as the ratio of image distance to the object distance.
Image distance (v)
∴ Magnification (m) = Object distance (u)
Magnification for Concave Mirror

Fig. 14.30 shows that ∆B'A'P and ∆BAP are similar.
So, we have,
A'B' A'P X
AB = AP . . . (14.33)
B
Here, AB = ho (height of object)
A'B' = hi (height of image) C
A’ F
AP = u (object distance) P
A
A'P = v (image distance)
Putting these values in equation (14.33), we get,
hi v
ho = u . . . (14.34)
B’
Y
hi Fig. 14.30: Real image formed by a concave mirror

But, magnification, m = h
o
So, from equation (14.34), we have,

v
Magnification, m = u . . . (14.35)
Thus, the ratio of image distance to the object distance is called magnification.
So, we get,
hi v
m = h and m = u
o
hi v
∴ m= h =u . . . (14.36)
o

EXAMPLE 4: A mirror forms an erect image 30 cm from the object and twice its height. Where must the object be
situated? What is the radius of curvature?
SOLUTION
Given, u + v = 30 cm Since the image is formed erect, it must be
Magnification (m) = 2 virtual. So, image distance,
Let x be the object distance. So, the
v = –2 × 10 = –20 cm
image distance must be 2x. So,
x + 2x = 30 Now, from mirror formula,
or, 3x = 30 1 1 1 1 1 2–1 1
30 f = u + v = 10 – 20 = 20 = 20
or, x = 3 = 10 cm ∴ f = 20 cm
∴ The mirror is situated at 10 cm away We know,
from the object. Radius of curvature,
R = 2f
∴ u = 10 cm.
= 2 × 20 = 40 cm
 Check Point: An object 3 cm long is placed perpendicular to the principal axis at distance 8 cm from
a convex mirror of focal length 10 cm. Calculate the image position, image size, nature, and
magnification of the image. Ans: – 4.44 cm. 1.67, virtual, 0.56
14.17 Newton’s Formula

We have so far measured all the distances such as object distance (u), image distance (v) from the
pole of the mirror to make different calculation. In such case, the focal length (f) can be approximated
by the following formula.
1 1 1
f =u +v . . . (14.37)
However, if the object distance and image distance are measured from focus, the relation for focal
length comes out to be different from equation (14.37). Let 'x' and 'y' are the object distance and
image distance measured from the focus respectively. In terms of the distances measured from the
pole, x and y can be expressed as:
x = u – f so, u = x + f
y = v – f so, v = y + f
So from equation (14.37)
1 1 1
f =x+f +y+f
1 f+x+f+y
f = (f + x) (f + y)
f 2 + fx + fy + xy = f (2f + x + y)
f2 + fx + fy + xy = 2f2 + xf + fy
f2 + xy = 2f2
∴ f 2 = xy . . . (14.38)
This is known as Newton’s formula.

14.18 Uses of Mirrors

Plane Mirror
(i) It is used as a looking glass.
(ii) It is used to look at the back of a head in barber’s shop.
(ii) It is used in deviating the path of the light.
(iv) It is also used in periscope, kaleidoscope etc.
Concave Mirror
(i) It is used as a shaving glass. When the concave mirror is held quite near to the face (face lies
between focus and pole of the mirror), then an erect, magnified and vertical image is formed
behind the mirror and hence small beard seems large and it becomes easy to shave.
(ii) Doctors use concave mirror for examining internal part of the ear, nose or throat to throw a
narrow and sharp beam of light into the affected part so that he can early see the affected part.
(iii) It is commonly used in reflecting telescopes and search light.
(iv) Scattered radiation can be focused at a point by concave mirror. The scattered radiation of sun
can be focused and then burn a thing.
(v) It is also used in head light of a bus, truck etc., as a reflector. The source of light is kept at or a
little behind the focus of the mirror.
(vi) It is used in table lamp for converging the light over limited area.
Convex Mirror
(i) It is used in a car to view rear objects. Since the image formed in the convex mirror is always
virtual, erect and diminished, the field of view of the mirror is very large with respect to plane
and concave mirror. That is why, it acts as the view finder and is mounted in front of the driver.
(ii) It is used in street lamp in order that the light can be diffused over an extended area.
Tips for MCQs
Quantitative Tips
1. It can be proved that if two mirrors make an angle 'θ' with each other, the number of images formed
360
by them is ⎛ ⎞
⎝ θ – 1⎠ .
2. The angle of deviation of a ray by plane mirror is twice the glancing angle.
R
3. Focal length is equal to half of the radius of curvature i.e., f = 2 .
1 1 1
4. Mirror formula, ƒ = +
u v
hi v
5. Magnification, m = h = u .
o
Conceptual Tips
1. In both regular and diffuse reflection, laws of reflection hold true.
2. The speed, frequency and wavelength of light remain unchanged on reflection, whereas amplitude
and intensity decreases on reflection.
3. On reflection from a rigid surface, light suffers a phase change by angle π, but the phase does not
change if reflection occurs from rarer medium.

4. Displacement of image due to displacement of object and plane mirror.
(a) If a mirror is fixed and object is displaced by a distance 'd', the displacement of image is also, d.
So that they come or move away with distance 2d to each other.
(b) If an object is fixed and mirror is displaced by distance 'd', then the image is displaced by 2d.
(c) If an object is displaced by distance 'd1' and mirror is displaced by 'd2' towards or away from
each other, then the displacement of image is d1 + 2d2.
5. Convex mirror always forms virtual, erect and diminished image for real object.
6. Field of view is maximum for convex mirror and least for concave mirror.
7. As every part of a mirror forms a complete image, if a part of the mirror (say half) is obstructed (say
covered with black paper) full image will be formed but intensity will be reduced (to half) i.e. image
becomes faint.
8. If an object is moved at constant speed toward a concave mirror from infinity to focus, the image will
move slower in the beginning and faster later on, away from the mirror. This is because in the time
the object moves from infinity to centre of curvature, the image will move from focus to centre of
curvature and when the object moves from C to F, the image will move from C to infinity. At C the
speed of object and image will be equal.
9. If the object is moved from focus to infinity at constant speed in concave mirror, the image will move
faster in the beginning and slower later.
Quick Reply
1. Can you photograph a virtual image? Explain.
 Although the camera faces to virtual image, it receives the real rays that are reflected from smooth
reflecting surface as shown in figure alongside. So, it can photograph a virtual object.
N Q
O P
C A B
I
2. Spherical mirror may behave as a plane mirror under special case. Explain.
 For spherical mirror,
1 1 1
f =u+v
For f = ∞ (i.e., Infinitely large radius of curvature, or small segment of spherical part), u = –v.
This is the feature of plane mirror. In this case spherical mirror works as a plane mirror whenever
focal length is extremely large.
3. Why the image is called real, although it is inverted?
 In physics, the image formed by intersecting the real rays is called real image in reflection of light,
this phenomenon happens just inverting the structure of image as compared with its object.

4. If you walk directly towards a plane mirror at a speed v, at what speed does your image approach to
you?
 In plane mirror, object distance and image distance are equal. As the object walks with speed v, the
image is also shifted towards the mirror with equal speed v. But, the approaching speed is taken with
respect to object. Hence, the relative speed is, v + v = 2v.
5. Where should we stay for saving by using concave mirror?
 We should stay keeping face nearer than the focus of concave mirror. So that the image will be
magnified and erect, which makes us comfortable to see our face.

1. If you are bringing a plane mirror towards your face at right angles to your face with a speed of 10
ms-1, at what rate is the image approaching?
 In plane mirror, the object distance and image distance are equal. To satisfy this condition, the speed
of object that approaches towards the mirror must be equal to the speed of image running towards
the mirror. In the given condition, if the speed of object is 10 ms–1, the speed of image also must be 10
ms–1. So, the relative speed of image with respect to object is 20 ms–1. Mathematically,
For curved mirror
1 1 1
= u+
ƒ v
For plane mirror, f = ∞
u –v B'
or, u = – v or, t = t
2. Can a convex mirror ever form a real image? Explain. B
 Yes. When the incident rays on the mirror are converging, they
A P A'
reflect back to the same medium and meet at a point as shown C F
in figure. In such condition, the rays of light appear to come

from the virtual object (O) and meet to produce real image (I)
after reflection.
(Real image) I P O (Virtual object)
3. If you were driving a car, what type of mirror would you prefer to use for observing traffic behind
you and why?
 A convex mirror gives much wider field of view of the traffic behind us than the plane mirror of
same size. Also, it forms erect image wherever the object is situated, which does not make any
confusion about its motion. But it has a disadvantage also: it gives an erroneous idea of the
movement of vehicles.
4. A spherical mirror is cut in half horizontally. Will an image be formed by the bottom half of the
mirror? How?
 When we cut a spherical mirror into half horizontally, the radius of curvature is not changed. The
focal length thus remains the same and the image formed will be that of the usual case. The only
difference that happens is that the intensity of the images will be reduced as half of the part of the
mirror is removed.

5. Trace the position of an image formed by a concave mirror when real object is placed at a distance
less than its focal length.
 The ray diagram for the given condition is shown in the figure B'
alongside. The nature and position of images are:

(i) The image is behind the mirror. B
(ii) It is virtual. (iii) It is erect. (iv) It is magnified. A P A'

C F
6. Mirrors used in search light are parabolic but not concave

spherical. Why?
 Parabolic mirror is free from the spherical aberration. It reflects the
light rays parallely when source is kept at the focus. So that the
object located at the far distance can be visualized clearly. However, P
F
the concave mirror is suffered with spherical aberration, so it cannot
reflect the light parallely that falls on its surface which fails to
visualize distant object clearly.
Worked Out Problems

1. A small convex mirror is placed 60 cm from the pole and on the axis of a large concave mirror, radius
of curvature 200 cm. The position of the convex mirror is such that a real image of a distant object is
formed in the plane of a hole drilled through the concave mirror at its pole. Calculate (a) the radius of
curvature of convex mirror (b) the height of real image if the distant object subtends an angle of 0.5º
at the pole of the concave mirror.
SOLUTION
For the concave mirror
Radius of curvature (R) = 200 cm
R 0.5
f = 2 = 100 cm 0.5
x
The concave mirror forms the image of a
distant object at its focal plane i.e., 100 cm
from it.
a. For convex mirror, 40 cm 60 cm
Object distance (u) = – 40 cm, image distance (v) = 60 cm
1 1 1 1 1
f = u + v = – 40 + 60
f = – 120 cm
R = 2f = 2 (–120) = – 240 cm
b. Let x be the height of image formed by the concave mirror, then,
π x
0.5 × 180 = 100
0.5 × π × 100
or, x = 180 = 0.87 cm
For convex mirror, O = x = 0.87 cm (i.e., object size)

I v
Since O = u (In magnitude)
v 60
I = u × O = 40 × 0.87 = 1.3 cm

2. A concave mirror of radius of curvature 25 cm faces a convex mirror of radius of curvature 20 cm and
is 30 cm from it. If an object is placed midway between the mirrors, find the nature and position of
the image formed by reflection first at the concave mirror and then at the convex mirror?
SOLUTION
For the concave mirror
30
Object distance (u) = 2 = 15 cm O
R 25
Focal length (f) = 2 = 2 = 12.5 cm
30 cm
From mirror formula,
1 1 1
∴ u +v = f
1 1 1 u–f R 20
v = f – u = uf f = 2 = – 2 = – 10 cm
15 × 12.5 1 1 1
v = 15 – 12.5 = 75 cm f =u +v
The image is formed 75 cm in front of the uf
v=u–f
concave mirror or (75 – 30) or 45 cm behind
the convex mirror. This image acts as – 45 (– 10) 450
v = –45 – (– 10) = –35 = –12.9 cm
virtual object for the convex mirror.
Hence for the convex mirror, –ve sign shows the image is virtual and formed
u = – 45 cm behind convex mirror.
3. A coin 2.54 cm in diameter held 254 cm from the eye just cover the full moon. What is the diameter of
the image of the moon formed by a concave mirror of radius of curvature 1.27 m?
SOLUTION
Given,
Radius of curvature of the mirror = R = 1.27 m = 127 cm
R
∴ f = 2 = 63.5 cm
When the object is at infinity, its image will be formed on the focal plane as shown in figure below.
From right angled ΔABP, we have
AB 2.54 a
tan θ = AP = 254 ... (i)
B
and from right angled ΔCDP, we have
d = 2.54 cm
CD I I C θ
tan θ = CP = f = 63.5... (ii) A I θ a
P
From Eq. (i) and (ii), we get D
2.54 I
254 = 63.5 f
254 cm
2.54
I = 254 × 63.5 = 0.635 m
∴ Diameter of the image or size of the image, I = 0.635 m
4. A square wire of side 3 cm is placed 25 cm away from a concave mirror of focal length 10 cm, what is
the area enclosed by the image? The center of the wire is on the axis of the mirror, with its two sides
normal to the axis.
SOLUTION
Since the square wire has a side length 3 cm we write
object size (ho) = 3 cm
Then, object distance (u) = 25 cm
focal length (f) = 10 cm
To find the image position, we use mirror formula, 50
∴ v = 3 cm
1 1 1
u +v = f Also, we have,
1 1 1 hi v
v= f –u h0 = u
1 1 v 50
= 10 – 25 hi = u × ho = × 3 = 2 cm
3 × 25
5–2 3 The given wire is squre, the image of both sides
= 50 = 50 is equal, so, A' = 2 × 2 = 4 cm2

1. An object 0.600 cm tall is placed 16.5 cm to the left of the vertex of a concave spherical mirror having
a radius of curvature of 22.0 cm. Determine the position, size, orientation and nature (real or virtual)
of the image. Ans: 33.0 cm to left of vertex, 1.20 cm tall, inverted, real
2. The diameter of Mars is 6794 km, and its minimum distance from the earth is 5.58 × 107 km. When
Mars is at this distance, find the diameter of the image of Mars formed by a spherical, concave,
telescope mirror with a focal length of 1.75 m. Ans: 0.213 mm
3. An object 24.0 cm from the center of a silvered spherical glass Christmas tree ornament 6.00 cm in
diameter. What are the position and magnification of its image? Ans: –1.4 cm, 0.05
4. A spherical concave shaving mirror has a radius of curvature of 32.0 cm. (a) What is the
magnification of a person’s face when it is 12.0 cm to the left of the vertex of the mirror? (b) Where is
the image? Is the image real or virtual? (c) Draw a principal ray diagram showing formation of the
image. Ans: 4, – 48 cm, virtual
5. A driving mirror consists of a cylindrical mirror of radius 10 cm and length cover the curve surfaces
of 10 cm. If the eye of the driver be assumed at a great distance from the mirror, find the angle of
view. Ans: 2 radian
Exercise
1. Which mirror is convergent, convex or concave?
2. Define rotation of light.
3. What size of mirror is required to see full image?
4. What is virtual object?
5. What is the value of lateral magnification of a plane mirror?
6. If a spherical mirror is immersed in water, does its focal length change?
7. Why a concave mirror is preferred to a plane mirror for shaving?
8. Show that if object is placed at 2F, image is also formed at 2F?
9. At what condition, a concave mirror forms virtual and magnified image?
10. Why a ray of light falling normally on a mirror retraces is path?
Short Questions
1. A ray of light is normally incident on a plane mirror. What are the values of glancing angle and angle
of deviation?
2. The image is seen on a glass mirror but not on the newspaper, why?
3. What do you mean by virtual object? Explain how a plane mirror can form a real image.
4. How can you distinguish between three different mirrors just by looking them?

5. An object is placed between two plane parallel mirrors. Why do distant images get fainter and
fainter?
6. What is the number images of an object held between two parallel plane mirrors?
7. What is the relation between angle of deviation and glancing angle?
8. Define regular reflection and diffuse reflection.
9. If a spherical mirror is immersed in water, does its focal length change? Explain.
10. "A concave mirror is called a converging mirror". Why?
11. Is it possible to produce a real image using a plane mirror? Explain
12. Is it possible to find whether a mirror is plane, concave or convex, from the nature of image of an
object? Explain.
13. What is the use of a parabolic mirror?
14. Explain why the focal length of a plane mirror is infinite, and explain what it means for the focal
point to be at infinity.
15. What is lateral magnification?
Long Questions
1. Draw with ray diagram for the formation of images by a concave and a convex mirror for various
positions of the object and the mirror.
1 1 1
2. Derive the mirror formula f = + for concave mirror. Also discuss the nature of image formed due
u v
to object placed at difference positions.
3. Derive the mirror formula for a concave mirror for virtual image condition.
4. Define linear magnification. Explain the difference between real and virtual images.
5. Point out the difference between real and virtual images? Obtain an expression for the relation
between object distance, image distance and focal length in the case of a convex mirror.
LEVEL I
1. An object is placed in front of a convex mirror of focal length 60 cm. If image is half of its size, find
the position of image. Ans: – 30 cm
2. What is the focal length of a convex spherical mirror which produces an image one sixth of size of an
object located 0.12 m from the mirror? Ans: 0.024 m
3. The image formed by a convex mirror of focal length 0.30 m is a quarter of the object. What is the
distance of the object from the mirror? Ans: 0.90 m
4. An object is placed at a distance of 8 cm from the pole of a concave mirror of focal length 16 cm on
the principal axis of the mirror. Find the position and nature of the image.
Ans: 16 cm, virtual, erect, same size
5. An object is placed in front of a concave mirror of focal length 30 cm and an image magnified three
times is obtained. Calculate the possible position of the object. Ans: 40 cm, 20 cm
6. The focal length of a concave shaving mirror is 12 cm. What is the magnification when the face is 6
cm from the vertex of the mirror? Where is the image formed? Ans: –12 cm, 2
7. A candle of 5 cm height is placed at a distance of 25 cm from the pole of a concave mirror of focal
length 15 cm. Find the position, size and nature of the image. Ans: 37.5 cm, 7.5 cm, real, magnified
8. A convex mirror with a radius of curvature 30 cm forms a real image 20 cm from its plane. Explain
how it is possible. Ans: – 8.57 cm, virtual object
9. An object is placed 15 cm from a convex mirror of focal length 10 cm. Calculate the image distance
and the magnifications produced. Ans: – 6cm, – 0.4
10. An object 1 cm high is placed at a distance of 30 cm in front of a convex mirror of focal length 20 cm.
Find the height of the image. Ans: 0.4
11. An object is placed 10 cm in front of a convex mirror of radius of curvature 16 cm. Calculate the
position, nature, and magnification of the image. Ans: 0.44
12. An extended object of 2 cm height is placed at distance 12 cm from a concave mirror of focal length
10 cm. Calculate the position, size, nature, and magnification of the image. Ans: 5
LEVEL II
1. A concave mirror produces magnification of 1/2 when an object is placed at a distance 60 cm from it.
Where should the object be placed so that the image of double the size is formed by the mirror?
Ans: 30 cm, 10 cm
2. With a convex mirror, when the object is kept at a distance of 30 cm from the mirror, the image is
formed at a distance of 10 cm from the mirror. What will be the change in the image distance if the
object distance is doubled? Ans: 2 cm
3. A concave mirror forms on a screen an image of twice the linear dimension of the object. Object and
screen are then moved until the image is 3 times the size of object. If the shift of the screen is 20 cm,
determine the shift of the object and the focal length of mirror. Ans: 3.33 cm, 20 cm
4. An object is situated 40 cm from a convex mirror. When a plane mirror is inserted between object and
convex mirror at a distance of 32 cm from the object, the images in the two mirrors coincide.
Calculate the focal length of convex mirror. Ans: − 60 cm
5. A convex mirror forms an image of half the size of the object. When it is moved 15 cm away from the
object, the size of the image becomes 2/5 times the size of object. Find the focal length of convex
mirror. Ans: − 30 cm
6. A mirror forms an erect image 30 cm from the object and fifth its height. Where must the mirror be
situated? What is its radius of curvature? Assuming the object to be real, determine whether the
mirror is convex or concave. Ans: 20 cm
Objective Questions
1. Two mirrors A and B are inclined at angle θ. A ray of light incident in mirrors B is deviated to 62º
and the angle of emergence is 20º, then find the angle of inclination.
a. 20º b. 30º
c. 40º d. 50º
2. An ant moves towards the plane mirror with speed of 2ms–1 and the mirror is moved towards the ant
with the same speed. What is the relative velocity between the ant and its image?
a. 2 ms–1 b. 4 ms–1
c. 8 ms –1 d. 16 ms–1
3. Theoretically the number of images formed between two parallel mirrors is.
a. 4 b. 16
c. 2 d. infinite
4. What is the magnification when the object is placed at 2f from the pole of a convex mirror?
a. –1/3 b. –2/3
c. –1 d. –3/2
5. The field of view in maximum for
a. Plane mirror b. Concave mirror
c. Convex mirror d. Cylindrical mirror
6. A person sitting in front of a mirror finds his erect image larger than himself. This implies that mirror
is.
a. Plane b. Concave
c. Convex d. Cylindrical
7. A concave mirror of focal length f in air is immersed in water of refractive index μ = 4/3. The focal
length of mirror in water will be
a. f b. 4/3 f
c. 3/4 f d. 7/3 f
8. The image formed by a concave mirror.
a. is always real b. is always virtual
b. is certainly real if the object is virtual d. is certainly virtual if the object is real
ANSWERS
1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (a) 5. (c) 6. (b) 7. (a) 8. (c)

REFRACTION AT
PLANE SURFACE
15.1 Introduction
In the previous chapter, we discussed that whenever a ray of light travelling in a medium meets a
hard boundary, it changes its direction and returns back to the same medium, which we call
reflection. Let's now see what happens, when this ray travels from one medium to another medium.
In this case also, the ray of light deviates from its original path and hence, this phenomenon creates
elusion regarding the actual position of the object. You might have noticed various phenomenon in
your daily life, which in principle are caused by the bending of light as it passes from one medium to
another. For example, a stick dipped in water appears bent, the position of a coin placed in a vessel
containing water appears raised etc., are all due to the bending of light known as refraction.
The phenomenon of bending of light when it passes obliquely from one homogeneous medium to another is
called refraction of light. This phenomenon is essentially a surface phenomenon observed for all angle
of incidence other than 0°. This phenomenon is mainly in accordance with the laws of conservation
of energy and momentum.
Laws of Refraction of Light

When light travels from one medium to another medium, it refracts from its original path. Light
obeys some rules in refraction. They are
i. When a ray of light travels from a rarer medium to a denser medium (for example, ray from air
to glass), it bends towards the normal and in this condition, i > r.
ii. When a ray of light travels from a denser to a rarer medium (for example, ray from glass to air),
it bends away from the normal and hence i < r.
iii. When a ray of light is incident normally on the boundary separating the two media, it passes
undeviated i.e., there is no bending on the boundary and hence, i = 0° and r = 0°.
A N N N
A
Air Glass Air
i i
S S' S S' S S'

O O O
Glass r B Glass
r
Air
N' B N' N'
i>r i<r i=r=0
(i) (ii) (iii)

Fig. 15.1: Refraction of light
Refraction at Plane Surface |Chapter 15| 403
15.2 Causes of Refraction and Refractive Index

The speed of light is constant in vacuum i.e., 3 × 108 ms–1, however, its speed varies with optical
density of medium. The refraction phenomenon essentially requires two different optical media.
Thus, optical medium must have different optical densities so that there is change in velocity of light
as it enters from one medium to another. On this basis, the optical medium can be of two types: rarer
medium and denser medium.
Among the two media involved in the refraction of light, the medium in which the velocity of light is
comparatively less is called a denser medium and the other one in which the velocity of light is
comparatively greater is called rarer medium.
One must remember that, the terms rarer and denser are the comparative terms. That means, a medium can be
denser or rarer only when compared to some other media.
Suppose, we are given two media, water and glass. The speed of light is more in water than that in
glass. So, water is rarer medium with respect to glass and glass is denser medium with respect to
water. However, the same water medium can be considered denser when compared to air medium.
Therefore, light travels faster in water than in glass, since the glass is denser than water. It is now
clear that, there is change in velocity of light as it travels from one medium to another medium. This
change in velocity of light is suitably described by defining a physical parameter known as refractive
index and is a very important physical parameter which is useful to study the optical condition of
any medium. The refractive index in terms of speed of light of a medium is defined as the ratio of speed of light
in vacuum (c) to the speed of light in that medium (v).
Speed of light in vacuum
i.e., Refractive index = Speed of light in a medium
c
∴ μ =v … (15.1)
The speed of light in air medium is approximately equal to the speed of light in vacuum. So, the
refractive index of a transparent medium is also defined with the reference of air. So,
Speed of light in air (c)
μ = Speed of light in medium (v)
If the refractive index of a medium '2' is to be determined with respect to the medium '1', then the
refractive index is calculated as,
Speed of light in medium 1
1μ2 =
Speed of light in medium 2
EXAMPLE 1: How long will the light take in travelling a distance of 500 m in water? Refractive index for water is 1.33 and
velocity of light in vacuum is 3 × 108 m/s.
SOLUTION
Given,
Time (t) = ? Distance (d) = 500 m
Refractive index of water (μw) = 1.33 Velocity of light in vacuum (c) = 2 × 108 m/s
We have,
c
μ = v
c 3 × 108
or , v = = 1.33 = 2.26 × 108 m/s
μ
d 500
Now, t = v = 2.26 × 108 = 2.2 × 10–6 s.
 Check Point: The refractive index of water is 1.33. Find the speed of light in water.
(Given c = 3 × 108 ms−1) Ans: 2.26 × 108 ms−
1

15.3 Snell's Law

Snell's law states that, “when light travels from one medium to another medium, the ratio of sine angle of
incidence to the sine angle of refraction is always constant and this constant is called refractive index of second
medium with respect to first medium”. It is denoted by μ.
Let 'i' and 'r' be the angle of incidence and angle of refraction of incidence and refracted media
respectively. Then, according to Snell’s law,
sin i
=μ
sin r
15.4 Refractive Index of Different Media

1. Refractive index in two regular media
Consider two regular media 1 and 2 with a clear interface AB. Let medium 1 is rarer than the
medium 2. A light ray PQ is incident on the surface AB and is refracted along the path QR. The ray
finally emerges out bending away from the normal drawn at the interface CD as shown in Fig.
15.2 (i).
P N1
i medium 1
Q
A B
r N2
N1 r medium 2
C R D
e= i medium 1
N2 S
Fig. 15.2 (i): Refraction in two media
Using Snell's law on interface AB,
The refractive index of 2 with respect to 1 is,
sin i
1μ2= … (15.2)
sin r
Similarly, refractive index of 1 with respect to 2 on interface CD, is
sin r
2μ1= … (15.3)
sin e
Since, the refracting surfaces, AB and CD are parallel, i = e. So, equation (15.3) becomes,
sin r
2μ1= … (15.4)
sin i
Now, multiplying equations (15.2) and (15.4), we get
sin i sin r
1μ2 × 2μ1 =
sin r × sin i
or, 1μ2 × 2μ1 = 1
1
∴ 1μ2 = … (15.5)
μ
2 1
Special cases
a. Air-Water interface
For, aμω = refractive index of water with respect to air.
ωμa = refractive index of air with respect to water.

So, using (15.5), we write,
1
aμω= … (15.6)
ωμa
b. Air-Glass interface
For, aμg = refractive index of glass with respect to air.
gμa = refractive index of air with respect to glass.
So, using (15.5), we write,
1
aμg= … (15.7)
μ
g a
2. Refractive index in three regular media

Consider three regular media lying one above the other. Suppose air, water and glass are
consequently overlapping in which a ray of light PQ is incident on air-water interface with angle of
incidence 'i'. This ray suffers refraction in three different boundaries, air-water, water-glass, and
glass-water and finally emerges along the path ST as shown in Fig. 15.2 (ii). The refracted ray in
water is QR and in glass is RS. The corresponding angle of incidence and angle of refraction are
indicated in Fig. 15.2 (ii).
P N1
i air (a)
Q
N2
N1 r1 r1 water (w)
R
N3
N2 r2 r2
glass (g)
S
e=i
N3 T air (a)
Fig. 15.2 (ii): Refraction through three regular boundaries
i. Snell's law in air-water interface gives,
sin i
aμω= … (15.8)
sin r1
ii. Snell's law in water-glass interface gives,
sin r1
ωμg= … (15.9)
sin r2
ii. Snell's law in glass-air interface gives,
sin r2
gμa= … (15.10)
sin e
Since, all three boundary surfaces are parallel,
i=e
sin r2
So, gμa= … (15.11)
sin i

Now, multiplying equations (15.8), (15.9) and (15.11), we get,
sin i sin r1 sin r2
aμω
× ωμg × gμa = sin r × sin r × sin i
1 2
∴ aμω × ωμg × gμa = 1 … (15.12)

The refractive index of glass with respect to water can be calculated by using equation (15.12) as,
1
ωμg= … (15.13)
aμω × gμa
We also have,
1
gμa= … (15.14)
aμg

aμg
ωμg= … (15.15)
aμω
EXAMPLE 2: A ray of light is incident at 60° in air on an air-glass plane surface. Find the angle of refraction in the glass
(μ for glass = 1.5).
SOLUTION
Given, sin 60°
1.5 = sin r
Angle of incident in air (i) = 60°
Refractive index of glass ( aμg) = 1.5 sin 60° 0.866
or, sin r = 1.5 = 1.5 = 0.577
Angle of refraction in glass (r) = ?
From Snell's law, we have r = sin–1 (0.577)
sin i ∴ r = 35.3°.
aμg =
sin r
 Check Point: A film of oil of refractive index 1.20, lies on water of refractive index 1.33. A light ray
is incident at 30° on the oil-water boundary. Calculate the angle of refraction in water. Ans: 27.5°
15.5 Real Depth and Apparent Depth

Let us put a coin into a glass and fill it with clean water. Now, observe the
position of coin. You see that the coin appears raised up from its actual
position. You might know that this happens due to the bending of light as it
travels from water to air. Let A be the actual position of coin and B is the
position of coin that appears due to refraction of light as shown in figure
aside. In this condition, the depth of A from the surface of water is called the
real depth and the depth of B from the surface of water is called the virtual depth or apparent depth.
If we observe the object in denser medium from the rarer medium, the real depth is found greater
than the apparent depth. But, if the object in rarer medium is observed from the denser medium, the
real depth is smaller than the apparent depth.
Refractive Index in terms of Real Depth and Apparent Depth

Consider a luminous point O at the bottom of water with real depth 't'. Let a ray of light OA incident
from point O and suffers refraction at the surface of water. Suppose the ray is bent away along the
path AB from the normal on the water surface. An observer watching the point O in water from
outside sees the point raised up to an apparent position I as shown in Fig. 15.3. Let M be a point on
the surface of water vertically above O. Clearly, the apparent depth MI is smaller than the real depth
MO. In Fig. 15.3.

∠OAN' = i = angle of incidence in water

Also, ∠AOM = ∠OAN' = i (alternate angles)
Again, ∠NAB = r = angle of refraction in air
Also, ∠MIB = ∠NAB = r (corresponding angles)
and MO = t = depth of water
When an object O placed in a denser medium (say water) is viewed from rarer medium (say air), it
appears to be raised at point I due to refraction of light which is the virtual image of the object. Thus,
OM is called real depth and MI is called apparent depth of the object.
According to Snell's law for water-air media, we can write,
sin i
wμa = sin r
MA
OA
or, wμa =
MA
IA
IA
∴ wμa = OA ... (15.16)
Since, A is very close to M, IA ≈ IM and OA ≈ OM. So, from equation (15.16), we can write,
IM
wμa = OM
1 IM
or, = OM
aμw
OM
or, aμw = IM
Real depth
∴ aμw =
Apparent depth … (15.17)
The apparent displacement in the position of the object is called apparent shift (d) which is given by,
OI = OM – IM
ΟM
or, d = OM –
aμw

1
or, d = OM ⎛1 – ⎞
⎝ aμw ⎠
1 ⎞
∴ d = t ⎛1 – … (15.18)
⎝ a w⎠
μ
where, t = real depth of water.
i.e., apparent displacement in the position of object
1
= real depth ⎛1 – refractive index⎞
⎝ ⎠
EXAMPLE 3: What is the apparent position of an object below a rectangular glass slab of refractive index 1.45 and the
thickness 0.06 m if a layer of water 0.05 m thick is on the top of the glass slab?
SOLUTION
Given,
Thickness of glass block (t1) = 0.06 m
Thickness of water layer (t2) = 0.05 m
0.05m
Water
Refractive index of glass with respect to air (μ g) = 1.45
Refractive index of water with respect to air (μ w) = 1.33
We know, Glass
0.06m
1
Displacement (d) = t ⎛1 – ⎞
⎝ μ⎠
1 1
For glass (d1) = t1 ⎛1 – ⎞ = 0.06 ⎛1 – 1.45⎞ = 0.0186 m
⎝ μg⎠ ⎝ ⎠
1 ⎞ 1
For water (d2) = t2 ⎛1 – = 0.05 ⎛1 – 1.33⎞ = 0.0124 m
⎝ μw⎠ ⎝ ⎠
∴ Total displacement (d) = d1 + d2 = 0.0186 + 0.0124 = 0.031 m
Hence, the apparent position of the object is 0.0315 m above the bottom and (0.11 – 0.031)
= 0.079 m below the top.
 Check Point: A vessel contains water upto a height of 20 cm and above it an oil upto another 20 cm.
The refractive indices of water and oil are 1.33 and 1.30 respectively. Find the apparent depth of vessel
when viewed from above. Ans: 30.4 cm
15.6 Lateral Shift

When light ray passes from one medium to
another, it bends from its original path. The
deviation of light can be towards the normal or
away from the normal but always occurs on the
same plane. Therefore, the refracted light shifts
either right or left on the same plane, even
though it changes the medium. This shift
(deviation) of path of light in the same plane is
termed as lateral shift. Lateral shift is formally
defined in terms of distance from the initial
direction.
The lateral shift is defined as the perpendicular
distance between the emergent ray and original
direction of incident ray produced. In Fig. 15.4,
the distance RN represents the lateral shift. It is
denoted by 'd'.
Expression for Lateral Shift
Let ABCD be a rectangular glass slab of refracting thickness 't'. A light ray PQ is incident on upper
face AB of the slab and refracted at this face. As the light travels from rarer (air) to denser (glass)
medium, it bends towards the normal. The light ray QR is the refracted ray. Then, the ray QR is
again refracted from the lower face CD of the glass slab and finally emerged out along the path RS.
The ray RS is the emergent ray as shown in Fig. 15.4.
When the incident ray is elongated along the path PQT, this becomes parallel with the emergent ray
RS. Here, the perpendicular distance between lines QT and RS is the lateral shift, that is produced by
glass slab. Actually, the light ray is shifted from path PT to the path RS laterally in the same plane.
Therefore, this shift is named lateral shift.
In ∆RNQ, we have,
RN
sin (i - r) = QR
or, RN = QR sin (i – r) … (15.19)

Let the thickness of the glass slab be 't' which is equal to QN1'. Again, in ∆QRN1', we have,
QN1'
cos r = QR
t
or, cos r = QR
t
∴ QR = cos r … (15.20)

t
RN = cos r sin (i – r)
But, RN = d is the lateral shift, so we have,

t sin (i – r)
d= cos r … (15.21)
Equation (15.21) is the required expression for lateral shift.

The variation of lateral shift with the angle of incidence is shown in Fig. 15.5.
When, i = 900, we have,
t sin (90° – r)
or, d= cos r
t cos r
or, d = cos r
∴ d=t
Lateral Shift
i.e., lateral shift is equal to the thickness of glass slab

if the angle of incidence is 90º.
t
Lateral shift depends on: (a) thickness of the slab (b)
refractive index (nature) of the material of the slab Angle of
and that of the surrounding medium (c) angle of O 90° incidence
incidence and (d) wavelength of incident light. Fig. 15.5: Plot for lateral shift vs. angle of incidence

EXAMPLE 4: A ray of light is incident at an angle of 60º on one face of a rectangular glass slab of thickness 0.1 m and
refractive index 1.5. Calculate the lateral shift produced.
SOLUTION
Given, Now, the lateral shift,
Angle of incidence (i) = 60º t
d = cos r sin (i – r)
Refractive index (μ) = 1.5
Thickness (t) = 0.1 m 0.1
Lateral shift (d) = ? = cos 35.3º sin (60° – 35.3°)
sin i = 0.0513 m.
From Snell's law, μ = sin r
Therefore, the lateral shift is 0.0513 m.
sin i sin 60º
or, sin r = = 1.5 = 0.5773
μ
∴ r = 35.3º
 Check Point: A ray of light is incident on the upper surface of a glass slab of thickness 6 cm at an
angle of 45º. The refractive index of glass is 1.52. Calculate the lateral shift produced. Ans: 2.01 cm
Critical Angle and Total Internal Reflection

When light rays travel from one medium to another medium, they bend from the direction of
incidence. If the light passes from rarer to denser medium, it bends towards the normal. In this
situation i > r. But, if the light passes from denser to rarer medium, it bends away from the normal.
In this situation, r > i.
When light passes from rarer to denser medium, light obeys refraction phenomenon whatever the
value of i, but the situation is different when light travels from denser to rarer medium. If the angle
of refraction in rarer medium is observed by gradually increasing the angle of incidence in denser
medium, a condition, will be achieved in which the angle of refraction becomes 90º (i.e., refracted ray
grazes from the boundary), however the angle of incidence will be still smaller than 90º. In this
condition, angle of incidence is called critical angle. Therefore, critical angle for a medium is defined as
the angle of incidence in the denser medium at which the corresponding angle of refraction in rarer medium is
90º. It is denoted by ic or C.
N rarer (air) N N
rarer (air) rarer (air)
r
r = 90°
O
S S' S S' S S'
O O
i i r
denser (glass) denser (glass) denser (glass)
i=C
N' N' N'
i<C i=C i>C
(i) (ii) (iii)

Fig. 15.6: Total internal reflection
Now, what will happen when angle of incidence is further increased from critical angle? It is a very
interesting phenomenon in refraction of light. In such situation, the light actually obeys the reflection
phenomenon, rather than refraction. When light ray travels from denser medium to rarer medium with
angle of incidence greater than critical angle, the light totally reflects back to the denser medium, which is
called the total internal reflection. Therefore, the total internal reflection is defined as the phenomenon
of complete reflection of light back to the same medium from the transparent surface when angle of
incidence in denser medium is greater than the critical angle.

The following conditions must be satisfied for total internal reflection in a medium.
i. The light ray should be incident from optically denser medium and fall on the pair of
transparent media in contact.
ii. The angle of incidence in the denser medium must be greater than the critical angle, i.e., i > C.
N
Relation between Critical Angle and Refractive Index rarer (air)
Consider a light ray PQ incident on the boundary of two
transparent media. Suppose the angle made by incident ray in r = 90°
S S'
the denser medium (for example, glass) is equal to the critical Q
angle for this medium i.e., i = C, so that the angle made by denser (glass)
refracted ray in rarer medium (for example, air) is 90º as i=C
shown in Fig. 15.7. P N'
From Fig 15.7, i = C and r = 90º
i=C
So, sin i = sin C and sin r = sin 90º = 1
(ii)
From Snell's law, for light passing from glass to air medium,
Fig. 15.7: Critical angle
sin i
g μa= sin r … (15.22)
Applying the above condition,

sin C
gμa=
1
∴ gμa= sin C … (15.23)
1
Also, gμa= … (15.24)
aμg

1
= sin C
aμg
1
∴ sin C = … (15.25)
μ
a g
This condition is applicable for any medium, so, in general form,

1
sin C = … (15.26)
μ
EXAMPLE 5: Light from a luminous point on the lower face of a rectangular glass slab, 2 cm thick, strikes the upper face
and totally reflected rays outline a circle of radius 3.2 cm on the lower face. What is refractive index of the glass?
SOLUTION
Given, OQ 3.2
QR = 2 = 2 = 1.6 cm
Thickness of glass slab, PR = 2 cm
Radius of circle, OQ = 3.2 cm QR
tan C = PR , where C is critical angle
Refractive index of glass, μ = ?
From figure, 1.6
C = tan–1 ⎛ 2 ⎞ = 38.6°
P
⎝ ⎠
C C C C
1 1
2 cm
So, μ = sin C = sin 38.6°
Q R O = 1.6
3.2 cm
 Check Point: The velocity of light in a liquid is 1.5 × 108 ms–1 and in air 3 × 108 ms–1. If a ray of
light passes from this liquid into air, calculate the value of critical angle. Ans: 30°

Total Internal Reflection in Nature: Mirage and Looming

Mirage
An optical illusion observed in hot deserts in which an inverted image of an object is formed due to the effect of
total internal reflection is known as mirage.
On hot summer days, the air near the ground is very hot and it is relatively cold at the higher levels.
Thus, many layers of air with gradually decreasing temperature are formed above the ground. The
hot air is less denser than cold air so that lower layer of air is rarer than the upper layer in every
consecutive layer. In such situation, a light ray from a tall object (say a tall tree), gradually bends
away from the corresponding normal of each layer. This results in increase in incident angle in every
lower layer of air. Finally a situation will come at which the angle of incidence becomes greater than
the critical angle i.e., i > C, then the light ray suffers total internal reflection without approaching the
ground. To a distant observer, the light appears to be coming from somewhere below the ground as
shown in Fig. 15.8. The observer naturally assumes that the light is coming from an object lying on
the ground. It means the illusion of tree appears as a water pool in the ground. A thirsty camel roams
long distance to meet the water pool that appears from a long distance for it, but is unable to find.
Fig. 15.8: Mirage

Looming
This is also the optical illusion due to the reverse atmospheric condition of mirage. In a very cold
region (say in snow field), lower layer of air is cooler than the upper layer so that an object on the
land surface appears in the sky. This type of illusion is called looming.
Note: When light coming from the sun and stars, enters into the earth's atmosphere, it suffers refraction many
times from different layers of airs having different refractive index due to difference of temperature. As a result,
stars appear out of position when viewed near the horizon, and the sun can be observed clearly as a disc
although it already below the horizon. Other many illusions are observed due to total internal reflection. Some
of them are as below:
a. Cracks in the glass are distinctly seen.
b. Air bubbles into the water shines brightly.
c. Fish see the sky circular shaped.

15.7 Technological Applications of Total Internal Reflection

1. Totally Reflecting Prism B
The prism which is used to reflect the light, obeying total
internal reflection in it, is known as totally reflecting prism. 45°
A simple type of totally reflecting prism is made with
angles 45º–45º–90º. A light ray is incident normally on face 90° A
making side angles 45º–45º as shown in Fig. 15.9. The light
suffers total internal reflection at the remaining two faces
and finally emerges from the incidence face undergoing a 45°
deviation of 90º in each face. The image will be formed
inverted and brighter than the image formed by the mirror. C
Fig. 15.9: Path of light changes through 180°
through a totally reflecting prism
2. Brilliancy of Diamond
Diamond is a transparent material which has very high refractive index, μ = 2.42, and hence, very
low critical angle, C = 24º. The faces are cut in such a way that whenever light falls on any of the
faces into it, the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle. Therefore, the light entering into
the diamond suffers total internal reflection repeatedly. Only a small intensity of light comes out
from the edge of few faces. Thus, a diamond sparkles brilliantly.
3. Optical Fibres and Light Pipes

Optical fibres are the devices principally working on the phenomenon of total internal reflection. An
optical fibre is a very thin and long strand of glass or quartz surrounded by a glass coating of slightly
lower refractive index. It serves as a medium which transmits optical signal from one place to
another place.
These fibres need to be highly transparent to minimize the absorption of light, which would
otherwise reduce the amplitude of light pulses progressively as they travel further in the fibre. Each
fibre consists of a core surrounded by a layer of cladding of lower refractive index to reduce light
loss from the core. Total internal reflection takes place in the core-cladding interface.
When light is incident at one end of the fibre at small angle, it goes inside and suffers multiple total
internal reflections because the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle of the fibre
material (denser medium)with respect to cladding (rarer medium). As there is no loss in the intensity
of light during total internal reflection, the light signal coming out of the fibre is of same intensity as
the incident light.
The bundle of optical fibres is a light pipe. A single fibre is not sufficient to see the image of an object
at the another end of fibres, so a bundle of fibres is used for proper visualization. Light pipe is used
to see the internal parts like stomach, intestines, etc., through the mouth.
Applications of optical fibre

Some of the important applications of optical fibres are as follows:
a. Optical fibres are used to construct light pipes used in medical diagnosis. A light pipe is a
bundle of optical fibres. A single fibre can’t show the complete image of an object. But, the
broken image in the form of dots formed by each fibre, can show the complete image.
b. Optical fibres are used in transmitting and receiving electrical signals in telecommunication.
c. They are used for transmitting optical signals and two dimensional pictures.
d. They are used to measure the refractive indices of the liquids.
e. They are used in photometric sensors which are used to measure the blood flow in the heart.

Core
Cladding
incident light ray

Fig. 15.10: A light pipe
Tips for MCQs
Quantitative Tips
sin i μ2
sin r = μ1 = 1μ2
1.
t sin (i – r)
2. Lateral displacement of light in parallel sided glass slab (d) = cos r , 't' is the thickness of the slab.
1
3. Displacement of the object (apparent shift), d = t ⎛1 – ⎞ , 't' is the real depth of water.
⎝ μ⎠
Real depth
4. Refractive index = Apparent depth , when object is placed in the denser medium.
1
5. μ = sin C , where C is the critical angle.
Conceptual Tips
1. In refraction, light ray bends at the boundary of two continuous transparent media.
2. Light bends due to the change in its velocity in two media. It travels faster in rarer medium and
slower in denser medium. But, frequency does not change in refraction, because frequency is the
property of source, not the medium.
3. Higher the refractive index of a medium, slower the light moves.
4. It is independent of angle of incidence and intensity of incident light.
5. A transparent medium has least refractive index for red colour light and greatest refractive index for
violet colour light of the visible spectrum.
6. When angle of incidence for light travelling from denser to rarer medium is greater than the critical
angle, no refraction occurs.
7. In total internal reflection intensity of light is not reduced as light is reflected into the same medium.
8. The same material may be rarer and denser with respect to the different materials. For example,
water is rarer medium with respect to glass but it is denser with respect to air. Thus, we can say that
rarer and denser media are relative terms.
9. The optically denser medium does not mean greater mass density (mass per unit volume). For
example, kerosene oil is lighter than water (it floats on water), but it has higher refractive index, that
is, it is optically denser than water.
10. When a ray of monochromatic (single wavelength) light passes through a parallel sided optical
medium such as a glass slab:
(i) Angle of incidence at the first face is equal to the angle of emergence at the opposite face.
(ii) Angle of refraction at the first face is equal to the angle of incidence at the opposite face.
(iii) The emergent ray is parallel to the path of the incident ray.

(iv) The ray suffers only a lateral shift.
(v) Lateral shift is zero for normal incidence, i.e., for i = 0°.
(vi) When a ray of white light passes through a glass slab, the lateral shift is different for different
colours of light. It is maximum for violet light and minimum for red light.
Quick Reply
1. Does critical angle depend on colour of light? If yes, then for which colour, violet or red, the critical
angle is more?
 Yes, it depends on colour of light. According to the relation between critical angle and refractive
index, we can write,
1
sin ic =
μ
Since refractive index for red colour is less than that of violet, so according to the above relation, the
2. In refractive index, if we write AμB, what does A and B refer?
 A represents the incident medium of light and B represents the refracting medium.
3. What is the relation of refractive index of a medium and speed of light in that medium?
c
 The refractive index, μ = v , where c (speed of light in vacuum) is constant.
1
So, μ α v
This shows that the speed of light gets decrease as the refractive index increases.
4. A stick partially immersed obliquely under water appears to be bent. Explain, why.
 The different points on the stick, which has been dipped in the water obliquely, are at different
depths. Since the normal shift depends upon the depth of the object, the different point on the stick
undergoes different amounts of normal shifts and hence the stick appears bent.
5. What is the critical angle for a transparent medium of refractive index 1.5?
1 1
 For μ = 1.5, sin C = = .
μ 1.5
1
∴ C = sin—1⎛1.5⎞ = 41.8°.
⎝ ⎠

1. Do frequency and wavelength change when light passes from one medium to another?
 Frequency is the most fundamental quantity of light as it travels in different transparent medium. It
does not depend on the medium, so frequency remains same although the medium changes. But
wavelength becomes shorter in relatively denser medium. So, it changes
when passes from one medium to another. Mathematically,
f0 = fm (frequency remains same) c, λo , fo
(volume or air)
c v v
or, = or, λm = λ0 c
λ0 λm v, λm , fm
(medium)
v
Since, c < 1
∴ λm < λ0.

2. For what angle of incidence, lateral shift is maximum? Can it be zero?
 The formula for lateral shift is,
t sin (i – r)
d = cos r
Lateral Shift
The lateral shift is maximum at i = 90º,
t sin (90° – r) t cos r
i.e., d = = cos r t
cos r
d =t Angle of
O 90° incidence
Lateral shift = Thickness of refracting medium.
Also, the lateral shift is minimum at i = 0º. In such case lateral shift is practically zero.
3. Sun, at the time of sunset and sunrise, appears elliptical and not circular. Explain why?
 At sunrise or at sunset, it is just above the horizon i.e., its lower edge is nearer to horizon than its
upper edge. Therefore, light rays from the lower edge are slightly more refracted in the atmosphere
than those from the upper edge. It means, the lower edge is apparently raised more than the upper
edge. Thus, there is an apparent decrease in the vertical diameter, but not the horizontal diameter as
a result it appears elliptical.
4. What are the advantages of total reflecting prism over plane mirror?
 Some advantages of total reflecting prism over plane mirror are:
i. Multiples reflection do not take place in reflecting prism, so bright image is formed.
ii. It does not require silvering which is one of the advantage.
iii. Reflection of light with high percentage can be achieved, while in plane mirror absorption do
occur.
iv. A reflecting prism is free from the trouble arising out of vanishing of the silvering of mirror with
the passage of time.
5. Can total internal reflection occur when light travels from rarer to Light
denser medium? t
Direc from sky
 It is impossible. When a ray of light passes from a rarer medium to
denser medium, the angle of refraction is smaller than the angle of
incidence. But in case of total internal reflection, the angle of refraction
has to reach more than 90º, which is impossible when light travels from rarer to denser medium.
6. Why do stars appear twinkling?
 The temperature of atmosphere is not equal at all points as we go vertically upwards from the earth's
surface. So, there are many layers of air of different densities, and hence different refractive indices.
Due to the wind flow and temperature gradient, the density and refractive indices of atmospheric
layers change continuously. Therefore, light rays from a star, on passing through the atmosphere,
change their path continuously. As a result, the number of rays goes on changing for an observer on
the earth that makes the appearance of twinkling of stars. Critical angle is more for red colour than
that for violet colour.
7. Why do in summer, roads often appear to be covered with water when seen from a distance?
Explain.
 This is due to the total internal reflection. In summer during the day time, the layers of air in contact
with the road becomes very hot while upper layers of the air is comparatively cool. The light travels
from upper cold layers (denser medium) to lower hot layers (rarer medium), so it is refracted away
from the normal. When the angle of incidence becomes greater than the critical angle, total internal
reflection occurs and the light is reflected upward. When these reflected rays enter the eyes, it
appears as if the road looks like a pool of water. This pool of water is the image of sky.

Worked Out Problems

1. Light with a frequency of 5.80 × 1014 Hz travels in a block of glass that has an index of refraction of
1.52. What is the wavelength of the light (a) in vacuum (b) in glass?
SOLUTION
Given, 3 × 108
Frequency of light (f) = 5.80 × 1014 Hz = 5.8 × 1014 = 5.17 × 10–7 m
Refractive index (μ)= 1.52 Finally,
Wave length of light in vacuum (λ0) = ? λ0
Wave length of light in glass (λ) = ? Wave length of light in glass (λ) =
μ
We know, 5.17 × 10–7
c = 1.52 = 3.4 × 10–7 m
Wave length of light in vacuum (λ0) = f
2. A concave mirror of small aperture and focal length 8 cm lies on a bench and a pin is moved
vertically above it. At what point will image and object coincide, if the mirror is filled with water of
4
refractive index 3 ?
SOLUTION
Let C be the centre of curvature of the mirror and C' be the point where the image and object
coincide when the mirror is filled with water.
The ray starting from C' gets refracted at A along AD C
(CA produced).
i
AB
sin i C'A CA C'
μ = sin r = AB = C'A
r
CA
CB
= C'B ( B lies very close to A) r
i
CP A B
= C'P ( P lies very close to B)
f = 8 cm, R = CP = 2 × 8 = 16 cm D
C'P = ?
CP D
μ = C'P
P
4 CP
3 = C'P
3 3
or, C'P = 4 × CP = 4 × 16 = 12 cm
3. A transparent cube of 12 cm edge contains a small air bubble. Its apparent depth when viewed
through one face of the cube is 6 cm and when viewed through the opposite face is 2 cm. What is the
actual distance of bubble from the first face?
SOLUTION
Let the actual distance of the bubble from first face be x cm. 12 cm
x
Then, μ = 6 . . . (i)
For the second face
x cm
The actual distance of the bubble = 12 – x
12 – x
μ= 2 . . . (ii)

From (i) and (ii)
x 12 – x
6 = 2
72
or, x = 8 = 9 cm
∴ Actual distance of bubble from the first face is 9 cm.
4. ABCD is the plane of a glass cube. A horizontal beam of light enters the face AB at grazing incidence.
Show that the angle θ which any rays emerging from BC would make with the normal to BC is given
by sin θ = cot α, where α is the critical angle.
SOLUTION
Let NOP be normal to face AB and N'QP be sin θ
or, aμg = ... (ii)
normal to face BC. Since the beam of light cos α
enters the face AB at grazing incidence, so From Eq. (i) and (ii)
∠AON = 90° and hence ∠POQ = α is critical 1 sin θ N
angle. Then ∠OQP = 90° – α. =
sin α cos α A O B
For face AB,
cos α α
1 or, sin θ = 90 – α
aμg = ... (i) sin α P Q θ
N'
sin α
∴ sin θ = cot α
For face BC D C R
sin θ
aμg =
sin (90° – α)

1. A speck of dirt is embedded 3.50 cm below the surface of a sheet of ice (μ = 1.309). What is its
apparent depth when viewed at normal incidence? Ans: 2.67 cm
2. A beam of light has a wavelength of 650 nm in vacuum. (a) What is the speed of this light in a liquid
whose index of refraction at this wavelength is 1.47? (b) What is the wavelength of these waves in the
liquid? Ans: 2.04 × 108 m/s, 442 nm
3. A parallel beam of light in air makes an angle of 47.5° with the surface of a glass plate having a
refractive index of 1.66. What is the angle between the reflected part of the beam and the surface of
the glass? (b) What is the angle between the refracted beam and the surface of the glass?
Ans: 47.5°, 66.0 o
4. A tank containing methanol has walls 2.50 cm thick made of glass of refractive index 1.550. Light
from the outside air strikes the glass at a 41.3° angle with the normal to the glass. Find angle the light
makes with the normal in the methanol. (b) The tank is emptied and refilled with an unknown liquid.
If light incident the same angle as in part (a) enters the liquid in the tank at an angle 20.2° from the
normal, what is the refractive index of the unknown liquid? Ans: 29.8°, 1.9
5. A ray of light is incident on a plane surface separating two sheets of glass with refractive index 1.70
and 1.58. The angle of incident is 62.0° and the ray originates in the glass with μ = 1.70. Compute the
angle of refraction. Ans: 71.8°
6. The critical angle for total internal reflection at a liquid-air interface is 42.5°. If a ray of light traveling
in the liquid has an angle of incident at the interface of 35.0°. What angle does the refracted ray in the
air make with the normal? (b) If a ray of light traveling in air has an angle of incidence at the interface
of 35.0°, what angle does the refracted ray in the liquid make with the normal? Ans: 58.1°, 22.8°
7. A microscope is focused on a scratch on the bottom of a breaker. Turpentine is poured into the
beaker to a depth of 4 cm and it is found necessary to raise the microscope through a vertical distance
of 1.28 cm to bring the scratch again into focus. Find the refractive index of turpentine. Ans: 1.47

Exercise
1. What is the focal length and power of a plane glass plate?
2. What is the principle of mirage?
3. Define critical angle. Why is it called so?
4. What is total internal reflection? Why is it called so?
5. What are optical fibres?
6. What are the advantages of optical fibers over ordinary cable lines?
7. What are the conditions of total internal reflection?
8. What does Snell's law describe?
9. Can you define refractive index using Snell's law in normal incidence on refracting surface?
Short Questions
1. What is the difference between reflection and refraction of light?
2. For which angle of incidence, a parallel sided glass slab produces maximum lateral shift?
3. What is the physical principle on which the working of optical fiber is based?
4. What is the relation of angle of critical angle for normal incidence and grazing incidence in a prism?
5. Can you measure the lateral shift in prism? Explain.
6. Differentiate between an optically denser medium and optically rarer medium?
7. What is meant by looming?
8. Explain the cause of brilliance of diamonds.
9. Why does air bubble shine in the water?
10. Why does refraction of light occur when light passes from one medium to another?
11. Define refractive index of a transparent medium.
12. What are optical fibres? Give their one use.
13. Why does diamond sparkle?
Long Questions
1. What is lateral shift? Derive an expression for it. Show in a graph the variation of lateral shift with
the angle of incidence of light.
2. Deduce the relation 1μ2 × 2μ3 × 3μ1 = 1 and μ1 sini1 = μ2 sinr2.
3. Define refractive index in terms of speed of light and (b) derive refractive index in terms of real depth
and apparent depth.
1
4. Define critical angle and total internal reflection. Derive the formula μ = sin C .
5. Define real and apparent depth. Derive an expression for apparent displacement of an object in
denser medium.

LEVEL I
1. Calculate the speed of light in a medium whose critical angle is 30°. Ans: 1.5 x 108 ms-1
2. A ray of light is incident in water at angle of 30°on water air plane surface. Find the angle of
refraction in air. (μ of water = 4/3) Ans: 41.8o
3. A film of oil, refractive index 1.20, lies on water of refractive index 1.33. A ray of is incident at 30° in
the oil on the oil boundary. Calculate the angle of refraction in water. Ans: 26.8°
4. A ray of light is incident in water at an angle of 70° on water glass plane surface. Calculate the angle
of refraction in glass in each case. (refractive index of glass = 1.5 and refractive index of water is 1.33)
Ans: 56.4°

5. Calculate the critical angle for (i) an air glass surface, (ii) an air water surface and (iii) water glass
surface. (refractive index of glass = 1.5 and refractive index of water is 1.33)
Ans: (i) 41.8 o , (i) 48.8 o , (iii) 62.5 o
LEVEL II
1. Determine the critical angle for a glass-air surface, if a ray of light which is incident in air on the
surface is deviated through 15°, when its angle of incidence is 40°. Ans: 41.14o
2. A film of oil, refractive index 1.20, lies on water of refractive index 1.33. A ray of light is incident at
30o in the oil on the oil boundary. Calculate the angle of refraction in water. Ans: 26.8o
3. A small pin fixed on the table top is viewed from above from a distance of 50 cm. By what distance
the pin appears to be raised if it is viewed from the same point through a 15 cm thick glass slab hold
parallel to the table. Refractive index of glass is 1.5. Does the answer depend upon the location of the
slab? Ans: 5 cm, not depend
4. A microscope is focus on a scratch on the bottom of beaker. A liquid is poured into the beaker to a
depth of 4 cm and it is found necessary to raise the microscope through a very a vertical distance of
1.20 cm to bring the scratch again into focus. Find the refractive index of the liquid. Ans : 1.43
5. Light travelling in air is incident on the surface of a block of plastic at an angle of 62.7° to the normal
and is bent so that it makes a 48.1o angle with the normal in the plastic. Find the speed of light in the
plastic. Ans: 2.51 x 108 m/s
6. A ray of light is incident in water at an angle of 30° on water-air plane surface. Find the angle of
refraction in air. (μ for water = 4/3) Ans: 41.8°
7. A light beam travels at 1.94 × 108 m/s in quartz. The wavelength of light in quartz is 355 nm. (a)
What is the index of refraction of quartz at this wavelength? (b) If this same light travels through air,
what is its wavelength there? Ans: 1.55, 549 nm
8. A point source of light is 20 cm below the surface of a body in water. Find the diameter of the largest
circle of the surface through light can emerge from the water. Ans: 45.6 cm
Objective Questions
1. Diamond shines brightly in air than inside water because
a. water absorbs light
b. total internal reflection takes place in water
c. total internal reflection takes place in air
d. water disperses light
2. Which of the following remains constant during refraction?
a. velocity b. wavelength
c. amplitude d. frequency
3. When light passes through glass slab.
a. wavelength decreases b. wavelength increases
c. velocity increases d. frequency decreases
4. Just before the time of sunset the sun appears to be higher in the sky and reddish in color due to
a. Refraction of light only b. Scattering of light only
c. Total internal reflection d. refraction and scattering of light
5. Refractive index of glass is least for
a. violet b. indigo
c. blue d. red
ANSWERS
1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (d) 5. (d)

REFRACTION
THROUGH PRISMS
16.1 Prism
Prism is a wedge shaped transparent refracting medium Refracting edge
D
bounded by two plane surfaces inclined to each other at A
some angle. Two plane surfaces where the refraction
Angle of prism
phenomenon is observed are called the refracting faces Refracting face
of the prism. The third face is used to hold the prism,

called the base of prism.
The angle between two refracting faces of the prism is E
F
called the angle of prism. It is denoted by 'A'. Any
B C
section of the prism cut by a plane perpendicular to the base
refracting edge is called principal section of the prism. Fig. 16.1: A glass prism
16.2 Refraction Through Prism

Consider the principal section of a glass
A
prism ABC, with refractive index 'μ' and
refracting angle 'A'. A ray of light PQ is N T
incident on face AB of the prism. As the light M' N'
Q δ
ray PQ travels from rarer medium (air) to i δ1 δ2 R e
denser medium (glass), it bends towards the r1 r2 δ2
normal N. The ray QR is the refracted ray in θ
the prism. This ray QR suffers further P M
S
refraction from face AC of the prism and
bends along RS, away from the normal N'. B C
The ray RS is the emergent ray. Complete ray
diagram of refraction of light through a glass Fig. 16.2: Deviation of light by a prism
prism is shown in Fig. 16.2.
Here, ∠PQN = i = angle of incidence on face AB
∠RQM = r1 = angle of refraction on face AB
∠QRM = r2 = angle of incidence on face AC
∠N'RS = e = emergent angle (or angle of refraction on face AC)
In Fig. 16.2,
∠NQP = ∠M'QM = ∠M'QR + ∠RQM
or, i = ∠M'QR + r1
∴ ∠M'QR = i – r1 . . . (16.1)
also, ∠N'RS = ∠M'RM = ∠M'RQ + ∠QRM
or, e = ∠M'RQ + r2
∴ ∠M'RQ = e – r2 . . . (16.2)
The ray PQ would have proceeded straight along PQM'T in the absence of prism. But due to the
refraction by prism, the ray travels along RS. Thus, the angle TM'S is the angle of deviation (δ).
In Fig. 16.2,
∠TM'S = δ . . . (16.3)
In the ΔM'QR,
∠M'QR + ∠M'RQ = ∠TM'S . . . (16.4)
Using equations (16.1), (16.2), and (16.3) in equation (16.4), we get,
i – r1 + e – r2 = δ
i + e – (r1 + r2) = δ
∴ δ = i + e – (r1 + r2) . . . (16.5)
Suppose, ∠QMR = θ, and, ∠BAC = A, then from ΔMQR, we get,
θ + r1 + r2 = 180º . . . (16.6)
Since, NM and N'M are the normals on face AB and AC of prism respectively, then
∠AQM = ∠ARM = 90º
Now, in quadrilateral AQMR, we get,
A + 90º + θ + 90º = 360º
∴ A + θ = 180° . . . (16.7)
A = r1 + r2 . . . (16.8)
Using the value of A in equation (16.5), we get,
δ =i+e–A
∴ A+δ=i+e . . . (16.9)
Condition for Minimum Deviation

Since the prism is made with rigid glass, the refracting angle 'A' for a
prism is constant. It is experimentally observed fact that the angle of
deviation varies with the variation of angle of incidence 'i'. For the small
angle of incidence, the angle of deviation is high. When the angle of
incidence is gradually increased, the angle of deviation decreases upto a
certain minimum value, then again starts increasing with increase in angle
of incidence as shown in Fig. 16.3. When the angle of deviation is
practically minimum, the angle of incidence is numerically equal to the
angle of emergence and refracted light is parallel to the base of prism. The
angle of deviation at which its value is minimum is known as angle of minimum deviation. It is
denoted by δm. This condition at which the deviation angle is minimum is called the condition of
minimum deviation.
At the condition of minimum deviation,
i =e . . . (16.10)
r1 = r2 = r (let) . . . (16.11)
δ = δm . . . (16.12)

Refraction Through Prisms |Chapter 16| 423
Using equations (16.10) and (16.12) in equation (16.9), we get,
A + δm = i + i
or, 2i = A + δm
A + δm
∴ i = . . . (16.13)
2
Also, using equation (16.11) in equation (16.8), we get,
A =r+r
A
∴ r = . . . (16.14)
2
Using Snell's law, the refractive index of glass prism can be determined as,
sin i
μ = . . . (16.15)
sin r
A + δm
sin
2
μ = . . . (16.16)
A
sin
2
This expression provides the relation of refractive index of glass prism with angle of prism and angle
of minimum deviation.
Note:
We have, For minimum deviation angle δ, i.e., δm
δ = (i + e) – A i– e=0
= ( i)2 +( e)2 – A or, i = e
∴ δ = ( i – e)2 + 2 ie – A ∴ i =e
EXAMPLE 1: What is the angle of minimum deviation produced by a prism having angle of prism of 60º and refractive
index 1.5?
SOLUTION
Given, 60º + δm⎞ 1
or, sin ⎛ = 1.5 × sin 30º = 1.5 × 2
Angle of prism (A) = 60º ⎝ 2 ⎠
Refractive index (μ) = 1.5 60º + δm⎞
or, sin ⎛ = 0.75
From prism formula ⎝ 2 ⎠
A + δm⎞
sin ⎛
60º + δm
or, = 48.6º
⎝ 2 ⎠ 2
μ = A or, 60º + δm = 97.2º
sin 2
or, δm = 97.2º – 60º
A + δm⎞ A
or, sin ⎛
or, δm = 37.2º
⎝ 2 ⎠ = μ sin 2 ∴ The angle of minimum deviation is 37.2º.
60º + δm⎞ 60º
or, sin ⎛ = 1.5 × sin 2
⎝ 2 ⎠
 Check Point:
a. The refractive index of a prism is 1.66 and angle of prism is 60º. Find the minimum deviation.
b. Find the minimum deviation produced by an equilateral prism of refractive index 1.49.
Ans: a. 52.2º; b. 36.3º

16.3 Deviation of Light from Small Angled Prism

Consider a light ray incident from distant object to a glass prism of very small refracting angle 'A',
usually less than 6º. In such condition, the angle of incidence 'i' is also very small. Consequently, the
angles r1, r2 and e are also very small. This type of situation is practically observed in lenses. The
deviation of light from small angled prism is similar to the deviation from thin lens.
i. The refractive index when light travels from air to glass in face AB as in Fig. 16.4 is,
sin i
aμg = . . . (16.17)
sin r1
ii. The refractive index when light travels from glass to air in face AC as in Fig. 16.4 is,
sin r2
gμa = . . . (16.18)
sin e
Since the angles i, r1, r2 and e are assumed very small, we can write, A
sin i ≈ i
sin r1 ≈ r1 W
Q T
sin r2 ≈ r2 i δ R
r1 r2 e
and sin e ≈ e P
S
i
aμg =r
1 B C
∴ i = aμg r1 . . . (16.19)
Fig. 16.4: Deviation by small angled prism
Also, from equation (16.18), we get,
r2
gμa =e
e = aμg r2 . . . (16.20)
In both of above cases, refractive index of glass is calculated relative to air, so, simply we write,
aμg =μ
Equations (16.19) and (16.20) are written as,
i = μr1 . . . (16.21)
and e = μr2 . . . (16.22)
It has been already derived that the sum of angle of prism and angle of deviation is equal to the sum
of incident angle and emergent angle, i.e.
A+δ=i+e . . . (16.23)
A + δ = μr1 + μr2
or, A + δ = μ (r1 + r2)
or, δ = μ(r1 + r2) – A
or, δ =μA–A (... A = r1 + r2)
∴ δ = A (μ – 1) . . . (16.24)
This expression is useful to derive the lens maker's formula, since the deviation from small angled
prism is comparable with the deviation from thin lens.

Factors affecting the angle of deviation produced by prism

The angle of deviation produced by prism is found to depend upon following factors.
a. Wavelength of light
As we know, wavelength (λ) and refractive index (µ) are related inversely. Greater the wavelength
smaller will be the refractive index. This means, longer wavelength light is refracted (bent) less and
hence angle of deviation is small. But, reverse is true for shorter wavelength of light. So, angle of
deviation produced by prism is greater for violet than red light.
b. Material of the prism

Nature of the material used to make prism defines the refractive index of the prism. A prism made of
material having greater refractive index produces greater amount of refraction leading to greater
angle of deviation. This means, even for the same angle of incidence, the deviation produced varies
with the refractive index of the prism. The crown glass prism has lower refractive index than flint
glass prism. So, deviation produced by crown glass prism is smaller than that produced by flint glass
prism.
c. Angle of prism
The angle of deviation produced by prism is greater if the angle of prism is greater and vice versa.
Angle of deviation
We know the deviation produced by prism is given by δ = i + e – A
The angle of incidence greatly affects the deviation produced by the prism. Experimentally, it has
been observed that, the angle of deviation at first decreases with increase in angle of incidence. For a
particular angle of incidence, the angle of deviation becomes minimum and is known as angle of
minimum deviation (δm). When the angle of incidence is further increased, the angle of deviation
also starts to increase. A plot of angle of deviation with angle of incidence is as shown in Fig. 16.3
and is commonly known as I-D curve.
From graph it is seen that, there are two angles of incidence for a particular angle of deviation. These
two values actually represent the angle of incidence in the first face and angle of emergence in the
second face of the prism respectively. This means, if the angle of deviation produced by the prism of
angle 60° is 62° when angle of incidence and emergence are 40° and 82° respectively, then the same
deviation will be produced when angle of incidence and emergence are simply interchanged.
Grazing incidence and grazing emergence

Grazing incidence refers to the condition in which a ray of light is incident at an angle of 90o in the
first face of the prism as shown in Fig. 16.5. The angle of refraction in the first face is then equal to the
critical angle for the glass prism.
The deviation produced by the prism in this case is given by
δ = 90º + e – (r1 + r2) = 90º + e – C – r2 = (90º – C) + (e – r2)
Similarly, grazing emergence refers to the condition in which the light emerging out of the prism
makes an angle of 90o with the normal in second face as shown in Fig. 16.6. In this case, the angle of
refraction in the second face is equal to the critical angle for the glass prism.
The net deviation in this case is given by δ = (90º – C) + (i – r1)
In the grazing incidence condition of the prism, if the angle of prism is gradually increased, the angle
of incidence in the second face (r2) also increases. For particular angle of the prism, the angle of
incidence in the second face becomes equal to the critical angle and the emergent ray grazes the
surface of the second face of the prism as shown in Fig. 16.7. This means, for particular angle of
prism, grazing incidence leads to grazing emergence and so maximum deviation of the ray occurs.
Both angles of refraction in the first and second face are equal to the critical angle for glass.
Maximum deviation in this situation is given by
δmax = i + e – (r1 + r2) = 90º + 90º – (C + C) = 180º – 2C.
A A
A δmax
δmax
δmax
M δ1 δ2 N e i
M N
i = 90° r2 r1 C i = 90° e = 90°
C M N e = 90° C C
S P
B S A
B C'
C' B C'
P P S
S
Fig. 16.5: Grazing incidence Fig. 16.6: Grazing emergence Fig. 16.7: Simultaneous grazing
incidence and emergence
Importance of small angle prism in real life

1. Right angled prisms are used in binoculars and periscopes instead of plane mirror. It is due to
the fact that they work in total internal reflection so that the intensity of light does not reduce.
2. Lens are the small angle prism. They are used in telescope, microscope, camera etc.
3. They can be used to study the reaction of human eye to light.
4. They are used to study the constituents of light colour (i.e., spectrum) of visible light)
5. They are used in several laboratory instruments.
Tips for MCQs
Quantitative Tips
1. Formula for prism
A + δm⎞
sin ⎛
⎝ 2 ⎠
(i) μ = , where A is the angle of prism and δm is the angle of minimum deviation.
A
sin 2
(ii) For a small angled prism, angle of deviation δ = (μ –1) A.

(iii) If a prism of refractive index μ2 is surrounded by a medium of refractive index μ1, we can write
A + δmin⎞
sin⎛
μ2 ⎝2 ⎠
1μ2 = =
μ1 A
sin 2
Conceptual Tips
1. The light undergoes refraction twice through a prism. First time, when it enters the prism through
the first face and second time when it emerges out from prism through the second face. So, total
deviation through a prism is the sum of these two deviations.
2. Angle of deviation produced by a thin prism does not depend upon the angle of incidence and
intensity of incident light.

3. Angle of minimum deviation produced by a thin prism depends upon the
i. Refracting angle of prism (A)
ii. Nature of material of prism (refractive index of material)
iii. Refractive index of medium that surrounds the prism
iv. Colour of incident light
4. The grazing emergence is obtained when A = 2C, where C is the critical angle.
5. When A > 2C, light goes on total internal reflection from the second face.
6. If the angle of prism is less than 6º or 1c, it is called a small angled prism.
7. If a prism is surrounded by a material of the same refractive index, no refraction takes place at its
faces and light passes through it undeviated, i.e., angle of deviation (δ) = 0
8. For a given angle of prism and wavelength of light, greater the refractive index (μ) of the prism,
greater will be the deviation as δ ∝ (μ – 1).
Quick Reply
1. State the factors on which the deviation produced by a prism depend.
 The deviation produced by a prism depends upon the angle of prism, refractive index of the prism,
angle of incidence, color of light, and the medium around the prism.
2. How does the angle of minimum deviation of a glass prism vary if the incident voilet light is
replaced by red light?
 Angle of minimum deviation decreases if the incident violet light is replaced by red light. This is
because the refractive index of glass for red light is less than that for violet light.

1. Under what condition does a prism produce the angle of minimum deviation?
 The minimum deviation (δmin) of light occurs when the ray passes symmetrically through the prism.
In this case, the angle of emergence is equal to the angle of incidence and angle of refraction at the
two faces are also equal. The refracted ray through the prism is also parallel to the base of the prism.
3. Show that at the condition of minimum deviation, angle of incidence is equal to the emergent angle
in a prism.
 The angle of deviation in a prism is,
δ =i+e–A
= ( i)2 +( e)2 – A
=( i– e)2 + 2 ie – A
Here, angle of prism A is constant, so angle of deviation δ is minimum only when ( i – e) = 0.
i.e., i = e (for δ = δm)
∴ i=e
4. Does the angle of minimum deviation change if the prism is dipped into water? Explain.
 Yes. When a prism is immersed in water,
A + δm⎞
sin ⎛
⎝ 2 ⎠
wμg =
A
sin 2
Since the value of wμg is less than μg, the value of angle of minimum deviation decreases on dipping
the prism into water.

Worked Out Problems

1. A glass prism of angle 72° and index of refraction 1.66 is immersed in a liquid of refractive index 1.33.
Find the angle of minimum deviation when a ray is refracted through the prism.
SOLUTION
Given, 72° + δm
sin
Angle of prism (A) = 72° 1.66 2
or, 1.33 =
Refractive index of glass (aμg) = 1.66 sin 36°
Refractive index of a liquid (aμl) = 1.33 72° + δm 1.66
or, sin 2 = 1.33 sin 36°
Angle of minimum deviation (δm) = ?
If lμg is the refractive index of the material of 72° + δm 1.66
or, = sin–1 ⎛ ⎞
the glass prism w.r.t a liquid, then, 2 ⎝1.33 sin 36°⎠
A + δm 72° + δm ∴ δm = 22.38°
sin 2 sin
2 Hence, the required angle of minimum deviation is
aμg
lμ g = or, = 22.38°.
A aμl 72°
sin 2 sin 2
2. The angle of minimum deviation produced by a prism of refractive index 1.5 is 37.2º. Calculate the
angle of prism.
SOLUTION
Given,
Refractive index (μ) = 1.5
angle of minimum deviation (δm) = 37.2º
Angle of prism (A) =?
A + δm
sin ⎛ 2 ⎞
⎝ ⎠
We have, μ = A
sin 2
A A + 37.2°⎞ A A
or, μ × sin 2 = sin ⎛ or, 1.5 × tan 2 = 0.95 × tan 2 + 0.32
⎝ 2 ⎠
A A A
or, 1.5 × sin 2 = sin ⎛ 2 + 18.6°⎞ or, (1.5 – 0.95) tan 2 = 0.32
⎝ ⎠
A A A A 0.32
or, 1.5 × sin 2= sin 2 cos 18.6° + sin 18.6° cos 2 or, tan 2 = 0.55
A A A A
or, 1.5 × sin 2= 0.95 × sin 2 + 0.32 × cos 2 or, tan 2 = 0.58
A A
or,
Dividing both sides by cos 2 , we get 2 = 30.1°
A A A ∴ A = 60.2º
sin 2 sin 2 cos 2
or, 1.5 ×
A = 0.95 × A + 0.32 × A
cos 2 cos 2 cos 2
3. A narrow beam of light is incident normally on one face of an equilateral prism (refractive index 1.45)
and finally emerges from the prism. The prism is now surrounded by water (refractive index 1.33).
What is the angle between the directions of the emergent beam in two cases?
SOLUTION
When the prism is in air, Snell's law can be written as,
1
aμg =
sin C

1.33
C = sin–1 ⎛1.45⎞ = 66.5°
1 A
or, sin C = O
⎝ ⎠
aμg 60
1 Here, angle of incidence is less than the critical

C = sin–1 ⎛1.45⎞
30
P
⎝ ⎠ 60
60
r angle, so refraction takes place at the second
θ face along PR. Let r be the angle of refraction at
C = 43.6° R
B C the second face, then
Q
Here, i = 60° on second face and it is greater sin 60°
gμ w =
than critical angle. sin r
Hence, the ray is total internally reflected sin 60°
or, gμa × aμw = sin r
along PQ.
When the prism is surrounded by water, aμw sin 60°
or, = sin r
1 aμg
wμg =
sin C aμg 3 1.45
1 or, sin r = sin 60° × = 2 × 1.33
aμ w
or, wμa × aμg = sin C
or, r = sin–1 (0.9442) = 70.8°
1 1 Now, from figure,
or, × aμg = sin C
aμw 60° + θ + r = 180°
aμw 1.33 or, 60° + θ = 70.8° = 180°
or, sin C = = 1.45
aμ g ∴ θ = 49.2°.
4. Light is incident normally on the shortest face of a 30º – 60º – 90º prism. A drop of liquid is placed on
the hypotenuse of the prism. If the index of the prism is 1.50, find the maximum index the liquid may
have if the light is to be totally reflected.
SOLUTION
If the light is to be totally reflected, the critical angle of the prism must be smaller than 60º.
The refractive index of prism (lμp) with respect to liquid,
1
lμp =
sin C
o
30
1 60
o
lμa × aμp =
sin C
aμl = sin C × aμp
o
Since the maximum value of C as 60º 90
Max. value of aμl = sin 60º × 1.5 = 1.30

5. A 45º – 45º – 90º prism is immersed in water. What is the minimum index of refraction the prism may
have if it is to totally reflect a ray incident normally on one of its shortest faces?
SOLUTION
The ray enters the face PQ normally. Hence the angle of incidence for the face PR=90º– 45º=45º
If the ray is to be totally reflected the critical angle of prism with respect to water must be less
than 45º. If C is the critical angle, then
1
wμp = P R
sin C 45
o
45
o
1
or, wμa × aμp = sin C
1 aμw
or, aμp = =
sin C × wμa sin C
o
90
aμp would have its minimum value when C has its Q

maximum value. Hence, minimum value of aμp
aμw 1.33
= sin 45º = 1 = 2 × 1.33 = 1.88
2


1. (i) The angle of a glass prism is 60°, and the minimum deviation of light through the prism is 39°.
Calculate the refractive index of glass. (ii) The refractive index of a glass prism is 1.66 and the angle
of prism is 60°. Find the minimum deviation. Ans: 1.52, 52.2°
2. A certain prism is found to produce a minimum deviation of 51° 0' while it produces a deviation of
62° 48' for two values of angle of incidence namely 40° 6' and 82° 42' respectively. Determine the
refracting angle of prism, the angle of incidence of minimum deviation and refractive index of the
material of the prism. Ans: 60°, 55.5°, 1.65
3. The refracting angle of prism is 62° and refractive index of glass for yellow light is 1.65. What is the
possible angle of incidence of a ray of this yellow light which is transmitted without total internal
reflection? Ans: 43.6°
Exercise
1. Define normal incidence.
2. What is the value of angle of prism of equilateral prism?
3. What type of prism is called small angled prism?
4. Under what condition does a prism produce the angle of minimum deviation?
Short Questions
1. What are grazing incidence and grazing emergence?
2. At what condition, the angle of incidence is equal to the emergent angle in prism?
3. State the factors on which the deviation produced by prism depend.
4. What is minimum angle of deviation?
Long Questions
1. What do you mean by minimum deviation of light when passing through a prism? Show that the
deviation produced by a small angled prism is independent of the angle of incidence.
2. Show that δ = A (μ – 1) for small angled prisms.
3. Draw I-D curve for the prism and state the condition for the minimum deviation. Derive the formula:
A + δm
sin ⎛ 2 ⎞
⎝ ⎠
μ = A
.
sin 2

LEVEL I
1. A glass prism of angle 72° and index of refraction 1.66 is immersed in a liquid of refractive index 1.33.
Find the angle of minimum deviation for parallel beam of light passing through the prism. Ans: 25.6°
2. A glass prism of angle A and refractive index 1.5 produces the angle of minimum deviation equal to
40o. Calculate the value of angle of prism. Ans: 62.8°
3. A narrow beam of light is incident normally on one face of an equilateral prism (refractive index
1.45), the prism being surrounded by water (refractive index 1.33). At what angle the ray of light
emerges out? Ans: 70.7°

LEVEL II
1. The angle of minimum deviation of an equilateral glass prism placed in air is 38°. What is the
minimum deviation produced by it when completely immersed in water. Given the refractive index
of water is 1.33. Ans: 9.14°
2. A certain prism is found to produce a minimum deviation of 51o0’ while it produces a deviation of
62°48’ for two values of an angle of incidence namely 40°6’ and 82°42’ respectively. Determine the
refracting angle of prism, the angle of minimum deviation and refractive index of the material of the
prism. Ans: 60°, 55.5°, 1.65
3. The refracting angle of prism is 62° and refractive index of glass for yellow light is 1.65. What is the
possible angle of incidence of a ray of this yellow light which is transmitted without total internal
reflection? Ans: 43.6°
4. A ray of light is refracted through a prism of angle 70°. If the angle of refraction in the glass at the
first face is 28°, what is the angle of incidence in the glass at the second face? Ans: 42°
5. A 60° glass prism has a refractive index of 1.5. Calculate (i) the angle of emergence of light at
minimum deviation, (ii) maximum deviation. Ans: (i) 48.59° (ii) 27.9°
6. A ray of light is refracted through a prism of angle 60º. Find the angle of incidence so that the
emergent ray just grazes in the second face. Refractive index of the material of the prism is 1.45.
Ans: 24.2°
Objective Questions
1. Which of the following is false for a prism placed in the position of minimum deviation?
a. i1 = i2 b. r1 = r2
c. ii = r1 d. light pass as symmetrically through the prism
2. A deviation of 5º is observed from a thin prism. The refractive index of prism material is 1.5. The
angle of prism is
a. 7.5° b. 10º
c. 5º d. 3.3°
3. Angle of minimum deviation for a prism of refractive index 1.5 is equal to the angle of prism. The
angle of prism is
a. 62º b. 41º
c. 82º d. 31º
4. The refractive index of a prism for red light is 2 and its refracting angle is 60°. For minimum
deviation, the angle of incidence will be
a. 30º b. 45º
c. 60º d. 71º
5. A light ray is incident by grating one of the face of a prism and after refraction ray does not emerge
out, what should be the angle of prism while critical angle is C?
a. Equal to 2C b. Less than 2C
c. More than 2C d. None of the above
ANSWERS
1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (b) 5. (c)


LENSES
17.1 Lenses
A lens is a piece of transparent refracting material bounded by two surfaces out of which at least one
is curved. Lens can be made by any transparent medium like water, glass, diamond, etc. However,
water is a liquid having no fixed shape and diamond is expensive. So, glass is usually used to make
lens. Lens is an important optical component used in microscope, telescope, cameras, projectors, etc.
Lens converges or diverges the incident beam of light. To make the light converge or diverge, it is
made with varying thickness. Lens is divided into two classes:
(i) Convex lens (or converging lens)
(ii) Concave lens (or diverging lens)
Convex Lenses
If the lens is thick at centre and thin at edges, then it is called a convex lens or converging lens.
Depending upon the shape of convex lens, it is further divided into three classes.
(i) Bi–convex lens or double convex lens
(ii) Plano–convex lens
(iii) Concavo–convex lens
Bi-convex lens Plano convex lens Concavo-convex lens
If both surfaces are convex, If one surface is plane and If one surface in which light is
then the lens is called bi– another is convex, then the incident, is concave and
convex lens. lens is called plano–convex another is convex, then the
lens. lens is called concavo-convex
lens.
Concave Lenses
If the lens is thin at centre and thick at edges, then it is called concave or diverging lens. Depending
on its shape, it is divided into three classes.
(i) Bi-concave lens or double concave lens
(ii) Plano concave lens
(iii) Convexo–concave lens

Lenses |Chapter 17| 433
Bi-concave lens Plano concave lens Convexo-concave lens
If both surfaces of the lens are If one surface is plane and If one surface of the lens in
concave, then it is called another is concave, then the which light is incident, is
bi-concave lens. lens is called plano-concave convex and another is concave,
lens. then it is called convexo-
concave lens.
Terminologies for a Lens

Centre of curvature: Centres of curvature are the centres of transparent spheres from which a lens is made.
Every lens has two centres of curvature. In Fig. 17.1, C1 and C2 are centres of curvature. Any straight
line passing from centres of curvature to corresponding aperture of the lens forms right angle on the
tangent drawn at a point of aperture. The distance of centre of curvature to the point of aperture is
called radius of curvature. They are denoted by R1 and R2.
R1 R1
x y x y
C1 C C2 Principal axis C1 C C2 Principal axis
R2 R2
(i) (ii)
Fig. 17.1: (i) A convex lens (ii) A concave lens
Radius of curvature: The radius of the transparent sphere from which lens is formed is called radius of
curvature. A lens has two radii of the curvature and they are denoted by R1 and R2. The surface of the
lens, which is plane, has infinite radius of curvature. For thin lenses, as in Fig. 17.1 (i) and (ii), CC1
and CC2 are also radii of curvature. This can be considered for thin lenses.
Principal axis: Principal axis is a line passing through the centres of curvature C1 and C2 and also through
the optical centre. In Fig. 17.1, XY is principal axis.
Optical Centre: A optical centre is a point on the principal axis so that a ray of light passing through it does
not suffer any deviation. In Fig. 17.2, point C is the optical centre.
For the rays passing through the optical centre of thick lens as shown in Fig. 17.2 (i), there is lateral
displacement between the incident and emergent rays. This displacement decreases with the
decrease in the thickness of the lens and is approximately negligible in thin lens as shown in Fig.
17.2 (ii).
P P
Q Q
C1 C C2 C1 C C2
R R
S S
(i) (ii)
Fig. 17.2: (i) Light ray passing through the optical centre of thick lens
(ii) Light ray passing through the optical centre of thin lens

Principal focus: It is a point on the principal axis where all the rays coming parallel to the principal axis
either actually converge or appear to diverge from it.
In a lens, there are two symmetrical principal foci (or focal points), so lens is called bifocal device.
The principal focus is denoted by F. The plane passing through the principal focus and
perpendicular to the principal axis is called focal plane.
Focal plane Focal plane
C F F C
(i) f
(ii)
Fig. 17.3: (i) Focal point for convex lens (ii) Focal point for concave lens
Focal length: The distance between optical centre (C) and principal focus (F) of lens is called focal length. It is
denoted by f. In Fig. 17.3, CF = f. If both sides of a lens contains same medium, both the focal points
are at equal distances from the optical centre.
f1 = f2 = f
A convex lens has a real focus while in a concave lens the focus is virtual. So, according to sign
convention, focal length is positive for convex lens and negative for concave lens.
Aperture of lens: The effective diameter of the light transmitting area of the lens is known as aperture of lens.
Sign Conventions
Sign conventions are very important to study the nature and position of object and images produced
by lenses. They are pointed below:
(i) The optical centre of a mirror is taken as the origin to measure all required distances.
(ii) For focal length (f):
(a) The focus of a convex lens is formed by the intersection of real rays of light. So, its focal
length (f) is taken positive.
(b) The focus of a concave lens is formed by the intersection of virtual rays of light. So, its focal
length (f) is taken negative.
(iii) Object distance (u):
(a) The object distance for real object is assigned positive, since the object is directly faced in
front of the lens.
(b) The object distance of virtual object is assigned negative, since the object is considered
behind the lens.
(iv) Image distance (v):
(a) The image distance for real image is assigned positive, since the image is formed by the
intersection of real rays in front of lens.
(b) The image distance for virtual image is assigned negative, since the image is formed due to
the intersection of virtually produced rays.

Prismatic Action of Lens

Prismatic action of lens refers to the converging and diverging mechanism of lens. A lens can be
thought of to be made up of large number of small angled prisms in the peripheral region and
rectangular glass slab at middle. The portion near the edge are perfect small angled prisms where as
the portion near the peripheral region are nearly small angled prism. The more perfect the prism, the
more is the deviation.
In case of convex lens, the peripheral region has erect prisms in the upper half and inverted prisms in
lower half lying one above other such that the vertical axis of lens is perpendicular to principal axis
passing through middle region of lens as shown in Fig. 17.4 (i). Similarly, in case of concave lens, the
peripheral region has inverted prisms in upper half and erect prisms in lower half as shown in Fig.
17.4 (ii).
Whenever, a beam of light is incident on the lens, the prisms constituting the lens in the peripheral
region, deviate light towards their bases and the light incident on middle region passes undeviated
through the optical centre. This means, the convex lens deviates light rays towards the principal axis
of the lens and hence come to focus at the principal focus of the lens as shown in Fig. 17.4 (i).
Whereas, concave lens deviates light away from the principal axis and these rays come to focus on
the principal focus (F) when produced in backward direction as shown in Fig. 17.4 (ii). This explains
the prismatic action of lens.
17.2 Graphical Methods of Lenses

As explained in the mirror, the nature, position and size of the image can also be studied graphically
in case of lenses too. Since, the lens is a refracting medium, real image is formed on the next side of
the object.
(i) An incident ray passing through the optical centre of the lens goes straight without any
deviation.
(ii) An incident ray through the first principal focus (in a convex lens) or appearing to meet at first
focus (in a concave lens) emerges parallel to principal axis after refraction.
(iii) An image is drawn whose one end is the point where all rays meet and the other end is the
point exactly below the former point on the principal axis.
(iv) Similar to prism, lens also has two refracting surfaces. A light ray incident on the first surface
gets refracted and deviates from its original path. This ray again refracts from the second
surface and finally emerges towards the principal axis as shown in Fig. 17.5 (i). In case of lens,
showing double deviation is unnecessary. So, a representative point is chosen to show the mean
deviation of the lens such that same deviation can be shown through this point as shown in
Fig. 17.5 (ii). To find the representative point, incident ray is elongated upto the central line of
lens and the emergent ray is produced backward upto the same central line where incident ray
meets. In the Fig. 17.5 (ii) point Q' is the representative point.
P Q P
R Q'
F F
C C
S R
Central line of a lens

(i) (ii)
Fig. 17.5: Ray diagram for convex lens
Using the graphical method, the size, position and nature of images produced by lenses are
described below.
(i) An object at infinity: When the object is at a considerably long distance (like distances of sun,
moon, star, etc.), we say that the object is at infinity.
Here, object distance = u = ∞
focal length = f u=∞
image distance = v = ? C F
We have, from lens formula,

1 1 1 f
f =u+v
v v
Further, magnification (m) = u = = 0
∞
1 1 1
or, f =∞ +v
1 1
or, f =v
∴ f=v
Hence, a highly diminished (point) image is formed at the focus which is real and inverted as
shown in Fig. 17.6.
(ii) An object is beyond 2F.
Here, 2f < u < ∞
1 1 A
or, 2f > u > 0 F B' 2F
• • • • •
B 2F F C
1 f
or, 2>u>0
A'
f f Fig. 17.7: Object beyond 2F

But, from lens formula, u = 1 – v

1 f
so, 2>1–v>0
1 f
or, 2 – 1 > – v > –1
1 f
or, –2 > – v > –1
1 f
or, 2< v<1
v
or, 2> f >1
or, 2f > v > f

So, image lies between F and 2F.
v
Magnification (m) = u < 1 ( v < 2f and u > 2f)
Hence, diminished image is formed between F and 2F, which is real and inverted as shown in
Fig. 17.7.
(iii) An object is at 2F.
Here, u = 2f
1 1
or, u = 2f
1 1 1
or, f – v = 2f
A
2F
B'
1 1 1
B • • • •F •
F C
or, f – 2f – v = 0
2F
A'
1 1
or, Fig. 17.8: Object at 2F
2f – v = 0
1 1
or, 2f = v
∴ v = 2f
v 2f
and m = u = 2f = 1
Hence, the image is formed at 2F which is real, inverted, and equal to the size of the object as
shown in Fig. 17.8.
(iv) An object is between F and 2F.
Here, 2f > u > f
1 1 1
or, 2f < u < f
A
1 f
or, 2 <u<1 F 2F B'
• • C• • •
1 f ⎛. . . f = 1 – f ⎞ 2F B F
or, 2<1–v<1 ⎝ u v⎠
1 f A'
or, –2<–v <0
Fig. 17.9: Object between F and 2F

1 f
or, 2>v>0
v
or, 2< f <∞
or, 2f < v < ∞

So, image lies between 2F and infinity.
v
Magnification (m) = u > 1 ( v > 2f and u < 2f )
Hence, the image is formed beyond 2F, which is real, inverted, and magnified as shown in
Fig. 17.9.
(v) An object is at F.
Here, u = f
1 1
or, u= f A
1 1 1
or, f –v = f B•
F
• •
C
F
1
or, real image at ∞
v =0
v Fig. 17.10: Object at F
∴ v = ∞ and m = u = ∞
Hence, highly magnified image is formed at infinity which is real and inverted as shown in
Fig. 17.10.
A'
(vi) An object is between F and C
Here, u < f
1 1
or, u> f
A
1 1 1 • • •
But, v = f – u B' F B C F
1
So, v is negative and v is negative.
Fig. 17.11: Object between F and C
The image is formed on the same side as the object which is magnified, virtual, and erect as
shown in Fig. 17.11.
Concave Lens
(i) An object is at infinity.
(a) The image is at focus (F). F C
(b) It is virtual.
(c) It is erect.
(d) It is highly diminished. Fig. 17.12: Object at infinity

(ii) An object is at any finite distance.
Properties of an image A
A'
(a) The image is between focus (F) and optical centre (C).
(b) It is virtual. •
B F B' C
(c) It is erect.
Virtual Object and Real Image Fig. 17.13: Object at finite distance
When converging rays are incident on a lens, they appear converging at a point on the other side of
the object. This object point formed at the apparent position is called virtual object. When an object is
virtual, the real image formed by a concave lens or convex lens are shown in Fig. 17.14.
I (Real
O (Virtual
Image)
Object)
O (Virtual
I (Real Object)
Image)
Fig. 17.14: Virtual object and real image
17.3 Lens Formula

Convex Lens
(i) When real image is formed
Consider a convex lens of focal length 'f' and radii of curvature 'R1' and 'R2'. A real object AB is
placed beyond 2F of the lens. Then, the lens forms a real and inverted image A'B' between F and
2F as shown in Fig. 17.15. A perpendicular line MC is drawn at the optical centre of the lens.
From Fig. 17.15, it is obvious that, ∆BAC and ∆B'A'C are similar, so we can write,
A'B' CA'
AB = CA … (17.1)
Again, ∆MCF and ∆B'A'F are similar, so we can write,

A'B' FA'
CM = CF
B
M
A'
A 2F F C F 2F
u f
B'
v
Fig. 17.15: Real image formed by a convex lens

A'B' FA'
∴ AB = CF ( CM = AB) … (17.2)
From equations (17.1) and equation (17.2), we get,

CA' FA' CA' – CF
CA = CF = CF … (17.3)
Applying sign conventions, we have,

Image distance CA' = + v
Object distance CA = + u
Focal length CF = +ƒ
v v–ƒ
= ƒ
u
or, vƒ = u v – uƒ
Dividing both sides by uvƒ, we get,
1 1 1
= –
u ƒ v
1 1 1
∴
ƒ =v +u
This is the lens formula for convex lens when a real image is formed.
EXAMPLE 1: An object is placed at 20 cm from a convex lens of focal length 15 cm. Find the position, nature, and
magnification of image.
SOLUTION
Given, 1 1 1 4–3
or,
Object distance (u) = 20 cm v = 15 – 20 = 60
Focal length (f) = 15 cm 1 1
or,
Image distance (v) = ? v = 60
Magnification (m) = ? ∴ v = 60 cm
From lens formula, This shows that the real image is
1 1 1 formed behind the lens.
u+v= f v 60
1 1 1 Magnification (m) = u = 20
or, 20 + v = 15 ∴ m=3
 Check Point: An object is placed 14 cm in front of a convex lens of focal length 21 cm. What is the
nature and position of image? Ans: Virtual, – 42 cm
(ii) When virtual image is formed

Consider a convex lens of focal length 'f' and radii of curvature 'R1' and 'R2'. A real object AB is
placed between F and C of the lens. Then, the lens forms a virtual and erect image A'B' towards
the side of the object as shown in Fig. 17.16. A perpendicular line MC is drawn at the optical
centre of the lens.
From Fig. 17.16, ∆BAC and ∆B'A'C are similar triangles, so we can write,
A'B' CA'
AB = CA … (17.4)
Again, ∆MCF and ∆B'A'F are similar, so we can write,

A'B' FA'
CM = CF

A'B' FA'
∴ AB = CF ( CM = AB) … (17.5)

CA' FA' CA' + CF
CA = CF = CF … (17.6)
B'
Image distance CA' = –v
Object distance CA = + u M
B
Focal length CF = +ƒ
Putting these values in equation (17.6), we get, • • •
A' F A C F
–v –v + ƒ
u = ƒ
u f
v
v v–ƒ Fig. 17.16: Virtual image formed by convex lens

or, u = ƒ
or, vƒ = u v – uƒ
or, uf + vf = uv
Dividing throughout by uvƒ, we get,
1 1 1
∴ ƒ =v +u … (17.7)
This is the lens formula for convex lens when virtual image is formed.
EXAMPLE 2: An object is placed 6 cm from a convex lens of focal length 10 cm. Find the position, nature, and
magnification of image.
SOLUTION
Given
Object distance (u) = 6 cm
Focal length (f) = 10 cm
Image distance (v) = ?
Magnification (m) = ?
From lens formula,
1 1 1
u+v= f
1 1 1 3 –5 2
or, v = 10 – 6 = 30 = – 30
30
∴ v = – 2 = –15 cm A virtual image is formed at a distance 15 cm in front of the lens.
v 15
Magnification (m) = u = 6 (taking positive)
m = 2.5
 Check Point:
a. A convex lens forms a real image at a distance of 16 cm from it when object is placed at 10 cm. Find
the focal length and power of lens.
b. An object is placed at 0.06 m from a convex lens of focal length 0.10 m. Find the position, nature, and
magnification of image. Ans: a. 6.15 cm, 16.3; b. – 0.15 m, virtual, 2.5
Concave Lens
Consider a concave lens of focal length 'f' and radii of curvature 'R1' and 'R2'. A real object AB is
placed on the left side of a lens. Then, the lens forms a virtual and erect image A'B' on the same side

of the object as shown in Fig. 17.17. A perpendicular line MC is drawn at the optical centre of the
lens.
B
M
B'
C
A F A' v
f
u
Fig. 17.17: Image formed by concave lens
From Fig. 17.17, it is obvious that ∆BAC and ∆B'A'C are similar, so we can write,
A'B' CA'
AB = CA … (17.8)
Again, ∆MCF and ∆A'B'F are similar, so we can write,

A'B' FA'
CM = CF
A'B' FA'
∴ AB = CF ( CM = AB) … (17.9)

CA' FA' CF – CA'
CA = CF = CF … (17.10)

CA' = –v, CA = + u, CF = –ƒ
Putting these values in (17.10), we get,
v –ƒ – (–v)
–u = –ƒ
v –ƒ + v
– u = –ƒ
or, vƒ =–uƒ+uv
or, vf + uf = uv
Dividing throughout by uvƒ, we get,
1 1 1
∴ ƒ =v +u … (17.11)
This is the lens formula for concave lens.

EXAMPLE 3: A diverging lens of focal length 15 cm is arranged to produce an image at distance 10 cm in front of the lens.
Find the object distance.
SOLUTION
Given 1 1 1
or, u = – 15 + 10
Focal length (f ) = – 15 cm
Image distance (v) = – 10 cm (virtual) 1 –2+3 1
Object distance (u) = ? or, u = 30 = 30
1 1 1 1 1
We have, u + v = f or, u = 30
1 1 1 ∴ u = 30 cm
or, u – 10 = – 15
∴ object distance is 30 cm.
17.4 Linear Magnification

It is defined as the ratio of the size of image to the size of object.
hi
i.e., magnification (m) = h … (17.12)
o
where, hi and ho are the heights (sizes) of image and object respectively. In Fig. 17.18,
AB is an object whose image is A'B'. From Fig. 17.18, it is clear that ΔBAC and ΔB'A'C are similar So,
we can write,
A'B' CA'
AB = CA B
hi v F A'
∴ h0 = u … (17.13) • • • • •
A C
From equations (17.12) and (17.13), we have, B'

v Fig 17.18: Magnification in case of convex lens
m=u … (17.14)
If N number of lenses are combined coaxially, the combined magnification is written as,
m = m1 × m2 × ... × mN
where, m1, m2, …, mN be the magnification produced by N number of lenses.
17.5 Power of Lens

The reciprocal of focal length of a lens is called power of the lens. If focal length 'f' of a lens is
expressed in metre, then the power of lens denoted by P is expressed as
1
P = ƒ (metre)
Thus, smaller the focal length of a lens, greater is its power and vice versa. The power of a lens
indicates its converging or diverging capacity.
The SI unit of power is m-1 which is called the dioptre (symbol D).
∴ Power of lens in dioptre
1 100
= ƒ(in m) D =
f (in cm) D
The power of a lens is called one dioptre, if its focal length is one metre.
17.6 Visual Angle

The angle subtended by an object or image on our eye is known as visual angle. The visual angle depends on
the size of object or image and the distance of objects from the eye. If two objects of different heights
are situated at equal distance from the eye, the taller object subtends greater angle than the smaller
one as shown in Fig. 17.19.
B'
B
Retina
β α R
A' A E θ1 θ2
h1
h2
Fig. 17.19: Visual angle

If two objects of equal height are placed at two different distances from the eye, the nearer object
subtends greater angle than farther one. In Fig. 17.19,
A'E > AE, so, β > α.
The size of object which we observe in daily life depends on the visual angle. A tall building in front
of our eye easily blocks the visualization of large hills. Although the hill is many times taller than the
building; the building forms greater visual angle than the hill. Since the sun is very far from us, it
looks like a small disc and can be blocked by a coin placed in front of our eye. Many stars larger than
sun look just like luminous points in the sky, since they are very far from us. Due to this reason, they
form very small visual angle.
Magnifying Power
Magnifying power of an optical instrument is defined as the ratio of the visual angle subtended by the image at
the eye to the visual angle subtended by the object at the unaided eye.
The optical instruments like microscopes and telescopes are used to increase the visual angle of the
images they form so that the object can be visualized clearly. The instrument which can make greater
visual angle for an image than the object is said to be more powerful instrument. Let α and β be the
visual angles formed by the object and image on our eye when they are considered at the same
position. Then, the magnifying power is defined as,
β
Magnifying power (M) =
α
Magnifying power is analogous to the magnification of lens or mirror. Magnification is measured in
terms of image distance and object distance. But, for the objects at very far distance, angular
magnification should be calculated which is called the magnifying power.
17.7 Lens Maker's Formula

Lens Maker's formula is a relation which connects the focal length of a lens to the radii of curvature
of the two surfaces of the lens and the refractive index of the material of the lens. It is so named
because it helps us to manufacture a lens of a particular focal length from a glass of given refractive
index.
Consider a thin convex lens of focal length 'ƒ'. A ray of light XB parallel to the principal axis strikes
the point B at height 'h' above the optical centre C as shown in the Fig. 17.20. This ray after refraction
through lens meets principal axis at focus making angle of deviation 'δ'. Refracting angle of prism
(A) is formed drawing tangents at the light deviating points of the lens.
The deviation produced by the lens is, A
δ = (μ – 1)A … (17.15)
Now in ∆BCF, we have, A
CB h
tan δ = CF =
ƒ
B
X
Since 'δ' is very small, tan δ ≈ δ. δ
h h
∴ δ=ƒ … (17.16) δ F
C
h
ƒ = (μ – 1)A
1 A f
∴ ƒ = (μ – 1) h … (17.17)
Fig 17.20: Refraction through lens

Consider two light rays passing through C1 and C2 meet at point B of the lens. Let CC1 = R1 and
CC2 = R2 be radii of curvature of the lens and 'α' and 'β' are the angles made by the normals BC1 and
BC2 with the principal axis. By geometry,
A=α+β … (17.18)
Also,
h h
tan α = R and tan β =
1 R 2
But, 'α' and 'β' are very small. So, we can write,
h h
α = R and β = R
1 2
A A
B
h
α β
C1 C C2
R1 R2
Fig 17.21: Lens as a small angled prism

h h
A=R +
1 R2
A 1 1
∴ h = R1 + R2 … (17.19)

1 ⎛1 1⎞
ƒ = (μ – 1) ⎝R1 + R2⎠ … (17.20)
This is known as lens maker's formula or equation.
EXAMPLE 4: The radii of curvature of biconvex lens are 15 cm and 30 cm and the refractive index of its glass is 1.5.
Calculate the focal length of the lens.
SOLUTION
Given, 1 1 1
= (μ – 1) ⎛R + R ⎞
Refractive index (μ) = 1.5 f ⎝ 1 2⎠
For first surface (R1) = 15 cm 1 1 1
= (1.5 – 1) ⎛15 + 30⎞
For second surface (R2) = 30 cm f ⎝ ⎠
Focal length (f) = ? 2 + 1 3
= 0.5 × ⎛ ⎞
From lens maker's formula ⎝ 30 ⎠ = 0.5 × 30

10
∴ f = 0.5 = 20 cm
The focal length of the lens is 20 cm.
 Check Point: A plano-convex lens with a power of 0.5 dioptre is to be made of crown glass of
refractive index 1.5, calculate the radius of curvature of the convex surface. Ans: 100 cm
17.8 Combined Lens Formula

Let us consider two thin lenses, L1 and L2 placed coaxially in contact with each other as shown in
Fig. 17.22. Let 'f1' and 'f2' to be their respective focal lengths. In such combination of lenses, the image
formed by one lens acts as actual object for another lens.
L1 L2
• •
O C' C'' I I'
u v
v'
Fig. 17.22: Two thin lenses in contact
Let us consider a point object 'O' placed on the principal axis of the lens system. The lens L1, forms a
real image I' of O which is at v' distance from L1. If 'u' be the object distance, then using lens formula
for lens L1, we can write,
1 1 1
f1 = u + v' . . . (17.21)
The image I' formed by L1 acts as a virtual object for lens L2 which finally forms a real image I at a
distance 'v' from L2. The distance of the virtual object from L2 is obviously v' and is taken as negative.
So, using lens formula for lens L2, we can write
1 1 1
f2 = –v' + v . . . (17.22)
Adding equation (17.21) and (17.22), we get,
1 1 1 1 1 1
f1 + f2 = u + v' – v' + v
1 1 1 1
f1 + f2 = u + v . . . (17.23)
If the combination is now replaced by a single lens of focal length 'f' such that for any object placed at
'u' distance away from it, a real image is formed at 'v' distance away from it, then from lens formula
the focal length of this lens is,
1 1 1
f =u+v . . . (17.24)

1 1 1
f = f1 + f2 . . . (17.25)
Here, f is called the equivalent focal length.

If 'n' lenses are kept in combination, then equivalent focal length of the combination can be written
as,
1 1 1 1 1
f = f1 + f2 + f3 + ............... + fn . . . (17.26)
Similarly, power of the combination is given by

P = P1 + P2 + P3 + ............. + Pn . . . (17.27)
EXAMPLE 5: A thin equi-convex lens of glass of refractive index 1.50 whose surfaces have a radius of curvature of 24 cm
is placed on a horizontal plane mirror. When the space between the lens and mirror is filled with a liquid, a pin held 40 cm
vertically above the lens is found to coincide with its own image. Calculate refractive index of the liquid.
Given, –2 1
For equi–convex lens, or 120 = f
2
μ = 1.5 or f2 = – 60 cm
R1 = R2 = 24 cm. Liquid lens is a plano concave lens of radii of
So, from lens maker's formula, curvatures, R1' = – 24 cm and R2' = ∞.
1 ⎛1 1⎞ For liquid lens,
f1 = (μ– 1) ⎝R1 + R2⎠ 1 ⎛1 1⎞
1 1 2 f2 = (μ' – 1) ⎝R1' + R2'⎠
= (1.5 – 1) ⎛24 + 24⎞ = 0.5 × 24
⎝ ⎠ 1 –1 1
or, – 60 = (μ' – 1) ⎛ 24 + ⎞
∴ f1 = 24 cm ⎝ ∞⎠
Combined focal length (f) = 40 cm 1 –1
or, – 60 = (μ' – 1) ⎛ 24 + 0⎞
From the combined focal length of two thin ⎝ ⎠
lenses, we have 1 1
or, – 60 = (μ' – 1) ⎛– 24⎞
1 1 1 ⎝ ⎠
f = f1 + f2 I O 24
or, μ' – 1 = 60
1 1 1
or 40 – 24 = f Liquid Lens
2 24 2
or, μ' = 1 + 60 = 1 + 5
3–5 1
or 120 = f
2 or, μ' = 1.4
∴ Refractive index of the liquid = 1.4
 Check Point: An object, 2 cm high is placed 30 cm in front of a convex lens of focal length 20 cm.
Another convex lens of focal length 30 cm is placed 10 cm behind the first lens and coaxially with it.
Find the position and size of the image formed by the combination. Ans: 17.14 cm, 1.14 cm
Tips for MCQs
Quantitative Tips
1 1 1
1. Lens formula u + v = f .
1 1 1
2. Lens maker's formula f = (μ – 1) ⎛R + R ⎞
⎝ 1 2⎠
hi v
3. Linear magnification m = h = u
o
1
4. Power of a lens P = f (in metre) .

Conceptual Tips
1. Concave lens always forms virtual image for real object, but it forms real image for virtual object.
2. Convex lens can form both real and virtual image for real object. It forms virtual image when real
object is placed between focus and optical centre of the lens.
3. The focal length of combined mirror decreases when two or more lenses of same type are combined,
so that the power of such combinations increases.
4. When a lens is surrounded by the same medium on each side, the two focal lengths of the lens are
equal.
5. The focus is not mid-way between the lens and centre of curvature as in a spherical mirror; its
position on the principal axis depends on the refractive index of the lens.
6. The focal length is the property of a lens, independent of how the lens is used. It characterizes a lens
in much the same way that a mass characterizes an object.
7. A thin lens is a lens whose thickness is very small in comparison to its focal length and in comparison
to the object and image distances. For a thin lens, we make the approximation that the thickness of a
thin lens is zero.
8. As the thickness of a lens increases, its converging or diverging power also increases. Since a thick
lens has smaller focal length than thin lens, we can say that, a lens having more converging or
diverging action must have small focal length.
9. As every part of a lens forms a complete image, if a portion (say lower half) is obstructed (say
covered with black paper), full image will be formed but brightness of image will be reduced (to
half). Also, if a lens is painted with black strip and a donkey is seen through it, the donkey will not
appear as a zebra but will remain a donkey with reduced brightness.
10. If two thin lenses of opposite nature (i.e., one is convergent and another is divergent) with different
focal lengths are put in contact, the resultant focal length will be of same nature as that of the lens of
shorter focal length but its magnitude will be more than that of shorter focal length.
Quick Reply
1. What are the properties of image formed by a concave lens when real object is placed other than
focus?
 The image is diminished, virtual, erect and formed towards the side of object.
2. Does the thickness of a lens affect the focal length of a lens?
 Yes. If the thickness of a lens increases, its focal length decreases. It ultimately increases the power of
lens.
3. Can a convex lens behave as a concave lens in some situation? Give example.
 Yes, it is possible. When a convex lens is placed in a medium of refractive index greater than that of
the material of the lens, then it behaves like a concave lens. For example, a convex lens made up of
glass (μ = 1.5), when immersed into carbon disulphide (μ = 1.63) or behaves as a concave lens.
4. Can a convex lens behave as a concave lens in some situation? Give example.
 Yes, it is possible. When a convex lens is placed in a medium of refractive index greater than that of
the material of the lens, then it behaves like a concave lens. For example, a convex lens made up of
glass (μ = 1.5), when immersed into carbon disulphide (μ = 1.63) or behaves as a concave lens.
5. Define power of a lens. In what unit is it expressed?
 The power of a lens is defined as the reciprocal of its focal length in metre. That is,
1
P = f (in meter)
Its unit is m–1 (per metre), which is called dioptre (D).


1. Under what condition is the first focal length of a lens not equal to its second focal length?
 The focal length of lens depends on the medium around it. If two sides of a lens contain different
media of different refractive indices, the deviation of light at these media by the lens is different.
Hence, the focal lengths of two sides are different in this case
2. On what factors does the focal length of a lens depend?
 The focal length of a lens depends on the following factors:
i. The radii of curvature of the two surfaces of the lens.
ii. The refractive index of material through which the lens is formed.
iii. The medium around the lens.
iv. The wavelength (colour) of light used.
3. Sunglasses (goggles) have curved surfaces, yet their power is zero, why?
 The two radii of curvature of the lens used in sunglasses are equal and of the opposite sign,
i.e., R1 = –R2
1 1 1
We know, P = f = (μ – 1) ⎛ + ⎛– ⎞⎞
⎝R1 ⎝ R2⎠⎠
For, R1 = –R2, P = 0.
4. Draw the ray diagram showing the formation of real image by a concave lens.
 When converging rays of light are incident on a concave lens, they appear to be coming from an
virtual object. Image formed by a concave lens is real in such a situation as shown in the diagram
below.
I (Real
O (Virtual Image)
Object)
5. A large object when taken away from your eye appears smaller, why?
 This is due to the variation of visual angle with distance. As the visual angle decreases the size of the
object appears smaller. Since the visual angle made by a far object at an eye is smaller than the nearer
ones so a large object taken away appears smaller. Due to this reason, moon appears equal size of the
sun, even though the sun is many times larger than the moon.
6. What are the focal length and power of a plane glass plate?
 The focal length of a lens is,
1 ⎛1 1⎞
f = (μ – 1) ⎝R1 + R2⎠
For a plane glass plate, R1 = ∞ and R2 = ∞. So,
1 1
f =0 i.e., f = 0 = ∞.
∴ Focal length is infinity.

1
Also, power (P) = f = 0
∴ Power is zero.

7. At what distance from a convex lens should an object be placed on the axis so as to form a real image
of the same size? Illustrate your answer with a ray diagram.
 When an object is placed at a distance equal to double its focal length, on the principal axis, then a
real image of the same size as the object is formed at 2f on the other side of the lens.
1 1 1
Mathematically, f = u + v
for, u=v
1 2
f =u
u = 2f
Hence, object must be kept of a distance of 2f from the lens. Figure below shows the rays diagram.
A
2F
B'
• • • •F •
B F C
2F
A'
8. Can a concave and a convex lens be combined so that the combination behaves like a diverging lens?
Justify your answer.
f1f2
 The focal length of any pair of lenses is given by, f = f + f – d
1 2
where, d = separation between the lenses
For constructing diverging lens, f should be negative. If we choose the focal lengths of concave and
convex lens and their separation in a suitable matter, then the resulting lens can be a diverging one.
In general, if the focal length of the convex lens is just greater than the sum of the focal length of the
concave lens and the separation between the lenses, the numerator will always be negative, while the
denominator will always be positive; the resulting lens will be the diverging one.
Worked Out Problems

1. A converging lens with a focal length of 12.0 cm forms a virtual image 8.00 mm tall, 17.0 cm to the
left of the lens. Determine the position and size of the object. Is the image erect or inverted?
SOLUTION
Given, 1 1 1
We know, f = u + v
Focal length (f) = 12 cm
Image distance (v) = –17 cm 1 1 1
or, u = f – v
Image height (hi) = 8.00 mm = 0.8 cm
Object distance (u) = ? 1 1 1
or, u = 12 + 17
Object height (h0) = ?
⇒ u = 7.04 cm
Now,
v hi
Magnification = u = h
0
u 7.04
or, h0 = hi × v = 0.8 × 17 = 0.33 cm
The image is erect.

2. A converging lens of 6 cm focal length is mounted at a distance of 10 cm from a screen placed at right
angles to the axis of the lens. A diverging lens of 12 cm focal length is then placed coaxially between
the converging lens and the screen so that an image of an object 24 cm from the converging lens is
formed on the screen. What is the distance between two lenses?
SOLUTION
Given,
f1 = 6 cm f2 = – 12 cm
• • I'
O C C' I Screen
u v
x v'
For converging lens,

Object distance, u = 24 cm
Focal length, f1 = 6 cm 1 1 1
So, f2 = u' + v'
We know,
1 1 1 –1 1 1
or 12 = x – 8 + 10 – x
f1 = u + v
1 1 1 1 10 – x + x – 8
or 6 – 24 = v or – 12 = (x – 8) (10 – x)
4–1 1 1 2
or or – 12 = – x2 + 18 x – 80
24 = v
3 1 or x2 – 18 x + 80 = 24
or 24 = v
or x2 – 18 x + 56 = 0
or v = 8 cm or (x – 14) (x – 4) =0
i.e., CI = 8 cm either x – 14 = 0
For diverging lens or x–4=0
Object distance, x = 14 cm
u' = − (CI – CC') = – (8 – x) = x – 8 or x = 4 cm
v' = 10 – x Here x = 14 cm (invalid)
f2 = – 12 cm. ∴ Distance between the two lenses is 4 cm.
3. A converging equi-convex lens of glass of refractive index 1.5 is laid on a horizontal plane mirror. A
pin coincides with its inverted image when it is 1 m above the lens. When some liquid is placed
between the lens and the mirror, the pin has to be raised by 0.55 m for the coincidence to occur again.
What is the refractive index of the liquid?
SOLUTION
The pin and its image coincide only if the reflected rays from the mirror are incident parallel to the
lens.
For equi-convex glass lens,
μ = 1.5, f1 = 1 m = 100 cm
So from lens maker's formula, we have
1 ⎛1 1⎞
f1 = (μ – 1) ⎝R1 + R2⎠
1 ⎛1 1⎞
or, 100 = (1.5 – 1) ⎝R + R⎠

.. –1
[ . R1 = R2 = R for equi-convex lens] or, f2 = 0.0035 = – 285.7 cm
1 ⎛2⎞
or, It means that liquid lens is plano-concave of
100 = 0.5 ⎝R⎠
radii R1' = – 100 cm and R2' = ∞.
or, R = 100 cm
i.e., R1 = R2 = 100 cm For liquid lens:
When the pin is to be raised by 0.55 m after 1 ⎛1 1⎞
inserting liquid between mirror and lens, the f2 = (μ' – 1) ⎝R1' + R2'⎠
1 1
– 0.0035 = (μ' – 1) ⎛– 100 + ⎞
focal length for combined system is
or,
f = 1 m + 0.55 m = 155 cm ⎝ ∞⎠
1 1 1 –1 .. 1
So, f = f1 + f2 or, – 0.0035 = (μ' – 1) ⎛100⎞ ⎡ . ⎤
⎝ ⎠ ⎣ ∞ = 0⎦
1 1 1 or, μ' – 1 = 0.0035 × 100
or, 155 = 100 + f2
or, μ' = 1 + 0.035
1 1 1
or, or, μ' = 1.35
155 – 100 = f2
So, refractive index of the liquid is 1.35.
1
or, 0.0065 – 0.01 = f
2
1
or, – 0.0035 = f
2
4. A converging meniscus of glass (μ = 1.5) having radii of curvature 4 cm and 8 cm is put on a

horizontal surface facing upward. If it is filled with water, what will be the focal length of the
combination?
SOLUTION
Given, 1 4 1 1 1
= ⎛3 – 1⎞ × ⎛ + 8 ⎞ = 24
Refractive index, aμg = 1.5 f2 ⎝ ⎠ ⎝∞ ⎠
Radius of curvature of lower face, R1 = 4 cm f2 = 24 cm
Radius of curvature of upper face,
R2 = – 8 cm
For converging lens,
1 ⎛1 1⎞ ⎛1 1⎞
f1 = (aμg – 1) ⎝R1 + R2⎠ = (1.5 –1) ⎝4 – 8⎠
∴ f1 = 16 cm Now, let f be the combined focal length of
4 lenses, then
Also, for water aμw = 3
1 1 1 1 1
1 f = f1 + f2 = 16 + 24
⎛1 1 ⎞
so, f2 = (aμw – 1) ⎝∞ + R2⎠ water surface forms 3+2 5
= 48 = 48
convex meniscus at the interface of glass,
So, R2 = 8 cm (not negative) ∴ f = 9.6 cm

5. A luminous object and a screen are placed on an optical bench and a converging lens is placed
between them to produce a sharp image of the object on the screen. The linear magnification of the
image is found to be 2.5. The lens is now moved 30 cm. nearer the screen and a sharp image again
formed. Calculate the focal length of the lens.
SOLUTION
Given, v u + 30
For first case, u = v –30
v u + 30
m = 2.5 2.5 = v – 30
u = 2.5 v = 2.5 u
From lens formula, 2.5 v – 75 = u + 30
1 1 1 2.5 (2.5 u) – 75 = u + 30
f =u +v …(i) 6.25 u – 75 = u + 30
In second case, 5.25 u = 105
u' = u + 30 v' = v –30 u = 20 cm
From lens formula, v = 2.5 × 20 = 50 cm
1 1 1 Now,
f = u + 30 + v –30 … (ii) 1 1 1
Equating eq. (i) and (ii) f = 20 + 50
1 1 1 1 5+2 7
= 100 = 100
u + v = u + 30 + v –30
u + 30 – u v – v + 30 100
u (u + 30) = v (v – 30) f = 7 = 14.3 cm

1. A converging lens has a focal length of 14.0 cm. For an object to the left of the lens, at distance of 18.0
cm and 7.00 cm, determine (a) the image position (b) the magnification (c) whether the image is real
or virtual (d) whether the image is erect or inverted.
Ans: s = 18.0 cm (a) 63.0 cm to right of lens (b) 3.50, (c) real
(d) inverted, s = 7.0 cm (a) 14.0 cm to left of lens (b) 2.00 (c) virtual (d) erect
2. A lens forms an image of an object. The object is 16.0 cm from the lens. The image is 12.0 cm from the
lens on the same side as the object. (a) What is the focal length of the lens? Is the lens converging or
diverging? (b) If the object is 8.50 mm tall, how tall is the image? Is it erect or inverted?
Ans: – 48 cm, 6.37 mm
3. A diverging meniscus lens with a refractive index of 1.48 has spherical surface whose radii are 5.00
cm and 3.50 cm. What is the position of the image if an object is placed 18.0 cm to the left of the lens?
Ans:10.3 cm to left of lens
4. An object is 16.0 cm to the left of a lens. The lens forms an image 36.0 cm to the right of the lens. What
is the focal length of the lens? Is the lens converging or diverging? Ans:11.1 cm
5. Light from an object passes through a thin converging lens, focal length 20 cm, placed 24 cm from the
object and then through a thin diverging lens, focal length 50 cm, forming a real image 62.5 cm from
the diverging lens. Find (i) the position of the image due to first lens (ii) the distance between the
lenses and (iii) the magnification of the final image. Ans: (i) 120 cm (ii) 90.2 cm (iii) – 2.2
6. An illuminated object is placed at right angles to the axis of a converging lens of focal length 15 cm
and 22.5 cm from it. On the other side of the converging lens and coaxial with it is placed a diverging
lens of focal length 30 cm. Find the position of the image (i) when the lenses are 15 cm apart and a

plane mirror is placed perpendicular to the axis 40 cm beyond the diverging lens and (ii) when the
mirror is removed and the lenses are 35 cm apart. Ans: (i) beside object O (ii) 72.5 cm from the object
7. The curved face of a plano-convex lens (μ = 1.5) is placed in contact with a plane mirror. An object at
20 cm distance coincides with the image produced by the lens and reflection by the mirror. A film of
liquid is now placed between the lens and the mirror and the coincident object and image are at 100
cm distance. What is the index of refraction of the liquid? Ans: 1.4
Exercise
1. Define power of a lens and state its unit.
2. What is a lens? Name the different types.
3. What is one dioptre?
4. What is the power of a plane glass plate?
5. How do lenses combine in order to increase the resultant power?
8. Which lens converges the incident beam of light?
9. How many focal points are there in bi-convex lens?
10. Draw ray diagram for a real object at focus when refracted by a concave lens?
11. What happens in focal lengths of a lens, if two sides contain the medium of different refractive
indices?
12. Why is the power of a lens measured as the reciprocal of its focal length?
13. What are the SI unit and dimension of power of a lens?
14. In which situation the lens has larger power (i) Surrounded with air or (ii) surrounded with water?
15. Under what condition does a lens become invisible when immersed in a transparent liquid?
Short Questions
1. A convex lens is immersed in water. Will its focal length change? Explain.
2. Under what conditions does a concave lens form a real image?
3. Explain the principal of working of an optical fibre.
4. Define (i) centre of curvature, (ii) radius of curvature and (iii) optical centre.
5. Define principal focus. Why is it called so?
6. A convex lens is called a converging lens. Why?
7. A concave lens is called a diverging lens. Why?
8. What is the nature of lens formed by an air bubble inside water?
9. In which case a lens has higher power, when it is (i) in air or (ii) in water?
10. Under what condition is the first focal length of a lens not equal to its second focal length?
11. On what factors does the focal length of a lens depend?
12. Does the power of lens change when immersed in water?
13. If a convex lens is immersed in water, what happens to its focal length?
14. Draw the ray diagram showing the formation of a virtual image by a convex lens.
Long Questions
1. Describe the types of lens. Write the sign conversions of focal length in these lenses.
2. Write short notes on (a) optical center (b) radii of curvature (c) bifocal length.
1 1 1
3. Discuss the sign conventions and derive the thin lens formula: f = + for converging lens for real
u v
image condition.

1 1 1
4. Discuss the sign conventions and derive the thin lens formula: f = u + v for converging lens for
virtual image condition.
1 1 1
5. Discuss the sign conventions and derive the thin lens formula: f = u + v for diverging lens.
1 1 1
6. Derive lens-maker's formula: f = (μ – 1) ⎛R + R ⎞.
⎝ 1 2⎠
7. Define power of lens. Derive the formula for the effective power of two thin lenses in contact.

LEVEL I
1. Find the distance at which an object be placed from a convex lens of focal length 10 cm to obtain an
image of double the size. Ans: (i) 15 cm, (ii) 5 cm
2. An object is kept in front of convex lens and the distance between the lens and the real image is 54
cm. If the magnification produced is 2, calculate the focal length of the lens. Ans: 18 cm
3. An object is placed at a distance of 75 cm from a screen. Where should a convex lens of focal length
12 cm be placed so as to obtain a real image of the object on the screen. Ans: 15 cm or 60 cm
4. An object 10 cm long is placed at a distance of 15 cm from a convex lens of 10 cm focal length. Find
the nature, position and size of the image. Ans: 30 cm, real, 2
5. At what distance should an object be placed from a convex lens of focal length 30 cm to obtain a real
image 4 times the size of the object. Ans: 37.5 cm
6. The power of a concave lens is 2 D. Where an object should be placed so that the lens forms an image
at a distance of 12 cm from its optic centre? Ans: 15.79 cm
7. A converging lens of 5 cm focal length used as a simple magnifying glass produces a virtual image 25
cm from the eye. How far from the lens should the object be placed? What is the magnification?
Ans: 4.17 cm, 6
8. The radii of curvature of a thin converging meniscus lens of glass of refractive index 1.5 are 15 cm
and 30 cm. What is the focal length of the lens when it is completely immersed in water if refractive
index 4/3? Ans: 234.4 cm
9. The radii of curvature of double concave lens are 30 cm and 60 cm. The refractive index of its glass is
1.5. Calculate the focal length of the lens. Ans: – 40 cm
10. An object is placed (i) 12 cm (ii) 4 cm from a converging lens of focal length 6 cm. Calculate the image
position and magnification in each case. Ans: (i) 12 cm, 1 (ii) – 12 cm, 3
11. The image of a real object in a diverging lens of focal length 10 cm is formed at 4 cm from the lens.
Find the object distance and magnification. Ans: 6.66 cm, – 0.6
LEVEL II
1. A convex lens of focal length 3 cm is placed between a screen and a square plate of area 4 cm2. The
image of the plate formed on the screen is of area 16 cm2. Calculate the distance between the plate
and the screen. Ans: 13.5 cm
2. A luminous object and a screen are placed on an optical bench and a converging lens is placed
between them to throw a sharp image of the object on the screen. The linear magnification of the
image is found to be 2.5. The lens is now moved 30 cm nearer the screen and a sharp image again
formed. Calculate the focal length of the lens. Ans: 14.28 cm
3. A converging lens with a focal length of 7.00 cm forms an image of a 4.00 mm tall real object that is to
the left of the lens. The image is 1.30 cm tall and erect. Where are the object and the image located? Is
the image real or virtual? Ans: 4.85 cm
4. The image obtained with a converging lens is erect and three times the length of the object. The focal
40
length of the lens is 20 cm. Calculate object and image distances. Ans:
3
, – 40 cm

5. A beam of light is converged at a point 9 cm behind (i) a converging lens of focal length 12 cm, and
(ii) a diverging lens of focal length 15 cm. Find the image position in each case.
Ans: (i) 5.1 cm (ii) 22.5 cm
6. Two lenses of powers –1.75 dioptres and +2.25 dioptres are placed in contact. Calculate the focal
length and power of combination. Ans: 200 cm, 0.5 D
7. A convex lens of crown glass 1.5 has a focal length of 15 cm. The lens is placed in (i) water (μ = 1.33)
and (ii) Carbon bisulphide (μ = 1.65). Determine the focal length in each condition and find the len
behaves converging or diverging.
Ans: (i) 58.6 cm, converging (ii) –82.3 cm, diverging
Objective Questions
1. If we were to include the effect of the thickness t of the lens, then which one of the yellowing is likely
to be correct for the lens formula?
t t t t 1
a. u + v = ft b. u +v = f
t 1 t t t 1 1
c. u + v + uv = f d. u+v +v–t= f
2. The convex lens has focal length 20 cm the power is
a. – 5.0 D b. + 5.0 D
c. + 0.05 D d. – 0.05 D
3. Two thin lenses of focal length f1 and f2 are placed at a distance 'd' between them. For the power of
combination to be zero the separation 'd' is:
a. f1 – f2 b. f1 + f2
f1 f1
c. f d. f2
2
4. The equivalent focal length of a pair of thin lenses of focal length f1 and f2 when in contact is:
a. f1 + f2 b. f1 – f2
f1f2 f1 + f2
c. f + f d. f f
1 2 1 2
5. The focal length of lens in air is 30 cm. Find the focal length of the lens in water (given, μw = 1.33 and
μg = 1.5)
a. 120 cm b. 20 cm
c. 90 cm d. 60 cm
ANSWERS
1. (d) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (a)


DISPERSION
18.1 Introduction
When a beam of white light is passed through a glass prism, it splits up into several colours. If we
carefully observe these splitted colours from white light, seven different colours can be observed.
They are red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. These seven colours are called
constituent colours of white light. The phenomenon of splitting up of white light into its constituent colours
is known as the dispersion of light. The pattern of colour components of light is called the spectrum of
light and the medium which splits the light is called dispersive medium.
R
O
Y
G
B
I
V
Screen
Fig. 18.1: Dispersion of white light
Causes of Dispersion
The speed of light in vacuum is 3 × 108 ms–1 whatever the colour of light is. But the speed of different
colours differs in a material medium. It means, the speed of red colour and blue colour is different,
although they travel in a same medium. This happens basically due to the change of wavelength of
different colours of light. As we know, speed (v) of light wave is the multiplication of frequency (f)
and wavelength (λ), i.e.,
v = fλ … (18.1)
Frequency of the wave is the property of light source, so it does not change in any medium, but the
wave length does. So,
v∝λ
It means, the speed of different colours of light is different for a medium. The wavelength of red
colour (λr) is greater than the wavelength of violet colour (λv) in any dispersive medium. So, vr > vv.
Also, the refractive index of a medium depends on the speed of light, i.e.,

c Speed of light in vaccum
μ = v = Speed of light in medium
As, vr > vv, μr < μv

The refractive index of violet colour is greater than the refractive index of red colour in a medium.
Alternatively, this relation is directly determined from Cauchy's relation,
b c
μ=a+ + … (18.2)
λ2 λ4
where, a, b and c are constants.
In a medium λr > λv, so μv > μr
Also, from Snells' law
sin i
μ = sin r … (18.3)
When a light ray incident on a prism (i.e., dispersive medium), then angle of incidence (i) is same for
all colours. But the angle of refraction (r) becomes different due to the different values of refractive
index.
sin i
i.e., sin r =
μ
As we have, μv > μr, angle of refraction for violet colour is smaller than the red colour. Greater is the
angle of refraction, smaller is the deviation and vice-versa. Hence, the red colour appears at the top
and violet colour appears at the bottom of the spectrum as shown in Fig. 18.1.
Also, in the analysis of the deviation produced by small angled prism, we have
δ = A(μ – 1) … (18.4)
For μv > μr, δv > δr. It means the deviation of violet colour is greater than the red colour. The
deviation of other colours lies between the red colour and violet colour. In the dispersion of white
light, violet colour is the most deviated colour and red colour is the least deviated colour.
18.2 Pure and Impure Spectrum

A prism splits a beam of white light into different colours. A white light is composed of light with
continuous range of wavelengths from red about 700 nm to violet about 400 nm. The glass prism
refracts different colours by different amount depending upon their wavelengths. The shorter the
wavelength in air, the greater is the amount of refraction. So, each colour in white light is refracted
by different amount. Because of this fact, the light emerging from a prism forms a group of colours
ranging between red to violet with all other colours such as, orange, yellow, green, blue, and indigo
lying respectively between these two extreme colours. These colours appear in the form of band
lying side by side. This continuous range of colour that appears in the form of band of unique
colours after emerging from the prism is known as spectrum of light. The spectrum can be
continuous or discrete.
If the colour band possesses all the colours from deep violet to deep red with wavelengths varying
continuously so that each colour is uniquely identified is called as continuous spectrum. The
spectrum of light emitted from a filament lamp is a continuous spectrum of colours with wavelength
ranging from 400 nm to 700 nm. The most intense part of the spectrum depends on the temperature
of the light source. The hotter the light source, the shorter the wavelength of the brightest part of the
spectrum. By measuring the wavelength of the brightest part of the continuous spectrum, we can
determine the temperature of the light source.
If the spectrum of the light consists of narrow vertical lines of different colours, it is called as discrete
spectrum. A glowing gas in a vapour lamp emits light of specific wavelength and is known as
discrete or line spectra.
Dispersion |Chapter 18| 459
The spectrum of light obtained may or may not have well-defined boundaries of wavelength. This is
to say that, all the colours may or may not be distinguishable as a separate. The spectrum in which
all the colours of light are distinguishable and there is no overlapping of the colours is known as
pure spectrum. Whereas, the spectrum in which there is overlapping of the colours so that various
colours are not distinctly seen is known as impure spectrum. Rainbow is an example of impure
spectrum. Pure spectrum can be produced from the combination of a prism and an achromatic lens
(combination of concave and convex lenses).
Production of Pure Spectrum

In a pure spectrum, there are bands of colours lying side by side which are uniquely observed. Pure
spectrum of light can be produced by using two achromatic lenses and a prism. The arrangement has
a source of light from which light rays are focused to lens L1 with the help of narrow slits. Parallel
rays emerging from L1 fall on prism. In the prism, rays of different colours are refracted by different
amounts but the rays of same colour remain parallel to one another. The emergent rays are focused
by a convex lens L2 on the screen placed at the focal length of L2. The spectrum so obtained is a pure
spectrum as shown in Fig. 18.2.
L2
L1 R
Slit V
R
R
V V
S B C
Fig. 18.2: Production of Pure spectra Screen
18.3 Angular Dispersion
The angular separation between the two extreme colours (violet and red) in the visible spectrum is
called the angular dispersion of visible light. It is denoted by 'θ'. A
∴ Angular dispersion (θ) = δv − δr A

Also, δv = A (μv − 1) and δr = A (μr − 1)
O
So, θ = A (μv − 1) − A(μr − 1) dr dv
q
θ = A (μv − μr) … (18.5) ght
it e li R
As both colours of the spectrum are dispersed by the same wh
prism, the refracting angle of prism A is same for both the

V
colours. C
B
From the equation (18.5), it is clear that the angular dispersion Fig. 18.3: Deviation of violet and red light
dispersed by prism
produced by a prism depends upon (i) angle of prism (ii)
nature of the material of the prism.
18.4 Dispersive Power

Dispersive power is the ability of the material of the prism to cause dispersion. It is defined as the
ratio of angular dispersion to the mean deviation. It is denoted by ω.
Angular dispersion
∴ Dispersive power (ω) = Mean deviation

θ
i.e., ω = … (18.6)
δ
From equation (18.5), θ = A (μv − μr)
and the mean deviation (δ) = A (μ − 1)
A(μv − μr)
Here, dispersive power (ω) =
A(μ − 1)
μv − μr
∴ ω= … (18.7)
μ− 1
Mean deviation 'δ' is the deviation of the mean colour (yellow colour) of visible spectrum. It is
δv + δr μv + μr
determined from δ = 2 , and the refractive index, μ = 2
Equation (18.7) shows that the dispersive power depends on the nature of the material of the prism
and not on its refracting angle A. However, both angular dispersion and mean deviation depend on
the angle of prism. It is also noted that, greater the dispersive power of a material, larger is the
spread of the spectrum produced by the material of the prism.
18.5 Chromatic Aberration

Since lens is a combination of small angled prisms, white light incident on it suffers dispersion, i.e., it
splits up into its constituent colours. The different colours of light suffer different amount of
refraction and hence do not converge at a single focus after emerging out of the lens. This gives rise
to an aberrant colourful image and is known as chromatic aberration. Thus, chromatic aberration is
the colourful distortion in image formed due to the inability of a lens to focus all the constituent
colours of light at a single point after refraction from it.
When a white light passes through the converging lens, it splits up into seven different colours.
Among seven colours, violet has the shortest wavelength and is deviated most and hence converges
to a point nearer to the lens on the principal axis. But, the red light has the longest wavelength and is
deviated least. The red light therefore converges to a point relatively far from the lens on the
principal axis. This means, focal length for red light (fr) is longer than that for violet light (fv). The
difference fr – fv is the measure of longitudinal or axial chromatic aberration.
V
R
R
X X
V
• • • • • •
V Fr Fr
FV Y Y FV
R
R
fV fV
V
fr fr
(i) (ii)
Fig. 18.4: (i) Chromatic aberration in convex lens (ii) Chromatic aberration in concave lens
We know from lens maker’s formula, focal length for mean colour is related to the radii of curvature
R1 and R2 and refractive index μ as:
1 ⎛1 1⎞
f = (μ − 1) ⎝R1 + R2⎠ … (18.8)

1 1 1
and, =⎛ + ⎞ … (18.9)
f (μ − 1) ⎝R1 R2⎠
Similarly, for red and violet colour, the focal lengths are respectively given by the equations,
1 ⎛1 1⎞
fr = (μr − 1) ⎝R1 + R2⎠ … (18.10)
1 1 1
and, f = (μv − 1) ⎛R + R ⎞ … (18.11)
v ⎝ 1 2⎠
Subtracting equation (18.11) from (18.10), we get,
1 1 ⎛1 1⎞
fr − fv = (μv − μr − 1 + 1) ⎝R1 + R2⎠
fr − fv ⎛1 1⎞
fv fr = (μv − μr) ⎝R1 + R2⎠ … (18.12)
Since, the wavelengths of seven colours are in geometric progression, the focal length for the mean
colour is equal to the square root of the product of the focal lengths of two extreme colours.
i.e., f = fr fv
or, f 2 = fr fv … ( 18.13)
fr − fv (μv − μr)
f 2 = (μ − 1) f
(μv − μr)
But, dispersive power of the material of the lens (ω) =
(μ − 1)
∴ fr − fv = ωf … (18.14)
Thus, the longitudinal chromatic aberration is equal to the product of dispersive power of material of
lens and the mean focal length.
18.6 Achromatic Combination of Lenses and Achromatism

Two lenses suitably combined to remove the chromatic aberration form an achromatic combination
of lenses and the resulting lens is called an L L'
Achromatic lens. To remove chromatic aberration,
R
such lens must be made from lenses of different V
materials and should be able to produce the deviation
•
in exactly opposite direction of one another; in White light F White light
addition these deviations must be equal in magnitude. V
R
The condition in which the chromatic aberration is
removed by suitably combining two lenses so that all
the colours of light now focus at a single point after Fig. 18.5 Achromatic combination of lenses
refraction from lens is called achromatism. This means, the combined focal length of two lenses for
red colour must be equal to the combined focal length for violet light and also must be true for other
colours.
Let us consider a convex lens L1 and a concave lens L2 made up of different materials of dispersive
powers ω and ω' respectively. Also, fr, fv, and f be the focal lengths of red, violet and mean colour for
convex lens L1 and μr, μv, and μ be their respective refractive indices. If R1 and R2 are the radii of
curvature of two surfaces then, from lens maker’s formula, we have,

1 ⎛1 1⎞
f = (μ − 1) ⎝R1 + R2⎠
For yellow (mean) colour,
1 1 1
=⎛ + ⎞ … (18.15)
f(μ − 1) ⎝R1 R2⎠
Similarly, for red colour,
1 ⎛1 1⎞
fr = (μr − 1) ⎝R1 + R2⎠ … (18.16)
For violet colour,

1 ⎛1 1⎞
fv = (μv − 1) ⎝R1 + R2⎠ … (18.17)
Also, let fr’, fv,’ and f’' are the focal lengths of red, violet, and mean light for concave lens L2 and μr' ,
μv' and μ' are their respective refractive indices. If R'1and R'2 are the radii of curvature for L2, then
from lens maker’s formula,
1 1 1
For mean or yellow light, f ' = (μ' – 1) ⎛R ' + R ' ⎞
⎝ 1 2⎠
1 1 1
or, =⎛ + ⎞ … (18.18)
f '(μ' – 1) ⎝R1' R2' ⎠
1 1 1
For red light, f ' = (μr' – 1) ⎛R ' + R ' ⎞ … (18.19)
r ⎝ 1 2⎠
1 1 1
For violet light, f ' = (μv' – 1) ⎛ ' + ' ⎞ … (18.20)
v ⎝ 1 2⎠
R R
Now, for achromatism, combined focal length for violet light must be equal to that for red light.
If Fv and Fr are the combined focal lengths for violet and red lights respectively, then for
achromatism.
Fv = Fr
1 1
or, Fv = Fr
1 1 1 1
or, f v + fv ' = fr + f r '
1 1 1 1
or, fv – fr = fr ' – fv '
1 1 1 1
or, (μv – 1 – μr + 1) ⎛R + R ⎞ = (μr' – 1 – μv' + 1) ⎛ ' + ' ⎞
⎝ 1 2⎠ ⎝R1 R2⎠
Using equation (18.15) and (18.18), we get
(μv – μr) μv' – μr'
=
f (μ – 1) f '(μ' – 1)
ω ω'
or, f =–f' … (18.21)
ω f
∴ =–f' … (18.22)
ω'
This is the required condition for achromatism. Since, the dispersive power is a positive quantity, the
ω
ratio must also be positive. Then equation (18.22) is possible only when f and f ' are of opposite
ω'
nature, i.e., if one is converging then other must be diverging or vice versa.
From equation (18.21), we can write,
ω ω'
f +f' =0 … (18.23)
If ω = ω', then
1 1
f +f'=0 … (18.24)
If the combined focal length for mean colour be F, then

1 1 1
F = f +f' … (18.25)
1
or, F = 0 [from equation (18.23)
∴ F=0
Therefore combination of material of same dispersive power would behave as a glass slab.
1 1 ω
F = f – f ω'
1 1 ⎛ω' – ω⎞
or, F = f ⎝ ω' ⎠
The combination will behave as converging lens if, F is positive. For this ω' > ω. This means, in our
assumption above, if dispersive power of concave lens is greater than that of convex lens, the
combination behaves as a convex (converging) lens.
The combination will behave as diverging lens if F is negative. For this ω' < ω.
EXAMPLE 1: The refractive indices for red and violet colours for a crown glass are 1.5155 and 1.5245 respectively. Find the
dispersive power for crown glass.
SOLUTION
Refractive index for violet (μv) = 1.5245,
Refractive index for red (μr) = 1.5155,
μv + μr 1.5245 + 1.5155
Refractive index for mean colour, yellow (μy) = 2 = = 1.52
2
μv – μr 1.5245 – 1.5155
∴ Dispersive power (ω) = = = 0.0173.
μy –1 1.52 –1
 Check Point: Two glasses have dispersive powers in the ratio 2:3. These glasses are to be used in the
manufacture of an achromatic objective of focal length 30 cm. What are the focal lengths of the lenses?
Ans. 10 cm, –15 cm
Applications of acromatic lenses

Acromatic lenses bring colour into focus at the same point that allows users focus on images. If there
is the lens with chromatic aberration, the image is found multi-coloured and distorted from the
specific position. It has several applications in optical devices. Some important applications are given
below.
1. They have the wide range of applications in fluorescence microscopy, image relay, inspection
and spectroscopy.
2. They are also used in a multi-lens optical system that usually consists of several achromatic
lenses.
3. Achromatic lenses produce a much clearer image that make for easier viewing, hence, they are
used to produce pure spectrum of light.
4. They are used in scientific and non-scientific optics applications.
5. They are used in high quality microscope and photographic apparatus which eliminate both
hyper-chromatic and monochromatic aberration.
Scattering of light
When light travels in a medium, it interacts with the atoms or the molecules of the medium where it
gets absorbed by them. These molecules or atoms then re-radiate the light in a direction away from
the original direction of the travel. The radiated light however are of same colour (wavelength) as the
absorbed light. These lights that are diverted from their direction of propagation are said to be
scattered. Thus, scattering is a phenomenon which involves absorption and re-radiation of the light
by the molecules of the medium. The scattering of a particular type of light depends upon its
wavelength. English physicist, Lord John Rayleigh found that the amount of scattering is inversely
proportional to the fourth power of the wavelength, i.e.,
1
Scattering intensity (I) ∝ 4
λ
This fact is known as Rayleigh's Law.
As seen from above relation, the light of shorter wavelength end of the visible spectrum are scattered
more than the longer wavelength end of the spectrum. Rayleigh's law can describe many interesting
phenomenon of nature. Some of them are discussed in the next section.
Consequences of Dispersion of Light

i. Rainbow: When light rays enter into the rain drops, the drops act as the dispersive medium,
and hence, the ray splits up into its seven constituent colours. The spectrum is visualized on the
sky. It means the sky acts as the screen for the spectrum. Thus, the rainbow is formed. Rainbow
is a natural spectrum.
ii. Blue colour of sky: Scientist Rayleigh derived the empirical relation of scattering of light in a
dispersive medium with the wavelength of light as,
1
Scattering intensity ∝ 4
λ
Scattering of light is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the wavelength of light. This
relation shows that light of shorter wavelength is scattered much more than light of longer
wavelength. Since the wavelength of blue colour is shorter than red colour, the scattering of
blue colour is much more greater than red colour. So, the sky appears blue. In fact, violet colour
is much more scattered than blue colour, but our eye is more sensitive to blue than violet.
Hence, sky does not appear violet.
iii. Reddish appearance of sun at sunrise and sunset: At the time of sunrise and sunset, light rays
from the sun have to pass through a larger distance in the atmosphere. When white light enters
into the atmosphere, dispersion takes place. As we know, red colour deviates least and violet
colour deviates most. The least deviated colour can approach on our eye, i.e., red colour of
sunlight reaches to our eye, hence the sun appears reddish.
Tips for MCQs
Quantitative Tips
B C
1. Cauchy's equation for the variation of refractive index with wavelengths is μ = A + + .
λ2 λ4
2. Angular dispersion for violet and red rays is δv – δr = (μv – μr) A.
δv – δr
3. Dispersive power of the material of prism ω = , where δ is the deviation for the mean colour.
δ
μv – μr μv + μr
4. ω= , where μ = 2 .
μ–1
A' (μ – 1)
5. The condition for dispersion without deviation is A = –
( μ' – 1)
The net dispersion produced by the two prism is = (μv' – μr') A' – (μv – μr) A = (ω' − ω) × (μ – 1)A
6. The condition for deviation without dispersion is

A' (μv – μr) A' ω (μ – 1)
= = ; δω = δ'ω'
A ( μv' – μr') A ω' (μ' – 1)
ω⎞
Net deviation suffered = δ ⎛1 –
⎝ ω' ⎠
7. Longitudinal chromatic aberration = fr – fv = ωf
ω1 ω2 1 1 1
8. The condition for achromatism of two thin lenses in contact is f + f = 0, F = f + f . Also
1 2 1 2
ω2 – ω1⎞ ω1 – ω2⎞
f1 = ⎛ F and f2 = ⎛
⎝ ω2 ⎠ ⎝ ω1 ⎠ F.
1
9. Rayleigh's scattering law is I ∝ .
λ4
Conceptual Tips
1. Refractive index of medium depends on colour (wavelength) of light. In a medium, λr > λv,
so, μv > μr.
2. Red colour appears at the top and violet colour appears at the bottom of visible spectrum.
3. Wavelength of light is not changed during scattering.
4. The sky appears blue due to the scattering of light.
5. The scattering of red color is the least in visible spectrum, so it is used as danger symbol.
6. Red, blue, and green colours cannot be obtained by mixing any of the other colours, so, they are
called primary colours.
7. Dispersive power of prism is independent of angle of prism.
8. Chromatic aberration occurs due to the different focal lengths of a lens for different colours.
9. Spherical aberration occurs due to the spherical shape of lenses and mirrors.
10. Spectrometer is used to study the colours in visible spectrum.
Quick Reply
1. In visible spectrum which colour is deviated most and which colour is deviated least?
 The deviation produced by small angled prism is,
δ = A(μ – 1)
As refractive index of violet colour is greater than that of red colour. So, violet colour is deviated
most and red colour is deviated least.
2. How is rainbow formed in the sky?
 If there is sunshine at the time of raining the sunlight gets refracted through the raindrops and
disperses. Thus, rainbow is formed by dispersion of sunlight into its constituent colours by
raindrops.


1. Why does the sky appear blue? What will it look like on the moon?
 The sky appears blue due to scattering of sunlight by air molecules. According to Rayleigh's law,
1
intensity of scattered light, I ∝ 4 , where λ is the wavelength of light. Since the wavelength of blue
λ
colour is significantly smaller than red coloured light. So, blue colour scatters more among other
colours. Therefore, sky appears blue. Since there is no atmosphere around the moon, there is no
scattering of light, hence the colour of sky is dark.
3. When white light is dispersed by a prism, red colour appears at the top of the spectrum whereas
violet at the bottom, why?
 The speed of different colours of light is different in a material medium, hence the refractive index is
c
also difference, ⎛μ = v⎞ . Also, the deviation angle of the light in a prism is δ = A (μ – 1). Since, μv > μr,
⎝ ⎠
δv > δr. This shows that angle of deviation of violet is greater than red colour. Similar phenomena
occur in other colours. Hence, red colour appears at the top due to its least deviation and violet
colour at the bottom of spectrum due to the most deviation.
4. Eye is more sensitive to yellow colour. Why do then we use traffic light stop signals of red colour?
 According to Rayleigh's law of scattering, the intensity of light scattered is inversely proportional to
1
fourth power of wavelength λ, i.e., I ∝ 4 .
λ
The red colour has maximum wavelength in visible spectrum, so it deviates the least. Hence, it can be
easily observed even in foggy and dust condition.
5. A thick lens suffers from chromatic aberration but not in the thin one, why?
 Lens is considered as the small angled prism. If the lens itself is thick, it behaves as a normal prism.
The deviation produced by the prism depends on the angle of prism, A, i.e., δ = A (μ – 1). Hence, the
dispersion occurs in thick lens as it has comparatively large refracting angle.
Worked Out Problems

1. The deviation produced by a flint glass prism for violet and red light rays are 3.25° and 3.10°
respectively. Find the angular dispersion.
SOLUTION
Given:
Deviation for violet (δv) = 3.25°
Deviation for red (δr) = 3.10°
Angular dispersion = δv – δr = 3.25° – 3.10° = 0.15°.
2. An achromatic lens of focal length +30 cm is to be constructed by combining a crown glass lens and a
flint glass lens. What must be the focal lengths of the component lenses if the dispersive powers of
crown glass and flint glass are 0.018 and 0.027 respectively?
SOLUTION
Given: Dispersive power of crown glass (ω1) = 0.018
Mean focal length (F) = 30 cm
Dispersive power of flint glass (ω2) = 0.027
Focal length of crown glass (f1) = ?
Focal length of flint glass (f2) = ?
We have,
f1 ω1 0.018
f2 = – ω2 = – 0.027

f1 2 1 –3 1
or, f2 = – 3
or, 30 =
2f2 + f2
2 1 –3 + 2
or, f1 = – 3 f2 or, 30 = 2 f
2
1 1 1 ∴ f2 = – 15 cm
Again, F = +
f1 f2 2
and f1 = –3 × (–15) = 10 cm
1 –3 1
or, = 2f + f
F 2 2 ∴ f1 = 10 cm and f2 = – 15 cm
Exercise
1. What is dispersion?
2. Which colour is the mean colour in visible spectrum?
3. Write the formula of dispersive power.
4. Write the condition of achromatism.
5. What is the cause of blue colour of sky?
6. Which is the most deviated colour from prism in visible spectrum?
7. Does rainbow a pure spectrum?
8. What is used to produce the pure spectrum?
Short Questions
1. Why white light is dispersed when passing through a prism?
2. Why is there no dispersion of light refracted through a rectangular glass slab?
3. Rainbow is never observed on the surface of moon. Why?
4. What do you mean by spectrum of light?
5. What colour does the sun appear at sunrise and sunset?
6. What is natural dispersion? Explain.
7. Does dispersive power of the material of prism depend on the shape, size, and angle of prism?
6. Light is dispersed through a prism, but not through a glass slab, why?
7. Explain why a mirror cannot give rise to chromatic aberration.
8. The sun appears red at sunset and sunrise, why?
9. Why are a number of dark lines seen in the spectrum of light from the sky?
10. What will be the colour of sky in the absence of atmosphere?
11. Why do clouds appear white in general?
Long Questions
1. What is chromatic aberration in a lens? How will you combine two lenses of different materials
so that there is no chromatic aberration?
2. What is a pure spectrum? Describe how can a spectrometer be used to produce pure spectrum.
3. Explain the cause of dispersion. Define angular dispersion and dispersive power.
4. Derive the condition for achromatic lenses.
5. Define spherical aberration and ways to minimize it.
6. What is an achromatism? Derive an expression for the condition of achromatic combination of
two thin lenses in contact.
7. What is meant by pure and impure spectrum? What are the conditions necessary for the
production of a pure spectrum?
8. What is chromatic aberration? Show that for a lens, the chromatic aberration is the product of
dispersive power and focal length of mean light.
Self Practice Numericals

1. The angular dispersion between violet and red colours produced by a small angled prism is
0.6°. The refractive index of the material of the prism for violet is 1.66 and that for red is 1.54.
Find the angle of the prism. Ans. 5°
2. Find the angle of dispersion between the violet coloured rays of light produced by a flint glass
prism of refracting angle of 60°. The refractive indices of flint glass for the red and the violetrays
are 1.622 and 1.663 respectively. Ans: 2.46o
3. A telescope objective is made by cementing two lenses crown one and the other of flint glass,
the cemented surfaces having same radii of curvature. The combination is a plano convex lens
of power one diopter. Calculate the radii of curvature of component lenses. Given that the
refractive index of crown glass is 1.5 and that of flint glass is 1.6, their respective powers are 0.02
and 0.03. The lens of flint glass is plano-concave. Ans: 37.5 cm, –30 cm
4. The refractive index of crown glass is 1.685 for violet and 1.644 for red. Find the angular
dispersion produced by the prism of angle 4°. Ans: 0.164°
5. An achromatic converging lens of mean focal length 40 cm is made by combining two lenses of
different materials. If the dispersive powers of the two lenses are in the ratio 1:3, find the focal
lengths of each lens. Ans: – 80 cm

1. If ƒr, ƒy, and ƒb are the focal lengths of a lens for red, yellow, and blue colours, then the axial
chromatic aberration for parallel rays is
ƒr – ƒb ƒr + ƒb
a. ƒr + ƒb b. ƒr – ƒb c. d.
ƒy 2
2. To remove the achromatic aberration, the combination of lenses should be such that
a. FR + FV = 0 b. FR < FV c. FR< FV d. FR – FV = 0
3. For achromatic combination of lenses if we use two lens of focal lengths ƒ and ƒ'; dispersive powers ω
and ω', respectively, then
a. ωf + ω'ƒ' = 0 b. ω'f + ωƒ' = 0 c. ωf – ω'ƒ' = 0 d. ω'f – ωƒ' = 0
4. A convex lens has mean focal length 20 cm. The dispersive power of the material of the lens is 0.02.
The longitudinal chromatic aberration for an object at infinity is
a. 0.20 b. 0.40 c. 0.80 d. 103
5. Two lenses in contact form an achromatic doublet. Their focal lengths are in the ratio 2 : 3. Their
dispersive power must be in the ratio
a. –2:3 b. – 1 : 3 c. – 3 : 1 d. – 3 : 2
6. If sky is seen from moon's surface, it will appear:
a. blue b. black c. white d. red
7. If a room is fitted with a green bulb, a red cloth will appear
a. yellow b. orange c. black d. blue
ANSWERS
1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (b) 4. (b) 5. (a) 6 (b) 7. (d)


UNIT 4
ELECTROSTATICS
AND DC CIRCUITS
The main aim of this section is to convey the information regarding the generation of
electricity and its static and dynamic nature. To fulfil this aim, the major objectives are
put forth in this unit.
1. Electric Charges: Make the learners to understand the production of charge and its
quantitative measurement.
2. Electric Field: Provide the knowledge about the field intensity of static electricity and
its applications.
3. Potential, Potential Difference and Potential Energy: Convey the knowledge on
mechanical works performed by electric field.
4. Capacitor: Provide the knowledge on electric energy storage and its applications in
electronic devices.
5. DC Circuits: Provide the knowledge on dynamic nature of charge and its properties,
electric energy production and dissipation in real life.

Electric Charges| Chapter 19 | 471
ELECTRIC CHARGES
19.1 Introduction
Every year in Nepal, we hear the news of deaths of many people due to lightning. What really may
be the reason behind the deaths from lightning? Of course, this event can be described on the same
basis in which we describe the following events: a plastic comb attracts a bit of paper after rubbing
on dry hair (please do yourself and believe). While the plastic comb is rubbed on dry hair, a property
of interaction with other bodies is developed and we say that, the body is charged due to friction.
This charged body has the property of attraction or repulsion with other charged or neutral objects
as well. Similar phenomenon occurs in the cloud. The charge accumulates on the cloud due to the
friction with air. When this accumulated charge discharges on tall buildings, trees, towers, etc.
lightning occurs. Electrostatics deals about such properties of charge that accumulate and remain
static on a body.
The branch of physics which deals with charges either at rest or in motion is called electricity. There
are two branches of electricity.
Electrostatics: The branch of electricity that deals with a charge at rest is called electrostatics.
Current electricity: The branch of electricity that deals with a charge in motion is called current
electricity.
19.2 Electric Charge

When a plastic comb is rubbed on your hair, electric charge is produced in it. The production of
charge can be confirmed when it is brought near to a piece of paper. A charged comb attracts the
piece of paper. Electric charge is carried by sub-atomic particles electrons and protons.
Fundamentally, a body becomes charged when it gains or loses the electrons.
Proton is comparatively heavy charged particle and lies within the nucleus of an atom, so transfer of
proton by rubbing is impossible due to strong nuclear force that binds the protons together.
However, the electron revolves in an orbit of an atom which are relatively less bounded with very
small force. So, it can leave the atom in a small exertion even by changing the temperature. Electric
charges are of two types: positive charge and negative charge. The body which loses electrons
becomes positively charged and the body which gains electrons becomes negatively charged. Thus,
charge is a fundamental property of every matter carried by sub-atomic particles such as electrons
and protons. And, for macroscopic body, charge refers to the excess or deficit of electrons in it. The
amount of charge in a body is symbolized by q or Q.

Units and dimension of a charge

The unit of charge is coulomb (C). The charge is the product of two fundamental quantities: electric
current (I) and time (t).
i.e., charge (q) = current (I) × time (t)
So, the dimension of q, [q] = [A] × [T]
∴ [q] = [AT]
Also, the unit of current is ampere (A) and time is second (s). So, SI unit of charge is ampere second
(As).
One ampere second is called one coulomb (C).
The CGS unit of charge is statcoulomb. One coulomb charge is produced when a body gains or losses
6.25 × 1018 electrons. Coulomb is used to measure the large amount of charge; for experimental
purpose, charge is measured in microcoulomb (μC), nanocoulomb (nC), etc.
1 nC = 10–9 C
1 μC = 10–6 C
1 C = 3 × 109 statcoulomb
Properties of Charge
(i) Only two electric charges exist in nature; positive and negative.
(ii) Like charges repel and unlike charges attract.
(iii) It is a scalar quantity.
(iv) The total electric charge of a body is the algebraic sum of all charges on it. Two equal and
opposite charges +q and –q add up to zero.
(vi) It is quantized. The charge on a body is always an integral multiple of some basic unit; the
basic unit being equal to the magnitude of charge carried by an electron. This is known as
quantization of charge.
(v) It is conserved. It means that, the total charge of an isolated system always remains the same
and it can neither be created nor be destroyed but it is merely transferred from one body to
another and this fact is also called principle of conservation of charge.
(vii) The electric charge on a body does not depend on its speed.
Production of charges and our common experiences

1. Spark production in woollen clothes: During the winter nights when wear out the woollen
clothes, sparks are produced. While woollen cloth is removed from body, it gets rubbed on dry
skin of our body so that charge is produced on it. This produced charge again attempts to
discharge on our body, which ultimately produces the sparks.
2. Hair and comb attraction: It is our common experiences that our hair is attracted towards the
plastic comb during combing. When comb runs many times on our hair, frictional charge is
stored on it. The comb and hair possess the opposite natured charge. If we further continue
combing, they tends to attract so that the hair rises up.
3. Electric sock while getting out from the car: Sometimes we experience a slight sock while
getting out from the car. During the motion of car, electric charges are accumulated on its body
parts. When we get out from the car, the accumulated charge tends to transfer towards the
ground through our body. So, we may feel electric sock.

4. Metal chain dragging from heavy vehicles: During the motion of heavy trucks and tankers,
charge is accumulated on their metal bodies due to the friction of tyre on ground as well as
friction of body on air. The accumulated charge discharges as soon as finds another material
and thus the spark is produced. The spark so produced can be the cause of catching fire on
vehicles carrying diesel, petrol, LP gas etc. To prevent from the possible accident, metal chain is
dragged on the ground so that frictional charge passes to ground and no charge is accumulated
on the vehicle's body.
19.3 Conductor, Insulator and Semiconductor

The charge given at an end of a body may or may not transfer to another end. It solely depends on
the conductivity of a material. In accordance with the permission of charge flow, the materials are
mainly divided into three types:
i. Conductor
A material which allows charge particles to move from one end to another is called a conductor.
Metals are usually conductors. To be a conductor, the orbital electrons of the material are almost free
from the nuclear attraction. Examples of conductor are: copper, silver, iron, aluminium, carbon, acid,
alkali, earth, human body, etc.
ii. Insulator
A material which does not allow charged particles to move through is called insulator. Non-metals
are generally insulator. When charge is given at an end of an insulator, it does not flow rather it
remains static. Insulators do not contain free electrons. They are bad conductors of electricity.
Examples of insulator are: dry wood, dry paper, rubber, glass, dry air, mica, ebonite, etc.
iii. Semiconductor
A material which behaves as a conductor under certain physical conditions is called semiconductor.
At 0 K temperature, a semiconductor behaves as a perfect insulator but it becomes conducting even
for a slight rise in temperature. Semiconductor materials are used to make electronic devices.
Examples of semiconductor are: silicon, germanium, etc.
19.4 Theory of Electrification

The process of charging a body either positively or negatively is known as electrification. An atom
consists of a nucleus and electrons. Nucleus lies at the centre of an atom and electrons revolve
around it in specified orbits. Nucleus contains the protons and neutrons. Proton is positively charged
particle and neutron is a neutral particle. Electrons are negatively charged particles. In every neutral
atom, the number of protons is equal to the number of electrons. As the electrons revolve in the
orbits, they are relatively free to move away from an atom. They can be ejected from their orbits by
rubbing, heating, etc.
When two bodies are rubbed, the electrons in the outer orbit of atom get transfer from one body to
another body. But proton can never be transferred by rubbing. The body which loses the electron
becomes positively charged and body which receives electrons becomes negatively charged. Loss of
electrons means loss of negative charge, so the body which loses electrons becomes positively
charged. Also, the gain of electrons means the gain of negative charge. So, the body which gains
electrons becomes negatively charged.
19.5 Charging of a Body

When we rub a plastic comb on our hair and bring the comb nearer to a small piece of paper, the
paper gets attracted towards the comb. Why this happens? The simple answer is that, the comb gets
charged on rubbing. Charging of a body is the process in which a body gains or loses charged
particles (always electrons). There are three methods of charging a body:
(i) Friction (ii) Conduction (iii) Induction
Charging by Friction
Charged particles can be transferred on rubbing a body to another. While rubbing, the electrons on a
body move to another body so that one gains the electrons and other loses. The body which gains
electron becomes negatively charged and other which loses electrons becomes positively charged. In
the example of rubbing a plastic comb on our hair, the hair loses electrons and becomes positively
charged, whereas the plastic comb gains electrons and becomes negatively charged.
19.6 Conduction
Conduction is the method of charge transfer from a body to another by touching them physically. It is the
method of permanently charging a body. In conduction, the conductor which receives the charge has
same nature of charge as the transferred body. When charge is transferred from a body to another,
the amount of charge reduces in the originally charged body.
Charging a Conductor by the Method of Conduction

A conductor can be charged by putting it in contact with another charged body directly. As we
know, the electric charge has particle nature, i.e., transfer of charge means transfer of charged
particles, usually electrons, from one body to another. A positively charged body has the deficiency
of electrons and negatively charged body has excess number of electrons. Since the similar charged
particles are contained in a charged body, they repel each other. So, charged particles in a charged
body always tend to move away from each other, but the situation is not so simple because they
need a conducting path to escape from it. When a neutral conductor is brought and touched to the
charged body, some of the repelled charged particles are transferred to the neutral conductor. Hence,
the neutral conductor becomes charged as soon as it gains charged particles. The charging of a
conductor by the method of conduction is shown in Fig. 19.1.
charged
neutral conductor
conductor
handle
insulated
stand
(i) (ii)
Fig. 19.1: Charging by conduction

Inducing Charge and Induced Charge

Inducing charge: The charge on a body which influences the charge around it is known as
inducing charge.
Induced charge: The charge in a conductor which is influenced by the charge on another body
is known as induced charge.
Inducing charges Induced Induced

negative charges positive charges
Fig. 19.2: Inducing charge and induced charge
19.7 Induction
The temporary charging of a body when it is brought nearer a charged body without touching it is known as
induction or electrostatic induction. The charge on a originally charged body is called inducing charge.
This inducing charge influences the charge particles in another conductor when it is brought nearer
to the originally charged body. The opposite natured charged particles are attracted to the nearer end
and similar natured charged particles are repelled to the farther end. This induced charge on the
conductor that lies at the nearer end is called bound charge and the repelled charge to the another
end is called free charge. For example: rubbing a plastic comb in our hair charges the comb negative.
A piece of paper is electrically neutral, but when you bring the comb close to the piece of paper, even
though paper is not a conductor, the negative charges have enough mobility that they are repelled by
the rod. This leaves a net positive charge on the parts of the paper nearest the comb, and the comb
attracts the paper piece, which fly up and stick to the comb.
Inducing charges Bound Free

charges charges
Fig. 19.3: Bound charges and free charges
Charging by Induction
A conductor can be charged positively or negatively by the method of induction.
Charging of a Conductor Positively by the Method of Induction

The following steps are involved to charge a conductor positively by induction.
i. An uncharged conducting rod is taken on an insulating stand as shown in Fig. 19.4 (i). The
insulating stand prevents the charge conduction to the ground.
ii. A negatively charged body is brought very near to the neutral rod, but without touching. Then
the electrostatic induction takes place in the rod so that positive charge is accumulated at the
nearer end of the uncharged body and negative charge is accumulated at the another end. The
induced positive charge is bound due to the attraction of inducing negative charge. The
electrostatic induction in the rod is shown in Fig. 19.4 (ii).
iii. In this step, the conductor is earthed, connecting it with a conducting wire. Then, the free
negative charges rapidly passes to the ground through the conducting wire, but the positive
bound charges remain on the conductor as shown in Fig. 19.4 (iii).

iv. Now, the conducting wire is disconnected from the conductor and negatively charged body
(i.e., inducing body) is taken away from the rod. Then, the positive charges spread uniformly
over the rod as shown in Fig. 19.4 (iv), and it becomes positively charged.
Free induced Bound

charge induced charge
neutral conductor Inducing
charge
(i) (ii)
(iii) (iv)
Fig. 19.4: Charging positively by induction
Charging of a Conductor Negatively by the Method of Induction

The following steps are involved to charge a conductor negatively by induction.
i. An uncharged conducting rod is taken on an insulating stand as shown in Fig. 19.5 (i). The
insulating stand prevents the charge conduction to the ground.
ii. A positively charged body is brought very near to the neutral rod, but without touching. Then
the electrostatic induction takes place in the rod so that negative charge is accumulated at the
nearer end of the uncharged body and positive charge is accumulated at the another end. The
induced negative charge is bound due to the attraction of inducing positive charge. The
electrostatic induction in the rod is shown in Fig. 19.5 (ii).
iii. In this step, the conductor is earthed, connecting it with a conducting wire. Then, the free
positive charges rapidly passes to the ground through the conducting wire (actually,
negatively charged particles come to conductor to neutralize positive charge), but the negative
bound charges remain on the conductor as shown in Fig. 19.5 (iii).
iv. Now, the conducting wire is disconnected from the conductor and positively charged body
(i.e. inducing body) is taken away from the rod. Then, the negative charges spread uniformly
over the rod as shown in Fig. 19.5 (iv), and the body becomes negatively charged.

Free induced Bound
charge induced charge
Inducing
neutral conductor
charge
(i) (ii)
(iii) (iv)
Fig. 19.5: Charging negatively by induction
Charge Density
Charge density can be categorized in three types in accordance with the charge distribution.
i. Linear charge density: The charge per unit length of a body is called linear charge density. It
is denoted by λ.
q
∴ λ= l
Its SI unit is Cm–1.

ii. Surface charge density: The charge per unit surface area of a body is called surface charge
density. It is denoted by σ.
q
∴ σ=A

iii. Volume charge density: The charge per unit volume is called volume charge density. It is
denoted by ρ.
q
∴ ρ=V

19.8 Charge Distribution on a Surface

When charge is given to a conducting sphere, the charged particles reside on its surface. The
distribution of charge over the surface of conductor is
uniform only when it is symmetrically spherical,
otherwise the distribution is not uniform as shown in
Fig. 19.6. The surface charge density is,
charge
σ = surface area
q q
∴σ =A=
4πr2
where, r = radius of the sphere
For constant charge on the conductor, the surface charge density is inversely proportional to the
square of radius of curvature of the conductor,
1
i.e., σ ∝ r2
Therefore, the charge is heavily concentrated at the sharp edges of a conductor when it gets charged
and the flat surface possesses very small charge density. If the dust particles, air particles, etc., come
in contact to those charged points, these particles gain charges by conduction and are repelled away.
Thus, the sharp point loses charge to the surroundings. To prevent the charge leakage from electrical
appliances, sharp points are avoided from such instruments. This leakage of charge from the sharp
points by conduction is known as action of points.
Fig. 19.7: Action of point

The leakage of charge from the sharp edges can be demonstrated as shown in Fig. 19.7. Suppose two
candles are lighted at two sides of a metallic conductor supported with an insulated stand. A sharp
edge is fitted towards one candle and another side is left as it is. When charge is supplied to the
conductor, flame of the candle along the side of sharp end deviates away, but another candle burns
as it is as shown in Fig. 19.7. As the charge is leaked out through the sharp end to the air molecules,
they repel away from the end and fresh air come closer to the end. In this way, charge is lost from the
sharp points continuously so that the charged wind flows away.
19.9 Coulomb's Law in Electrostatics

When a charge is brought nearer to another charge, it experiences force due to the effect of another
charge. The nature of force between charges may be repulsive or attractive: similar charges repel
each other, and opposite charges attract each other. Whatever be the nature of the force, either
repulsive or attractive, they apply force to each other. The force between two charges was firstly
formulated by an engineer, Charles Augustine de Coulomb and became famous in the name of
'Coulomb's law' in electrostatics.

Coulomb's law in electrostatics states that "the electrostatic force between two point charges is directly
proportional to the product of their magnitudes and inversely proportional to the square of distance between
their centres". This law is applied for stationary point charges and the direction of force between these
stationary charges acts along the straight line joining them.
Consider two point charges q1 and q2 separated by a distance r as shown in Fig. 19.8. According to
the Coulomb's law, the magnitude of electrostatic force between the charges is,
a. directly proportional to the product of the magnitude of the charges
i.e., F ∝ q1 q2 . . . (19.1)
b. Inversely proportional to the square of distance between them.
1
i.e., F ∝ r2 . . . (19.2)
q1 q2
Combining equations (19.1) and (19.2), we get, r
q1q2 Fig. 19.8: Two point charges
F ∝ r2 separated by a distance r
q1q2
F = k r2 . . . (19.3)
where, k is proportionality constant, known as electrostatic force constant or Coulomb constant. The
value of k depends on the system of units and medium between two charges.
In SI system,
1
k =
4π∈
where, ∈ is called absolute permittivity of dielectric medium between the charges.
So, equation (19.3) is written as,
1 q1q2
F = . . . (19.4)
4π∈ r2
In vacuum, ∈ = ∈0 (permittivity of vacuum or air)
The electrostatic force between two point charges when placed in free space (vacuum or air) is
therefore,
1 q1q2
F= . . . (19.5)
4π∈0 r2
For the convenient study, the absolute permittivity is always expressed in relative permittivity.
∈
i.e., ∈r =
∈0
where, ∈r = relative permittivity of dielectric medium
∴ ∈ = ∈0∈r
The electrostatic force between two point charges when placed in a medium having dielectric
constant ∈r is, then,
1 q1q2
F= . . . (19.6)
4π∈0∈r r2
The experimental value of permittivity of free space, ∈0 is 8.85 × 10–12 C2N–1m–2. The unit C2N–1m–2 is
also written as Fm–1 (farad per metre). So,
∈0 = 8.85 × 10–12 Fm–1

1
The value is approximately equal to 9 × 109 Nm2C–2.
4π∈0
1
i.e., = 9 × 109 Nm2C–2.
4π∈0
1
In CGS system, the value = 1.
4π∈0
So, the electrostatic force is written in CGS system as,
q1q2
F = r2 . . . (19.7)
Definition of One Coulomb: In equation (19.5), if q1 = q2 = 1 C and r = 1 m, then F = 9 × 109 N. Thus,

One coulomb is that charge which when placed 1 m from an equal and similar charge in vacuum
repels it with a force of 9 × 109 N.
Dimension of permittivity: The dimensional formula of permittivity is [M–1L–3T4I2].
19.10 Superposition Principle

The principle of superposition of electric forces states that when two or more charges each exert a
force on a charge, the total force on that charge is the vector sum of the forces exerted by the
individual charges.
Consider charges q1, q2, q3, ............., qn located in vacuum, having position vectors r1, r2, r3, ........., rn
with respect to origin O as shown in Fig. 19.9. The total force on charge q1 due to all other charges
according to superposition principle is
→ → → →
F1 = F12 + F13 + ............ + F1n
→ 1 q1q2 ^ q1q3 q1qn
or, F1 = r + 2 r^31 + .......... + 2 r^n1 . . . (19.8)
4π∈0  r212 21 r31 rn1 
where, r^21 is a unit vector directed from q2 to q1, r^31 is the unit vector directed from q3 to q1, and so
on.
F12 F13
Z
qn
F1n
q1
rn r1
q3
r3 q2
r2
Y
O
X
Fig. 19.9: Force due to multiple charges

19.11 Effects of Permittivity on a Medium

If any medium is inserted between two charges as in Fig. 19.10, the electrostatic force between them
changes. The original point charges induce the medium between them so that their interaction
becomes weaker. It means the electrostatic force between the charges decreases when dielectric
medium is introduced between them. The quantity of force reduction depends on the property of the
medium. For example, when two point charges are placed into the water, the force between them is
reduced by 81 times than that placed in vacuum. It means the relative permittivity (∈r) of water is 81.
So we say that relative permittivity (∈r) of water is 81.
q1 q2
From the Coulomb force between two charges in a medium r
1 q1q2 1 1 q1q2
F = = Fig. 19.10: Point charges in
4π∈0∈r r2 ∈r 4π∈0 r2 dielectric medium
1
∴ F = × electrostatic force in free space . . . (19.9)
∈r
Therefore, greater the value of relative permittivity of a medium smaller the force between two
charges when placed in that medium. This shows that the presence of dielectric medium reduces the
force between two charges. Clearly, two charges exert maximum force to each other when they are
placed in vacuum.
19.12 Relative Permittivity

The relative permittivity (∈r) of a medium is defined as the ratio of the absolute permittivity ∈ of the
medium to the permittivity ∈0 of free space. It is a dimensionless quantity.
∈
i.e., ∈r = .
∈0
It is also called dielectric constant of the medium. Relative permittivity can be expressed in terms of
forces between electric charges.
The electrostatic force between two charges in free space,
1 q1q2
Fv = . . . (19.10)
4π∈0 r2
The force between these charges when placed in a dielectric medium of relative permittivity ∈r is,
1 q1q2
Fm = . . . (19.11)
4π∈0∈r r2
Fv
Fm = ∈ r
Electrostatic force between two charges in vacuum
∴ ∈r = Electrostatic force between them in medium
EXAMPLE 1: Two charges 1 × 10-6 C and – 4 × 10–6 C are separated by a distance of 2 m. Determine the position of null point.
SOLUTION
Given, Force due to charge (q1) = Force due to charge (–
First charge (q1) = 1 × 10-6 C q2)
Second charge (q2) = – 4 × 10–6 C 1 q1 × q 1 q2 × q
or, =
Distance (r) = 2 m 4π∈0 x2 4π∈0 (r + x)2
In this condition null point does not lie within q1 q2
two charges because of their opposite nature. or, x2 = (2 + x)2
Let A be the null point at a distance 'x' from the
charge q1. At null point,

or, x=2m
( )
2
2+x 4 × 10–6
or, x = 1 × 10–6 The null point is obtained at a distance 2 m away
from charge 10-6C or 4 m away from charge – 4 ×
2+x
or, 10–6C.
x =2
or, 2 + x = 2x
 Check Point: An α-particles is the nucleus of a helium atom. It has mass mα = 6.64 × 10–27 kg and charge q α = + 2e = 3.2 ×
10–19 C. Compare the force of the electric repulsion between two α particles with the force of gravitational attraction between them.
Comment on your result. Ans: Ratio of the electric force to the gravitational force is 3.1 × 1035
Tips for MCQs

1. Charge is always quantized. Any charged body contains charge in the discrete number
multiple of electronic charge (e = 1.6 × 10−19 C), i.e., q = ± ne.
2. The smallest charge that can exist in nature is the charge of electron.
3. The quantization of charge was discovered by Millikan from oil drop experiment.
4. The magnitude of induced charge is equal to that of inducing charge only when inducing and
induced charge are kept very close to each other (faraday's ice pail experiment), otherwise
magnitude of inducing charge is always greater than induced charge.
5. Nature of charge in rubbing pair materials.
Pair Positively charged Negatively charged
1. Glass rod, silk cloth Glass rod Silk cloth
2. Fur, ebonite rod Fur Ebonite rod
3. Woolen cloth, plastic pen Woolen cloth Plastic pen
4. Woolen carpet, rubber Woolen carpet Rubber
5. Dry hair, plastic comb Dry hair Plastic comb
Quick Reply
1. What is the total charge of 1 kg of electron?
 1 electron possesses 1.6 × 10–19 C charge.
1 electron has mass 9.1 × 10–31 kg
1
electron has mass 1 kg
9.1 × 10–31
1
∴ Total charge of 1 kg = 1.6 × 10–19 ×
9.1 × 10–31
= 1.76 × 1011 C.
2. How many electrons are contained in 1 coulomb of charge?
 1.6 × 10–19 C charge is contained by 1 electron
1
1 C charge is contained by electron = 6.25 × 1018 electron
1.6 × 10–19
3.What is the electrostatic force at the midpoint of two identical charges when separated with certain
distance?
 Two identical charges repel to each other, so, they two cancel their effects. At the midpoint, equal
forces are directed in opposite direction. Hence, the net force is zero.

4. Water has permittivity 80 times more than that of the vacuum. Explain its meaning in terms of force?
 It means that the force between two charges is reduced 80 times in water than that are placed in
vacuum.
5. What is the force between two charges of equal magnitude of 1 C when placed 1 m distance?
 The coulomb force between two charges is
1 q1q2
F=
4π∈o r2
For q1 = q2 = 1 C and r = 1 m
1 1×1 1
F= = = 9 × 109 N
4π∈o 12 4π∈o

1. What is meant by quantization of charge?
 The net charge in a body is found to be in the integral multiple of a fundamental value. Fundamental
value of charge is always equal to the charge of an electron, e = 1.6 × 10–19 C. Other values apart from
the integral multiples of e (±e, ± 2e, ± 3e, ±4e, …) are impossible. This property of charge in which the
amount of charge in any body is in the integral multiple of 'e' is known as quantization of charge.
2. Can a charge be added to another resulting zero charge?
 Yes, it is possible. When a charge of same amount but opposite nature is added to a charge, it will be
neutralized and becomes zero. If +q and – q are added together, net charge will be zero,
i.e., q + (– q) = 0.
3. Vehicles carrying highly inflammable material usually have metallic chains touching the ground
during motion. Why?
 In the motion of vehicles, charges are produced due to the friction of its body with air. If large
amount of charge is accumulated in the metallic parts of body, they may discharge due to induction
with other parts and spark may be produced. This spark may catch the inflammable material and get
fire. To prevent this mis-happening, metallic chains are hung from the vehicle to touch the ground so
that any charge accumulated on the vehicle leaks to the ground.
4. A body is charged positively. Does its mass increase, decrease or remain same?
 A body is positively charged when it loses the electrons. Electron is a particle having mass 9.1 × 10–31
kg. So, the loss of electrons is the loss of certain mass of the body. Therefore, the mass of the body is
reduced. However, the mass of electron is negligibly small in comparison with the body. So, loss of
mass is almost impossible to detect.
5. Sharp points are avoided from electrostatic machines. Why?
 The surface charge density (σ) of a body is inversely proportional to the square of radius of curvature
1
of the surface (r), i.e., σ ∝ r2 . The sharp points have very small radii of curvature (i.e., r → 0), so the
surface charge density at these points may be infinitely large. So, to preserve the charge for a long
time, sharp points are avoided from electrostatic machines.
6. The tyres of aircrafts are made slightly conducting. Why?
 The tyres of aircrafts are highly charged due to friction while landing on the runway. This
accumulated charge may produce spark when it gets the chance of discharging, which can produce
the fire. If the tyres are slightly conducting, the charge will not accumulate on them and will leak to
the ground.

7. A comb rubbed on one's dry hair attracts small bit of paper. Why?
 Frictional charge is produced on the comb when it runs through the dry hair. The charge produced
on the comb electrifies the paper temporarily due to induction. So, electrostatic attraction takes place.
Thus, the dry hair attracts a bit of paper.
8. Electrostatic experiments do not work well on humid days? Why?
 The atmosphere contains tiny water droplets in humid days. Water droplets make the air conducting.
If the charged object is exposed to such wet atmosphere, charge leaks out from the object. Hence, we
cannot preserve the charge in it. So, electrostatic experiments do not work well on humid days.
9. How many electrons must be added to charge a body with magnitude 3.6 × 10–18 C?
 Here, the value of charge in the given body, q = 3.6 × 10–8 C
We know, the charge of an electron,
e = 1.6 × 10–19 C
From quantization of charge,
q = ne
q 3.68 × 10–18
n = e = 1.6 × 10–19 = 22.5 ≈ 23 (since the charge is quantized, so we take n = 23)
Therefore, 23 electrons must be added to charge a body with magnitude 3.69 × 10–18 C.
Exercise
1. When a polythene piece is rubbed with wool, it acquires negative charge? Is there a transfer of mass
from wool to the polythene?
2. Which has more charge, the charge on an electron or 1 C of charge?
3. A comb run through once dry hair attracts small bits of paper. Why?
4. What is electrostatic induction?
5. What is the formula of surface charge density?
6. What is the unit of absolute permittivity of a medium?
Short Questions
1. A glass rod held on hand can be charged by rubbing with silk but not a metal rod can be charged like
this?
2. Vehicles carrying flammable material and running on rubber tyres always drag a chain along the
ground, why?
3. Nothing will happen to a bird sitting on a naked high-power line but a man gets fatal shock, When
touches the small line. Explain.
4. It is difficult to perform electrostatic experiments on humid days. Why?
5. Why are sharp points strictly avoided in electrical machines?
6. Why is it dangerous to stand under a tree during a thunderstorm?
7. "Repulsion is the sure test of charge ". Justify your answer.
8. What is meant by surface charge density at a point? On what factors does it depend?
9. How do the lightening conductors save the building from the lightning?
10. What are the basic properties of electric charge?
11. What is meant by inducing charge and induced charge?
12. What is electrostatic induction?
13. Is coulomb a very big unit of charge?
14. A comb rubbed on one's dry hair attracts small bit of paper. Why?
15. We cannot charge a conductor holding on our hand. Why?
Long Questions
1. Define electrostatic induction. How do you charge a conductor positively by the method of
induction?
2. Distinguish between inducing and induced charge. How do you charge a conductor negatively by
the method of induction?
3. State and derive Coulomb's law in electrostatics.
4. What is relative permittivity? Describe the effect of permittivity on the force between two charges.
1. How many electrons are there in 1 coulomb charge? Ans: 6.25 × 1018
2. A spherical conductor of radius 10 cm contains 10 µC charge. Calculate the surface charge density.
Ans: 7.96 × 10 - 5 Cm - 2
3. A spherical metallic ball of radius 20 cm contains 1020
electrons on its surface. Calculate the surface
charge density on the ball. Ans: 31.4 Cm-2
3. Two charges 10 C and 20 C are separated by a distance 2 m. Calculate the electrostatic force between
them. Ans: 45 × 1010 N
4. What is the force between two charges 10 µC and 20 µC when separated by a distance 50 cm in air?
Ans: 7.2 N

1. 1 C charge contains ............ number of electrons.
a. 1.6 × 1018 b. 6.25 × 1018
c. 6.25 × 10 19 d. 9.1 × 1031
2. An oil drop which loses electrons becomes
a. neutral b. positively charged
c. negatively charged d. heavier
3. The unit of volume charge density is
a. Cm−1 b. Cm−2
c. Cm−3 d. Cm−4
4. The space around stationary charge has
a. electric field only b. magnetic field only
c. localised electric as well as magnetic field d. electric and magnetic fields that are radiated.
5. The minimum value of charge on any charged body may be
a. 1.6 × 10–19 coulomb b. 1 coulomb
c. 1 μC d. 4.8 × 10–12 coulomb
6. An isolated conducting sphere is given a positive charge. It's mass
a. get increased b. gets decreased
c. remains the same d. mass is not involved during electrification
7. A charged rod attracts bits of dry cork dust which after touching the rod
a. jumps violently away from the rod b. adheres with the rod
c. falls down d. flies upward
8. A positively charged glass rod attracts an object. The object must be
a. negatively charged b. positively charged
c. either negatively charged or neutral d. neutral
ANSWERS
1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (a) 5. (b) 6. (a) 7. (c) 8. (c)

ELECTRIC FIELD
20.1 Introduction
A charge interacts with other charged particles when it is placed nearer them. The interaction is
stronger near the charge and becomes weaker when it goes farther away and finally vanishes after
some distance. This space around the charge where it influences the other charges is called its field.
So, electric field around a charge is defined as the region of space around it upto which its influence can be felt.
A strong charge can create large electric field and weak charge can create small electric field.
20.2 Electric Field Intensity

Electric field intensity at a point in an electric field is defined as the force per unit charge acting on a stationary
positive test charge placed at that point. Here, the test charge is considered as small as possible in
magnitude to ensure that it does not disturb the field of the source charge. Electric field intensity is
also called the electric field strength. It is denoted by E. Its unit is NC–1 (newton per coulomb) or
→
Vm–1 (volt per meter). Electric field intensity is a vector quantity. The direction of E is that of the
→
force F which acts on the positive test charge +q0.
Let F be the magnitude of electrostatic force experienced by a positive test charge q0 at a point in the
electric field, then the electric field intensity at that point is,
F
E=q . . . (20.1)
0
The force between source charge 'q' and test charge 'q0' is written as,
1 qq0
F= . . . (20.2)
4π∈0 r2
1 q
E= . . . (20.3)
4π∈0 r2
This is an important expression for electric field intensity at distance 'r' from a source charge 'q'.
r P
E
q
Fig. 20.1: Electric field due to a point charge
Dimension of electric field intensity: The dimensional formula of electric field intensity is [MLT–3I–1]

Electric Field | Chapter 20 | 487
20.3 Electric Field intensity due to Several Point Charges

Let q1, q2, q3, … , qn be the n-number of charges in vacuum. Consider a field point P at distances r1, r2,
r3, … , rn from the charges q1, q2, q3, … , qn respectively.
Consider E1, E2, E3, … , En be the electric field intensity at a point P due to given charges as shown in
Fig. 20.2.
Total electric field intensity at point P is written as the vector sum of q1
r1
electric field due to individual charges, i.e.,
     q2 r2
E= E1 + E2 + E3 + … + En . . . (20.15) P
r3
This is known as the principle of superposition of fields.
q3 rn
In terms of magnitude, qn
1 q1 1 q2 1 q3 1 qn Fig. 20.2: Electric field due to
E= 2 + 2 + 2 + … + 2 multiple charges
4π∈0 r1 4π∈0 r2 4π∈0 r3 4π∈0 rn
1 ⎛q1 q2 q3 qn⎞
= 2 + 2 + 2 + … + 2
4π∈0 ⎝ r1 r2 r3 rn ⎠
1 n q
i
E=
4π∈0 ∑ 2
ri
. . . (20.4)
i=1
This is the expression for electric field intensity at a point due to several point charges.
EXAMPLE 1: The point A, B, and C from an equilateral triangle of side 1 cm. Point charges of 1 μC magnitude are placed
at A and B. Find the electric field at C due to these charges when both charges are positive
(Assume ∈o = 8.854 × 10–12 Fm–1)
SOLUTION
Here, AB = BC = AC = 1 cm = 0.01 m and q = 1 μC = 1 × 10–6 C
Field at C due to charge at A,
1 q 1 10–6
E1 = = ×
4π∈0 r2 4π × 8.85 × 10–12 (0.01)2
E1 = 9 × 107 N/C along CD
F G
Field at C due to the charge B, D
1 q E2 E1
E2 = C
4π∈0 r2
1 10–6
= × (0.01)2 = 9 × 107 N/C along CF
4π × 8.85 × 10–12
m
1c
1c
 E1 = E2, their resultant E bisects the angle between them.

m
∴ ∠FCD = 60º and the direction of the resultant field bisects

∠ACB, it must lie at the perpendicular bisector of AB and A B
1 cm
E is given by,
E= E21 + E22 + 2E1E2 cos 60º
= 9 × 107 3 = 1.56 × 108 N/C
 Check Point: Two point charges each of 3 × 10–7 C are placed at the two corners of a
equilateral triangle whose sides are 1 m each. What is the electric field intensity at the third
corner of the triangle due to other charges. Ans: 4676.5 NC–1

Force on charges in uniform electric field

→
When a charge q is placed in a uniform electric field intensity E , it experiences a force. The negative
charge is pushed against the direction of the field and the positive charge travels towards the
direction of the field. Whatever the direction of force, the magnitude of force is equal in identical
conditions. As the electric field is the force experienced by a unit positive charge at a point within the
field region, the net force experienced by the charge is the multiplication of quantity of charge (q)
→
and the strength of electric field ( E ) as,
→ →
F = qE
Methods of solving electric field intensity problems:

1. If quantity of charges q1 and q2 are given at two vertices of a triangle and electric field
intensity at C due to these charges, as in Fig. (i), is to be determined, individual intensity
by these charges should be calculated separately using the formula,
1 q1
E1 =
4π∈0 r21
1 q2
E2 =
4π∈0 r22
Since electric field intensity is a vector quantity, it is influenced by the direction. The field
point C is assumed as the point containing unit positive charge. Now, the magnitude and direction of electric field is
determined from the following techniques.
For positive charge For negative charge
In this case, the direction of electric field is directed radially In this case, the direction of electric field is directed
away from the field point. towards the negative charge from the field point.
Then, the magnitude of resultant intensity E due to these charges is calculated from
2 2
E= E1 + E2 + 2E1E2 cos θ
where θ is the angle between E1 and E2. For example, in an equilateral triangle, for Fig. (ii), θ = 60°. and for Fig. (iii),
θ = 120°
The direction of resultant intensity is also determined from vector addition rule.
2. If three charges are given to find the electric field intensity at fourth point, then
(a) Resultant intensity due to any two charges is determined.
(b) This resultant intensity is added to intensity provided by third charge.

20.4 Electric Lines of Force

If a positive charge is brought nearer to another positive charge, they tend to move away. If we
consider a positive charge rigidly bounded at a point (say standard charge) and another positive
charge is allowed to move around the standard charge, it repels away. Similar phenomenon can be
observed in negative charges. If a negative charge is brought in the electric field of positive charge, it
is attracted towards the positive charge. In all above cases, the charge obeys certain path around the
standard charge. If we draw the path in visible lines, they are found moving away or coming nearer
towards the standard charge as shown in Fig. 20.3. This paths are actually produced due to the
electric force between the charges. So, they are called electric lines of force. These lines are actually
imaginary lines, which can be considered to study the electrostatic problems.
+ –
(i) (ii)
Fig. 20.3: Electric lines of force (i) Isolated positive charge (ii) Isolated negative charge
The electric lines of force in an electric field is defined as the path traced by unit positive charge when it is left
free to do so. The electric lines of force around isolated positive and negative charges are shown in
Fig. 20.3.
E
Properties of Electric Lines of Force E
B
(i) The electric lines of force originate A
normally from positive charge and Electric line of force
terminate normally at negative charge. Fig. 20.4: Electric field along tangent at a point on the line of force
(ii) These lines of force do not pass through
a conductor. That is why there is no
electric field inside the conductor. →
E
(iii) The tangent at any point on the lines of A →
force gives the direction of the electric E
field intensity at that point as shown in
Fig. 20.4.
(iv) They do not intersect each other. If they Fig. 20.5: No possibility of intersection of two lines of force at a point
intersect each other, there must be two
directions of electric field intensity at the point of E
intersection (i.e., a point charge is displaced at two
different directions from a point in the field) as
shown in Fig. 20.5. This condition is impossible.
(v) These are not affected by earth's magnetic field. + –
(vi) Electric lines are discontinuous. They are not closed

curves like magnetic lines of force.
(vii) They exert lateral pressure, so like charges repel Fig. 20.6: Lines of force for two unlike charges
each other.

+ +
Fig. 20.7: Lines of force for two like positive charges

(viii) The electric field is stronger in the region where the field lines are dense.
Warning: The trajectory of a charged particle is not the same as a field line.
20.5 Electric Flux

It has been observed that, electric charge creates a field of its own, known as electric field. This field
can be broadly represented in terms of field lines which are actually the imaginary lines around a
charge along which a unit positive charge would move if it were free to do so. These field lines
actually flow from positive charge towards negative charge. If the charge (positive) is enclosed in a
cubical box (say), these lines come out from the box’s surface. If the charge enclosed is negative, these
lines enter inside the box from its surface. This is to say, these lines can pass through almost all of the
surfaces placed on their path. The number of these electric field lines crossing per unit area of the
surface held perpendicular to their path is called electric flux (φ). This flux depends upon the
orientation of the surface with the field lines. Maximum field lines and hence the flux cross the
surface when it is perpendicular to the path of these lines. So, electric flux is more precisely defined
in a mathematical concept relating the electric field and the area of the surface. Electric flux is
→ →
defined as the scalar product of the electric field strength ( E ) and area vector (dA ).
→ →
i.e., dφ = E . dA . . . (20.5)
→
Here, dA represents the area vector which is a vector directed perpendicular to the plane of small
→
area dA as shown in Fig. 20.11 and having magnitude equal to the area dA. i.e., dA = n^ dA
where n^ is a unit vector in the direction of outward drawn normal to the area element.
From equation (20.5), we can write,
dφ = EdA cos θ . . . (20.6)
→ →
where, θ is the angle between the normal to the area dA and E which actually represents the
orientation of the surface with respect to field lines.
The total electric flux through any surface of area A can be calculated by integrating equation (20.6)
as, n
φ = ∫ EdA cos θ dA
For uniform electric field E is constant. So the integral θ E

can be written as,
φ = E cos θ ∫ dA = EA cos θ
Here, ∫ dA = A, is the total area of the surface. Fig. 31.11:
Fig. 20.8: ElectricElectric
flux flux
Now, when θ = 0o, i.e., when the area vector is parallel to
the field lines, the surface area becomes perpendicular to the field lines. So,
φ = EA cos θ = EA cos 0o = EA . . . (20.7)
which is the maximum flux.
When θ = 90o, the area vector is perpendicular to the field lines and the surface area becomes parallel
to the field lines. So,
φ = EA cos θ = EA cos 90o = 0
There is no flux through the surface parallel to the field.
20.6 Gauss's Law in Electrostatics

Gauss's Law is a mathematical tool devised to describe the relation
between electric charge and electric field in static situation. This law
is very simple to use when the charge distribution over a surface is
symmetrical. This law actually relates the net flux through any
closed surface to the net charge enclosed by the surface. And
relating the flux with the electric field, we can define a relation
between electric field and electric charge.
According to this law, "net electric flux (φ) of the electric field through a
1
closed surface is equal to times the net electric charge qnet enclosed by
∈0
the surface".
1
i.e., φ= q . . . (20.8)
∈0 net
Here ∈0 is the permittivity of free space.
If the charge is enclosed in a surface of absolute permittivity ∈, then,
1
φ= q
∈ net
1
In terms of relative permittivity, φ = q
∈r∈0 net
From definition of electric flux,
→ →
φ = o E . dA . . . (20.9)
∴ From equation (20.8) and (20.9), we get,
→ →
∈0 o E . dA = qnet . . . (20.10)
This is Gauss's Law.
In equation (20.10), net charge qnet is the algebraic sum of all the positive and negative charges
enclosed with in the Gaussian surface. While using Gauss's law, we should include the sign of the
involved charges because; this sign tells something about the net flux. More elaborately, if a surface
encloses two positive charges then net flux would be out of the surface. If both the charge are
negative net flux would be into the surface. If two charges of equal magnitude but opposite nature
(sign) are enclosed by the surface, then net flux through the surface would be zero. This is because in
this situation, there will be as many field lines leaving the surface as entering it.

Alternative method
Consider a point charge q lies at a point O as shown in Fig. 20.9. Let us draw a Gaussian surface
around the point charge. The Gaussian surface, which orients perpendicular to the lines of force
originating from that charge point, obviously, forms a sphere. Let r be the radius of the sphere.
Let E be the electric field intensity at a point P of the sphere is, then, written as,
1 1
E=
4π∈0 r2
Now, the total flux (φ) due to the point charge at point O is,
φ=E.A
Where A is the surface area of the sphere (i.e, Gaussian surface)
For the sphere, A = 4πr2
1 1
∴ φ= × 4π r2
4π∈0 r2
1
= ×q
∈0
Thus, the Gauss theorem is proved.
Gaussian Surface
A Gaussian surface around a charge or charge distribution is a closed surface such that the electric
field intensity at all points on the surface is the same and electric flux through the surface is along the
normal to the surface at every point on the surface. Gaussian surface for a point charge is a sphere
centered about that charge as shown in Fig. 20.9. The Gaussian surface can be of any shape but the
most useful surface is the symmetrical one like sphere, cylinder, etc., such that the surface integral of
electric field can be computed easily.
Applications of Gauss's Law

i. Electric field due to a charged hollow sphere
Let us consider a charged hollow sphere of radius 'R' with total charge 'q' distributed uniformly over
its surface. The electric field at different points due to this charged hollow sphere can be found out as
follows:
a. At a point outside the sphere

Let us consider a point P at a distance 'r' from the centre of the E
q
sphere outside of it. In order to find electric field at P, a Gaussian +
P• + +
surface in the form of sphere passing through point P is considered as
shown in Fig. 20.10. Obviously, the radius of this sphere is 'r' and its
r
area is A = 4πr2. Then, the electric flux pierces this Gaussian sphere + • R
+
perpendicularly outward as this flux lines originate radially outward O
from the surface of the sphere.
+ +
According to Gauss's Law, the total electric flux through the surface
+
is,
1 Fig. 20.10 Point P lying outside the
φ= q . . . (20.11) charged hollow sphere
∈0

→
Let us consider an elemental area dA of the sphere and dA be the area vector perpendicular to this
elemental area. The field lines and hence the electric field is parallel to this area vector. From
definition of electric flux, the elemental flux (dφ) through this elemental area is,
→ →
dφ = E . dA = E dA cos θ
or, dφ = EdA cos 0º
∴ dφ = EdA . . . (20.12)
The electric field due to the charged sphere is radially outward and is constant over the Gaussian
surface due to symmetry. So, total flux through whole Gaussian surface can be found out by
integrating equation (20.12) over all such infinitesimal area.
∴ φ = ∫dφ = ∫ EdA = E ∫dA
or, φ = EA
or, φ = 4πr2E . . . (20.13)
From equation (20.11) and (20.13), we get,
1
E4πr2 = q
∈0
1 q
∴ E= . . . (20.14) E
4π∈0 r2
This is the required electric field due to a charged hollow P
sphere at a point 'r' outside the sphere. This relation shows
R
r=
that, the charge distribution behaves as if all of the charge O
were concentrated at the centre of the sphere.
b. At a point on the surface of the sphere
When the point P lies at a point on the surface of the sphere,
Fig 20.11 Point P on the surface of hollow
the Gaussian surface coincides with the sphere such that sphere
r = R as shown in Fig. 20.11. Thus, total electric field can be
found by replacing 'r' by 'R' in equation (20.14),
R
1 q
i.e., E = . . . (20.15) O r P
4π∈0 R2
c. At a point inside the sphere
When the point P lies inside the sphere, the Gaussian surface Fig. 20.12 Point P inside the hollow sphere
lies inside the sphere as shown in Fig. 20.12. Again by,
symmetry the flux through the Gaussian surface can be written as,
φ=EA . . . (20.16)
Again from Gauss Law, R
1 q
φ= q . . . (20.17)
∈0 q
E=
4pÎ0R2
But net charge enclosed by Gaussian surface is zero as the
q
charge within the hollow sphere is zero. E=
4pÎ0r2
i.e., q = 0 E=0
∴ Equation (20.17) can be written as φ = 0 Fig. 20.13: Variation of electric field
From equation (20.17) and (20.18), we get,
E=0
Thus, total electric field inside the hollow sphere is zero.
The variation of electric field due to a hollow conducting sphere as a function of distance is as shown
in Fig. 20.13.
Electrostatic shielding
When a hollow metallic conductor is charged, all the charges will be distributed on its outer surface.
Inside the conductor, there will be no electric field. Hence, a hollow conductor acts as a shield due to
which there will be zero electric field inside it is known as electrostatic shielding.
EXAMPLE 2: A metal sphere of diameter 20 cm is charged with 10 μC. Calculate the electric field intensity due to the
charged hollow sphere at a point (i) 5 cm from the centre of the sphere and (ii) 30 cm from the centre of the sphere.
SOLUTION
Given,
Diameter of sphere (d) = 20 cm
d 20
So, radius of sphere (r) = 2 = 2 = 10 cm
Charge (q) = 10 μC = 10 × 10−6 C

(i) The radius the sphere is 10 cm. So, the given point, r = 5 cm lies inside the hollow sphere,
hence, electric field intensity at that point is zero. i.e., E = 0.
(ii) Here, r > R. So, magnitude of electric field,
1 q 10 × 10−6
E= = 9 × 109×
(0.3)2 = 1.0 × 10 N/C.
6
4π∈ r2
ii. Electric field due to a non-conducting infinite plane sheet of charge
A A
E E
Q P
Plane sheet of
Cylindrical charges
Gaussian surface
Fig 20.14: Electric field intensity due to a non-conducting infinite plane sheet of charge
Let us consider an infinitely large plane non-conducting sheet which is characterized by surface
charge density σ. Let the charges on it be positive so that electric flux originates out of it. Since the
charges are in electrostatic equilibrium, the electric field must be perpendicular to the sheet and
directed outward. Let us consider a point P which is 'r' distance away from the sheet where electric
field 'E' is to be determined. By symmetry, there exists a point Q on the other side of the sheet where
the electric field is same as at P.
Now consider a Gaussian surface in the form of cylinder with cross-sectional area 'A' which extends
on the both sides of the sheet and perpendicular to it as shown in Fig. 20.14. The electric field lines
are parallel to the curved surface of the cylinder. So, no electric flux pass through curve surface. But,
the field lines are perpendicular to the two circular caps of cylinder so that the flux lines pierces the
cross-sectional area on the either side of sheet. Thus, total electric flux through Gaussian cylinder is,
φ = E × area of the circular caps on either side of sheet
or, φ = E (A + A) = 2EA . . . (20.18)
Again, if qnet be the total charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface, then,

qnet = σA . . . (20.19)
Also, from Gauss's law,
qnet
=φ . . . (20.20)
∈0
So, from equations (20.18), (20.19) and (20.20),
σA
2EA =
∈0
σ
∴ E= . . . (20.21)
2∈0
Hence the magnitude of electric field due to the infinite non-conducting plane sheet of charge is
independent of the distance from the sheet.
If the sheet is conducting, electric field is screened in the opposite side of charge distribution. So, the
field is observed only along the space of charge distribution. So, the electric field intensity due to
plane sheet of conductor is,
σ
E=
∈0
1
Thus, the electric field intensity due to plane sheet of conductor is times the surface charge
∈0
density.
EXAMPLE 3: Near the earth's surface, the electric field in the open air has magnitude 150 N/C and is directed down
towards the ground. If this is regarded as being due to a large sheet of charge lying on the earth's surface, calculate the
charge per unit area in the sheet. What is the sign of the charge?
SOLUTION
Given, Electric field (E) = 150 NC-1 = 2.66 × 10–9 C/m2
Charge per unit area (σ) = ? As electric field is directed down towards
∴ σ = E × 2∈0 the ground, the sign of the charge is
= 150 × 2 × 8.85 × 10–12 negative.
 Check Point: A charge of 17.7 × 10–4 C is distributed uniformly over a large conducting sheet of
area 200 m2. Calculate the electric field intensity at a distance of 20 cm from it in air. Ans: 106 NC–1
iii. Electric field due to a linear charge

The uniform distribution of charge along a straight line
is called linear charge distribution. The straight line is
usually the linear wire in which charge can be arranged
in a symmetrical way. As the distribution of charge is
→
symmetrical, the electric field intensity E is radially
directed. If the linear distribution contains the positive
charge, the electric field intensity is directed outward,
whereas the field intensity is directed inward when the
linear wire contains the negative charge.
Consider a straight wire of length 'l' where the charge is
distributed uniformly. Let 'λ' be the linear charge density
of the wire. Let us draw a cylindrical Gaussian surface of
radius 'r' and length 'l' as shown in Fig. 20.15. This cylinder is closed at each side by plane caps

→
normal to the axis. The magnitude of E is constant at all points on the curved surface of the cylinder
→
are equidistant from the wire. Also, E is normal to the surface at each point and is in the direction of
the outward drawn normal. According to Gauss law, the total electric flux through the surface is,
1
φ= q . . . (20.22)
∈0
The electric field due to the line charge is radially outward and is constant over the Gaussian surface
due to symmetry. So, total flux through whole Gaussian surface can be found out by integrating over
all such infinitesimal cylindrical area.
∴ φ = ∫dφ = ∫ EdA = E ∫dA
or, φ = EA
∴ φ = E 2πrl ... (20.23)
q
E . 2πrl =
∈0
1 λl . . q
or, E= ( . λ = l ⇒ q = λl)
2πrl ∈0
1 λ
∴ E= . . . (20.24)
2π∈0 r
Clearly, the electric field intensity of a charged wire is inversely proportional to the distance from the
1
wire, ⎛E ∝ r ⎞ . Hence, electric field intensity decreases with the increase of distance.
⎝ ⎠
Electric field between charged parallel plates
As explained above, the electric field due to a plane conductor does not depend on how far the field
point is taken, rather depends on the surface charge density of the plane conductor i.e.,
σ
E=
ε0
If we take two charged parallel conductors one above other, a uniform field is produced at any point
within the space between them. The direction of electric field is directed from positive plate to the
negative plate. Hence, if we draw the electric lines of force, they travel parallelly towards the
negative plates (usually, earthing plate) as shown in Fig. 20.16. Actually, these plates are capacitors.
Fig. 20.16: Uniform Electric field between two parallel plats

Tips for MCQs

Quantitative Tips
1. The electric field intensity at a point in an electric field is defined as the force experienced by a unit
positive test charge kept at that point.
 ¤F F
E = q (vector form), E = q (scalar form)
 0 0
1 q
2. Electric field intensity due to a point charge, E = .
4π∈0 r2
3. Electric flux, φ = EA cos θ.
1
4. Gauss's theorem states that the total flux passing through any closed surface is equal to times the
∈
total charge within the surface. If φ be the total flux passing through any closed surface and q be the
q
total charge within the surface, we have, φ = (in any media).
∈
5. Electric field intensity due to a charged hollow conducting sphere of radius R,
1 q
i. E = (outside the sphere)
4π∈0 r2
1 q
ii. E = (on the sphere)
4π∈0 R2
iii. E = 0 (inside sphere)
σ
6. Electric field intensity due to an infinite non-conducting plane sheet of charges, E = .
2∈0
1 λ
7. Electric field intensity due to a line charge, E = .
2π∈0 r
Conceptual Tips
1. If charge is outside the closed surface, net electric flux will be zero.
2. The net charge means the algebraic sum of all the charges within surface.
3. A closed surface is a surface where we cannot move from inside to the outside without passing
the surface. The surface of an air filled balloon is an example of a closed surface.
4. An imaginary closed surface drawn around a charge is called a Gaussian surface. It can be of
any shape. Since, it is a mathematical surface so it is not required to coincide with any real
physical surface.
5. The net flux through any closed surface is independent of the shape of that surface.
6. If there is zero flux through a closed surface, then either no charged particles are enclosed by
that surface or charged particles are enclosed but the net charge is zero.
7. Remember that Gauss's law states that the electric flux is proportional to the enclosed charge
not the electric field. Therefore, when the net flux is zero, it is not necessarily true to be electric
field zero everywhere on the surface.
8. The earth is a huge conductor that has a net electric charge. The resulting electric field near the
surface can be measured with sensitive electronic instruments. Its average value is about 150
N/C, directed toward the centre of the earth. About 4.2 × 1024 excess electrons are on the earth
(about 7 moles of excess electrons). This is compensated by an equal deficiency of electrons in
the earth's upper atmosphere, so the combination of the earth and its atmosphere is electrically
neutral.
9. The plane sheet of charge means a sheet made of charges (positive or negative). The field lines
are emitted from both sides of the sheet, so the flux through area of both sides of cylindrical
Gaussian surface is taken.
10. When we provide charge to a conducting sphere, the charge always resides on the surface, not
inside but in case of non-conducting charged solid sphere, the charge can reside everywhere
inside it because charge cannot flow in the non-conductor. So, electric field will not be zero
inside the charged non-conducting solid sphere. Its value is zero at its centre and maximum on
its surface and then decreases with distance outside the sphere.
Quick Reply
1. Draw a graph between electric field and square of distance, taking the magnitude of charge constant.
 Electric field intensity (E) is inversely proportional to the square of distance of a point from a
point charge at constant magnitude of charge.
1
i.e., E α r2
∴ The graph is straight line in nature.
2. Does electric field intensity obey inverse square law?

 Yes. For a specific medium, the electric field intensity provided by a constant charge, is inversely
1
proportional to the square of distance between the charge and field point, i.e., E ∝ r2 .
3. Should the shape of Gaussian surface specific?

 No. Gaussian surface can be any shape around the charge. If the charge is taken out the Gaussian
surface, is taken zero.
4. An electron and a proton are situated independently in the electric field. Will their accelerations be
same?
 Electric force on both the particles is same, since it depends on electric field and the charge, i.e., F =
eE. So, Fe = Fp
or, me ae = mp ap
ap me
ae = mp
Thus, the acceleration depends on mass of particle. As mp = 1836 me, acceleration of electron is 1836
times larger than the proton.
5. What is electrostatic shielding?
 When a hollow metallic conductor is charged, all the charges will be distributed on its outer surface.
Inside the conductor, there will be no electric field. Hence, a hollow conductor acts as a shield due to
which there will be zero electric field inside it is known as electrostatic shielding.


1. Electric lines of force donot intersect each other. Why?
 The tangent drawn at a point in the electric lines of
force shows the direction of electric field at that point. →
E
If two lines of force intersect, there must be two
different directions of electric field at intersecting point A →
E
(i.e. a test charge kept at a point can be displaced two
different directions at a time), which is practically
impossible. This concludes that electric lines of force
do not intersect each other.
2. Which force is stronger: electrostatic force or
gravitational force?
 For the comparison of these forces, consider two electrons separated by a distance 1 m.
i. The electrostatic forces between two electrons in vacuum is calculated as,
1 e⋅e
Fe =
4π∈0 r2
1.6 × 10–19 × 1.6 × 10–19
= 9 × 109 × (1)2 = 2.3 × 10–28 N
ii. The gravitational force between these electrons is calculated as,

m1m2 9.1 × 10–31 × 9.1 × 10–31
Fg = G r2 = 6.67 × 10–11 × (1)2 = 5.52 × 10–72 N
Comparing Fe and Fg, we get

Fe
Fg = 4.17 × 10
42
This shows that electrostatic force between two electrons is approximately 1042 times stronger than
the gravitational force.
3. Some of the free electrons in a good conductor (such as a piece of copper) move at speed of 106 m/s
or faster. Why don't these electrons fly out of the conductor completely?
 Metal (or good conductor) have free electrons at its surface, these electrons are strongly attracted
towards the positively charged protons of the same metal by the strong electrostatic force of
attraction as given by the formula,
1 q1q2
F = , where q1 and q2 are the charges of protons and electrons and x be the distance
4πεo x2
between the protons and electrons. Due to this strong force of attraction, some of the free electrons in
a good conductor (such as a piece of copper) move at speeds of 106 m/s or faster but do not fly out of
the conductor completely.
4. Prove, 1 Vm–1 = 1 NC–1.
V
 Electric field intensity between two parallel plates is given by E = d , where V is potential difference
between the plates and d is separation of the plates.
If V = 1 volt and d = 1 m, then E = 1 V/m. … (i)
F
Again in terms of force F experienced by a charge q, the electric field intensity is given by, E = q .
If F = 1 N for q = 1 C, then E = 1 N/C. … (ii)

From (i) and (ii), we have
1 V/m = 1 N/C. Hence, proved.

5. "Nothing happens to a bird standing on high power line but a man gets fatal shock by touching to it,"
why?
 There is a flow of charge in a conducting medium only when the circuit is completed (i.e., if there is a
potential difference of two points). Electric circuit is not completed in case of a bird sitting on high
tension line. Since, it is surrounded by air (bad conductor). But the circuit will be completed when a
man touching to the high tension line stands on the ground. So, large current flows and man's body
gets fatal shock.
Worked Out Problems

1. Two point charges of magnitude 1.0 × 10–8 C and 2.0 × 10–8 C are 30 cm apart in air. Find the electric
field at a point midway between them.
SOLUTION
Q1
The electric field at P due to 1st charge =
4π∈0r2 15 cm 15 cm
P
9 × 109 × 1 × 10–8
F1 = A B
(15 × 10–2)2
= 4.0 × 103 N/C along AP.
The electric field at P due to 2nd charge
Q2 9 × 109 × 2 × 10–8
= 2 =
4π∈0r2 (15 × 10–2)2
= 8.0 × 103 N/C along BP
Resulting intensity at P = 8 × 103 – 4 × 103
= 4 × 103 N/C along BP.
2. Two charges - 1 μC, and 2 μC are placed at corners A and B of an
equilateral triangle ABC of side 2 m. Calculate electric field at C.
SOLUTION D
Electric field at C due to charge A, E2
E
q 9 × 109 × 10–6
E1 = = = 2250 N/C along CA. q C
4π∈0r2 22
E1
Electric field at C due to charge at B,
2m
q 9 × 109 × 2 × 10–6
2m
E2 = = 22 = 4500 N/C along CD

4π∈0r2
Resulting intensity, E = E21 + E22 + 2E1E2 cos (DCA) A B

2m
= (2250)2 + (4500)2 + 2 × 2250 × 4500 × cos 120º ( equilateral triangle)
= 3897.11 N/C
Let the resultant make an angle θ with CA, then
E2 sin 120º 4500 × 0.8660
tan θ = E + E cos 120º = 1 =∞
1 2
2250 – 4500 × 2
→
∴ θ = 90º i.e., the direction of E is at right angles to that of E1.

3. Two light conducting balls each of mass 10 mg are suspended by sink threads 1 m long from a
common point. When equal charges are given to the balls they repel each other to a distance of 20 cm.
Find the charge on each ball.
SOLUTION
Let A and B be the positions of the balls in equilibrium and let C be the point of suspension of the
threads. From C, draw CD perpendicular to AB.
1 q2
Let q be the charge on each ball. Electrostatic force between the charges, F =
4π∈0 r2
q2
= 9 × 109 × (0.2)2 N
Weight of ball, W = mg = 10 × 10–6 × 9.8 = 9.8 × 10–5 N
Each ball is in equilibrium under three forces: F, W, and Tension T. Hence, the forces can be
represented by the sides of a triangle taken in order.
C
For ball B
1m 1m
F mg
BD CD=
T T
BD DB
F = mg × CD = mg ×
CB2 – BD2
0.1 F
A B
F
= 9.8 × 10–5 × = 9.8 × 10–6 N D
1 – (0.1)
2 2
1 q2 q2 W = mg W = mg
But F = = 9 × 10 9
4π∈0 r 2 (0.2)2 20 cm
9 × 109 q2
(0.2)2 = 9.8 × 10
–6
9.8 × 10–6 × (0.2)2

q2 =
9 × 109
q = 6.6 ×10–9 C.
4. An electron is released from rest in a uniform electric field. The electron acceleration vertically
upward, traveling 4.50 m in the first 3.00 μs after it is released. (a) What are the magnitude and
direction of the electric field? (b) Are we justified in ignoring the effects of gravity? Justify your
answer quantitatively?
SOLUTION
Given, 1
or, 4.50 = 0 + 2 × a × (3 × 10-6)2
Time (t) = 3 μs = 3 × 10–6 s
Distance (s) = 4.50 m, 9
or, a = 9 × 10–12 = 1012 m/s2
Speed (u) = 0
a. Electric field (E) = ? s From (i), we have
Charge (q) = – e, 9.11 × 10–31 × 1012
E = 1.60 × 10–19 = 5.69 NC–1.
Mass (m) = 9.11 × 10–31 kg
= 1.6 × 10–19 C e– Electron has negative charge so, the fore is
We know that, up and electric field is downward.
F = qE b. Yes, if the acceleration of this
electron (a = 1012 m/s2) is compared with the
or, ma = qE (...F = ma) acceleration due to gravity (g = 10 m/s2) so
ma gravity is very small compared to the electrical
∴ E= e … (i)
force.
1
Now, using s = ut + 2 at2

5. How many excess electrons must be added to an isolated spherical conductor 32.0 cm in diameter to
produce an electric field of 1150 N/C just outside the surface?
SOLUTION
Given, ne
or, 1150 = 9 × 109 (0.16)2
Diameter (d) = 32 cm = 0.32 m
d 0.32 1150 × (0.16)2
Radius (R) = 2 = 2 = 0.16 m or, n = 9 × 109 × 1.6 × 10–19
E = 1150 N/C 29.44

= 14.5 × 10–10
Number of excess electrons (n) = ?
1 q ∴ n ≈ 2 × 1010
We known that, E =
4π∈0 x2

1. A particle has charge –3.00 nC. (a) Find the magnitude and direction of the electric field due to the
particle at a point 0.250 m directly above it. (b) At what distance from this particle does its electric
field have a magnitude of 12.0 N/C? Ans: 432 NC-1, 1.50 m
2. An alpha particle (charge + 2e and mass 6.64 × 10–27 kg) is traveling to the right at 1.50 km/s. What
uniform electric field (magnitude and direction) is needed to cause it to travel to the left at the same
speed after 2.65 μs? Ans: 1.132 × 109 m/s2, 23.5 N/C
3. (a) What must the charge (sign and magnitude) of a 1.45 g particle be for it to remain stationary when
placed in a downward–directed electric field of magnitude 650 N/C? (b) What is the magnitude of an
electric field in which the electric force on a proton is equal in magnitude to its weight?
Ans: 2.19 × 10–5 C, 1.02 × 10–7 NC-1
4. A uniform electric field exists in the region between two oppositely charged in plane parallel plates.
A proton is released from rest at the surface of the positively charged plate and strikes the surface of
the opposite plate, 1.60 cm distant from the first, in a time interval of 1.50 × 10–6 s. (a) Find the
magnitude of the electric field. (b) Find the speed of the proton when it strikes the negatively charged
plate. Ans: 148 N/C, 2.15 × 104 m/s
5. A very long, straight wire has charge per unit length 1.50 × 10–10 C/m. At what distance from the
wire is the electric field magnitude equal to 2.50 N/C? Ans: 1.08 m
6. Each square centimeter of the surface of an infinite plane sheet of paper has 2.50 × 106 excess
electrons. Find the magnitude and direction of the electric field at a point 5.00 cm from the surface of
the sheet, if the sheet is large enough to be treated as an infinite plane. Ans: 225.74 N/C
7. A 9.00 μC point charge is at the center of a cube with sides of length 0.500 m. (a) What is the electric
flux through one of the six faces of the cube? (b) How would your answer to part (a) change if the
sides were of length 0.250 m? Explain Ans: 1.69 × 105 Nm2 C-1, same value
8. A solid metal sphere with radius 0.450 m carries a net charge of 0.250 nC. Find the magnitude of the
electric field (a) at a point 0.100 m outside the surface of the sphere (b) at a point inside the sphere,
0.100 m below the surface. Ans: 7.44 NC-1, zero
9. The electric field 0.400 m from a very long uniform line of charge is 840 N/C. How much charge is
contained in a 2.00 cm section of the line? Ans: 3.7 × 10–10 C

Exercise
1. Define electric filed.
2. What is the unit of electric filed intensity?
3. What is the shape of Gaussian surface?
4. Why Gaussian surface is drawn a definite shape, although it works for any shape?
5. Define electric flux.
6. Why electric field intensity is important in the study of electrostatics?
7. Write two usual units of electric field intensity?
Short Questions
1. Why gravitation forces are usually neglected when computing the force between the charged objects?
2. What do you mean by electric lines of force?
3. Give the main properties of electric lines of forces?
4. What is capacitance of a conductor? Then give its units.
5. For what purposes capacitors used for?
6. What is relative permittivity of dielectric medium?
7. What are the properties of electric lines of force?
8. How can you produce uniform electric field?
Long Questions
1. State and prove Gauss' theorem.
2. Derive an expression for the electric field intensity due to a charged infinite plane sheet of charge.
3. Applying Gauss' theorem, derive an expression for the electric field intensity due to a charged sphere
at a point (i) outside the sphere (ii) on the surface of the sphere and (iii) inside the sphere.
4. Define electric field intensity at a point in the electric field and derive its expression due to a point
charge.
5. Using Gauss theorem, derive an expression for the electric field intensity due to a charged infinitely
long straight cylindrical rod at a point outside the cylinder.
6. Show that the electric field intensity at any point in the space between two charged parallel metal is
σ
independent of the distance of the point from the plates and is equal to .
εo
Numerical Problems
LEVEL I
1. The magnitude of electric field intensity just above the surface of a sheet measured from its midpoint
is 5.1 × 105 N/C. Calculate the surface charge density of the sheet. Ans: 9.0 μC/m2
2. Long plane conductor is a square of side 2.00 m and has a total charge of 5.00 × 10–8 C. Calculate the
surface charge density and the electric field intensity at a point very close to it.
Ans: 1.25 × 10 - 8 nC/m 2 , 7.06 × 10 2 N/C
3. An infinite line charge produces a field of 9 × 104 N/C at a distance of 2 cm. Calculate the linear
charge density. Ans: 10–7 C/m
4. Two points charges +10 μC and + 40 μC are placed 12 cm apart. Find the position of the point where
the intensity is zero. Ans: 8 cm away from 40 μC

LEVEL II
1. The diameter of a long straight metal rod is 10.0 cm. The electric field due to this rod at a distance
10.0 cm from the axis of the rod 5.40 × 103 N/C directed radically outward. Calculate the charge per
unit length of the rod. Ans: 0.030 μC/m
2. An electron is liberated from the lower of two large parallel metal plates separated by a distance of 10
mm. The upper plate has a potential of 2000 V relative to the lower. What is the acceleration of
e
electron? (Given m = 1.8 × 1011 C/kg) Ans: 3.6 × 1016 m/s2 upward
3. Corona discharge into the air from a charged conductor takes place when the potential gradient at its
surface exceeds 3 × 106 Vm–1; a potential gradient of this magnitude also breaks down the insulation
afforded by a solid dielectric. Calculate the greatest charge that can be placed on a conducting sphere
of radius 20 cm supported in the atmosphere on a long insulting pillar; also calculate the
5
corresponding potential of the sphere. Ans: 6 × 10 V
4. An electron of charge 1.6 × 10 C is situated in uniform electric field of intensity 12000 Vm . Find
–19 –1
the time it takes to travel 1 cm from rest. (electronic mass, m = 9.1 × 10–31 kg)
Ans: 3 × 10–9 s

1. A hollow sphere of charge does not produce an electric field at any
a. inner point b. outer point
c. surface point d. none of the above
2. An electrically neutral metal is rubbed with wool. It is found that a charge of 32 μC is developed on
the metal. The number of electrons transfer will be
a. 12.5 × 1011 b. 2.5 × 1012
c. 2 × 1014 d. 5 × 1013
ANSWERS
1. (a) 2. (c)


POTENTIAL, POTENTIAL
DIFFERENCE AND
POTENTIAL ENERGY
21.1 Introduction
In most of the physical measurements, a point of origin must be considered as the reference point.
For example, sea level is taken as the reference (zero point) of measurement of height of a place.
Melting point of ice is taken as the zero point of measurement of the temperature in Celsius scale. In
the similar manner, electric potential is measured taking the earth as the reference value of origin
(i.e., zero value of electric potential). The potential of earth does not change either you add some
charge on it or draw some charge from it.
If the electron can flow from a charged body to earth, the body possesses negative potential and if
the electrons can flow from earth to a charged body, the body must have positive potential. If the
electrons can flow neither to the earth nor to the body, it is considered to have zero potential.
21.2 Electric (or Electrostatic) Potential

Electric potential at a point in an electric field is defined as the amount of work done in bringing a unit positive
charge from infinity to that point. In such case, infinity is that point where electric field due to the
source charge vanishes, no influence of charge remains anymore. From the definition, it is clear that
electric potential is related to special work done for unit positive charge. The electric potential at a
point A in an electric field is denoted by VA. Its unit is volt (V). Electric potential is a scalar quantity.
Expression for electric potential due to a point charge

Let us consider an isolated point charge +q, placed at point O. Let us take a point A at distance 'r'
from O, where the electric potential is to be determined as shown in Fig. 21.1. Now, a unit positive
test charge is brought from infinity towards the isolated point charge.
dx
O
+q A P Q ∞
r
x
Fig. 21.1: Electric potential at a point due to a point charge
As the force between two charges increases on decreasing distance between them, the force
experienced by unit test charge gradually increases when it moves from point ∞ to A. So, workdone
should be determined considering the "workdone by variable forces."
To handle such situation, two points P and Q are taken very close to each other such that the
repulsive force experienced by unit positive test charge is approximately equal in these points.

Let point Q is at a distance x from point O. The small workdone in bringing a unit test charge from
point Q to P is,
dW = − F dx . . . (21.1)
Negative sign shows that the directions of displacement and force of repulsion are opposite to each
other.
The force experienced by unit positive charge at Q is,
1 q×1
F =
4π∈0 x2
1 q
F= . . . (21.2)
4π∈0 x2
The work done dW in bringing the unit positive test charge from Q to P against electrostatic
repulsive force is given by,
1 q
∴ dW = – dx . . . (21.3)
4π∈0 x2
Thus, the total work done in bringing unit positive test charge from infinity to point A is given by,
r 1 q
W =∫ – 2 dx
∞ 4π∈0 x
q r –2
=– ∫ x dx
4π∈0 ∞
r r
q ⎡ x–2+1 ⎤ q ⎡x–1⎤
=– =–
4π∈0 ⎣–2+1⎦ 4π∈0 ⎣ –1 ⎦
∞ ∞
r
q ⎡1⎤ q ⎛1 1 ⎞
= = –
4π∈0 ⎣x⎦ 4π∈0 ⎝ r ∞⎠
∞
q ⎛1
= – 0⎞
4π∈0 ⎝ r ⎠
q 1
∴ W = . . . (21.4)
4π∈0 r
According to the definition of electric potential, this work done is the electric potential at a point in
the electric field and thus, we can write,
q 1
V = . . . (21.5)
4π∈0 r
This is the required expression for electric potential at a point due to a point charge.
Warning: In equation 21.38, if V = 0 then, q = 0. One might think that if a conducting body has zero
potential, it must necessarily also have net zero charge. But it isn't so! "Zero potential" is completely arbitrary
as we can define a point to have zero potential wherever we want.
EXAMPLE 1: An isolated conducting spherical shell of radius 0.10 m, in vacuum, carries a positive charge of 1.0 × 10–7 C.
Calculate (i) the electric field intensity, (ii) the potential, at a point on the surface of the conductor.
SOLUTION
Given, Q 9 × 109 × 1.0 × 10–7
∴ E= = (0.1)2
(i) Charge (q)) = 1.0 × 10 C, –7 4π∈0 r2
Radius (r) = 0.1 m = 9 × 104 Vm–1 (or NC–1)
Electric field intensity (E) = ?

Potential, Potential Difference and Potential Energy | Chapter 21 | 507
(ii) V=? 9 × 109 × 1.0 × 10–7
= (0.1)
Q
∴ V=
4π∈0 r = 9 × 103 V = 9000 V
 Check Point: The electric field intensity due to a point charge q at a point distant r from the charge
is 100 N/C and the electric potential at the same point is 200 V. Find the values of r and q.
Ans: 2 m, 44.4 × 10−9 C
21.3 Potential Difference

Potential difference between two points in an electric field is defined as the amount of workdone in bringing a
unit positive charge from one point to another. The potential difference between two points A and B in
the electric field is denoted by VAB or simply V. Its unit is volt (V).
Consider an isolated point charge +q at a point O in x
the space. Let us take two points A and B in the dx
field region of +q charge at distance 'a' and 'b' O E
respectively from point O as shown in Fig. 21.2. To +q A P Q
B B
determine the potential difference between these a
points, we should find workdone in bringing a unit
b
positive charge from point B to A.
Fig. 21.2: Potential Difference between two points in
As the force between two charges increases on the electric field
decreasing distance, the force experienced by unit
test charge gradually increases when it moves from point B to A. So, workdone should be
determined considering the “workdone by variable forces.”
To handle such situation, two points P and Q are taken very close to each other such that the
repulsive force experienced by unit test charge is approximately equal in these points.
Let the point Q is at distance x from the point P. The small workdone in bringing a unit test charge
from point Q to P is,
dW = − F dx . . . (21.6)
where, negative sign shows that, the positive unit test charge is displaced in opposite direction to
that of force acting on it.
The force experienced by unit positive charge at Q is,
1 q×1
F =
4π∈0 x2
1 q
∴F = . . . (21.7)
4π∈0 x2
The work done dW in bringing a unit positive test charge from Q to P against electrostatic repulsive
force is given by,
1 q
∴ dW = – dx . . . (21.8)
4π∈0 x2
Total amount of workdone in bringing a unit positive test charge from point B to A is,
a 1 q
W = ∫ – 2 dx
b 4π∈ 0 x

q a q ⎡ x–2 + 1 ⎤a
=– ∫
4π∈0 b
x–2 dx = –
4π∈0 ⎣–2 + 1⎦b
q ⎡x ⎤ – 1 a q ⎡1⎤a
=– =
4π∈0 ⎣– 1⎦b 4π∈0 ⎣x⎦b
q ⎛1 1 ⎞
∴ W = – . . . (21.9)
4π∈0 ⎝a b⎠
Equation (21.9) is the expression for work done in moving a unit test charge from point B to A which
is the potential difference between the two points A and B and thus, we can write,
q⎛1 – 1 ⎞
VAB =
⎝a b ⎠
4π∈0
q ⎛1 1 ⎞
∴ VA – VB = – . . . (21.10)
4π∈0 ⎝a b⎠
If electric potential is to be calculated at fourth vertex due to the charges at other three vertices of a rectangle, as shown in Fig.
The formula to find the electric potential at D due to charges q1, q2 and q3 at points A, B and C respectively are,
1 q1
VA =
4π∈0 r1
1 q2
VB =
4π∈0 2 2
r1 + r 2
1 q3
VC =
4π∈0 r4
Now, the resultant electric potential,
VD = VA + VB + VC
where VA, VB and VC are the electric potentials provided by charges q1, q2 and q3 at point D.
21.4 Electric Potential Energy

If a positive test charge is to be moved in an electric field against electrostatic force, an external work
should be done on the charge in the field region. The workdone to move the charge against the
electrostatic force is stored in the form of potential energy. It is analogous to the gravitational
potential energy. As we move a certain mass against the gravitational force, gravitation potential
energy is stored in that mass. In the similar manner, when we carry a charge against its repulsion,
electric potential energy is stored in that charge.
The electric potential energy is determined by integrating the elementary workdone in the varying
field regions.
r
Electric potential energy (U) = –⌠ F dr
⌡
∞
r 1 q1q2
=–⌠ dr
⌡ 4π∈0 r2
∞
1 r dr 1 1
=– q1q2 ⌠ r2 = – q1q2 ⎡– r ⎤
4π∈0 ⌡ 4π∈ 0 ⎣ ⎦
∞
1 q1q2
∴ U = . . . (21.11)
4π∈0 r
This is the expression for electric potential energy. Electric potential energy has the dimension of
work done i.e., [ML2T–2]
21.5 Electric Workdone

Electric workdone in an electric field is the amount of workdone in bringing a charge 'q' from infinity
to a point in the field.
dx
A
q
r P Q ∞
Fig. 21.3: Potential energy of a charge in an electric field

The small workdone in bringing a charge 'q' from Q to P is,
dW = – F dx
Total workdone in bringing the charge 'q' from infinity to a point A, is
r
W = – ⌠ F dx
⌡
∞
r r
= – ⌠ qE dx = – q ⌠ E dx
⌡ ⌡
∞ ∞
W = qV . . . (21.12)
where, V = electric potential at a point in the field
r
i.e., V = – ⌠ E dx
⌡
∞
This workdone is ultimately stored as electric potential energy.
i.e., U = qV . . . (21.13)
Definition of One Volt
From equation (21.13),
W Workdone
V = q = Charge
If W = 1 J and q = + 1 C, then V = 1 volt.

Thus, the electric potential at a point in an electric field is 1 V, if 1 joule of work is done in bringing a
unit positive charge from infinity to that point against the electrostatic force.
EXAMPLE 2: ABCD is a square of 0.1 m side. Charges of 1.0 × 10–9 C, 2 × 10–9 C and 4 × 10–9 C are placed at points A, B
and C. Calculate the work to be done to transfer a charge of 3 × 10–9 C from D to centre of the square.
SOLUTION
Charge to be moved, Q = 3 × 10–9 C
Let O be the centre of square, AB = BC = CD = DA = 0.1 m
BD2 = AC2 = (0.1)2 + (0.1)2 = 0.14 m
0.14
AO = BO = CO = DO = 2 = 0.07 m

Total potential at O due to three charges at A, B and C
A 0.1 m
=
1 ⎛1.0 × 10–9 + 2 × 10–9 + 4 × 10–9⎞ D
4π∈0 ⎝ 0.07 0.07 0.07 ⎠
9 × 109 × 7 × 10–9
= 0.07 = 900 V
0.1 m 0.1 m
Similarly, O
1 ⎛1.0 × 10–9 2 × 10–9 4 × 10–9⎞
Potential at D = + 0.14 + 0.1
4π∈0 ⎝ 0.1 ⎠
1 2 4
= 9 × 109 × 10–9 ⎛0.1 + 0.14 + 0.1⎞ = 578.6 V
⎝ ⎠ B 0.1 m C
∴ P.D. between O and D, V = 900 – 578.6 = 321.4 V

∴ Work to be done = QV = 3 × 10–9 × 321.4 =9.64 × 10–7 J
21.6 Electron Volt (eV)

In atomic scale, joule is a very large unit for dealing with energies of electrons, atoms, etc. To deal
with such scale, smaller unit of energy known as electron volt is used. Electron volt denoted by eV is
simply, 1 volt multiplied by the magnitude of the charge of one electron.
i.e., 1 eV = (1.6 × 10–19 C) (1 volt)
= 1.6 × 10–19 J
Thus, one electron volt is the potential energy gained or lost by an electron in moving through a potential
difference of 1 volt. If the electron is accelerated from rest by a p.d. of 1 volt, then it gains kinetic
energy equivalent to loss P.E. And if an accelerating electron is suddenly stopped by an applied
potential (negative), then it gains potential energy equivalent to the loss in kinetic energy.
Warning: It must be remembered that the electron volt is a unit of energy, not a unit of potential or potential
difference.
Proton Volt: There would be no difference at all if proton volt is used in place of electron volt. A
proton accelerated through one volt will have the same kinetic energy because it carries a charge of
same magnitude as an electron. The proton will be moving more slowly after accelerating through
one volt due to its larger mass, but it will still gain one electron volt, or one proton volt of kinetic
energy.
21.7 Equipotential Surface

The surface in an electric field in which the electric
potential is same in every point of it is known as
equipotential surface. The electric potential is D
inversely proportional to the field distance of point C Equipotential
1 E surfaces
from the surface i.e., ⎛V ∝ r ⎞ . If we consider a
⎝ ⎠
surface around a charge in a medium in which all +q E
F B
points of it lie at equal distance 'r' from the source O
charge, this surface is known as equipotential Electric line
A of force
surface. G
H
Consider a point charge +q at a point O in air. Take
point A, B, C, D, E, F, G, and H at equal distance
from the charge as shown in Fig. 21.4. Let us draw a Fig. 21.4: Equipotential Surfaces

surface around the charge joining these points. Then, we find that every point on this surface has
equal electric potential.
Let VA, VB, VC, VD, VE, VF, VG, and VH be the electric potentials at points A, B, C, D, E, F, G, and H
respectively. For points to lie in a equipotential surface, VA = VB = VC = VD = VE = VF = VG = VH.
The potential difference between any two points in equipotential surface is zero.
i.e., VAB = VA – VB = 0
Similarly,
VBC = VCD = 0, and so on
When we draw two different equipotential surface in an electric field, they never intersect. If they
intersect, the intersecting point must contain two different potentials, but a single point in an electric
field cannot have two different potentials. Furthermore, electric field is always normal to the
equipotential surface at every point and no work is done if we move a test charge over an
equipotential surface.
Warning: There is a remarkable difference between equipotential surfaces and Gaussian surfaces. The shape of
a Gaussian surface can be chosen to be any surface that is convenient to solve, whereas we are not free to chose
the shape of equipotential surface as its shape is determined by the charge distribution.
21.8 Potential Gradient and Electric Field

The change in electric potential with respect to distance is known as potential gradient. In order to find
relationship between potential gradient and electric field, let us consider a region of electric field due
to a charge +q located somewhere in the space. Let us suppose two points P and Q are very close to
each other such that the distance PQ = Δr as shown in Fig. 21.5. If ΔV is the potential difference
between two points P and Q, then by definition,
ΔV = Workdone to move unit positive charge from P to Q
By definition of workdone,
→ →
ΔV = E . Δ r
or, ΔV = E Δr cos θ . . . (21.14)
→ →
where 'θ' is angle between E and Δ r . As, the unit positive charge is moved towards +q i.e.,
opposite of direction of electrostatic force, θ = 180º
So, from equation (21.14) ΔV = – E Δr
ΔV
or, E=–
Δr
Since Δr is very small such that Δr → 0, we can write,
dV
E = – dr . . . (21.15)
The quantity on R.H.S. represents change of potential in small distance dr and is known as potential
gradient. Thus, we see that electric field is numerically
Δr
equal to potential gradient. However, the negative sign
shows that electric field is directed towards the q Q P
r
decreasing potential.
r + Δr
Fig. 21.5: Potential gradient

Therefore, the potential gradient in an electric field is defined as the change in magnitude of
potential per unit displacement normal to the equipotential surface.
The magnitude of electric field intensity is numerically equal to the +
potential gradient. For two surfaces with a potential difference V between
them and at a distance 'd' apart, electric field strength is, V
V d E
E=d . . . (21.16)
If we place two parallel and oppositely charged conducting plates with

–
certain potential difference V separated by a distance 'd' apart as shown in
Fig. 21.6: Parallel conducting
Fig. 21.6, then a uniform electric field can be produced between them. plates
These parallel plates are called capacitor plates.
EXAMPLE 3: What is the potential gradient between two parallel plane conductors when their separation is 20 mm and a
p.d. of 400 V is applied to them? Calculate the force on an oil drop between the plates if the drop carries a charge of
8 × 10–19 C.
SOLUTION
Given,
Potential difference (V) = 400 V
Distance (d) = 20 mm = 20 × 10–3 m
Charge (q) = 8 × 10–19 C
Now,
V 400
The potential gradient = d = = 2 × 104 Vm–1
20 × 10–3
Since electric field intensity is numerically equal to the potential gradient
∴ E = 2 × 104 Vm–1
∴ Force on the oil drop, F = qE
= 8 × 10–19 × 2 × 104 = 1.6 × 10–14 N
Hence, the required force on the oil drop is 1.6 × 10–14 N.
 Check Point: Calculate the voltage needed to balance an oil drop carrying 10 electrons when located
between the plates of a capacitor which are 5 mm apart (g = 10 ms–2). The mass of oil drop is 3 × 10–16
kg. Ans: 9.47 V
Tips for MCQs

Quantitative Tips
1. The electric potential at a point in an electric field is defined as the work done in bringing the unit
positive test charge from infinity to that point.
Work
Therefore, electric Potential = Charge
W
or, V = q
q 1
2. Expression for electric potential at a point due to a point charge, V = .
4π∈0 r
1 qq0
3. Electric potential energy at a point due to the yield of another point charge, U = .
4π∈0 r

q ⎛1 1 ⎞
4. Expression for potential difference, V = – .
4π∈0 ⎝a b⎠
dV
5. Relation between electric field intensity and potential difference, E = – dr .
Conceptual Tips
1. Gravitational potential is always negative while electric potential may be either negative or
positive.
2. Electric potential is the potential difference between a point in electric field and infinity.
3. The potential difference is a scalar which is measured by voltmeter or potentiometer.
Quick Reply
1. Why the electric field is always at right angles to the equipotential surface? Give reasons.
 The work done in moving a charge on an equipotential surface is zero. This is possible only if the
electric field has no component parallel to the equipotential surface. Therefore, if electric field is
always perpendicular to the equipotential surface.
2. Why does an electron does not need extra energy to revolve around the nucleus?
 The electron revolves in equipotential surface of nucleus. So, it does not require any excess energy to
revolve.
3. What is the unit and dimension of electric potential?
 The unit of electric potential is volt (V). The dimension is determined from electric power, [P] = [IV]
[P] [ML2T–3]
[V] = [I] = [A] = [ML2 T–3A–1]
∴ The dimension of electric potential is [ML2T–3A–1].

4. Which unit is used to measure the energy of electron like particles?
 Electron volt (eV) is used to measure the energy of electron like particles.

1. Define equipotential surface. Why two electric lines of force do not intersect each other?
 The surface in an electric field in which the electric potential is same at every point of it is known as
equipotential surface. The electric potential is inversely proportional to the field point from the
1
surface i.e., ⎛V ∝ r ⎞ . If we consider a surface around a charge in a medium, all lie in equal distance r
⎝ ⎠
from the source charge. This surface is known as equipotential surface.
When we draw two different equipotential surface in an electric field, they never intersect. If they
intersect, the intersecting point must contain two different potentials, but a single point in an electric
field cannot have two different potentials.
2. Different charges q1, q2, q3, … are placed at r1, r2, r3, … respectively in an electrostatic field. Write
expressions for the total electric potential and intensity at R in proper notations. r1, r2, r3, … and R
refer to the distances from origin of the field (or space).
 Let different charges q1, q2, q3, … , qn are placed at distance r1, r2, r3, … , rn respectively in an
electrostatic field. The potential at a distance R is the sum of potentials due to each charges i.e.,
1 → →
V = ⎛ q1 + q2 + q3 + … + qn ⎞ =
1 n qi
Σ ) , where, riR = |rR – ri |
4π∈0 ⎝r1R r2R r3R rn=⎠ 4π∈0 i=1 riR
The total electric field intensity is the vector sum of the electric field intensity due to each charge

→ → → → 1 qj ^
r , where, ^
4π∈0 ∑ riR2 iR
E = E1R + E2R + … + ER = r iR , is the unit rector directed from charge qi
i
towards the point at R.
3. Two positive charges separated by a distance create an electrostatic field. Can (i) electric potential,
and (ii) electric field intensity be zero at a point between the charges? Justify your answer.
 We have,
→ 1 q1 ^ → 1 q2 ^
E1 = r . . . (1) E2 = r . . . (2)
4π∈0 r2 4π∈0 r2
1 q1 1 q2
V1 = . . . (3) V2 = . . . (4)
4π∈0 r 4π∈0 r
→ → → →
At the centre, E1 and E2 are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. So, E1 + E2 = 0, but we
need to have q1 = – q2 for V1 + V2 = 0. Hence, two +ve charges separated by a distance can create zero
potential field only at infinite distance from charge.
4. "Nothing happens to a bird standing on high power line but a man gets fatal shock by touching to it,"
why?
 There is a flow of charge in a conducting medium only when the circuit is completed (i.e., if there is a
potential difference of two points). Electric circuit is not completed in case of a bird sitting on high
tension line. Since, it is surrounded by air (bad conductor). But the circuit will be completed when a
man touching to the high tension line stands on the ground. So, large current flows and man's body
gets fatal shock.
5. What is zero potential?
 In the measurement of any physical value, a point of origin must be considered as the reference
point. Electric potential is measured taking the earth as the reference value of origin (i.e., zero value
of electric potential). The potential of earth does not change either you add some charge on it or draw
some charge from it.
If the electron can flow from a charged body to earth, the body possesses negative potential initially
and if the electrons can flow from earth to a charged object, the body must have positive potential
initially. If the electrons can flow neither to the earth not to it, it is considered to have zero potential.
6. What is the shape of the equipotential surfaces for (i) an isolated point charge? (ii) uniform electric
field?
 i. For an isolated point charge, the equipotential surfaces are concentric spheres whose centres are
located at the given point charge.
ii. For a uniform electric field, the equipotential surfaces are planes perpendicular to the direction
of electric field.
7. If the electric field is zero throughout a certain region of space, is the potential also zero in the region
or not? Explain.
→ dV
 We have, E = – dr
→ dV
For | E | = 0, dr = 0
V = constant
Hence, it is not necessary that for electric field to be zero, we need to have zero p.d. a constant p.d.
will also cause zero electric field.

Worked Out Problems

1. Two plane parallel conducting plates are held horizontal, one above the other, in a vacuum. Electrons
having a speed of 6.0 × 106 ms–1 and moving normally to the plates enter the region between them
through a hole in the lower plate which is earthed. What potential must be applied to the other plate
so that the electrons just fail to reach it?
(Ratio of charge to mass of electron is 1.8 × 1011 Ckg–1).
SOLUTION
Given,
Speed of electron (v) = 6 × 106 ms–1
e
Charge to mass ratio ⎛m⎞ = 1.8 × 1011 Ckg–1
⎝ ⎠
Let, V be the potential applied to the other plate. For the electrons fail to reach the upper plate
K.E. gained by electron = work done on electron (or repulsive electrical energy).
1
i.e., 2 mv2 = eV
v2 (6 × 106)2
or, V = 2 e/m = = 100 V
2 × 1.8 × 1011
2. A charged oil-drop of radius 1.3 × 10–6 m is prevented from falling under gravity by the vertical field
between two horizontal plates charged to a difference of potential of 8340 V. The distance between
the plates is 16 mm and the density of oil is 920 kgm–3. Calculate the magnitude of the charge on the
drop (g = 10 m/s2).
SOLUTION
Given, The force on oil drop due to electric field = weight
Radius of the drop (r) = 1.3 × 10–6 m of the drop
Potential difference (V) = 8340 V i.e., qE = mg
Distance between the plates (d) = 16 mm = 16 or, q = mg = mg = mg × d = 4/3 π r ρ gd
3
× 10–3 m E V/d V V
Density of oil (ρ) = 920 kg/m3 4/3 π (1.3 × 10–6)3 × 920 × 10 × 16 × 10–3
= 9340
Charge on the drop (q) = ?,
Acceleration due to gravity (g) = 10 ms–2 –19
= 1.6 × 10 C
For the drop to be prevented from falling ∴ The charge on the drop, q = 1.6 × 10–19 C
under gravity
3. Two plane parallel conducting plates 15.0 mm apart are held horizontal, one above the other, in air.
The upper plate is maintained at a positive potential of 1500 V while the lower plate is earthed.
Calculate the number of electrons which must be attached to a small oil drop of mass 4.90 × 10–15 kg,
if it remains stationary in the air between the plates. (Assume that the density of air is negligible in
comparison with that of oil.)
If the potential of the upper plate is suddenly changed to – 1500 V, what is the initial acceleration of
the charged drop?
SOLUTION
Given,
Distance (d) = 15 mm = 15 × 10–3 m, Potential difference (V) = 1500 V and Mass (m) = 4.90 × 10–15 kg
Number of electron (n) = ?
If the oil drop remains stationary, then,
The force on oil drop due to electric field = weight of the drop
i.e., qE = mg

mg mg mg As the potential of the upper plate is changed to –
or, q = E = V/d = V × d 1500 V, the force on electron due to electric field
4.90 × 10–15 × 9.8 will be downward.
or, q = 1500 × 15 × 10–3 Hence, the total downward force = qE + mg
= 4.8× 10–19 C i.e., ma = 4.8 × 10–19 × 105 + 4.9 × 10–15 × 9.8

q where a is the acceleration of the drop.
∴ No. of electrons attached to the oil drop, n = e 96.02
or, a = m × 10–15
4.8 × 10–19
= =3 96.02 × 10–15
1.6 × 10–19 ∴Initial acceleration, a =
4.9 × 10–15
= 19.59 ≈ 19.6 ms–2.
4. Three equal charges 1.8 × 10–6 C each are located at the corners of an equilateral triangle ABC of side
10 cm. Calculate the electric potential due to these charges at the mid point of AB.
SOLUTION
Given,
Charges (q) = 1.8 × 10–6 C
Side of triangle (r) = 10 cm = 0.1m
Electric potential (V) = ?
Permittivity of free space (ε0) = 8.85 × 10–12 C2 N–1 m–2
Let, ABC be an equilateral triangle of side 0.1 m. Let D be the mid point on AB such that AD = BD =
0.05 m.
Three charges of charge q are located at three corners of triangle ABC.
Now,
1 q
Potential at D due to the charge of A, VA = C
4 π ε0 AD
1 q
Potential at D due to the charge of B, VB =
4 π ε0 BD
0.1m
1 q 1 q 0.1m
Potential at D due to the charge of C, VC = =
4 π ε0 CD 4 π ε0 AC2 – AD2
Total potential at D, V = VA + VB + VC
0.05m 0.05m
1 q 1 q 1 q A B
= + + D
4 π ε0 AD 4 π ε0 BD 4 π ε0 AC2 – AD2
q
= ⎛1 + 1 + 1
⎞
4 π ε0 ⎝AD BD AC2 – AD2 ⎠
1.8 × 10–6
= ⎛ 1 + 1 + 1
⎞
4 π × 8.85 × 10–12 ⎝0.05 0.05 0.12 – 0.052 ⎠
= 9 × 109 × 1.8 × 10–6 × 51.547
= 8.35 × 105 V/m
5. A charged oil drop remains stationary when situated between two parallel horizontal metal plates 25
mm apart and a p.d. of 1000 V is applied to the plates. Find the charge on the drop if it has a mass of
5 × 10–15 kg. (Assume g = 10 N kg–1).
SOLUTION
Given,
Separation of plates (d) = 25 mm = 25 × 10–3 m
Mass of drop (m) = 5 × 10–15 kg
Potential difference (V) = 1000 V, g = 10 Nkg–1
Charge on the drop (q) = ? 5 × 10–15 × 10 × 25 × 10–3
If the oil drop remains stationary, then = 1000
The force on oil drop due to electric field = 1.25 × 10 C
–18
= Weight of the drop ∴ The charge on the oil drop, q = 1.25 × 10–18 C
i.e., qE = mg
mg mg mgd
or, q = E = V = V
d
6. An electron is to be accelerated from 3.00 × 106 m/s to 8.00 × 106 m/s. Through what potential
difference must the electron pass to accomplish this? b) Through what potential difference must the
electron pass if it is to be slowed from 8.00 × 106 m/s to a halt?
SOLUTION
a. Initial speed (v1) = 3 × 106 m/s
Final speed (v2) = 8 × 106 m/s
Potential difference (V) = ? b. Potential difference (V2 – V3) = ?
Mass of electron (me) = 9.1 × 10-31 kg If the electron stops its speed, v1 = 0
According to the law of conservation of So, final K.E. = 0
energy, we can write, 1
Sum of initial K.E. and P.E. = Sum of final K.E. Initial K.E. = 2 m v22
and P.E. Again, according to the law of
1 1 conservation of energy, we can write,
or, 2 mv21 + U1 = 2 mv22 + U2
1 2
1 2 m v2 + qV2 = 0 + qV3
or, U1 – U2 = 2 m (v22 – v21 )
1
1 or, 2 mv22 + qV2 = qV3
or, q V1 – qV2 = 2 M (v22 – v21 )
1
But, q = e = –1.6 × 10–19 C or, q(V2 – V3) = – 2 mv22
me = 9.1 × 10–31 kg 1
1 or, –e(V2 – V3) = – 2 mv22
So, e(V1 – V2) = 2 m (v22 – v21 )
9.1 × 10-31 × (8 × 106)2
9.1 × 10–31 {(8 × 106)2 – (3 × 106)2} or, V2 – V3 = 2 × 1.6 × 10-19
or, V1 – V2 = 2 × –1.6 × 10-19 582.40
9.1 × 10–31 {64 × 1012 – 9 × 1012} = 3.2
= –3.2 × 10–19 ∴ V2 – V3 = 182 V
9.1 × 55
= –3.2
∴ V1 – V2 = –156.40 V

1. A small particle has charge –5.00 μC and mass 2.00 × 10–4 kg. It moves from point A, where the
electric potential is VA = + 200V, to point B, where the electric potential is VB = +800 V. The electric
force is the only force acting on the particle. The particle has speed 5.00 m/s at point A. What is its
speed at point B? Is it moving faster or slower at B than at A? Explain. Ans: 7.42 m/s
2. A point charge has a charge of 2.50 × 10-11 C. At what distance from the point charge is the electric
potential (a) 90.0 V? (b) 30.0 V. Take the potential to be zero at an infinite distance from the charge.
Ans: 2.50 × 10-3 m, 7.50 × 10-3 m

3. A potential difference of 4.75 kV is established between parallel plates in air. (a) If the air becomes
electrically conducting when the electric field exceeds 3.00 × 106 V/m, what is the minimum
separation of the plates? (b) When the separation has the minimum value calculated in part (a), what
is the surface charge density on each plate? Ans: (a) 1.58 mm, (b) 2.66 × 10-5 C/m2
4. The electric field at the surface of a charged, solid, copper sphere with radius 0.200 m is 3800 N/C,
directed toward the centre of the sphere. What is the potential at the centre of the sphere, if we take
the potential to be zero infinitely far from the sphere? Ans: 760 V
Exercise
1. What is electric potential?
2. What is the dependence of electric energy with distance?
3. What is the meaning of negative value of electric energy?
4. What is 1 eV energy?
5. Write the device that can produce uniform electric field.
Short Questions
1. Define equipotential surface. What will be the work done on a unit positive charge when it is moved
from one point to another?
2. Can two equipotential surfaces intersect? Justify your answer.
3. There are two equal and opposite charges. What will be electric field strength and electrostatic
potential at the point mid way between them?
4. For measuring potential at a point why should we bring the charge from infinity?
5. "Electric field intensity at a point is a vector, but electric potential is a scalar" why?
6. "The potential of earth is taken to be zero" why?
7. "The line integral of electric field around a closed path is zero." Why?
8. What is electron volt? How is it related to joule?
9. The electric potential at a point is constant. Does it mean that the electric field is also zero?
10. What are equipotential surfaces? Why are they called so?
11. "No two equipotential surfaces intersect." why?
12. What is the shape of the equipotential surfaces for (i) an isolated point charge? (ii) uniform electric
field?
Long Questions
1. Define electric potential at a point due to a point charge and derive its expression.
2. Define electric potential energy at a point due to a point charge and derive its expression.
3. Define electric potential difference between two points in the electric field of a source charge and
hence also find out electric potential at a point.
4. Define electric field intensity and electric potential difference and then establish the relation then.

LEVEL I
1. The work done to carry a charge of 1.5 C from a point where the potential is – 15 V to another point
whose potential is not known is 150 J. Calculate the unknown potential. Ans: 85 V
2. The potential difference between two parallel conducting plates is 50 V and the electric field at any
point between the plates is 500 V/m. Calculate the distance between the plates. Ans: 0.1 m

3. When a charge of 3 C is placed in uniform electric field, it experiences a force of 3000 N. What is the
potential difference between two points separated by a distance of 1 cm? Ans: 10 V
4. The surface charge density of an infinite charged sheet is 1 μC/m2. How far apart are the
equipotential surfaces whose potentials differ by 10 volt? Ans: 1.78 × 10–4 m
LEVEL II
1. What is the potential gradient of two parallel plane conductors when + 1 μC E + 2 μC
A 1 cm 1 cm B
their separation is 20 mm and a p.d. of 400 V is applied to them?
Calculate the force on an oil drop between the plates if the drop
carries a charge of 8 × 10-19 C. Ans: 2 × 04 Vm-1, 1.6 × 10-14 N 2 cm 2 cm
2. Charges 1 μC, 2 μC, 5 μC and – 4 μC are placed at the corners of a
square (see in figure) taken in order. If the length of the side is 2 cm,
find the potential at the middle point of the side joining A and B. D C
– 4 μC 2 cm + 5 μC
Ans: 3.1 × 10 6 V
3. When a positron is accelerated under certain potential difference, it acquires a speed of 30% of the
speed of light. (The mass of the positron is same as that of an electron). Calculate the speed acquired
by a proton accelerated from rest under the same potential difference. Ans: 2.1 × 106 m/s
4. A charged oil drop remains stationary when situated between two parallel horizontal metal plates 25
mm apart and a p.d. of 1000 V is applied to the plates. Find the charge on the drop if it has a mass of
–18
5 × 10–15 kg. (Assume g = 10 N kg–1). Ans: 1.25 × 10 C
5. The high voltage terminal of a generator consists of a spherical conducting shell of radius 0.50 m.
Estimate the maximum potential to which it can be raised in air for which electrical breakdown
6
occurs when the electric field intensity exceeds 3 × 106 Vm–1. Ans: 1.5 × 10 V

1. A thin hollow metal sphere having radius 5 cm is charged such that the potential on its surface is 10
volts. The potential at a point 2 cm from the centre of the sphere will be
a. 10 volts b. 5 volts
c. 4 volts d. zero
2. If a soap bubble is charged with negative charge, its radius
a. will decreases b. will increase
c. will remain same d. data is not sufficient
3. The work done to carry 2 coulomb charges from A to B is 3J. The potential difference between A and
B is
a. 0 V b. 2/3 V
c. 1.5 V d. 6 V
4. When the distance between two charged particles is halved, the coulomb force between them
becomes
a. one-half b. one-fourth
c. double d. four times
ANSWERS
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (d)


CAPACITORS
22.1 Introduction
Capacitors are electrostatic device made by two conductors and
V
are used to store the electric charge. In capacitors, two
conductors are usually separated with insulating material. The + –
+ –
charged capacitor plates contain different value of charges q1 + –
+ –
and q2 at potentials V1 and V2 respectively. But in practical
capacitor, these plates contain charge q and –q at potential
Fig. 22.1(i): A parallel plate capacitor
difference V = V1 – V2. Single conductor also can be a capacitor
assuming another plate at infinity. The symbol of capacitor is , two equal lines separated with
small distance. Capacitors can have any shape, but parallel plate capacitor is mostly used in practice.
Capacitors are used in electronic devices like radio, calculator, mobile phone, television, computer,
etc. They store the charge for very short time. The stored charge in capacitor, mostly helps to reduce
fluctuations of charge flow in electric circuits like filter circuit.
22.2 Capacitor and Capacitance

Any conductor which can hold charge is a capacitor. More precisely, a capacitor is a device designed
to store electric charge and hence the electric energy in the electric field. Capacitors vary in shape
and size but the basic configuration is two conductors carrying equal but opposite charges and
separated by some distance and insulated from one another.
When two conductors constituting the capacitor are respectively connected to positive and negative
terminal of the battery; electrons are forced from negative terminal of the battery to one of the plate.
An equal number of electrons leave the other plate to return to battery via its positive terminal. So,
each plate now has equal number of charges with are opposite in magnitude.
It is found that, the amount of charge on a capacitor depends on the voltage or potential difference
(V) applied across it. If, q is the total charge stored by the capacitor, then,
q∝V
or, q = CV . . . (22.1)
where C is a proportionality constant known as capacitance.
Also, from equation (22.1),
q
C=V . . . (22.2)

Capacitors | Chapter 22 | 521
Thus, capacitance of a capacitor is defined as the charge
stored per unit potential difference. Capacitance is the
measure of how much charge a capacitor can hold
per capacitor voltage (applied voltage).
If charge (q) is measured in coulomb (C) and
potential difference in volt (V), then the unit of
capacitance is CV–1 (coulomb per volt) which is
known as farad (F), in honour of Michael Faraday. Practical capacitors

In equation (22.2), if q = 1 C and V = 1 volt, then,
C=1F
Thus, a capacitor of capacitance 1 F can store 1 coulomb charge when a p.d. of 1 volt is applied across
it. One farad is a very large capacitance. So, capacitance is generally measured in micro-farad, nano-
farad, picofarad, etc.
1 μF = 10–6 F
1 nF = 10–9 F
1 pF = 10–12 F
Dimension of capacitance is
q IT
[C] = [V ] = ⎡ML2 T–3 A–1⎤ = [M–1 L–2 T4 A2]
⎣ ⎦
Uses of Capacitors
1. They are used to eliminate sparking when a circuit containing inductance is suddenly opened.
2. They are used in radio circuits for tuning.
3. They are used for 'smoothing' the rectified current delivered by the power supply.
4. They are used to increase the efficiency of alternating current power transmission.
EXAMPLE 1: A capacitor has a capacitance of 7.28 µF. What amount of charge must be placed on each of its plates to
make the potential difference between its plates equal to 25.0 V?
SOLUTION
Given,
Capacitance (C) = 7.28 μF = 7.28 × 10–6 F
Amount of charge (q) = ?
P.d. between plates (V) = 25 V
We know that
q = CV = 7.28 × 10-6 × 25 = 182 × 10-6 C
∴ q = 182 μC
∴ The charge must be 182 μC.
+q –q
Principle of Capacitor
Consider a conducting plate charging positively. Now, bring an
uncharged conducting plate B near A. Then the plate B is
electrostatically induced. So that negative charges are distributed
towards the surface of A and positive charges are distributed outer
surface as shown in Fig. 22.1(ii). The induced negative charge tries to
decrease the potential A, while induced positive charge tries to Fig. 22.1 (ii): Principle of capacitor

q
increase the potential of A. So, there will be a net decrease in a potential A. As we know, C = V , the
capacitance of plate A is increased. Furthermore, if plate B is earthed, the potential is further
lowered. This will further increase the capacitance of the plate A. This concludes that when a earthed
conductor is placed in the neighbourhood of a charged conductor, the capacity of the system is
considerably increased.
22.3 Types of Capacitor

i. Isolated Sphere
Let us consider a spherical conductor of radius R with total charge +q
distributed uniformly over its surface as shown in Fig. 22.2. The electric
potential on the surface of such sphere is given by R
O
q
V=
4π∈0R
q
or, V = 4π∈0R . . . (22.3) Fig. 22.2: Isolated spherical
charged conductor
q
But, from definition of capacitance, C = V .
∴ C = 4π∈0R . . . (22.4)
This relation shows that, for a sphere placed in vacuum, capacitance depends on its radius. i.e.,
C ∝ R. Greater the radius greater is the charge storing capacity. However, it is greatly affected by the
permittivity of the medium in which the sphere is placed.
ii. Concentric Spherical Capacitor

Let us consider two spherical concentric conductors each of radius R1
and R2 respectively as shown in Fig. 22.3. Let the inner sphere of
radius R1 be connected to positive terminal of the battery giving it a R2
net +q charges that is distributed over its surface. The outer sphere of R1
radius R2 is grounded. Due to the positive charge, negative charge is
induced in the inner surface of outer sphere. At the same time +q
number of charges are induced on its outer surface which flow to
ground through earthing. So, the entire outer surface is neutral for
larger sphere. Fig.22.3: Concentric capacitors
The electric potential on the surface of inner sphere of radius R1 due to +q charges distributed over
its surface is,
q
V1 = . . . (22.5)
4π∈0R1
The electric potential on the surface of sphere of radius R1 due to –q charges over the interior of
sphere of radius R2 is, (taking magnitude of charge)
q
V2 = . . . (22.6)
4π∈0 R2
So, net electric potential on inner sphere is,
q ⎡1 1⎤
V = V1 – V2 = –
4π∈0 ⎣R1 R2⎦
q ⎡R2 – R1⎤
or, V=
4π∈0 ⎣ R1R2 ⎦
q ⎡ R1R2 ⎤
or, V = 4π∈0 ⎣ R2 – R1⎦
q
From definition, V = C
R1R2
∴ C = 4π∈0 ⎡ R – R ⎤
⎣ 2 1⎦
Thus, it is seen the capacitance depends on the distance of separation of two spheres. The capacitance
can be increased by taking the spheres very close to each other so that (R2 – R1) is small.
If some dielectric medium of dielectric constant K is introduced between them, then,
C = 4π∈0K ⎡ R1R2 ⎤
⎣ R2 – R1 ⎦
The capacitance can also be increased by choosing a medium whose dielectric constant K is large.
iii. Parallel Plate Capacitor d
Parallel plate capacitor is the most common type of capacitor. It is
simplest and cheapest to construct. A parallel plate capacitor consists + –
of two conducting plates parallel to each other and separated by a
distance which is small compared with the linear dimension of the
plates as shown in Fig. 22.4. Dielectric medium
The capacitance of a capacitor is, Fig. 22.4: Parallel plate capacitor
q
C=V . . . (22.7)
In parallel plate capacitor, the plates are perfectly flat, so the electric field between the plates is
written as,
σ
E= . . . (22.8)
∈0
where, σ is the surface charge density of capacitor plates.
Also,
V
E=d . . . (22.9)
where, V = potential difference between the two plates

d = separation of two plates
Then, from equations (22.8) and (22.9), we get,
V σ
d = ∈0
σd
V= . . . (22.10)
∈0
The total charge on a plate is,
q = σA . . . (22.11)
where, A = surface area of plate
Now, using equations (22.10) and (22.11) in equation (22.7), we get,

σA
C=
σd
∈0
∈0A
∴ C= d . . . (22.12)
If a dielectric medium is kept between two plate, the capacitance of parallel plate capacitor is,
K∈0A
C= d . . . (22.13)
where, K = dielectric constant of the medium

Therefore, capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is directly proportional to the area of the plates
and inversely proportional to their separation.
EXAMPLE 2: A 10.0 μF parallel-plate capacitor with circular plates is connected to a 12.0 V battery. (a) What is the charge on
each plate? (b) How much charge would be on the plates if the capacitor were connected to the 12.0 V battery after the radius of
each plate was doubled without changing their separation?
SOLUTION
Given, Dividing (i) by (ii) we get
Capacitance (C) = 10 μF C
= 10 × 10–6 F = 10–5 F C1 = 2
V = 12 V q/V
or, q /V = 2 [... q = CV]
a. Charge (q) = ? 1
q = CV = 10–5 × 12 = 12 × 10–5 C q
or, q1 = 2
b. If d be the separation between the
plates, we have q
or, q1 = 2
∈0 A
C = d … (i)
12 × 10-5
= 2
For separation (2d), charge (q1) = ?
∈0 A ∴ q1 = 6 × 10-5 C
C1 = 2d … (ii)
 Check Point: The plates of a parallel-plate capacitor are 5 mm apart and 2 m2 in area. The plates
are in vacuum. A potential difference of 10,000 V is applied across the capacitor. Compute (a)
Capacitance (b) the charge on each plate, and (c) the electric field intensity in the space between
them, Ans: 3.54 nF, 3.54 × 10–5 C, 20 × 105 Vm–1
22.4 Combination of Capacitors

The grouping of two or more capacitors in an electric circuit is known as combination of capacitors.
The combination can be series or parallel.
i. Series combination of capacitors +V–

Capacitors are said to be connected in series if opposite terminals
of two capacitors are connected so that a potential difference
applied across the combination is the sum of the resulting
potential differences across each capacitor. +q –q
Consider three capacitors of capacitances C1, C2, and C3,
C1 C2 C3
connected in series. Fig. 22.5 as in the combination is connected to
the external power supply of potential difference V. When the Fig. 22.5: Series combination of
electric power is ON, the left plate of first capacitor receives the + capacitors combination

q charge. Then, equal negative charge (i.e., – q) is induced in the next plate of first capacitor. At the
same time, the left plate of second capacitor becomes positively charged, +q. Similarly, other plates
get charged by the method of conduction and induction. Thus, each plate receives the magnitude of
equal charge q as shown in Fig. 22.5.
Let V1, V2, and V3 be the potential difference of capacitors 1, 2, and 3 respectively. Also, C1, C2, and C3
be the capacitance of corresponding capacitors. Then,
q q q
V1 = C , V2 = C , V3 = C . . . (22.14)
1 2 3
The potential difference across the series combination of capacitors is V, so

V= V1 + V2 + V3 . . . (22.15)
Let Cs be the equivalent capacitance of the series combination of capacitors, then,
q
V=C . . . (22.16)
s
So, using equations (22.14) and (22.16) in equation (22.15), we get,

q q q q
Cs = C1 + C2 + C3
q ⎛1 1 1⎞
or, Cs = q ⎝C1 + C2 + C3⎠
1 1 1 1
∴ Cs = C1 + C2 + C3 . . . (22.17)
If there are n-number of capacitors connected in a series combination, the equivalent capacitance is,
1 1 1 1 1
Cs = C1 + C2 + C3 + … + Cn . . . (22.18)
When a number of capacitors are connected in series, the reciprocal of equivalent capacitance is
equal to the sum of reciprocals of the individual capacitances. This relation shows that, the
equivalent capacitance decreases when capacitors are connected in series. In this combination, charge
on each capacitor is same, but the p.d. across each capacitor can be different.
ii. Parallel Combination of Capacitors

Capacitors are said to be connected in parallel when +V–
similar terminals are connected at a common point so that
total charge across the combination is equal to the sum of
charges in each capacitor. C1
Consider three capacitors of capacitances C1, C2, and C3,
connected in parallel. Left plate of each capacitor is
connected to the positive terminal and right plate of each
C2
capacitor is connected to negative terminal of a power
supply of constant potential difference V as shown in Fig.
22.6. Since, the capacitors are connected in parallel, each
capacitor has potential difference V, but their C3
corresponding charges are q1, q2, and q3. Let q be the total
charge on the parallel network, then, Fig. 22.6: Parallel combination of capacitors
q = q1 + q2 + q3 . . . (22.19)
Since, the potential difference of each capacitor is same,
q1 = C1V, q2 = C2V, and q3 = C3V . . . (22.20)

Let Cp be the equivalent capacitance of parallel combination. Then,
q = CpV . . . (22.21)
Using equations (22.20) and (22.21) in equation (22.19), we get
CpV = C1V + C2V + C3V
∴ Cp = C1 + C2 + C3 . . . (22.22)
If there are n-number of capacitors connected in parallel combination, then,
Cp = C1 + C2 + C3 + … + Cn . . . (22.23)
When capacitors are connected in parallel, the equivalent capacitance of the combination is equal to
the sum of the individual capacitances. This relations show that, the equivalent capacitance increases
when capacitors are combined in parallel. In this combination, total charge is equal to the sum of
charges on individual capacitors. Also, the potential difference across each capacitors is the same and
is equal to the potential difference of the battery.
EXAMPLE 3: In figure, C1 = C5 = 8.4 μF and C2 = C3 = C4 = 4.2 μF. The applied potential is Vab = 220 V. (a) What is the
equivalent capacitance of the network between points a and b? C1 C3
SOLUTION a
Given,
C1 = C5 = 8.4 μF C2
C2 = C3 = C4 = 4.2 μF
Vab = 220 V b
a. Equivalent capacitance of network between a and b, C = ? C5 C4
C3 and C4 are in series, so their equivalent capacitance
C3 × C4 4.2 × 4.2
C' = C + C = 4.2 + 4.2 = 2.1 μF
3 4
It is shown in diagram (ii)
C1 C3 C1
a a
C2 C2 C'
b b
C5 C4 C5
(i) (ii)
C' and C2 are in parallel so their equivalent capacitance,
C'' = C' + C2 = 2.1 + 4.2 = 6.3 μF
It is shown in diagram (iii)
C1
a
a C'' b
C''
(iv)
b
C5
(iii)
C1, C and C5 are in series, so their equivalent capacitance,
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1
C = C1 + C'' + C5 = 8.4 + 6.3 + 8.4 = 8.4 + 6.3
8.4 × 6.3 52.92
or, C = 2 × 6.3 + 8.4 = 21
∴ C = 2.52 μF
 Check Point: Series combination of two capacitors 6 μF and 3 μF are connected to a d.c. power
supply of 18 V. Find the total charge and potential difference across each capacitor.
Ans: 36 μC, 6 V and 12 V

22.5 Energy Stored in a Charged Capacitor

Capacitor stores the electric potential energy. While charging, an external agent transfers positive
charge from the plate at lower potential to the plate at higher potential (conversely, the electrons are
transferred from the plate at higher potential to the plate at lower potential). To do this, capacitor
requires energy. This energy is drawn from a battery which acts as the external agent in this case.
The work is done by the battery at the expense of its stored chemical energy.
Consider a parallel plate capacitor of capacitance C. In the beginning, both the plates are uncharged.
When the plates are connected to a battery, small positive charge is transferred from one plate to
another. Then, the battery should do more work to transfer the charges from one plate to another.
More and more the capacitor charges, greater the work should be done by battery to transfer the
equivalent amount of charge in capacitor plates.
Let the capacitance of a capacitor be C and charge on it be initially zero. After connection to battery,
let it acquires charge + q at potential difference V. Then,
q
C=V . . . (22.24)
If the battery supplies small amount of charge dq to the capacitor at constant potential V, the work
done dW by the battery is given by,
dW = V dq
Thus, the total work done in delivering charge 'q' to the capacitor is given by,
q
W = ∫0 V dq
q q
= ∫0 C dq [... q = CV]
1 q
= C ∫0 q dq
1 q2 q
= C ⎛2⎞
⎝ ⎠0
1 ⎛q2
= C 2 – 0⎞
⎝ ⎠
1 q2
∴ W=2 C . . . (22.25)
This work is stored in the capacitor as the electric potential energy U.

1 q2
∴ U =2 C . . . (22.26)
Since, q = CV, so we can write,

1
U = 2 qV . . . (22.27)
1
Also, U = 2 CV2 . . . (22.28)
The formula for energy stored is applicable to any capacitor. It is because geometry of capacitor
plays no role in this formula.
The potential energy of a charged capacitor is stored in the electric field between the plates. Coulomb
and electrostatic potential energy U is expressed in joule.

Energy Density
It is often useful to consider the stored energy to be localized in the electric field between the
capacitor plates. So, the expression of energy density is expressed in terms of electric field intensity.
Energy density of a capacitor is defined as the amount of energy stored per unit volume.
U 1 CV2
∴ Energy density (u) = Volume = 2 Ad
where, A = surface area of a capacitor plate

d = Separation between two plates
∈A
Also, C = d and V = Ed
∈A
(Ed)2
1 d
∴ u =2 Ad
1
or, u = 2 ∈E2
1
∴ u = 2 ∈0KE2 . . . (22.29)
Warning: Large capacitors can store enough electrical energy to cause severe burns or even death if they are
discharged.
EXAMPLE 4: A capacitor charged from a 50 V dc supply is discharged across a charge-measuring instrument and found to have
carried a charge of 10 μC. What was the capacitance of the capacitor and how much energy was stored in it?
SOLUTION
Given,
Total charge (q) = 10 μC = 10 × 10–6 C
Capacitance (C) = ?
Energy store (U) = ?
q 10 × 10–6
The capacitance of the capacitor, C = V = 50
= 0.2 × 10–6 F = 0.2 μF
1 1
Energy stored in it (U) = 2 CV2 = 2 × 0.2 × 10–6 × (50)2
= 250 × 10–6 J = 2.5 × 10–4 J

Hence, the capacitance of the capacitor is 0.2 μF and the energy stored in it is 2.5 × 10–4 J.
 Check Point: A capacitor charged from a 50 V d.c. supply is found to have a charge of 10 μC. What
is a capacitance of the capacitor and how much energy is stored in it?
Ans: 0.2 × 10 – 6 F, 0.25 × 10 – 3 J
Energy Stored in Combination of Capacitors

Series combination: In series combination charge in each capacitor is constant and equivalent
capacitor C is
1 1 1
C = C1 + + … + Cn

Therefore, total energy stored on series combination is
1 q2
U = 2C
q2 1 1 1
or, U = 2 ⎛C + C + …+ C ⎞
⎝ 1 2 n⎠
1 q2 1 q2 1 q2
or, U= 2C + 2C +…+2C
1 2 n
∴ U = U₁+ U₂ +… + Un . . . (22.30)
Thus, the energy stored in series combination of the capacitors is equal to the sum of the energies
stored in the individual capacitors.
Parallel combination: In parallel combination p.d. across each capacitor is constant and equivalent
capacitance C of n-number of capacitors is,
C = C1 + C2 + … + Cn
So, the total energy stored in parallel combination is,
1
U = 2 CV²
1
or, U = 2 (C1 + C2 + … + Cn) V²
1 1 1
or, U = 2 C1 V2 + 2 C2 V² + …2 Cn V²
∴ U = U1 + U2 + … + Un . . . (22.31)
Thus, the total energy stored in parallel combination of the capacitors is also equal to the sum of
energies stored in the individual capacitors.
From the above conditions (22.30) and (22.31), we find that whether the capacitors are joined in series
or parallel, total energy of the combination is equal to the sum of energies stored in the individual
capacitor.
22.6 Redistribution of charge and Common Potential

When two capacitors of different potentials are connected with a conducting wire, electric charge
flows from higher potential to lower potential capacitor until they acquire the equal potential. In this
process, charges are redistributed in these capacitors, however the total charge is conserved. The
equal potential so maintained in these capacitors is called common potential (V).
If the capacitance of the thin connecting wire is negligible and the conductors are at sufficient
distance apart, they do not exert mutual electric forces.
Then, total charge before connecting with wire,
Q = C1V1 + C2V2
and the total charge after connecting with wire,
Q' = C1V + C2V = (C1 + C2) V
Since, the charge is conserved, Q = Q'.
C1V1 + C2V2 = (C1 + C2) V
C1V1 + C2V2
∴ V= C1 + C2 . . . (22.32)
Equation (22.32) gives the expression for common potential.

22.7 Loss of Energy on Sharing of Charges between Capacitors

If two capacitors are connected with the conducting wire, charge flows from higher potential
capacitor to lower potential one. In this process, work should be done to transfer the charge from one
capacitor to another capacitor which makes to loss the energy in capacitor. Moreover, during this
process, there is loss of energy which is converted into heat in the connecting wire. A spark may be
produced and so the loss of energy can be converted into light and sound but charge remains the
same.
Let two capacitors of capacitances C1 and C2 be charged by the charges q1 and q2 to potentials V1 and
V2 respectively.
Before joining, total energy,
1 1
U1 = 2 C1V21 + 2 C2V22 . . . (22.33)
1 1 1
After joining, total energy, U2 = 2 C1V2 + 2 C2V2 = 2 (C1 + C2) V2
1 (C1V1 + C2V2)2
U2 = 2 (C1 + C2) (C + C )2
1 2
(C1V1 + C2V2)2
∴ U2 = 2(C + C ) . . . (22.34)
1 2
Loss of energy, ΔU = U1 – U2
1 2 1 (C1V1 + C2V2)2
ΔU = 2 C1V1 + 2 C2V22 – 2(C + C )
1 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 ⎡C1V1 + C2V2 + C1C2V1 + C1C2V2 – C1V1 – C2V2 – 2C1C2V1V2⎤
=2
⎣ C1 + C2 ⎦
2 2
1 C1C2(V1 + V2 – 2V1V2)
=2 C1 + C2
C1C2
ΔU = 2(C + C ) (V1 – V2) 2 . . . (22.35)
1 2
The terms (V1 – V2)2, C1, and C2 in R.H.S. of this equation are always positive. So, ΔU is always
positive which means that there is always a loss of energy when two charged conductors at different
potentials are connected.
EXAMPLE 5: A capacitor of capacitance 4 μF is charged to a potential of 100 V and another of capacitance 6 μF is charged to a
potential of 200 V. These capacitors are now joined with plates of like charge connected together. Calculate (i) the potential across
each after joining (ii) the total electrical energy stored before joining and (iii) the total electrical energy stored after joining (iv) find the
energy loss.
SOLUTION
Given,
Capacitance of first capacitor (C1)) = 4 μF = 4 × 10–6 F
Potential difference of first capacitor (V1) = 100 V
Capacitance of second capacitor (C2) = 6 μF = 6 × 10–6 F
Potential difference of second capacitor (V2) = 200 V
On C1, charge q1 = C1 V1 = 4 × 10–6 × 100 = 4 × 10–4 C
On C2, charge q2 = C2 V2 = 6 × 10–6 × 200 = 12 × 10–4 C
∴ Total charge before connection, q = q1 + q2 = 4 × 10–4 + 12 × 10–4 = 16 × 10–4 C
(i) Let V be the common potential of the capacitors when the capacitors are connected with
plates of like charge connected together.

4 μF 6 μF 4 μF 6 μF
+ +
100 V 200 V
∴ Total charge after connection = C1V + C2V 1 1
= 2 × 4 × 10–4 × 100 + 2 × 12 × 10–4 × 200
= (C1 + C2) V
= (4 × 10–6 + 6 × 10–6) V = 0.14 J
–6
= 10 × 10 V coulombs (iii) The total electric energy after joining
Since total charge is conserved 1
U2 = 2 (C1 + C2) V2
∴ Total charge before connection = Total
charge after connection 1
= 2 (4 × 10–6 + 6 × 10–6) × (160)2
16 × 10–4 = 10 × 10–6 V
= 0.128 J
16 × 10–4
∴ V= = 160 V (iv) Energy loss (ΔU) = U1 – U2
10–5
= 0.14 J – 0.128 J
(ii) The total electric energy before joining = 0.012 J
1 1
U1 = 2 q1V1 + 2 q2V2
 Check Point: Two insulated spherical conductors of radii 5.0 cm and 10.0 cm are charged to
potential of 600 volt and 300 volt respectively. Calculate the total energy of the system. Also,
calculate the energy after the spheres have been connected by a fine wire. Also find the energy loss.
Ans: 14.85 × 10–7 J, 13.16 × 10–7 J, 1.69 × 10–7 J
22.8 Dielectrics and Effect of Dielectrics

A dielectric is an insulator or nonconductor of electricity. However such materials allow the electric
field to pierce through them but there is no flow of charge through them. In a dielectric all the
electrons are tightly bound to the nuclei of the atoms and there are no free electrons available for the
conduction of current. Therefore electrical conductivity of a dielectric is very low in fact zero for
ideal dielectric. The examples of dielectrics are polythene, waxed paper, mica, glass etc. When these
dielectrics are inserted between the two conducting plates of a capacitor, the charge storing capacity
can be increased. When a dielectric is inserted between two oppositely charged conductors
connected to a battery, each molecule of dielectric becomes polarized. This means that its electrons
are pulled slightly towards the positive plate as shown in Fig. 22.7. So, the surface of the dielectric
facing the positive plate gains negative charge at the expense of other side of the dielectric that faces
the negative plate.
In some of the dielectrics, the molecules are already polarized but they lie in random directions.
These molecules are called polar molecules and these molecules align in the field direction when
placed between the two charged plates. The result is that, the surface of the dielectric near the
positive plate gains negative charge and other surface gains positive charge.
As a result of this more charge is stored on the plates because, the positive side of the dielectric
attracts more electrons from the battery onto the negative plate and the negative side of the dielectric
pushes electrons back to battery from the positive plate.

+q –q
+ – + –
+ – + –
+ – + –
+ – + –
+ – + –
+ – + –
+ – + –
(i) (ii
Fig. 22.7: Capacitor plates (i) in vacuum (ii) with dielectric
The polarized molecule or group of molecules which forms two distinct poles are called electric
dipoles. The strength of dipole is quantitatively expressed in terms of dipole moment (p). The dipole
moment is defined as the product of either charge of dipole (q) and the separation between these
opposite charges (d).
∴ p = qd . . . (22.36)
The induced dipole moment is proportional to the applied electric field. The induced dipole moment
→ →
of a polar atom is also derived from applied electric field, i.e., p ∝ E
→ →
p = ∈0 α E . . . (22.37)
where, ∈0 is the permittivity of free space and α is called atomic polarizability, which depends on the
nature of dielectric medium.
22.9 Molecular Theory of Induced Charge

Though dielectrics do not have free electric charge on them, suitable electric field applied to them
allows the charges to be induced on them. Dielectrics consist of small molecules each having equal
number of positive and negative charge. When dielectric is placed in electric field, the negative
charge in each molecule aligns in the direction opposite of field and positive charge aligns in the
direction of field. This creates an electric field within the dielectric directed opposite to applied field.
This process in which the negative and positive charges in a molecule get displaced in opposite direction
separated by a small distance is known as polarization. Howsoever small the distance be, the molecule
now behaves as electric dipole with its own electric field, because of polarization. This fact is known
as molecular theory of induced charge.
On the basis of polarization property, molecules can be of two types: polar and non-polar molecules.
i. Polar dielectric molecule: In some of the molecules such as H2O, N2O, NH3, etc., the positive and
negative charges get polarized naturally even in the absence of electric field. Such molecules are
known as polar molecules. In such molecules the centre of gravity of positive and negative charge do
not coincide to each other rather they are separated. However, the orientation of the molecules is not
perfect as the molecules vibrate constantly. So, a suitable electric field applied to them results in a
perfect alignment. And this develops a net overall polarization in the bulk material as a whole.

+ –
+ + + –
– –
(i) (ii)
Fig. 22.8 Polar molecule (i) Absence of electric field (ii) Presence of electric field
ii. Non-polar dielectric molecules: The molecules such as H2, N2, O2 etc. which are not polarized
naturally and centre of gravity of positive and negative charge coincide with each other are called
non-polar molecules. But, polarization is possible in them too when placed in an electric field.
± ± – + – +
(i) (ii)
Fig. 22.9 Non-polar molecules (i) Absence of electric field (ii) Presence of electric field
22.10 Effect of Dielectric in Electric Field

Consider a parallel plate capacitor whose plates carry charges + q and – q. An uniform electric field
→
is induced between these plates due to charge in them. Let E0 be the uniform electric field when there
is only vacuum or free space between the plates. When dielectric material is filled in the space
between two plates, the molecules of dielectrics align in the direction opposite of original field as
→ → →
shown in Fig. 22.10. So, the resultant field E is smaller than E0, but the direction of E is in the
→
direction of E0 . Then, the resultant electric field in dielectric is,
→ → →
E = E0 – Ei . . . (22.38)
→
where, Ei is the induced electric field in dielectric.
+q –q
+ – + –
+ – + –
+ – + –
+ – + –
+ – + –
+ – + –
+ – + –
E0 E0
Εi
(i) (ii
Fig. 22.10: Effect of dielectric between plates of capacitor (i) in vacuum (ii) with dielectric
Also, the potential difference between the plates of the capacitor when dielectric has been introduced
is given by

V
E=d
∴ V = Ed . . . (22.39)
Also, catch there is free space between two plates, the potential difference is,
V0 = E0d . . . (22.40)
V0 E0
V = E
For E < E0, V < V0
Therefore, potential difference between two plates decreases due to the insertion of dielectric
medium, which ultimately increases the capacitance of a capacitor.
Dielectric constant
Dielectric constant of a substance is defined as the ratio of the capacitance of a capacitor with
dielectric to its capacitance without dielectric. It is denoted by K or ∈r. It is also called relative
permittivity of the substance.
Capacitance of capacitor with dielectric (Cm)
∴ K = Capacitance of same capacitor without dielectric (C )
0
Cm
∴K= C
0
∈A ∈0A
Also, Cm = d and C0 = d
where ∈ = absolute permittivity of substance

∈0 = permittivity of free space
∈A
Cm d ∈
∴K= C = . . . (22.41)
0 ∈0A ∈0
d
Therefore, dielectric constant (K) is also defined as the ratio of absolute permittivity of a medium to the
permittivity of free space. As the value of dielectric constant for any medium is greater than that of free
space, capacitance of a capacitor with dielectric is greater than without medium. This concludes that
capacitance of a capacitor is increased when dielectric material is introduced between the plates of
the capacitor.
Polarization Vector
The alignment of the dipole moments of the permanent or induced dipoles in the direction of applied
electric field is called polarization. The polarization is quantitatively defined in terms of polarization
→
vector P . The polarization vector is defined as the dipole moment per unit volume of the dielectric.
In terms of magnitude,
p p qd q
P = V = Ad = Ad = A = σi . . . (22.42)
q
where A = surface area of plate and the induced surface charge density σi = A .

Electric susceptibility of dielectric

It has been observed that the polarization P is directly proportional to the resultant electric field E in
dielectric,
i.e., P ∝ E
∴ P = ∈0 χ E . . . (22.43)
where χ (the Greek letter 'Chi') is the dimensionless proportionality constant. The multiplicative
factor ∈0 has been used to make the equation dimensionally correct.
Relation between electric susceptibility and dielectric constant

The electric field in the dielectric is,
σi
E = E0 – Ei = E0 –
∈0
From equation (22.42), σi = P
So,
P
E = E0 –
∈0
χ∈0E
or, E = E0 – ( P = χ∈0E)
∈0
or, E = E0 – χE
or, E + χE = E0
or, E(1 + χ) = E0
E0
or, E = 1+ χ
∴ K=1+χ . . . (22.44)
This is the relation between K and χ.
Displacement vector
The charge displaced per unit area perpendicular to the field is called electric displacement denoted
→
by D . It is a vector quantity. It is determined from,
D = ∈0E0
P
Also, we have, E = E0 –
∈0
or, ∈0E = ∈0E0 – P
or, ∈0E0 = ∈0E + P
∴ D = ∈0E + P . . . (22.45)
22.11 Charging and Discharging of a Capacitor Through Resistor

The charging and discharging of a capacitor are explained below.
i. Charging of a capacitor through a resistor

Consider a capacitor of capacitance (C) connected in series with a resistor of resistance (R) and are
connected to a battery of emf 'E' and negligible internal resistance as shown in Fig. 22.11 (i).

Charge (q)
C R
+ –
q0
VC VR
K
E O
Time (t)
Fig 22.11 (i) Circuit diagram for a charging Fig 22.11 (ii) Variation of charge with time in
capacitor a charging capacitor
When electric switch is on, charge flows from battery to capacitor and so it starts charging. Let after
time 't', the current in the circuit is 'I', potential difference across capacitor is 'VC', and that across the
resistor is 'VR'. If 'q' is the charge stored in the capacitor at time 't', then
q
VC = C and VR = IR
From Fig. 22.11 (i), we can write,

E = VC + VR
q
∴ E = C + IR . . . (22.46)
Also,
dq
I = dt
If q0 is the maximum charge stored in the capacitor, then q0 = CE.

q0 q dq
C = C + dt R
q0 – q dq
or, C = R dt
dt dq
or, CR = q0 – q
Integrating, we get,
t dt q dq
∫0 CR = ∫0 q – q
0
1 t q
or, CR ∫0 dt = [–ln (q0 – q)]0
t
or, CR = –ln (q0 – q) + l n q0
t ⎛q0 – q⎞
or, CR = – ln ⎝ q0 ⎠
q0 – q t
or, ln ⎛ q ⎞ = – CR
⎝ 0 ⎠

q0 – q –t
or, q0 = e CR
q –t
or, 1 – q = eCR
0
q –t
or, q0 = (1 – e CR )
–t
or, q = q0 (1 – eCR )
–t
∴ q = q0 (1 – e T ) . . . (22.47)
where, T = CR is the charging time constant. This equation is for charging of a capacitor. It also
shows that the rate of charging is not uniform, the rate is faster in the beginning and
slow down gradually.
A graph between charge (q) and time (t) during charging of a capacitor is shown in Fig. 22.11 (ii).
If, t = T, then from equation (22.47), we get,
1
q = q0 (1 – e–1) = q0 ⎛1 – e⎞
⎝ ⎠
= q0 (1 – 0.37)
= 0.63 q0
q
or, q0 = 0.63
∴ q = 63% of q0.
Therefore, time constant of charging a C–R circuit is also defined as the time in which the capacitor charges
by about 63% of its maximum charge.
For a given capacitor, this time is longer for greater resistance and vice versa. Thus, the curve
between q and t rises rapidly to its final value if R is small and rises slowly if R is large. During
charging, energy is expended by battery partly and partly in heating the connecting wire.
ii. Discharging of a Capacitor through a Resistor

q
C q0
+ –
R t
O
Fig. 22.12 (i) Circuit diagram for Fig. 22.12 (ii) Variation of charge with time in
discharging capacitor a discharging capacitor
Consider a capacitor of capacitance (C) which is initially charged to a potential difference V0 so that
its charge is q0 = CV0.
Now, the charged capacitor is joined to a resistor, of resistance (R) in series as in Fig. 22.12 (i). At a
time 't' after the discharge through C has began, the current 'I' flows through the circuit so that
VC
I = R , where VC is the potential difference across the capacitor. As we know, electric current is the
rate of flow of charge. So,

dq
I = – dt
Here, negative sign shows that 'q' decreases with increasing 't'.
VC dq
or, R = – dt
q
But, VC = C , where 'q' is the charge on the capacitor. Therefore,
q dq
CR = – dt
dq dt
or, q = – CR
Integrating it in the limit 'q0' to q at time 0 to 't', we get,
q
dq t dt
∫q = ∫ –
0 q 0 CR
q t
[ln q]q0 = – RC
t
or, ln q – ln q0 = – RC
q t
or, ln q = – RC
0
q
or, q = e–t/RC
0
∴ q = q0 e–t/RC . . . (22.48)
This is called the decay of charge equation. Clearly, 'q' decreases exponential with time 't' as in Fig.
22.12 (ii).
Time Constant
The quantity CR is called time constant of the discharge circle and it determines how fast the circuit
discharge the capacitor. If CR is high, it takes longer time for discharging of the capacitor and if CR is
low, it takes shorter time for the discharging of the capacitor.
Now, If t = CR, then from equation (22.48), we have,
q0
q = q0 e–1 = e = 0.37 q0 = 37% of q0
Thus, the discharging time constant may be defined as the time at which the charge on the capacitor during
discharging becomes about 37% of the initial charge.
Conceptual Tips
1. An isolated system of two conductors separated by an insulating medium which stores charge and
electric energy is called capacitor.
q
2. Capacitance, C = V
3. Capacitance of sphere, C = 4π∈0 k R = 4π∈R

∈0 A
4. Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor, C = d

1 1 1 1
5. For a series combination of capacitors, C = C + C + C
1 2 3
6. For a parallel combination of capacitors, C = C1 + C2 + C3

1 q2
7. Energy stored in a charged capacitor, U = 2 C .
C1V1 + C2V2
8. Common potential, V = C1 + C2 .
∈
9. Dielectric constant, K = .
∈0
10. Relation between χ and K, K = 1 + χ.
11. Displacement vector, D = ∈0E + P.
Tips for MCQs

1. If conducting material is introduced between the plates of the capacitor then its capacitance becomes
infinite.
2. The electric field is uniform throughout the region between the plates only when the separation ‘d’
between the plates is much smaller than linear dimension of the plates.
3. If a metal was used for the dielectric instead of an insulator, the field inside the metal would be zero,
corresponding to an infinite dielectric constant. The dielectric usually fills the entire space between
the capacitor plates, however, if a metal did that it would short out the capacitor, this is why
insulators are used instead.
4. Capacitors are sometimes named after the shape of conductors such as parallel plate capacitor,
spherical plate capacitor, etc. They are also named after the dielectric of capacitor such as paper
capacitor, air capacitor, mica capacitor, etc.
5. A "charged capacitor" means a capacitor with one plate positive and the other negative; overall, the
capacitor remains neutral. The charge 'q' refers the magnitude of the charge on either plate, not to the
capacitor's net charge, which is zero.
Quick Reply
1. When a capacitor is charged and then discharged repeatedly, its dielectric gets heated. Why?
 Capacitors contains dielectric medium. The polarization of a dielectric is not completely recovered
during the process of depolarization. Some energy is lost during the charging and discharging of the
capacitor. This energy appears in heat.
2. Sketch a graph to show how the capacitance C of a capacitor varies with
the charge Q.
 As capacitance C is independent of the charge Q, so graph between C and
C→
Q is a straight line parallel to the charge axis as shown in figure. C = Constant

3. Two dielectrics with ∈1 and ∈2 are placed into a capacitor one after
another. In which condition the capacitance is greater, if ∈1 and ∈2?
 The capacitance of a capacitor is, Q→
∈A
C= d
In such condition, C ∝ ∈.
For ∈1 < ∈2, C1 < C2
Hence, the capacitance is higher in the insertion of dielectric with absolute permittivity ∈2.

4. What is the equivalent capacitance in the following combination of capacitors?
 Such condition C1 and C2 are parallel,

So, C' = C1 + C2 = 1 μF + 1 μF = = 2 μF
Also, the combination of C1 and C2 is series with C3. So, equivalent capacitance (C) is,
C'C3 2×2
C = C' + C = = 1 μF.
3 2×2
5. When a capacitor is charged and then discharged repeatedly, its dielectric gets heated. Why?
 Capacitors contains dielectric medium. The polarization of a dielectric is not completely recovered
during the process of depolarization. Some energy is lost during the charging and discharging of the
capacitor. This energy appears in heat.
6. What happens if the plates of a charged capacitor are suddenly connected by a conducting wire?
 The capacitor plates will get discharged immediately. The energy stored in the capacitor changes into
heat energy.

1. A thin metal sheet is placed in the middle of a parallel plate capacitor. What will be the effect on the
capacitance?
 There is not any effect. When the metal sheet is placed in the middle, the new arrangement is
d
equivalent to a series combination of two capacitors, each with a plate separation 2 and hence
capacitance 2C.
2C × 2C
∴ Ceqa = 2C + 2C = C
2. Sketch a graph to show how the charge Q acquired by a capacitor C varies

with increase in potential difference between its plates.
Q→
ΔQ
 The charge in a capacitor plate is directly proportional to the potential
difference between two plates. ΔV
i.e., Q ∝ V. So, the graph between Q versus V is straight line passing

through the origin. The slope of the straight line gives the capacitance. V→
ΔQ
C=
ΔV
3. Two identical capacitors are connected in series. Is the resulting capacitance greater or less than that
of each individual capacitors? What happens if they are connected in parallel?
 Let two identical capacitors each with capacitance C are connected in series, then the net capacitance
1 1 1 C
is C' = C + C or C' = 2 . So, the net capacitance is less than the individual capacitance when
connected in series. If they are connected in parallel, then their resultant capacitance is C" =C+C= 2C.
So, net capacitance is greater than individual capacitance, when connected in parallel.

4. What happens to the capacity and potential difference of a charged capacitor when a dielectric
medium is inserted between its plates?
 The capacitance of parallel plate capacitor is given by
∈0A
C0 = d
where A is the area of cross-section, d is the distance between than, and ∈0 is there permittivity of
free space. If a dielectric is inserted between the plates, then capacitance is
∈A
Cm = d
Then,
Cm ∈
C0 = ∈0 = K
where K is the relative permittivity, which is greater than 1. So, the capacitance of a capacitor
increases when a dielectric is inserted between them.
Again, q = CV shows that the potential decreases on increasing capacitance because total charge
needs to get conserved.
5. Why are the four footed animals posed to more threat during lightning strike than the two footed
humans?
 For four footed animals, there is the significant amount of potential difference between their hind
limps and forelimbs during lighting in comparison to humans. The current if it flows through the
front and back keys, will always flow through the animal's heart. So, the disk of death is much higher
for animals during such an event.
6. Can we give any desired charge to a capacitor? Explain.
 The capacitance of a capacitor is given as,
K∈0A
C= d . . . (1)
where, A = Area of capacitor plate

d = separation of two plates
K = dielectric constant
and the charge stored is,
Q = CV . . . (2)
Thus, we see that various parameters play role for the charge stored in the capacitor. A and d being
the geometrical restriction and 'V' is the potential difference between plates. The relative permittivity
too plays the role. Hence on suitable adjustment of the parameters we can give any desired charge to
a capacitor. However, charge cannot be accumulated in infinitely large amount.
7. Three capacitors of the same capacitance are joined all in (i) series, and (ii) all in parallel. By how
much one of these combinations is larger in magnitude? Explain.
 When three capacitors of equal capacitances C are connected in parallel, then equivalent capacitance
Cp is
Cp = C + C + C = 3C
If these capacitors are connected in series, then equivalent capacitance is
1 1 1 1 3
Cs = C + C + C = C
C
or, Cs = 3
Now,
Cp
Cs = 9
∴ Cp is 9 times greater than Cs.
Worked Out Problems

1. Two capacitors of capacitances 4 μF and 12 μF respectively, are connected in series. The combination
is then connected momentarily across a 200 V battery. Find the charge and potential difference across
each capacitor.
SOLUTION
C1 C2
Given,
Capacitance of first capacitor, C1 = 4 μF = 4 × 10–6 F
Capacitance of second capacitor, C2 = 12 μF = 12 × 10–6 F
Potential difference (V) = 200 V E, r
When the capacitors are connected in series, then equivalent capacitor C is,
1 1 1
C = C1 + C2
C1 × C2 4 × 10–6 × 12 × 10–6
C = C + C = (4 + 12) × 10–6 = 3 × 10–6 F
1 2
Charge on each capacitor,

q = q1 = q2 = CV = 3 × 10–6 × 200 = 6 × 10–4 C
Now, potential across first capacitor,
q 6 × 10–4
V1 = C = 4 × 10–6 = 150 V
1
And potential across second capacitor

q 6 × 10–4
V2 = C = 12 × 10–6 = 50 V
2
2. Two horizontal parallel plates, each of area 500 cm2, are mounted 2 mm apart in vacuum. The lower
plate is earthed and the upper one is given a positive charge of 0.05 μC. Find the electric field
strength between the plates. Deduce values for (a) the potential of the upper plate (b) the capacitance
between the two plates and (c) the electrical energy stored in the system.
SOLUTION
Given, (a) The potential of the upper plate,
2
Area of each plate (A) = 500 cm = 500 × 10 m –4 2 V =E×d
Distance between the plates (d) = 2 mm = 1.13 × 105 × 2 × 10–3 = 226 V
= 2 × 10–3 m (b) If C be the capacitance between the two plates.
Charge (q) = 0.05 μC = 0.05 × 10 C–6 Then
σ q q 0.05 × 10–6
The electric field strength (E) = = C =V =
∈0 ∈0 A 226
q = 2.2 × 10–10 F
where surface charge density σ = A and ∈0 is
(c) The electrical energy stored in the system is
permittivity of vacuum.
1 1
0.05 × 10–6 U= 2 qV = 2 × 0.05 × 10–6 × 226 = 5.65 × 10–6 J
∴ E= = 1.13 × 105 Vm–1
8.85 × 10–12 × 500 × 10–4
3. A 300 V battery is connected across capacitors of 3 μF and 6 μF (i) in parallel, and then (ii) in series.
Calculate the charge and energy stored in each capacitor in (i) and (ii). 300 V
SOLUTION
Given,
3 μF
Capacitance of first capacitor (C1) = 3 μF = 3 × 10–6 F
Q1
Capacitance of second capacitor (C2) = 6 μF = 6 × 10–6 F Q2
(i) When capacitors are connected in parallel
Approved by Curriculum Development Centre (CDC), Nepal 6 μF
Charge on the capacitor C1, q1 = C1V = 3 × 10–6 × 300 = 9 × 10–4 C
Charge on capacitor C2, q2 = C2 V = 6 × 10–6 × 300 = 18 × 10–4 C
Energy stored in C1 capacitor
1 1
U1 = 2 q1 V = 2 × 9 × 10–4 × 300 = 0.135 J
Energy stored in C2 capacitor
1 1
U2 = 2 q2 V = 2 × 18 × 10–4 × 300 = 0.27 J
(ii) When the capacitors are connected in series. Let C be the equivalent capacitance in series
combination. Then
1 1 1
C = C1 + C2
300 V
C1 × C2 3 × 6 18
or, C = C + C = 3 + 6 = 9 = 2 μF
1 2
∴ C = 2 μF = 2 × 10–6 F
Charge on each capacitor is equal to the charge on the combination, 3 μF 6 μF
i.e., q = q1 = q2 = CV = 2 × 10–6 × 300 = 6 × 10–4 C • • •

X Y Z
q 6 × 10–4 q1 q2
Now, p.d. across XY, VXY = C = –6 = 200 V
1 3 × 10
q 6 × 10–4
and p.d. across YZ, VYZ = C = = 100 V
2 6 × 10–6
1 2 1
∴ Energy stored in C1 capacitor (U1) = 2 C1 VXY = 2 × 3 × 10–6 × (200)2 = 0.06 J
1 2 1
Energy stored in C2 capacitor (U2) = 2 C2 VYZ = 2 × 6 × 10–6 × (100)2 = 0.03 J
= 0.135 J
4. A capacitor of capacitance 9.0 μF is charged from a source of emf 200 V. The capacitor is now
disconnected from the source and connected in parallel with a second capacitor of capacitance 3.0 μF.
The second capacitor is now removed and discharged. What charge remains on the 9.0 μF capacitor?
How many times would the process have to be performed in order to reduce the charge on the 9.0 μF
capacitor to below 50% of its initial value? What would the p.d. between the plates of the capacitor
now be?
SOLUTION
Given,
Capacitance of first capacitor (C1) = 9 μF = 9 × 10–6 F
Capacitance of second capacitor (C2) = 3 μF = 3 × 10–6 F
When the capacitor C1 is connected across a q 1.8 × 10–3
source of emf 200 V. Then ∴ V1 = C = = 150 V
12 × 10–6
Charge, q = CV = 9 × 10–6 × 200 ∴ Charge on capacitor C1 when the capacitor
–3
= 1.8 × 10 C C2 is disconnected is given by
The capacitor C1 is disconnected from the source q1 = C1 V1 = 9 × 10–6 × 150
and connected in parallel with a capacitor C2. = 1.35 × 10–3 C
Then the equivalent capacitance C is given by
Let V2 be the common potential when C1 is
C = C1 + C2
connected to C2 for the second time, then
= 9 × 10–6 + 3 × 10–6 = 12 × 10–6 F

Q1 1.35 × 10–3 For the third time, let V3 be the common potential
V2 = C + C = when C1 is connected to C2. Then
1 2 9 × 10–6 + 3 × 10–6
1.35 × 10–3 q2 1.0125 × 10–3
= = 112.5 V V3 = C + C =
12 × 10–6 1 2 9 × 10–6 + 3 × 10–6
Charge on the capacitor C1 when the capacitor C2 is 1.0125 × 10–3
= = 84.375 V
disconnected is 12 × 10–6
q2 = C1 V2 = 9 × 10–6 × 112.5
= 1012.5 × 10–6 C = 1.0125 × 10–3 C
Charge on capacitor C1 after C2 is disconnected is given by
q3 = C1 V3 = 9 × 10–6 × 84.375 = 0.759 × 10–3 C
This charge is below 50% of original charge on capacitor C1. Hence, after repeating three times, the charge
reduces about 50% below original charge and the potential difference between the plates of the capacitor is
84.375 V.
5. A sheet of paper 40 mm wide and 1.5 × 10–2 mm thick between metal foil of the same width is used to
make a 2.0 μF capacitor. If the dielectric constant (relative permittivity) of the paper is 2.5, what
length of paper is required? (∈0 = 8.85 × 10–12 Fm–1)
SOLUTION
Given, K ∈0A
= ⎡... K = ∈ ⎤ = K ∈0 × l × b
Paper width (b) = 40 mm = 40 × 10–3 m d ⎣ ∈0⎦ d
Paper thickness (d) = 1.5×10–2 mm = 1.5 × 10–5 m 2.5 × 8.85 × 10–12 × l × 40 × 10–3
or, 2 × 10–6 =
Capacitance (C) = 2.0 μF = 2.0 × 10 F –6 1.5 × 10–5
Dielectric constant (K) = 2.5 2 × 10–6 × 1.5 × 10–5
or, l =
Permitivity (∈0) = 8.85 × 10–12 Fm–1 2.5 × 8.85 × 10–12 × 40 × 10–3
Let l be the required length of the paper ∴ l = 33.898 m
∴ Area of the paper (A) = l × b = 33.9 m
∈A Thus, the required length of the paper is 33.9 m.
∴ Capacitance of the capacitor, C = d
6. Two capacitors of capacitance 4.0 μF and 12.0 μF respectively are connected in series and the
combination connected momentarily across a 200 V battery. The charged capacitors are now isolated
and connected in parallel, similar charged plates being connected together. What would be the
resulting potential difference across the combination?
SOLUTION
Given, Let, V be the common potential difference after
Capacitance of first capacitor (C1) = 4 μF parallel combination of capacitors.
= 4 × 10–6 F Then, total charge in parallel combination
Capacitance of second capacitor (C2) = 12 μF = C1 V + C2 V = (C1 + C2) V
= 12 × 10–6 F = (4 + 12) × 10–6 V = 16 × 10–6 V
Potential difference (V) = 200 V Since, total charge is conserved
When the capacitors are connected in series, then ∴ Total charge in series = Total charge in parallel
the equivalent capacitance (C) is obtained as or, q1 + q2 = 16 × 10–6 V
1 1 1
or, 2 × 6 × 10–4 = 16 × 10–6 V
C = C1 + C2
12 × 10–4
C1 × C2 4 × 10–6 × 12 × 10–6 or, V =
or, C = C + C = = 3 × 10–6 F 16 × 10–6
1 2 (4 + 12) × 10–6
∴ V = 75 V
Charge on each capacitor
q = q1 = q2 = CV = 3 × 10–6 × 200 = 6 × 10–4 C


1. The plates of a parallel-plate capacitor are 3.28 mm apart, and each has an area of 12.2 cm2. Each plate
carries a charge of magnitude 4.35 × 10–8 C. The plates are in vacuum. (a) What is the capacitance? (b)
What is the potential difference between the plates? (c) What is the magnitude of the electric field
between the plates? Ans: 32.96 × 10–13 F, 1.32 × 104 V, 4.03 × 106 V/m
2. A parallel plate air capacitor of capacitance 245 pF has a charge of magnitude 0.148 µC on each plate.
The plates are 0.328 mm apart. (a) What is the potential difference between the plates? (b) What is the
area of each plate? (c) What is the electric field magnitude between the plates? (d) What is the surface
charge density on each plate? Ans: 604 V, 9.08 × 10–3 m2, 1.84 × 106 V/m, 1.63 × 10–5 C/m2
3. A parallel-plate, air filled capacitor has circular plates separated by 1.80 mm. The charge per unit
area on each plate has magnitude 5.60 pC/m2. What is the potential difference between the plates of
the capacitor? Ans: 1.14 × 10–3 V
4. A parallel-plate capacitor has a capacitance of 920 pF. The charge on each plate is 2.55 μC. (a) What is
the potential difference between the plates? (b) If the charge is kept constant, what will be the
potential difference between the plates if the separation is doubled? (c) How much work is required
to double the separation? Ans: 2.8 × 103 V
5. A 5.80 µF parallel plate air capacitor has a plate separation of 5.00 mm and is charged to a potential
difference of 400 V. Calculate the energy density in the region between the plates, in units of J/m3.
Ans: 0.0283 J/m3
6. A 450 µF capacitor is charged to 295 V. Then a wire is connected between the plates. How many
joules of thermal energy are produced as the capacitor discharges if all of the energy that was stored
goes into heating the wire? Ans: 19.58 J
7. Two parallel plates have equal and opposite charges. When the space between the plates is
evacuated, the electric field is E = 3.20 × 105 V/m. When the space is filled with dielectric, the electric
field is E = 2.50 × 106 V/m. (a) What is the charge density on each surface of the dielectric? (b) What
is the dielectric constant? Ans: 1.28, 2.8 × 10–6 C/m2, 1.28
8. The dielectric to be used in a parallel plate capacitor has a dielectric constant of 3.60 and a dielectric
strength of 1.60 × 107 V/m. The capacitor is to have a capacitance of 1.25 × 10-9 F and must be able to
withstand a maximum potential difference of 5500 V. What is the minimum area the plates of the
capacitor may have? Ans: 0.0135 m2
Exercise
1. What happens to the charge on a capacitor when the potential difference between the conductors is
halved?
2. Define one farad.
3. What is the dielectric constant of a metal?
4. What is electric polarisation?
5. In what form is the energy stored in a charged capacitor?
6. Define 1 farad.
7. Is the capacitance C of a capacitor proportional to the charge Q?
8. by a conducting wire?
9. What is the dielectric constant of a metal?
10. What is 1 F capacitance?
11. What are the unit and dimension of capacitance?
12. In which principle, the capacitor works?

Short Questions
1. On inserting a dielectric between the plates of a capacitor, its capacity is found to increase 5 times.
What is the relative permittivity of the dielectric?
2. A cell is connected to a capacitor. Why does each plate receive a charge of equal magnitude? Will
there be any change if the plates are of different sizes?
3. The plates of a parallel plate capacitor are connected to a battery. If the connecting wires are removed
from the battery, what will happen to the charge on the plates? If the wires are removed and
connected to each other, what will happen?
4. Between the plates of a parallel plate capacitor, a thin sheet of copper of negligible thickness is
placed. What is its effect on the capacitance (i) if it is electrically insulated (ii) if it is connected to one
of the plates.
5. Two capacitances are connected in a series and an identical pair is connected in parallel. They are
connected to the same voltage source. Which pair would be more dangerous to handle?
6. It is dangerous to touch the terminals of high voltage capacitor after the applied high voltage has
been switched off. Why?
7. The charge in capacitor plate is doubled. What happens to the energy?
8. Distinguish between dielectric constant and dielectric strength.
9. A parallel plate capacitor with air as dielectric is charged and then connected to a voltmeter. A
dielectric is introduced between the plates. Explain how the readings of the voltmeter change.
10. Without changing the size of a capacitor is it possible to increase the maximum operating voltage of a
capacitor. Explain how?
11. What are the factors on which the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with dielectric depend?
12. Two parallel plate capacitors identical in shape and size are filled with air and mica separately.
Which one has larger capacitance? Write a proper relation in support of your answer.
13. Distinguish between dielectric constant and dielectric strength.
14. How will you arrange 3 capacitors each having the capacity of 2 μF, to get a capacitor of capacity
3 μF?
Long Questions
1. Derive an expression for the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with a dielectric.
2. Discuss the factors affecting the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor.
3. Derive an expression for energy stored in a charge condenser.
4. A number of capacitance are connected (i) in series and (ii) in parallel. Derive an expression for the
effective capacitance in each case.
5. Derive the expression for energy loss when two capacitors of different potential are connected with a
conducting wire.
6. What is time constant? Derive the expression for (i) charging of capacitors (ii) discharging of
capacitors.
Numerical Problems
LEVEL I
1. A 2 μF capacitor is charged to a potential of 200 V and then disconnected from the power supply.
(i) What is the charge on each plate of the capacitor?
(ii) What is the energy stored in the capacitor? Ans: (i) 4 × 10–4 C (ii) 0.04 J
2. A capacitor with a capacity of 50 μF when connected to a battery of 400 V. Find the charge on it and
its energy? Ans: 0.02 C, 4 J
1
3. Two capacitors have a capacity 15 μF when connected in parallel and 33 μF when connected in
series. Calculate the capacitance. Ans: 10 μF, 5 μF

4. Calculate the capacity of a parallel plate condenser of two plates, each of 19 cm2. The plates are
separated by air and the distance between them is 2 mm. What will be the total energy stored if the
p.d. of 100 V is applied to this condenser? Ans: 84.07 × 10–11 μF, 42.03 × 10–7 J
5. If C1 = 3 pF and C2 = 2 pF, calculate the equivalent C1 C1
capacitance of the given network in figure between A
points A and B.
Ans: 1 pF C2 C1
B
C1 C1
6. A 900 pF capacitor is charged by a 100 V battery. How much electrostatic energy is stored by the
capacitor? Ans: 4.5 × 10–6 J
7. The capacity of a parallel plate capacitor with a dielectric (K = 6) is 24 μF. Find the capacity of the
capacitor with air as dielectric? Ans: 4 μF
8. The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is 7.0 pF. If the plate area is 14.0 cm2, calculate the plate
separation. Ans: 1.75 × 10–3 m
9. A capacitor of 4 μF, charged to 50 V is connected to another capacitor of 2 μF, charged to 100 V. What
is the total energy of the combination? Ans: 0.013 J
10. A 300 V battery is connected across capacitors of 3 μF and 6 μF in parallel. Calculate the energy
stored in each capacitors. Ans: 0.27 J
LEVEL II
1. In a camera flash, a capacitor of capacity 2000 μF is used. The capacitor is charged using a battery of
100 V and it takes about 20 s to charge the capacitor fully. What is the energy stored in the capacitor?
If the capacitor is discharged in one milli second, what is the power of the flash obtained?
Ans: 10 J, 10 4 W
2. Three capacitors, each of capacity 6 μF are connected in series and are also connected in series with
three capacitors of 2 μF, 4 μF and 2 μF, which are grouped together in parallel. Calculate the
combined capacity. Ans: 1.6 μF
3. Two capacitors of capacitance C1= 3 μF and C2= 6 μF arranged in series are connected in parallel with
a third capacitor C3 = 4 μF. The arrangement is connected to a 6.0 V battery. Calculate the total
energy stored in capacitors. Ans: 1.08 × 10–4 J
4. Find the charges on the capacitors in figure below and (also find) the potential differences across
them. Ans: 48 × 10–6 C
5. A parallel plate air capacitor has a capacitance of 10-9 F. What potential difference is required for a
charge of 5 × 10-5 C? What is the total energy stored in it? Ans: 1.25 J
6. 64 drops of water of same size are equally and similarly charged. They combine together to form a
bigger drop. Compare the potential of the bigger and smaller drop. Ans: 16 times
7. A parallel plate capacitor with air as the dielectric has a capacitance of 6 × 10–4 μF and is charged by a
100 V battery. Calculate (a) the charge (b) the energy stored in the capacitor (c) the energy supplied
by the battery. The battery connections are now removed, leaving the capacitor charged, and a
dielectric of relative permittivity 3 is then carefully placed between the plates. What is the new
–8 –6 –6
energy stored in the capacitor. Ans: (a) 6 × 10 C (b) 3 × 10 J (c)10 J
8. A potential difference of 600 V is established between the top cap and the case of a calibrated
electroscope by means of a battery which is then removed, leaving the electroscope isolated. When a
parallel plate capacitor with air as dielectric is connected across the electroscope, one plate to the top
cap and other plate to the case, the p.d. across electroscope is found to drop to 400 V. If the
capacitance of the parallel plated capacitor is 1 × 10–11 F, Calculate (a) Capacitance of electroscope, (b)

The change in electrical energy which results from the sharing of the charge, (c) If the space between
the parallel plates of the capacitor were then filled with materials of relative permittivity 2, what
would be the potential of the electroscope? Ans: (a) 2 × 10–11 F (b) 12 × 10–7 J (c) 300 V

1. Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor increases when
a. Distance between plates is increased
b. Area of plate decreased
c. When dielectric is removed
d. Area of plate is increased and the value of dielectric is also increased
2. The capacitance of a spherical conductor with radius 1 m is
a. 1 microfarad b. 9 × 109 farad
c. 1.1 × 10 farad
–10 d. 9 × 10–9 farad
3. Two capacitors 1μF and 2μF are charged to 300 V and 150 V respectively and connected by a wire.
The potential of the connected system is
a. 166 V b. 185 V
c. 133 V d. 200 V
4. Eight drops of water of equal radius and charge are fused to make one big drop. What is the
capacitance of the big drop with respect to the small?
a. 2 times as great b. 8 times as great
c. 4 times as great d. exactly equal
5. The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor does not depend upon
a. area of plates b. medium between the plates
c. distance between the plates d. metal of the plates
6. n-equal capacitors are first connected in series and then in parallel. The ratio of maximum to
minimum capacitance is
a. n2 b. 1/n c. n d. 1/n2
7. The capacitors of capacitances C and nC are connected in series, the equivalent capacitance is
nC nC
a. n+1 b. (n – 1) C c. (n + 1) C d. n – 1
8. The force of attraction between the plates of a parallel plate air capacitor of capacitance of area A, and
charged to a charge Q is
Q2 A Q2 2∈0Q2 Q2
a. b. c. A d.
2∈0 2∈0A ∈0A
9. A parallel plate capacitor is given a charge Q. If the separation between the plates is doubled, its
capacity will be
a. unchanged b. zero c. doubled d. halved
10. A capacitor of capacitance 1 μF is charged to 1 kV. The energy stored in the capacitor is
a. 5J b. 0.5 J c. 0.005 J d. 50 J
11. When two capacitors 3 μF and 6 μF are connected in parallel and the combination is charged to a
potential of 120 V. The potential difference across the 3 μF capacitor is
a. 40 V b. 80 V c. 60 V d. 120 V
12. A capacitor of capacitance 4 μF is charged from 10 V to 20 V; the increase in stored energy will be
a. 2 × 10–4 J b. 4 × 10–3 J c. 6 × 10–4 J d. 6 × 10–5 J
ANSWERS
1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (a) 5. (d) 6. (a) 7. (a) 8. (b) 9. (d) 10. (b) 11. (d) 12. (c)

DIRECT CURRENT
CIRCUIT
23.1 Introduction
The branch of physics which deals about the motion of electric charges is known as current electricity.
When certain amount of charge is given to an insulator, it is deposited at a point, which is named as
static charge or static electricity. The study about the properties of static charge is known as
electrostatics. Charge can also be stored in a conductor, when it is surrounded with insulating
material. If some charge is added to the ends of metallic conductors like silver, copper, aluminium,
etc., potential difference is built up between two ends, hence, they readily move from one end to
another. This dynamics (motion) of charge is dealt in current electricity.
In metallic conductors, the electrons in the outermost orbits are loosely bound to their respective
atoms. So, they can easily travel from one atom to neighbouring atoms. These electrons are called
free electrons. The motion of free electrons in a conductor is completely random. If a certain potential
difference is developed by any means across two ends of a conductor, the direction of motion of the
electrons is specific. This unidirectional flow of charge particles (electrons) creates electric current.
The electrons which take part in the electric current are called conduction electrons.
23.2 Electric Circuit

A closed path containing the electric source and other electric components like resistor, switch, etc.,
is known as electric circuit. If the oppositely charged conducting plates are connected by a metal
wire, the charge particles move from higher potential to lower potential. Conventionally, charge
flows from positive plate to negative plate as shown in Fig. 23.1 (i). In reality, electrons move from
negative charge plate to positive charge plate as shown in Fig. 23.1 (ii), but we describe the direction
of movement of charge in a conventional way, i.e., from positive potential to negative potential. The
wire serves as a charge pipe through which the charge can flow (similar to water flow in water pipe).
Moreover, charge can flow from positive to positive terminal (also negative to negative terminal), if
they have the different electric potentials as shown in Fig. 23.1 (iii).
Fig. 23.1: (i) Convention direction of charge flow (ii) Direction of flow of electrons
(iii) Flow of charge in similar charged plate
In the above examples, the charge flow continues until the plates acquire equal potential. To be a true
circuit, charge must continuously flow through the charge pipe (wire) and return back to the original

position and cycle through again. This can be done forming a conducting path that allows the
positive charge from negative plate and back up to the positive plate, then positive charge again flow
to the negative plate through wire (charge pipe). The continuous flow of charge generates the electric
current in an electric circuit as shown in Fig. 23.2.
Fig. 23.2: (i) An electric circuit (ii) a symbolic representation of electric circuit
Circuit Symbols
1. or 2. or 3. or
open circuit closed circuit
bulb or or
(open switch) (closed switch)
4. or 5. A 6 G
resistor
ammeter galvanometer
7. V
8. ~ 9.
alternating current/voltage Potential divider or Rheostat

voltmeter
10. or
variable resistor
23.3 Electric Current

The electric current is defined as the rate of flow of electric charge through any cross-section of a
conductor. It is denoted by I. Its unit is ampere (A). The magnitude of electric current (I) depends on
the amount of charge flowing (q) and the time (t) during which charge flows.
If the rate of flow of charge is independent with time, the current is said to be steady current. For a
charge 'q' flowing over an interval of time 't', the steady electric current is defined as,
Charge flowing (q)
Electric current (I) = Time (t)

Direct Current Circuits  Chapter 23  551
q
∴ I =t … (23.1)
If the rate of flow of charge varies with time, the current is expressed in the differential form of
charge with respect to time,
dq
i.e., I = dt … (23.2)
This current at any time is called instantaneous current. In equation (23.2), dq is the extremely small
charge that flows in any cross-section of a conductor at very short time dt.
Current can consist of any moving charged particles; but most commonly there are electrons. The
electric current has particle nature, i.e., current relies on the number of charged particles crossing a
cross-section of a conductor. If N number of charge particles carrying individual charge 'e' cross the
cross-section of a conductor at time interval t, then the electric current (I) is written as,
Ne
I= t (... q = Ne)
Although the current has both magnitude and direction, it is not a vector quantity. It does not obey
the vector addition rules. Hence, current is a scalar quantity.
Electrons flow in a conductor when potential difference is maintained at its two ends. The flow of
electrons means the flow of charge. So, the total charge that flows in a circuit can be determined by
integrating the electric current with respect to time, i.e.,
q =  I dt … (23.3)
Unit and Dimension of Current

Electric current is considered as a fundamental physical quantity. Its dimension is [A] or [I]. From
the definition of current,
q
I =t
For, q = 1 coulomb, and t = 1 second (s)

1 coulomb
I = 1 second
i.e., I = 1 C/s = 1 ampere

Where, ampere (A) is the unit of electric current.
Therefore, the current flowing in a conductor is said to be one ampere, if one coulomb of charge
flows across any cross-section of a conductor in one second.
From quantization of charge,
q = Ne
q
∴ N=e
For, q = 1 C, and e = 1.6 × 10–19 C

Then,
1C
N = 1.6 × 10–19 C = 6.25 × 1018
Therefore, 1 A electric current constitutes of 6.25 × 1018 electrons crossing a given cross-section in 1
second.

EXAMPLE 1: A charge of 60 C flows through an electric heater in 36 s. Find the amount of electric current that
flows through the circuit. Also, find how many charged particles flow in within 36 s.
SOLUTION
Given, Since, the charge is quantized, q = Ne.

Total charge flow (q) = 60 C q
∴ N =e
Time to charge flow (t) = 36 s
Electric current (I) = ? 60
=
We know, 1.6 × 10−19
q 60 = 3.75 × 1018
I = t = 36 = 1.67 A
∴ In the given time, 3.75 × 1018 charged
particles flow.
 Check Point: A uniform current 2.5 A flows through a wire for 10 s, find the total charge flow at
that time. Ans: 25 C
Some facts about current

i. The flow of charge can be compared with the mechanism of flow of water in a pipe of varying
diameter. As the water flows from higher pressure to lower pressure, charge particles also flow from
higher potential to lower potential. Whatever the diameter of pipe, the volume rate of water is same
throughout each cross-section.
ii. The symbol of electric current I or i was taken from the French word "Intensite". Intensite means the
intensity.
iii. The magnitude of current at any cross-section of a conductor in a circuit is same.
iv. The conductor is not charged when current flows through it. While the current flows, the number of
electrons that enter into the conductor is equal to the number of electrons that leave from the
conductor.
v. 'Electric Current' is used for both a phenomenon and a physical quantity.
vi. Current is a scalar quantity.
Note:
Some smaller units of currents are as:
1 milliamphare (1 mA) = 10–3 A
1 microamphare (1 μA) = 10–6 A
1 nanoamphare (1 nA) = 10–9 A
1 picoamphare (1 pA) = 10–12 A
There are many examples of electric current in which we are familiar with for example, our sense
propagates through the nerves in the form of electric current having magnitude about 1 μA.
Similarly, lightening comes the current about 104 A.
Types of current in electricity

i. Electric current: The current constituted due to the electrons in a conductor is called electric current.
Free electrons are the charge carriers in electric current.
ii. Ionic current: The current constituted due to the motion of positive or negative ions of electrolytes is
known as ionic current. For example, when CuSO4 is dissolved in water, Cu++ ions move towards the
--
negative electrode and SO4 ions move towards the positive electrode.
iii. Displacement current: The current produced by electric or magnetic fields is called displacement
current. The current passing between two capacitor plates is an example of displacement current.
Although two capacitor plates are not connected internally with conducting wire, one plate
influences the another by electrostatic induction i.e., by electric field. This is the cause of
displacement current.

Direct current and alternating current

Direct Current: An electric current whose magnitude and direction does
Current →
not change with time is known as direct current (d.c.). A dry cell
produces the direct current. It repels the living beings. If we touch the
high voltage d.c. line, it throws us away. Magnitude of current versus Time →
time graph in direct current is shown in Fig. 23.3 (i). Fig. 23.3(i): Nature of d.c.
Alternating current: The electric current whose magnitude varies with
time and direction reverses periodically is known as alternating current. It is produced by a.c.
generator. Its production depends on the Faraday's laws of electromagnetic induction. The
magnitude of current versus time graph in alternating current is shown in Fig. 23.3(ii).
Current
Time →
Fig. 23.3 (ii): Nature of a.c.
23.4 Metallic Conduction and Drift Velocity

An electric conductor contains large number of free electrons. The electrons in outermost orbits of
atoms of the conductor are almost free from the nuclear attraction. So, they are also called "free
electrons" or "conduction electrons". These electrons can easily travel from one atom to neighbouring
atoms. A conductor contains large number of atoms (in the order of 1028 atoms per cubic meter), so
that it contains same order of free electrons. These free electrons in the conductor move randomly
like the movement of air molecules in the atmosphere. The direction of motion of free electrons is not
specific, since two ends are at same potential. So, no current is observed, although the charged
particles move in such situation. When two ends of the conductor are maintained at different electric
potentials, the net flow of charge can be measured. The free electrons travel towards the positive end
of the conductor, and constitute electric current. However, it is a conventional current that is directed
from positive end to negative end (i.e., higher potential to lower potential) of conductor and is called
the conventional current.
(i) (ii)
Fig. 23.4: (i) Random motion of free electrons in a conductor in the absence of electric field (ii) Drift motion of free electrons in a
conductor in the presence of electric field.
As mentioned above, free electrons frequently collide as shown in fig. 24.4 (i) and rebound with the
atoms or ions in a conductor, and hence they obey the zigzag path. As they behave like the gas
molecules in atmosphere, the electrons in the conductor are also called "electron gas". As soon as two
ends of the conductor connected to two terminals of a cell, electric force acts on each of the free
electrons and drift them slowly in the direction opposite of the electric field; although their random
motion is still persisted. The measurement of velocity of every electron in such condition is
impossible, so average velocity is calculated so far for the quantitative study. This average velocity of

electrons in a conductor during the electric field is set up in it is known as drift velocity. It is
ultimately responsible for electric current in metals.
In a conductor, when a charge particle crosses the length l at time t, the drift velocity (vd) is,
length of conductor l
vd = time =t
Electric current in terms of drift velocity

Consider a metallic conductor of length l and
uniform cross-section A. Two ends of the conductor
are maintained at different potentials, connecting it to
a dc power supply (a cell) as shown in Fig. 23.5. As
soon as the ends of conductor are connected to
different potentials, a steady current flows across the
conductor. Let 'q' be the net flow of charge at time t, then the net electric current in the conductor is,
q
I= t …(23.4)
Let N be the number of free electrons in the conductor, then from the quantization of charge,
q = Ne … (23.5)
Ne
I= t …(23.6)
where, e is the charge of an electron.

N
Suppose n be the number of free electrons per unit volume (V), i.e., n = V . It is also called electron
density. Electron density is constant for a conductor for a specific temperature. So, the current
expressed in terms of electron density is very useful in the calculation. Now,
N = nV
Also, volume of conductor (V) = Al. So,
N = nAl …(23.7)
Now, using equation (23.7) in equation (23.6), we get,
nAle
I = t
l
or, I = nA ⎛t⎞ e
⎝⎠
∴ I = nAvde …(23.8)
l
where, vd is called the drift velocity of an electron in the conductor. Here, vd = t , since the electron
travels l distance, i.e., crosses the conductor at time t.
In equation (23.8), 'n' and 'A' are constant for a uniform conductor and 'e' is the universal constant
value of electronic charge. So, the electric current (I) depends on drift velocity (vd) of electrons,
i.e., I ∝ vd.
In a conductor, the velocity of electrons is almost uniform, although the potential difference tends to
accelerate them from negative potential end to positive potential end. During the movement of
electron they suffer frequent collide with other charge particles and interact with nucleus. Moreover,
the velocity of electron in every instant is almost impossible to observe, so the average velocity is
determined to study the flow of charge in the conductor.
The value of drift velocity is practically very small (in the order of mm per second). But, the electric
bulb glows as soon as the electric switch is ON, then how is it possible? Actually, electric field is set
up into the wire immediately after the switch is ON. This field influences the entire free electrons
into the wire and set them into motion, which generates the electric wave with speed nearly equal to
speed of light. Thus, the disturbance of charged particles in the filament of electric bulb produces the
glow in it.
Current Density
Current density within a conductor is defined as the electric current crossing per unit area of the
conductor. The direction of current through the conductor is always perpendicular to the cross-
sectional area at each point in the conductor. Current density is a vector quantity. Its direction is

along the direction of current. It is denoted by J . Therefore,
I
J =A
 
i.e., I = J⋅A …(23.9)
In magnitude,
nevdA
J = A
∴ J = nevd …(23.10)
The unit of current density is A m–2 and its dimensional formula is [L–2 A].
EXAMPLE 2: A Silver wire 2.6 mm in diameter transfers a charge of 420 C in 80 min. Silver contains 5.8 × 1028 free
electrons per cubic meter. (a) What is the current in the wire? (b) What is the magnitude of the drift velocity of the
electrons in the wire?
SOLUTION
Given, We know that
Diameter (d) = 2.6 mm 2.6 × 10–3 m I
vd = neA
Charge (Q) = 420 C
Time (t) = 80 min. = 80 × 60 s.
=
I ⎡∵ A = πd2⎤
πd2 ⎣ 4⎦
ne⎛ 4 ⎞
density of electrons (n) = 5.8 × 1028 m–3
a. Current in the wire (I) = ? ⎝ ⎠
We know that 9 × 10–2
=
Q 420
∵ I = t = 80 × 60 = 9 × 10–2 A. 5.8 × 1028 × 1.6 × 10–19 (
3.14 × (2.6 × 10–3)2
4 )
b. Drift velocity (vd) = ? = 1.8 × 10–6 ms–1
 Check Point: When a wire carries a current of 1.20 A, the drift velocity is 1.20 × 10-4 m/s. What is
the drift velocity when the current is 6.00 A? Ans: 6 x 10-4 m/s
EXAMPLE 3: A copper wire has a diameter of 1.02 mm and carries a constant current of 1.67 A. If the density of free
electrons in copper is 8.5 × 1028/m3, calculate the current density and the drift velocity of the electrons.
SOLUTION
Given, Current density (J) = ?
Diameter of copper wire (d) = 1.02 mm Drift velocity (vd) = ?
= 1.02 × 10–3 m The cross-sectional area of wire,
Current (I) = 1.67 A πd2 π × (1.02 × 10–3)2
A= = 4 =8.17× 10–7 m2
Electron density (n) = 8.5 × 1028/m3 4
I
Now, Current density (J) = A
Therefore, the current density is
1.67 2.04 × 106 A/m2 and drift velocity is
= = 2.04 × 106 A/m2 1.5 × 10–4 ms–1.
8.17 × 10–7
J
Also, Drift velocity (vd) = ne
2.04 × 106
= = 1.5 × 10–4 ms–1
8.5 × 1028 × 1.6 × 10–19
 Check Point: The wire of a fuse in an electric circuit melts when the current density increases to
600 A/cm2. What should be the diameter of the wire so that it may limit the current to 0.4 A?
Ans: 0.29 mm
23.5 Ohm's Law

Ohm's law provides the basic relation between electric current and potential difference across two
ends of a conductor. As explained in metallic conduction, the electric current is detected only when a
potential difference is maintained at two ends of a conductor. This was discovered by a school
teacher, a German physicist George Simon Ohm in 1828. The law was named after his name 'Ohm'.
Ohm's law states that "Physical conditions like temperature, mechanical strain, etc., remaining the same, the
electric current through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across two ends of the
conductor".
Let I be the electric current passing through a conductor when potential difference V is maintained at
two ends of a conductor, provided that the temperature of conductor does not change then the law is
written as,
V∝I
V = RI … (23.11)
where, R is proportionality constant. It is called the resistance of the
conductor.
Equation (23.11) can be compared with a straight line equation, y = mx +
c, with y-intercept, c = 0.
This shows that the graph between V versus I is a straight line passing
through the origin as shown in Fig. 23.6.
For a conductor, the ratio of potential difference to current at any instant
is constant. This type of conductor is called ohmic conductor. All the conductors do not obey Ohm's
law.
Experimental Verification of Ohm's Law

Consider an electric circuit containing circuit
components: a cell, a resistor, rheostat (a variable
resistor), a switch, a voltmeter, and an ammeter, as
shown in Fig. 23.7. The ammeter is connected in the
series and the voltmeter is connected parallel to the
fixed resistor. The rheostat is connected in series with
the fixed resistor. Rheostat varies the resistance in the
circuit so that current can be changed to study the

relationship between the current and voltage. A standard direct current (dc) source in the circuit
provides the constant voltage in the circuit. This voltage can be divided into fixed resistor and the
rheostat. Ammeter measures the current and voltmeter measures the potential difference across the
resistor.
To perform the experiment, the deflection of voltmeter and ammeter
are set initially at zero, although the circuit is closed. Then, the
resistance of rheostat is gradually varied (lowered) so that the
current is gradually increased in the circuit. Then, the deflection is
observed in the ammeter. As the deflection is observed in ammeter,
the deflection in voltmeter needle is also observed increasing
gradually. During the procedure, corresponding values of potential
difference (V) are noted at different values of current (I). This
experiment can be repeated for different conductors of different resistances.
Let V1, V2, V3, V4 and V5 be the corresponding potential differences for current I1, I2, I3, I4 and I5
respectively in a conductor. Then, we can find,
V1 V2 V3 V4 V5
I1 = I2 = I3 = I4 = I5 = constant
V
It means, I = constant
In this way Ohm's law can be verified experimentally. The graph of V versus I is found as shown in
Fig. 23.8. This curve is called characteristics curve of Ohm's law and shows the linear relationship
between current and voltage (potential difference).
23.6 Resistance and Resistivity

Although, an electric current flows through a conductor, it offers opposition to the motion of
electrons due to various factors. The opposition offered by the conductor to the flow of electric
current through it is known as resistance. It is denoted by R. Its unit is Ohm (Ω).
The value of resistance of a conductor basically depends on two physical dimensions: the length and
the cross-sectional area. The resistance of a conductor is,
i. directly proportional to the length (l) of the conductor,
i.e., R ∝ l …(23.12)
ii. inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area (A) of the conductor,
1
i.e., R ∝ A …(23.13)
Combining the equations (23.12) and (23.13), we get,

l
R∝A
l
∴ R=ρA …(23.14)
where, ρ is proportionality constant. It is known as resistivity or specific resistance of the conductor.

For a conductor of length, l = 1 m and cross-section, A = 1 m2, R = ρ
Therefore, resistivity of a material is the resistance per unit length per unit cross-sectional area of that
material. Its unit is Ohm metre (Ωm). The materials of low resistivity are called conductors. Metals are

conductors. The materials of very high resistivity are called non-conductors or insulators. The
resistivity of semi-conductors is greater than conductors and smaller than insulators.
The resistivity of a conductor is not a universal constant quantity. It primarily depends on the
temperature of conductor. It is constant for a conductor whether you change its geometrical
dimension such as its length, cross-sectional area, etc. but increases as the temperature increases
because collision with the fixed ions increases due to the thermal agitation. Resistance depends on
the geometrical dimension, but the resistivity depends on the nature of conductor.
From Ohm's law,
V l l
R= I A A
For, V = 1 V and I = 1 A For high resistance R For low resistance R

Longer length (l) and Shorter length (l) and
1V
R = 1 A = 1 VA–1 = 1 Ω Smaller area (A) Larger area (A)
Therefore, the resistance of a conductor is said to be 1 Ohm if a current of one ampere flows through
the conductor when a potential difference of one volt is applied across its ends.
Mean free path and relaxation time of free electrons

The free electrons in a metal show same behavior as the gas molecules in a closed vessel. As they
move like gas within the metal, they are known an 'electron gas'. These free electrons move
randomly at sufficiently high speed about 105 ms–1, however they cannot produce the electric current
due to their random motion. During their motion, free electrons collide with ions in the metal and
frequently change their direction. The average distance traveled by a free electron between two successive
collisions is called 'mean free path' of that electron and the average time interval between two successive
collisions is called its 'relaxation time'. The relaxation time is denoted by τ.
In a conductor, the electron experiences the electric force when two ends are connected at two
terminals of a battery. This force tends to move the electrons in a specific direction, so the current is
produced in the conductor. In such motion, the speed of free electrons in a specific direction (i.e. drift
velocity) is very small (in the order of mm/s). In such situation, the acceleration of electron into the
conductor is determined from drift velocity and relaxation time,
vd
i.e., a =
τ
∴ vd = aτ … (23.15)
Resistivity of a conductor
When potential difference V is maintained at two ends of a conductor, the force experienced by free
electrons is,
F = ma
F eE eV
or, a = m = m = ml ... (23.16)
where,
E = electric field in the conductor
m = mass of electron
V = p.d. across two ends of the conductor.
l = length of conductor

Also, the drift velocity of electrons can be calculated either from equation (23.15) or from the relation,
(23.8),
I
vd = neA ... (23.17)

I
aτ = neA ... (23.18)
Now, substituting the value of 'a' from equation (23.16) to equation (23.18), we get,
eV I
ml τ = neA
V ml
or, I = ne2τA
m ⎞ l
∴ R=⎛ ... (23.19)
⎝ne2τ⎠ A
The resistance (R) in terms of resistivity (in equation 23.14) of a conductor is,
l
R=ρA ... (23.20)

m
ρ= 2 ... (23.21)
ne τ
The value of resistivity for a conductor is constant at a given temperature. The resistivity of alloys are
much more than those of pure metals from which they are made.
Unit and dimension of resistivity

l
Since, R = ρ A
A
∴ ρ=R l
The S.I. unit of resistivity is Ohm metre (Ωm). The dimension of resistance is [ML2T–3A–2].
A L2
Dimension of resistivity, [ρ] = [R l ] = [ML2T-3 A-2 L ] = [ML3T-3 A-2]
Dimensionally, the unit of electrical resistivity is kg m3 s–3 A–2.
Electrical Conductance
The reciprocal of resistance of a conductor is called electrical conductance and is denoted by G.
Resistance measures the opposition which it offers to the flow of the current, whereas conductance
measures the inducement which it offers to its flow.
1
Conductance = resistance
1
i.e., G = R
The S.I. unit of conductance is inverse Ohm or per Ohm or Ohm-1(Ω−1) or mho or siemen (S). So
1 S = 1 Ω−1 = 1 mho.
1 1
∴ [G]= ⎡R⎤ = ⎡ML2T–3 A–2⎤ = [M–1L–2T3 A2]
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦

Therefore, the dimensional formula of conductance is [M–1L–2T3 A2].
Dimensionally, unit of conductance is kg-1 m-2s3 A2 which is equivalent to siemen.
Electrical Conductivity or Specific Conductance

The reciprocal of resistivity of a conductor is called its electrical conductivity and is denoted by σ
(small sigma).
1
∴ σ=
ρ
The unit of electrical conductivity is per Ohm per metre (Ω−1 m–1) or mho metre–1 or siemens per
metre (Sm–1).
1 1
And dimension of conductivity, [σ] = ⎡ ⎤ = ⎡ML3T–3 A–2⎤ = [M–1L–3T3 A2]
⎣ρ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
The unit of conductivity on the basis of dimension is kg-1 m-3s3 A2..
Note
1. The drift velocity is also calculated from equation of motion,
F eE
vd = u + at = 0 + m t = m t
eE
∴ vd = m τ
Where, E = applied electric field, e = electronic charge
τ = relaxation time (time taken between two successive collisions) m = mass of an electron
2. The velocity of electron in a metal is also affected by the temperature so, we can use kinetic theory of
gases.
1 3
2 mv = 2 kBT
2
3kBT
v= m
3. i. The velocity of electron can be calculated from mean free path and relaxation time, (it is not the drift
velocity)
mean free path λ
v = relaxation time =
τ
ii. The relaxation time can be deduced employing kinetic theory of gases,
1 3
2 mv = 2 kBT
2
3kBT
v= m
λ 3kBT
=
τ m
m λ2m
τ =λ. 3kBT = 3kBT
m 1
Also, from the relation, resistivity (ρ) = ,we get, ρ ∝
ne2τ τ
4. We conclude that resistivity of a conductor increases with increase in temperature.
5. People may think that resistor absorbs the electrons along the path, so that current decreases, which is
completely wrong concept. Resistance of a resistor just obstructs the flow and hence reduces the rate of
motion of charge particles. Thus, the current decreases on increasing resistance.

Relation between Current Density and Electric Field Strength
From the definition of current density, we can write,
I 1V
J =A=AR
1 V V
=A =
ρl ρl
A
E  ∵E V
∴ J = =σE = l …(23.22)
ρ  
EXAMPLE 4: The potential difference between points in a wire 75.0 cm apart is 0.938 V when the current density is
→
4.40 × 107 Am–2. What is (a) the magnitude of E in the wire? (b) The resistivity of the material of which the wire is
made?
SOLUTION
Given, b. Resistivity (ρ) = ?
Potential difference (V) = 0.938 V We know that
Length (l) = 75.0 cm = 75.0 × 10– 2 m E = ρJ
Current density (J) = 4.40 × 107 Am–2 E 1.25
∴ ρ = J = 4.40 × 107
a. Electric field (E) = ?
We know that, ∴ ρ = 2.84 × 10– 8 Ωm
V 0.938
E = l = 75.0 × 10–2 ∴ E = 1.25 Vm–1
 Check Point: The current density through a conductor is 1 Am-2 where the electric field applied its
length is 3 Vm-1. Calculate the resistivity of the conductor. Also calculate its conductivity.
Ans: 3.00 Ωm, 0.33 Ω-1m-1
23.7 Variation of Resistance with Temperature

Resistance arises in a conductor due to the collision of moving electrons with fixed ions. As the
temperature increases, there is more vibration of ions in the conductor. Therefore, the free electrons
at high temperature suffer greater collision than that at lower temperature. Thus, the resistance in a
conductor increases, as the temperature increases.
The resistance of a conductor depends on its temperature. For small temperature variations, the
increase in resistance with respect to resistance at 0°C per degree rise in temperature is constant for a
conductor. This constant is called temperature coefficient of resistance, α. So,
Rise in resistance
Temperature coefficient of resistance (α) = Reistance at 0°C × Rise in temperature
Rθ – R 0 Rθ – R 0
i.e., α = =
R0 × (θ – 0) R0θ
or, Rθ – R0 = αR0θ
or, Rθ = R0 + αR0θ
∴ Rθ = R0 (1 + αθ) …(23.23) o
qC A
l
Also, R=ρA Rq
Cooling Heating
Temperature coefficient α itself is not constant but depends on the initial Rq
temperature on which the increment in resistance is based. When the increment is R0
B
based on the resistance measured at 0°C, then α has the value of α0. At any other 0oC

initial temperature θ, value of α is αθ and so on.
As temperature changes, the length and the area also change. But, these changes are very small and
l
the factor A can be treated as constant. Then, R ∝ ρ. So,
ρθ = ρ0 (1 + αθ) … (23.24)
where, ρθ and ρ0 be the resistivity of the conductor at temperature θ°C and 0°C respectively. In this
condition, α is also called temperature coefficient of resistivity. Its unit is °C–1 or K–1.
Properties of α
i. The value of temperature coefficient of resistivity of a metal is positive. It means, the resistivity of the
metal increases on heating.
ii. The value of temperature coefficient of resistivity of some alloys like manganin and constantan is
about zero. It means the resistivity of these alloys is almost independent of temperature. Hence, these
alloys are used to make the standard resistors.
iii. The value of temperature coefficient of resistivity of semiconductors is negative. It means, resistivity
decreases on heating. Also, the resistivity of electrolytes decreases with increase in temperature.
EXAMPLE 5: The resistance of a conductor is 10 ohm at 50ºC and 15 ohm at 100ºC. Calculate its resistance at 0ºC.
SOLUTION
Given,
Resistance at 50°C, (R50) = 10 Ω
Resistance at 100ºC, R100 = 15 Ω R100 1 + 100α
∴ R50 = 1 + 50α
Resistance at 0ºC, R0 = ?
We know, 15 1 + 100α
or, 10 = 1 + 50α
Rθ = R0 (1 + αΔθ)
[α = temp. coefficient of resistance] or, 15 + 750α = 10 + 1000α
so, or, 5 = 250 α
R50 = R0 (1 + α × 50) or, α = 0.02 K–1
and ∴ R50 = R0 (1 + α 50)
R100 = R0 (1 + α × 100) or, 10 = R0 (1 + 0.02 × 50)
or, 10 = R0 (1 + 1)
∴ R0 = 5 Ω
 Check Point: At 27.0°C, the resistance of a resistor is 83 Ω. What is the temperature of the resistor if
the resistance is found to be 100 Ω and the temperature coefficient of the material of the resistor is
1.7 × 10–4°C–1? Ans: 1237°C
23.8 Colour Code for Resistors

Resistor is an essential component of an electric circuit. Carbon resistors are frequently used in
electronic devices, apparatus in science laboratory and other many parts in electric circuits. To
specify the value of resistance in a resistor, colour bands are marked on the surface of resistors as
shown in Fig. 23.9. Different colour bands indicates the different numerical values. The numerical
values of colour bands are tabulated below.
There is a specific rule of reading the value of
resistance of a resistor. First two colour bands
indicate the resistance value and third one
serves as multiplier. For example if a resistor is
coded with colours yellow, green and orange,

the numerical value of resistance of that resistor is calculated as, YGO = 45 × 103 = 45 k Ω. Also, there
is one additional colour (i.e. fourth colour) which gives the tolerance. Tolerance is the precision of the
resistor and it is given as a percentage. For example, if a resistor of resistance 470 Ω with a tolerance
of ± 10%, then it will have value within 10% of 470, i.e., between 470 – 47 = 423 Ω and 470 + 47 = 517
Ω.
Colour Colour code Multiplier Tolerance %
Black 0 10°
Brown 1 101
Red 2 102
Orange 3 103
Yellow 4 104
Green 5 105
Blue 6 106
Violet 7 107
Gray 8 108
White 9 109
Gold 10-1 5
Silver 10-2 10
No colour 20
I
Ohmic and non Ohmic conductors
The conductors whose resistance does not depend on the
variation of voltage and current are called ohmic conductors.
These conductors obey Ohm's law. The graph between voltage
and current of ohmic conductor is a straight line. So, the
resistance of such conductors is also called linear resistance.
Metallic conductors like copper, iron, etc. are ohmic conductors.
V
The characteristic curve (I - V curve) for ohmic conductors is
Fig. 23.10: Nature of ohmic resistance
The conductors whose resistance varies with changing voltage and current are called non-ohmic
conductors. These conductors do not obey Ohm's law. The graph between voltage and current of
non-ohmic conductor is a non-linear, so the resistance of such conductors is called non-linear
resistance. Semiconductor diodes, triodes and electrolytes are non-ohmic conductors. The
characteristic curves (I - V curve) for non-ohmic conductors are shown in Fig.23.11.
In ohmic conductors, the value of resistance estimated from the slope of I–V curve at any region is
constant, however the value of resistance derived from I–V curve for non-ohmic conductors is not
constant. This type of resistance which varies in the some physical situation is called dynamic
resistance.
I I
V V
(i) Semiconductor diode (ii) Electrolyte
Fig. 23.11: Nature of non-ohmic resistance
23.9 Sensors
Sensors are the devices that are generally used to detect and respond to electrical or optical signals. A
sensor converts physical parameter like temperature, pressure, speed, strain etc. into a signal which
can be measured electrically. Nowadays it is used to detect blood pressure, heart beats, glucose
content etc.
Strain Gauge
Strain gauge is a pressure sensing device whose electrical resistance is proportional to the quantity of
strain applied on the device. It converts force, pressure, tension, weight etc., into a change in
electrical resistance which can then be measured. We are familiar with dependency of resistance of a
conductor with physical length and its cross-sectional area, i.e,
l
R=ρA ... (23.25)
When an electrical conductor is stretched (supply strain) within an elastic limit, it becomes longer,
but gets narrower, i.e., length increases and cross-sectional area decreases, which ultimately
increases the electrical resistance. Conversely, if conductor is compressed, the electric resistance
decreases. The new resistance when the conductor is geometrically changed,
l'
R' = ρ A' ... (23.26)
Where l' and A' are change in length and change in cross-sectional area respectively. If we take the
ratio,
R' l A' l A'
R = A × l' = l' . A ... (23.27)
Although length and cross-sectional area of a conductor changes, total volume does not change
whether we stretch or compress.
Fig. 23.12 Schematic diagram of strain gauge

So, volume before stretching = volume after stretching
Al = A'l'
A l'
A' = l
l A'
If we consider, l' = A = m
R'
Then, R = m2
So, R = m2R ... (23.28)

Now, the change in resistance,
ΔR = R' – R = m2R – R = (m2 – 1) R. ... (23.29)
Thus, the strain produced by the conductor affects the electrical resistance.
A typical strain gauge consists of a long conductive strip in a zigzag pattern of parallel lines as
shown in Fig. 23.12. The pressure on the strips is converted into an electrical signal that can be
transmitted and displayed.
The fundamental parameter of the strain gauge is its sensitivity to strain, expressed quantitatively as
the gauge factor (GF). Gauge factor is defined as the ratio of fractional change in electrical resistance
to the fractional change in length.
ΔR/R
i.e., GF =
Δl/l
where ΔR is the change in resistance when the length of conductor is changed by Δl.
Δl
Also, l = longitudinal strain = C
ΔR/R
Then, GF = ... (23.30)
ε
Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
An LDR is a photoelectric component in which the resistance changes in accordance with light
intensity falls upon it. It is also called photoresistor. Values of the resistance of LDR may change
significantly large amount (over many order of magnitude) during the light falls upon it. LDRs are
made from semiconductor materials to enable them to have their light sensitive properties. LDR can
also be made by many materials, out of these, cadmium sulphide, Cds, is the most popular material.
An LDR is made by a semiconductor material with a high resistance. It contains very few free
electrons, the rest majority of electrons are locked into the crystal lattice and unable to move. As the
light falls on the semiconductor material, the light photons are absorbed by the semiconductor lattice
and some of their energy is transferred to the electrons. This gives sufficient energy to get free from
the crystal lattice so that they can then conduct electricity. This results in a lowering of the resistance
of the semiconductor and hence the overall LDR resistance as shown in Fig. 23.13
(i) (ii)
Fig. 23.13 (i) schematic diagram of LDR (ii) Resistance verses illuminance plot of LDR
Thermistor
The thermistor is a temperature sensitive resistor whose electrical resistance changes on changing its
temperature. Thermistors are widely used in temperature sensors, self-resetting over current
protectors and self-regulating heating elements. They are generally made from ceramic materials
such as oxides of nickel, magnesia, or cobalt coated in glass.
Thermistors are basically two types:
i. Negative temperature coefficient (NTC) type thermistor. In this type of thermistor, the
resistance drops down as the temperature increases. They are commonly used in
temperature sensor, or in series with a circuit as an inrush current limiter.
ii. PTC type thermistor: In this type of thermistor, the resistance rises up as the temperature
increases. They are commonly installed in series with an electric circuits and are used to
protect again over current conditions.
NTC as a temperature sensor

This type of thermistor is commonly used as temperature sensor. In this sensor, even a small changes
in temperature can cause significant changes in their electrical resistance. The relationship of
resistance and temperature in the NTC used devices is,
ΔR = α ΔT
where, ΔR is the change in resistance, ΔT is the change in temperature and α is the first order
temperature coefficient of resistance. The value of α is negative in NTC thermistor, whereas its value
is positive in PTC thermistor.
The nature of graph in the resistance and temperature in NTC thermistor is exponentially decreasing
nature as shown in Fig. 23.14.
Fig. 23.14: Resistance versus temperature plot for NTC
23.10 Combinations of Resistors

The connection of two or more resistors in a single circuit is known as combination of resistors. The
combination is basically of two types: series combination and parallel combination.
i. Series Combination of Resistors

The combination of resistors one after another in linear chain such that same current passes through each of
them is known as series combination of resistors. In this combination, electric current in each resistor is
same, and potential difference provided by the source is divided into the resistors in series. So, this
combination is also called as voltage divider combination.
Let R1, R2 and R3 be the resistances of three resistors in series combination as shown in Fig. 23.15. It is
possible to replace these resistances with a single resistance R in any given electric circuit without
changing the potential difference between the terminals of the combination and the current in the
circuit. This resistance of single resistor that represents all resistors in the circuit and draws same
current from the same source is known as equivalent resistance (R).
Let V1, V2 and V3 be the potential difference across the resistors with resistance R1, R2 and R3
respectively. Also, I be the current in each resistor.
V = V1 + V2 + V3 ... (23.31)
Now from Ohm’s law, we can write,
V1 = IR1, V2 = IR2, V3 = IR3
V = IR1 + IR2 + IR3

V
∴ V = I (R1 + R2 + R3) . . . (23.32)
If these resistors are replaced by a single resistor of
I
resistance R such that same current I flows through it I
V1 V2 V3
when the same potential difference V is applied
across it, then from Ohm's law, we can write, A R1 B R2 C R3 D
V = IR . . . (23.33) V
From equations (23.32) and (23.33), we get, R
IR = I (R1 + R2 + R3) Fig. 23.15: Resistors in series
∴ R = R1 + R2 + R3
In general, for n resistors in series, we have,
R = R1 + R2 + . . . + Rn ... (23.34)
Thus, if resistors are connected in series, equivalent resistance is equal to the sum of individual
resistances. R is more than even the maximum among R1, R2, R3, .....Rn.
From (23.34), it is clear that equivalent resistance of series combination is always greater than
individual resistance. So, to increase the resistance in the circuit, resistors are connected in series.
If we consider 'n' number of resistors of equal resistance then, we have,
Requivalent = R + R + R + . . . upto n numbers
∴ Req. = nR (maximum)
Note: When a number of resistors connected in series are joined to a terminal of battery, then each resistance
has a different potential difference across its ends, which depends on value of resistance. The equivalent
resistance in series combination is explained in terms of potential steps as shown in figure along right hand
side. As we go upstair crossing each step of ladder, electrons should cross every potential steps in the
circuit.
V
A
I
I V1
V1 V3 B
V2
V V2
A C
R1 B R2 C R3 D
V3
V D
ii. Parallel Combination of Resistors

The combination of resistors in which one end of each resistors is connected at a point and another end is
connected at another common point such that the combination has common potential difference in each of them
is known as parallel combination of resistors. In this combination, potential difference across each of
them is the same and current is divided among the resistors.
Let R1, R2 and R3 be the resistances of three resistors in parallel
combination as shown in Fig. 23.16. It is possible to replace these
resistances with a single resistance R in any given electric circuit
such that the potential difference across it remains equal to the
source, without altering the total current in the circuit. This
resistance of single resistor that represents all the resistors is known
as equivalent resistance (R).
Let I1, I2 and I3 be the electric current through resistors having

resistances R1, R2 and R3 respectively. Since the resistors are combined in parallel, potential difference
across each resistor is same.
The total current (I) is the sum of current I1, I2 and I3 through each resistor.
So, I = I1 + I2 + I3 ... (23.35)
But, the potential difference across each resistance is the same and is equal to the voltage V of battery.
So, from Ohm’s law, we have,
V V V
I1 = R , I2 = R and I3 = R
1 2 3
Putting these values in equation, (23.35), we get,

V V V
I=R +R +R
1 2 3
1 1 1
∴ I = V ⎛R + R + R ⎞ ... (23.36)
⎝ 1 2 3 ⎠
If parallel combination of resistors R1, R2, R3 is replaced by an equivalent resistor of resistance R in

such a way that the same current I flows through it when the same potential difference V is applied
across it, then from Ohm's law,
V
∴ I=R ... (23.37)
Here, R is called equivalent resistance of R1, R2 and R3.

From equations (23.36) and (23.37), we have,
V ⎛1 1 1 ⎞
R = V⎝R1 + R2 + R3 ⎠
1 1 1 1
or, R = R1 + R2 + R3
In general for n resistors in parallel, we have,
1 1 1 1
∴ R = R1 + R2 + . . . + Rn ... (23.38)
Thus, if resistors are connected in parallel, then reciprocal of equivalent resistance is equal to the sum
of the reciprocal of individual resistances. The equivalent resistance is even less than the smallest
individual resistance, among R1, R2, R3, ......Rn.
From equation (23.38), it is clear that equivalent resistance in parallel combination of resistances is
always less than individual resistance. To decrease the resistance in the circuit, resistors are joined in
parallel.
If we consider ‘n’ number of resistors of equal resistance then,
1 1 1 1
Req. = R + R + R + . . . upto 'n' number.
1 n
or, Req. = R
R
∴ Req. = n (minimum)
Note:
i. Current does not take the path of least resistance. You may have heard a phrase like “current takes the path
of least resistance.” This is a reference to a parallel combination of current paths, such that the current can
take two or more paths. The phrase is incorrect, however, the current takes all paths. Those paths with lower
resistance will have large currents, but even very high-resistance paths will carry some of the current.

ii. To determine the equivalent resistance between A and B in the following ladder circuit.
R R R
A
R R R To infinity
B
R R R
The above circuit is called ladder circuit. In infinitely long ladder circuit, the identical steps of resistors are
repeated. If one complete step of ladder is removed from the ladder, remaining part also gives the same value
of equivalent resistance.
Let R' be the equivalent resistance of the given circuit. The equivalent circuit diagram for the given circuit
is as follows.
R
A
R R'
B
R
RR'
Here, equivalent resistance (R') = R + R + R' + R
EXAMPLE 6: Find the equivalent resistance between A and B of the following electric circuit.
4W 2W 2W
A 2W 2W 2W B
4W 4W
SOLUTION
In the beginning, let us label the electric circuit at different points as shown in figure below:
4W 2W 2W
A 2W C D 2W E F 2W B
4W 4W
At first, we find the resistance between CD
and EF, Now, the resistance, RAC, RCD, REF and RFB
(i) The resistance, between CD, are series, so, equivalent resistance of
1 1 1 2 1 the circuit.
RCD = 4 + 4 = 4 = 2 R = RAC + RCD + RDE + REF + RFB
∴ RCD = 2 Ω =2+2+2+2+2
1 1 1 = 10 Ω
(ii) The resistance between EF, R = 2 + 2 + 4
EF
1 1 2 1
=4 +4 =4 =2
∴ REF = 2 Ω

 Check Point: (i) Two resistors when in series have an effective resistance of 25 Ω and when in
parallel have an effective resistance of 4 Ω. Calculate the value of individual resistances.
(ii) Calculate the equivalent resistance between the points P and Q of the network shown in figure
given below:
Ans: (I) 20 Ω and 5 Ω (II) 6 Ω
23.11 Voltage Divider Circuit

An electric circuit that contains series combination of resistors is
known as voltage divider circuit. Let R1 and R2 be the resistances of
two resistors, connected in series form as shown in Fig. 23.23. In
this circuit connection, current I remains constant in each resistor,
but the potential difference V provided by the cell is divided into
each resistor. Let V1 and V2 be the potential differences across
resistors with resistances R1 and R2 respectively.
Here, equivalent resistance = R = R1 + R2
Total current = I
∴ Total voltage (V) = I (R1 + R2)
V
∴ I=R +R …(23.39)
1 2
Now, potential difference across R1,

V1 = IR1 …(23.40)
V
V1 = R + R ⋅ R1
1 2
R1
∴ V1 = ⎛R + R ⎞ V
⎝ 1 2⎠
Similarly, potential difference across R2,
R2
V2 = ⎛R + R ⎞ V
⎝ 1 2⎠
It is to be noted that total voltage (V) is the sum of V1 and V2, if internal resistance is negligible.
EXAMPLE 7: A cell of emf 12 V and negligible internal resistance is connected in series with two resistors of
resistance 100 Ω and 200 Ω. Calculate the potential drop across each resistor.
SOLUTION
The electric circuit design in accordance with the given information is given below.
Here,
V = 12 V
R1 = RAB = 100 Ω
R2 = RBC = 200 Ω
Equivalent resistance (R) = R1 + R2 = 100 + 200 = 300 Ω
V 12
Total current in the circuit (I) = R = 300 = 0.04 A

Now, potential difference across 100 Ω resistor,

VAB = IRAB = 0.04 × 100 = 4 V
The potential difference across 200 Ω resistor
VBC = IRBC = 0.04 × 200 = 8 V
 Check Point: Calculate the potential difference in each resistance in the following voltage divider
circuit.
Ans: 10 V, 20 V, 30 V
23.12 Current Divider

An electric circuit that contains parallel combination of resistors is known as current divider circuit.
Let R1 and R2 be the resistances of two resistors, connected in parallel as shown in Fig. 23.18. In this
circuit connection, potential difference V in each resistor remains constant, but the current I is
divided into each path of parallel circuit. Let I1 and I2 be the currents passing through resistors with
resistances R1 and R2 respectively.
Here, equivalent resistance (R) is calculated as,
1 1 1 R1 + R2
R = R1 + R2 = R1 R2
R1 R2
∴R =R +R …(23.41)
1 2
Now, current passing through R1,

V
I1 = R Fig. 23.18: Current divider circuit
1
IR
= R …(23.42)
1

I R1 R2
I1 = R ⎛R + R ⎞
1 ⎝ 1 2⎠
R2
∴ I1 = ⎛R + R ⎞ I
⎝ 1 2⎠
Similarly, current passing through R2,
R1
∴ I2 = ⎛R + R ⎞ I
⎝ 1 2⎠
Total current (I) is the sum of I1 and I2.

EXAMPLE 8: Consider the figure below. The current through 6 Ω resistor is 4 A in the direction shown. What are the
currents through the 25 Ω and 20 Ω resistors?
SOLUTION
Since R1 and R2 are parallel
P.D. across R1 = P.D. across R2
I1 × R1 = I2 × R2
4 × 6 = 8 × I2
I2 = 3 A
Total current through path AC = 4 + 3 = 7 A
So, current through 25 Ω is 7 A.
6× 8 48
Now, RAC = R1||R2 + R3 = 6 + 8 + 25 = 14 + 25 = 28.43 Ω
Since RAC and RBD are parallel.
P.d..across RAC = P.d. across R4
28.43 × 7 = 20 × I4
28.43 × 7
or, I4 = 20 = 9.95 A
∴ I4 = 9.95 A
 Check Point: Complete the equivalent resistance of the network in figure and find the current in each
resistor. The battery has negligible internal resistance.
E = 60.0 V, r = 0
R1 = 3.00 Ω R3 = 12.0 Ω
R2 = 6.00 Ω R4 = 4.0 Ω
Ans: 5 Ω, I1 = 8 A, I2 = 4 A, I3= 3 A, I4 = 9 A
23.13 Joules Law of Heating

The production of heat in a resistor basically depends on quantity of current, resistance and time
interval for which the current is passing through it. James Joule, in 1841, derived the relation for
quantity of heat generated in a conductor of ohmic resistance R, when current I is passed through it
for time t. So, this law is known as Joule's law of heating. According to this law, the amount of heat
(H) developed in an ohmic conductor by the passage of current is,
i. directly proportional to the square of current flowing through the conductor.
H ∝ I2 … (23.43)
ii. directly proportional to the resistance of the conductor.
H∝R … (23.44)
iii. directly proportional to the time of current flow.
H∝t … (23.45)
Now, combining equations (23.43), (23.44) and (23.45), we get,
H ∝ I2Rt
H = kI2Rt … (23.46)
Where, k is the proportionality constant. The value of k depends on the system of unit of heat.
1
i. In calorie unit, k = J

Where, J is the unit conversion factor. Its value is 4.2 J/calorie. It is called mechanical equivalent of
heat. It is not a physical quantity.
I2Rt
H = J (calorie) … (23.47)
ii. In SI unit, k = 1. So,
H = I2Rt (joule) … (23.48)
23.14 Electric Energy and Power

Electric energy is the total energy consumed in an electric circuit in a given time. In this case, the
electric potential carries charge from one point to another in the electric circuit. Thus, the electric source does
the work. Consider a conductor of resistance R in which charge q flows for a time t when potential
difference V is maintained across it. Then, the electric workdone is determined by,
W = qV
= ItV
= VIt
= IRIt
W = I2Rt (joule) …(23.49)
Therefore, the electric energy produced in such situation is equivalent to heat energy H. So,
H = I2Rt
Electric Power
The electric power is defined as the rate at which work is done by an electric charge. Alternatively,
the electric power is the rate of electric energy consumption in an electric circuit.
So, electric energy consumption is,
W = VIt
Now,
W
Electric power, P = t = VI
Also,
V = IR
So, P = I2R
Again,
V
I =R
V 2 V2
P = ⎛R⎞ R = R
⎝ ⎠
So, power consumption in an electric circuit can be calculated using only one of the following
formula,
P = I2R
P = IV
V2
P = R … (23.50)

Therefore, if we are given any two of the three quantities I, V and R, the electric power can be
calculated. If a device is marked the power rating 40 W – 220 V, the device consumes electric energy
at the rate of 40 W when joined to a supply of potential difference 220 V.
EXAMPLE 9: A “540-W” electric heater is designed to operate from 120 V lines. (a) What is its resistance? (b) What
current does it draw? (c) If the line voltage drops to 110 V, what power does the heater take? (Assume that the
resistance is constant. Actually, it will change because of the change in temperature.)
SOLUTION
Given, b. Current (I) = ?
Power of heater (P) = 540 W We know that
Potential (V) = 120 V P = VI
a. Resistance (R) = ? P 540
∴ I = V = 120 = 4.5 A.
We know that
V2 c. For potential difference, V = 110 volt,
P= R power (P) = ?
V2 (120)2 We know that
∴ R = P = 540 = 26.7 Ω.
V2 (110)2
P = R = 26.7 = 454 W
 Check Point: An electric heater is marked 1000 W, 220 V. How long will it take to heat 1 litre of
water at 20°C to its boiling point? Ans: 5.6 minutes
Units of Electric Power

The electric power (P) = I V
For I = 1 A and V = 1 V
P =1A×1V
= 1 AV
P = 1 watt
Therefore, electric power dissipated is said to be 1 watt when current of 1 A passes under a potential
difference of one volt. In case of household and commercial use, the electric power consumption is
measured in kilowatt (kW).
1 kW = 1000 W
However, the electric power is commercially measured in kilowatt hour. One kilowatt hour is called
1 unit electricity i.e. 1 unit = 1kWh.
One kilowatt hour (one unit) is the amount of workdone when a power of one kilowatt is consumed
for one hour. i.e.,
1 unit = 1 kWh = 1000 W × 3600 s
= 3.6 × 106 Ws
J
= 3.6 × 106 s s
1 unit = 3.6 × 106 J

For example, if a 2000 W – 220 V induction heater is used for 20 minutes in our power supply (i.e.
220 V). Then, the units of electric its used is,
E = 2000 W × 20 min
2000 20
= ⎛1000⎞ kW × ⎛60⎞ h = 0.67 kWh = 0.67 unit.
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
If the price of electricity is Rs.10.0 per unit, then 0.67 unit will cost Rs. 6.70.
In many conditions, the electric power is also measured in horse power (HP).
1 HP = 746 W
1000
So, 1 unit = 1 kWh = 746 HP × 1 h
= 1.34 HPh (horse power hour)

Electricity authority charges the consumption of electric power at homes in the unit of kilowatt hour.
23.15 Electromotive Force

We are familiar with the continuous glow of an electric lamp when connected to an electric cell. The
continuous glow is possible only when a sustainable potential difference is maintained across the
lamp, i.e. some work must be done to carry the charge in the electric circuit. The work can be done
by an electric charge. In a cell, electric energy is liberated by the chemical reaction in the electrolytes.
This liberated electric energy does work to maintain the continuous flow of charge in the circuit. This
work done by the cell in forcing unit positive charge (1 C charge) to flow in the electric circuit is
called electromotive force (emf).
Actually, emf is not a force as it's name suggests, rather it is a work done.
If dW work is done in moving dq charge by an electric source, the emf of that cell is,
dW
E = dq … (23.51)
In SI system, the unit of E is joule per coulomb (JC–1), which is also called volt (V). It means, the unit
of emf is volt.
The emf of a source of current is said to be one volt if one joule of energy is supplied by the source to
flow one coulomb of charge in the whole circuit.
To put it on another way, the source of emf provides energy to the circuit. The current in the circuit
transfers energy from source of emf to a device. If the device is another battery, then the energy
transferred appears as the chemical energy newly stored in the battery. If the device is a resistor, the
transferred energy appears as the internal energy (observed perhaps as an increase in temperature)
and then can be transferred to the environment as heat. If the device is capacitor, the energy
transferred is stored as potential energy in its electric field. In each of these cases, conservation of
energy demands that amount of energy lost by battery must be equal to the energy transferred to,
dissipated by or stored in the device.
The emf of a source is equal to the potential difference between the terminals of a source when no
current is drawn from the source. No current will be drawn when the circuit is open. So, emf is equal
to the potential difference in an open circuit.
23.16 Terminal Potential Difference

Positive charge (conventional charge) flows from positive terminal to negative terminal through the
external path of an electric circuit, but the positive charge flows from negative terminal to positive
terminal inside the cell. Whatever the direction of charge, the work should be done to move the
charge particles in the circuit. If a voltmeter is connected across two terminals of a cell at the closed
circuit condition, it measures the potential difference of the external circuit, which is called the
terminal potential difference. Therefore, terminal potential difference is defined as the potential difference
between two terminals of a cell in closed circuit.

Emf of a cell is divided into two parts: outside the cell and inside the cell. The potential difference
that is developed outside the cell is equal to the terminal potential difference (V) and the potential
difference inside the cell is called the internal potential difference Vi. Which is also called as lost volt
as this is lost in the source due to its internal resistance.
So, E = V + Vi … (23.52)
The unit of terminal potential difference is volt (V) and its dimension is [ML2T–3A–1]
23.17 Internal Resistance of a Cell

When two terminals of a cell are connected with a resistance wire, current flows from positive
terminal plate to negative terminal plate outside the cell and negative terminal plate to positive
terminal plate in the electrolyte inside the cell. The flow of current in an electric circuit is opposed by
the external resistance in the circuit as well as electrolytes inside the cell. The resistance offered by
the electrolyte of a cell to the flow of current through it is called the internal resistance of a cell. It is
denoted by 'r'.
Due to the internal resistance of a cell, a part of electric energy is converted into the heat energy
which makes the cell heated. The internal resistance of a cell depends upon the following factors:
i. It is directly proportional to the separation of two plates of a cell.
ii. It is inversely proportional to the area of plates dipped into the electrolyte.
iii. It depends on the nature, concentration and temperature of the electrolyte.
After long use, the conductivity of electrolytes used into the cell decreases, hence the internal
resistance increases. Moreover, the deposition of ions on the terminal plates may increase the
internal resistance of a cell.
23.18 Relation of emf, Terminal Potential Difference and

Internal Resistance of a Cell
Consider an electric circuit containing a cell, a
r
resistor and a key. Let E be the emf, V be the
terminal potential difference and r be the internal I E
resistance of the given cell. The resistance R in
V
exterior circuit is called external resistance. The
circuit diagram with necessary components of an
electric circuit is shown in Fig. 23.19. The internal
R K
resistance of the cell is considered to be connected
in series with cell. Fig. 23.19: Circuit diagram for internal resistance of a cell
When the circuit is switched on, the electric cell supplies energy to move the charge through the
circuit. It means the cell performs work in displacing the charge in the electric circuit. Then, the total
workdone to displace the charge q,
W = E ⋅ q = EIt …(23.53)
The work is done in the circuit is divided into two parts; (i) work done outside the cell against the
external resistance (R) (ii) work done inside the cell against the internal resistance (r).
From the principle of conservation of energy,
W = Wexternal + Winternal
EIt = I2Rt + I2rt

E = IR + Ir
or, E = V + Ir, where V = IR is the terminal potential difference across the resistor R
∴ E – V = Ir ... (23.54)
The term Ir is the potential drop across the internal resistance which is equal to the difference of emf
and terminal potential difference of a cell. At the condition of discharging, the current is taken
positive value. For non-zero value of internal resistance r > 0, (E – V) > 0 i.e. emf is greater than the
terminal potential difference.
E-V E-V
∴r = I = ⎛V⎞
⎝R ⎠
E-V
∴r =⎛ V ⎞R ... (23.55)
⎝ ⎠
Thus, the internal resistance of a cell can be determined by using formula in equation (23.55).
Special Cases
i. If internal resistance of a cell is negligibly small i.e. r → 0, then E = V.
ii. During the charging of a cell, the direction of current is taken negative, so we can write,
E = V + (-I) r
∴ E = V – Ir ... (23.56)
It shows that, terminal potential difference can be greater than emf when a cell is charging.
EXAMPLE 10: A battery of emf 1.5 V has a terminal potential difference of 1.25 V when a resistor of 25 Ω is joined to
it. Calculate the current flowing, the internal resistance and terminal p.d. when resistance of 10 Ω is replaces 25 Ω.
SOLUTION
Given, If the 10 Ω resistance replaces 25 Ω,
Emf (E) = 1.5 V total resistance in the circuit is,
Terminal p.d. (V) = 1.25 V Also,
External resistance (R) = 25 Ω R + r = 10 + 5 = 15 Ω
V 1.25 E
Now, current (I) = R = 25 = 0.05 A Now, total current (I') = R + r
E = V + Ir 1.5
or, 1.5 = 1.25 + 0.05 r = 15 = 0.1 A
or, 0.05r = 1.5 – 1.25
Now, new terminal potential
or, 0.05 r = 0.25
difference (V) = IR
0.25
r = 0.05 = 5 Ω V = 0.1 × 10 = 1.0 V
 Check Point: The potential difference across the terminals of a battery is 8.4 V when there is a
current of 1.50 A in the battery from the negative to the positive terminal. When the current is 3.50 A
in the reverse direction, the potential difference becomes 9.4 V. (a) What is the internal resistance of
the battery? (b) What is the emf of the battery? Ans: (a) 0.2 Ω (b) 8.7 V
23.19 Combination of Cells

The grouping of two or more cells in a single electric circuit is known is combination of cells. Cells
are basically combined in the following ways:
i Series combination of cells.
ii. Parallel combination of cells.
iii. Mixed combination of cells.

i. Series Combination of Cells
Cells are said to be connected in series when they are joined end to end so that the same quantity of
current flows through each cell. In series combination of cells, the negative terminal of one cell is
connected to the positive terminal of the next, the negative of the second to the positive terminal of
the third and so on. The series combination of cells is shown in Fig. 23.20.
Let, emf of each cell = E
Internal resistance of each cell = r
External resistance = R
Total emf of n-cells in series = nE
Total internal resistance of n-cells = nr
So, total resistance of the complete circuit = R + nr
If I be the current flowing through the circuit, then
according to Ohm’s law, we can write,
Total emf
I = Total resistance
nE
∴ I = R + nr ... (23.57)
Case (i) If R >> nr i.e. if external resistance R is large enough with respect to total internal resistance
nr,
nE E
I = R =n×R
= n times the current that can be drawn from a single cell.

E
Case (ii) If R << nr, then I = r = same as that given by one cell.
Conclusion: When internal resistance is negligible in comparison to external resistance, the cells are
connected in series to get maximum current.
ii. Parallel combination of cells

Cells are said to be connected in parallel when the current
is divided between the various cells. In the parallel
connection of cells, all the positive terminals are
connected together at one point and all the negative
terminals are connected together at another point as
Total internal resistance of n-cells = r/n
(... they are in parallel combination) Fig. 23.21: Parallel combination of cells
So, total resistance of the complete circuit = R + r/n

If I be the current flowing in the circuit, according to Ohm’s law, we have,
Total emf

E
= r …(23.58)
R+ n
r nE
Case (i) If n >> R (i.e. internal resistance is extremely high), then I = r = n times current given by
one cell.
r
Case (ii) If n < < R (i.e. internal resistance of a cell is low), then
E
I = R = same as given by one cell.
Conclusion: When external resistance is negligible in comparison to the internal resistance, the cells
are connected in parallel to get maximum current.
iii. Mixed combination of cells

The combination in which the cells are arranged in such a way that some of them are connected in
series and others are connected in parallel is known as mixed combination of cells. The circuit
diagram for mixed combination of cells is shown in Fig. 23.22.
Now,
Number of rows = m
Number of cells in a row = n
Total internal resistance of given cells = nr/m
So, total resistance of the complete circuit
= R + nr/m
Total number of cells = mn
emf of each row = nE
Total emf of circuit = nE
If I be the current in the circuit, by Ohm’s
law we have,
Total emf
nE
= nr
R+m
nE Fig. 23.22: Mixed combination of cells

= mR + nr
m
mnE
= mR + nr ... (23.59)
Condition for Maximum Current

In the above combination, m, n and E are constant. The current in the circuit can be produced
maximum only when denominator is minimum. To minimize the denominator,

2
mR + nr = ( mR – nr) + 2 mnrR
mnE
∴ I= 2
( mR – nr) + 2 mnrR
2
Current, I will be maximum if ( mR – nr) = 0
or, mR – nr = 0
or,mR = nr
or,
mR = nr
nr
or, R = m . . . (23.60)
i.e. external resistance = total internal resistance of the cells
Conclusion: When the external resistance of the circuit is equal to the internal resistance of cells, we
use mixed combination of cells to obtain maximum current.
mnE
Imax = . . . (23.61)
2 mnRr
Note:
1. Battery is not the constant current source. The amount of current depends on the value of resistance in the
circuit. Battery is the constant source of electromotive force (emf).
2. If two cells of unequal emf are connected in parallel, the circuit will have the emf of larger value. This rule is
appropriate for more than two cells in parallel.
If E' > E, total emf of the circuit is E'. (not E).

(Note: This type of problems will be solved in Kirchhoff's rule in higher class)
Tips for MCQs
Quantitative Tips
dq Ne
1. i. Electric current (I) = dt = t , where N is total number of charge particles.
2. Electric conduction is defined quantitatively as,

I = nevdA, where, vd is drift velocity of electron.
3. Current density (J):
I
i. Vector quantity, J = A = nevd
→ →
ii. I = J ⋅ A = JA cos θ, where θ is the angle made by small cross sectional area A with the direction
of current.
4. Combination of resistors:
i. Series combination: R = R1 + R2 + R3 + …
1 1 1 1
ii. Parallel combination, R = R + R + R + …
1 2 3
iii. The equivalent resistance of n equal resistors of equal resistance (r) when connected in series is
R = nr.
iv. The equivalent resistance of n equal resistors of equal resistance (r) when connected in parallel,
r
R=n.
v. The ratio of n identical resistors of equal resistance when connected in series to parallel is,
Rseries
Rparallel = n
2
5. Variation of resistance with temperature:

i. The resistance at θºC is,
Rθ = R0(1 + αθ), where R0 = resistance of conductor at 0ºC
α = temperature coefficient of resistance
ii. The unit of α is °C–1 or K–1.
iii. To find the temperature coefficient of resistance, the resistance at 0ºC is taken as reference. So,
Rθ – R0 Rθ – R0
α= =
R0(θ – 0) R0θ
If R1 is the resistance at θ1°C and R2 is the resistance at θ2°C, then
R1 = R0 (1 + αθ1) and
R2 = R0 (1 + αθ2)
R2 – R1
Solving, we get, α = (Solution is quite tricky)
R1θ2 – R2θ1
6. Electric power:
It is defined as the rate at which work is done by the source of emf in maintaining the current in
electric circuit.
qV V2
∴ P = t = IV = I2R = R
7. Electric energy:
i. It is defined as the total work done or energy supplied by the source of emf in maintaining the
current in an electric circuit for a given time.
V2t
Electric energy (E) = I2Rt = VIt = Pt = R
ii. It's unit is joule. The commercial unit of electric energy is kilowatt-hour (kWh).
1 kWh = 3.6 × 106 J. This is called one unit of electricity.
Total watt × Total hour
iii. Total number of units (n) = 1000
8. Emf, terminal potential and internal resistance:
i. Relation, E = V + Ir
P0 V R
ii. Efficiency of a source of emf, η = P = E = R + r
i
R 1
iii. If R = r, the maximum efficiency of a cell can be obtained, i.e. η = R + R = 2 = 50%
9. Terminal potential difference,

a. While charging, V > E, E = V – Ir
b. While discharging, V < E, E = V + Ir
c. While short circuited, R = 0, V = 0
d. In open circuit, I = 0

Conceptual Tips
1. The unit of current is ampere (A), 1 A = 1 Cs–1
In 1 A current, 6.25 × 1018 electrons flow per unit time which is equivalent to 3 × 109 stat ampere.
2. It is a scalar quantity, even though the conventional direction of current is shown from positive
terminal to negative terminal of cell.
3. The drift velocity of electron in a conductor:
V
i. is directly proportional to the electric field, E into the conductor, i.e. vd ∝ E ⎛ = l ⎞ , where V is
⎝ ⎠
the potential difference across the conductor and l is the length of conductor.
ii. depends upon nature of conductor and electric field applied across the conductor.
iii. is about 10–4 ms–1 and value of relaxation time is about 10–14 second.
4. Electrical conduction is due to the drift of:
i. electrons in a conductor.
ii. free electrons and holes in a semiconductor.
iii. positive and negative ions in an electrolyte.
iv. electrons and ions in gases in gas discharge tubes.
5. Unit and dimension of some physical quantities.
Physical Quantity Symbol Dimensions Unit Remark
Electric Current I [A] A SI base unit
Charge Q or q [T A] C
Voltage, Electric potential Work
V [M L2 T–3 A–1] V
difference charge
Work
Electromotive force E [M L2 T–3 A–1] V
charge
V
Resistance R [M L2 T–3 A–2] Ω R= I
ρl
Resistivity ρ [M L3 T–3 A–2] Ωm R=A
1
Electrical conductivity σ [M -1 L–3 T3 A2] S σ=
ρ
Electric force
Electric field E [M L T–3 A–1] Vm–1
charge
I
Drift speed vd [L T–1] ms–1 vd = neA
Current density current
J [L–2 A] Am–2
area
6. Resistance and conductance:
l m
i. Resistance (R) = ρ A and ρ = 2
ne τ
Where, τ is relaxation time, m is mass of electron, n is the electron density and e is magnitude of
electronic charge.
ii. The resistivity depends on temperature and nature of conductor.
1
iii. The reciprocal of resistance (R) is conductance (G), G = R and the reciprocal of resistivity (ρ) is
1
conductivity (σ), σ = .
ρ
iv. The unit of resistance is ohm (Ω) and the unit of conductance is siemen or mho.
v. The unit of resistivity is ohm-meter and the unit of conductivity is (ohm-meter)–1 or Siemens per
meter.
iv. The value of α is:
a. positive for a conductor
b. negative for a semiconductor
c. for alloys like manganin and constantan, it is negligibly small, α → 0. So, they are used to
make standard resistances.
d. zero in superconductors.
7. i. Its unit is watt or ampere-volt. It is also expressed into horse power, (1 HP = 746 watt).
ii. In series combination of resistances, the potential difference and power consumed will be more
in larger resistance. So, 60 W bulb glows brighter than 100 W bulb when connected in series
1 1 1 1
circuit i.e. P = P + P + P + …
s 1 2 3
iii. In parallel combination of resistances, the current and power consumed will be more in smaller
resistances. Therefore, 100 W bulb glows brighter than 60 W bulb when connected in parallel
combination, i.e. Pp = P1 + P2 + P3 + …
iv. In filament bulb, larger powered bulb is made with smaller resistance.
v. Lamp used for house lightening are connected in parallel.
8. Emf of a cell depends on (a) nature of two plates (b) nature, temperature and concentration of
electrolyte.
9. Internal resistance depends on:
a. Separation between two electrodes
b. Nature, temperature and degree of dissociation of electrolyte between plates.
Quick Reply
1. Why don't we consider the drift velocity of positive ions?
 Electric field into the conductor influences not only the free electrons, but also the positive ions into
it. But, positive ions are relatively heavier than the electrons and they also bind tightly into the atoms,
so that the movement of positive ions is approximately impossible. Therefore, the drift velocity of
positive ions is almost zero.
2. What is the value of resistance of a resistor of colour coding of red, red and orange,
 The colour code of red and orange are 2 and 3 respectively. So, Applying the rule of coding pattern,
we have, 22 × 103 = 22 kΩ.
3. What is one unit electricity?
 When 1 kW electric power is consumed for 1 hour, the electricity so used is called one unit electricity.
So, 1 unit = 1 kWh.
If ten bulbs of each 100 W are lighted regularly for one hour, the consumed electricity is equal to 1
unit electricity.
4. Which combination is set in household wiring, series or parallel?
 In household wiring, parallel combination is set into practice. As the parallel combination is set,
every component of electric appliances like, bulb, fan etc in every room achieves the equal potential
difference. Also, individual switches for individual appliance is possible.
5. Is current a scalar or vector quantity?
 Current is a scalar quantity. Although we show the direction of current in a electric in an electric
circuit, this is done only to show the direction of conversion flow of charge. But, the property of
charge flow does not obey the vector addition and multiplication rules.

1. Will the drift velocity of electrons change if the diameter of a connecting wire is halved? Why?
 The electric current in a conductor is,
I = nevd A
I
∴ vd = neA

At constant current, for first case, d1

I When diameter is halved, i.e. d2 = 2
v1 = neA and
1 2
For second case, ⎛d1⎞
I
v1 ⎝2⎠
v2 = neA v2 = 2
2 d1
v1 A2
∴ v =A v1 1
v2 = 4
2 1
2
πd2
2 ∴ v2 = 4v1
v1 4 d2
Therefore, drift velocity is increased by 4
v2 = πd21 = d21
times when diameter is halved.
4
2. Two copper wires of different diameters are joined end to end. If a current flows in the wire
combination, what happens to the drift velocity of the electrons when they move from the large-
diameter to the smaller-diameter wire?
 The electric current in metallic conduction, I = vdenA
When two wires are joined in series, they pass equal current, although they have different diameters.
So,
I 1
vd = ⎛en⎞ . A
⎝ ⎠
1 πd2
∴ vd α A and A = 4
It means drift velocity is smaller in larger diameter wire. So, the drift velocity of electrons increases
when they move from larger-diameter to smaller diameter wire.
3. Two wires of equal lengths, one of copper and the other of manganin have the same resistance.
Which wire will be thicker?
l
 The resistance, R = ρ A
l1 A2 ρ2
i. For copper, R1 = ρ1 A
1 A1 = ρ1
l2 Since, the resistivity of manganin is greater
ii. For manganin, R2 = ρ2 A than copper, ρ2 > ρ1.
2
Here, given that the wires of equal length Then, A2 > A1.
have equal resistance, l1 = l2 and R1 = R2, so Therefore, manganin wire is thicker than the
ρ1 ρ2 copper wire.
A1 = A2
4. Though same current flows through the electric line wires, and the bulb filament, yet only the
filament glows. Why?
 The dissipation of electric energy not only depends on current, it also depends on the resistance of
the conductor used, i.e. H = I2Rt. The filament has high resistance, but the electric line wires in the
electric circuit have negligibly small resistance (i.e. R → 0). So, the current passing through the high
resistance filament produces a large amount of energy into light (and heat also). Hence it makes
glow.
5. In a conductor, large number of electrons are free to move in it, but why no current is detected?
 There are many free electrons moving in a conductor even though no electric source is connected
across it, but these free electrons move randomly so, net flow of these charge particles (electrons) in a
specified direction is zero. Hence, the net current in the conductor is zero. If an electric source is

connected across the end of a conductor, the motion of charge particles is specific, hence the current
is detected.
6. Why are constantan and manganin used for making standard resistors?
 The temperature coefficient of resistance in constantan and manganin is nearly independent to
temperature. The resistivity in them almost remains constant, although the temperature rises or falls.
This properly of constantan and managanin makes possible in using in very cold and hot places,
moreover in cold and hot season. Hence, they are used for making standard resistors.
7. Five bulbs are connected in series across 220 volt line. If one bulb is fused, the remaining bulbs are
again connected across the same line. Which one of the arrangements will be more illuminated?
Justify you answer.
 Let R be equal resistance of filament of each bulb. The total resistance of the circuit as 5 bulbs are
connected in series, R1 = 5R
V 220 (220)2
Therefore, total current (I1) = 5R = 5R P2 = 4R ... (ii)
Similarly, when only four bulbs are connected Dividing (ii) by (i), we get
V P2 5
in series, I2 = 4R P1 = 4
Therefore, Power dissipation in first case, P1 = P2 5
2 P = 4 > 1. Simply, as one bulb gets fused,
I1 (5R) 1
the total series resistance of four bulbs is less
220 2
P1 = ⎛ 5R ⎞ 5R than the series resistance of five bulbs. By
⎝ ⎠ more current flows in second case giving
(220)2 more illumination. Therefore, power
P1 = 5R ... (i)
dissipation is more in second case, hence, the
Similarly power dissipation in the second four bulbs in series illuminate brighter.
case,
8. Two bulbs 60 W and 100 W are connected (i) in series (ii) in parallel, which bulb glows brightly?
explain.
 Resistance of lower power bulb is made with greater resistance than high power, i.e. resistance of 60
W bulb has greater resistance than the resistance of 100 W (i.e. R60 > R100).
i. In series, current remains constant in both bulbs, So, P = I2R, i.e P ∝ R .
It means, P60 > P100 ( for R60 > R100).
So, the 60 W bulb consumes more power, hence it glows brighter.
V2 1
ii. In parallel, potential difference remains constant in both bulbs, so, P = R i.e. P ∝ R
It means P60 < P100 (for R60 > R100)
So, in this case, 100 W bulb consumes more power, hence it glows brighter.
9. Batteries are labelled with their emf. For example the dry cell which we use is labelled 1.5 V. Would it
be appropriate to put a label on the batteries stating how much current they provide?
 Resistors, inductors, capacitors are the variable components of an electric circuit. But the current
provided by the cell is depends on the external components of the circuit. Hence, the current varies in
the circuit, although the circuit contains the constant emf. Hence, the value of current is not
appropriate to specify in a cell.
10. Name three materials used for making standard resistance. Give reason, Why they are suitable?
 Standard resistances are usually, made with alloys. For examples Manganin, constantan and
nicrome. These alloys are suitable because of the reasons that (i) they possess high resistivity (ii) they
have low temperature coefficient of resistance and have high melting point.
11. In a conductor, large number of electrons are free to move in it, but why no current is detected?
 There are many free electrons moving in a conductor even though no electric source is connected
across it, but these free electrons move randomly so, net flow of these charge particles (electrons) in a

specified direction is zero. Hence, the net current in the conductor is zero. If an electric source is
connected across the end of a conductor, the motion of charge particles is specific, hence the current
is detected.
12. A metallic conductor is stretched to double of its original length. What would be the resistance and
resistivity of the conductor?
 When a conductor is stretched, its length increases and the diameter decreases, but volume remain
same.
l 4l
In initial condition, R = ρA … (i) ρA
R'
l' R= l
For l'= 2l, R’ = ρA' ρA
R'
Since the volume remains unchanged,
R =4
Al = A'l'
∴ R' = 4R
A This shows that the resistance is increased by
∴ A' = 2 .
four times the initial value.
2l The resistivity of a material depends on the
So, R' = ρ A/2
nature of material and its temperature, it
4l remains constant in the given situation.
R' = ρ A … (ii)
Now, dividing equation (ii) by equation (i),
we get
13. A wire is carrying current. It is charged? Explain.
 To charge a wire some excess charge must be deposited in it (either excess positive or excess
negative). But in a current carrying wire, the number of charge particle entering the wire is equal to
number of these particle leaving it, so no excess charges are deposited. So, the wire carrying current
is not charged.
14. Batteries are always labelled with their emf, for instance, an A flashlight battery is labelled '1.5 volt'.
Would it also be appropriate to put a label on batteries stating how much current they provide? Why
or why not?
 Emf is the property of electric source, but not the components connecting in the circuit. However, the
electric current depends on both the emf and combination of resistances in the circuit. Since, the
current depends on value of resistance in the circuit, its value varies, although the source is same.
Hence, the labelling of current is not appropriate.
15. Why does an electric bulb nearly always burn out just as you turn on the light, almost never while
the light is shining?
 In the beginning, the filament has relatively low temperature. When current flows through it, it gets
heated. The resistance of a conductor increases on heating. Hence, the electric current is high initially
and decreases as the filament is heated. Due to the sudden change of temperature, the wire suffers
differential expansion at different cross section and it burns.
16. At what condition, current can be multiplied in series combination of cells?
 When external resistance (R) is very much greater than net internal resistance (nr) of cells, the current
drawn in the circuit is,
nE E
I = R = n ⎛R⎞ = n × current drawn from every cell.
⎝ ⎠
17. A heater wire is heated to red hot but not the conducting wire to it from electric power supply. Why?
 The amount of heat produced in a conductor is determined from the formula of joules law of heating,
H = I2Rt, i.e. H ∝ R.
i. In case of heater wire, R is very high.
so, the heat (H) is significantly very high
ii. In case of connecting wire, R tends to zero, so H→0. So, it can not red hot.
Worked Out Problems

1. Two resistance of 1000 Ω and 3000 Ω are connected in series with 200 V main supply. What will be the
reading in voltmeter of internal resistance 1000 Ω when placed across the 1000 Ω resistance?
SOLUTION
The appropriate circuit design using the given information is shown in figure below.
Here,
V = 200 V
R1 = 1000 Ω
R2 = 3000 Ω
RV = 1000 Ω
When voltmeter is connected across 1000 Ω resistor, the resistance between A and B is,
RAB = R1 || RV 200 V
I
R1 RV 1000 × 1000
= R + R = 1000 + 1000 = 500 Ω
1 V
Now, equivalent resistance of the circuit,

R = RAB + RBC = 500 + 3000 = 3500 Ω A 1000 Ω B
V 200 3000 Ω C
Total current (I) = R = 3500 = 0.057 A
V
Now, voltmeter reading gives the voltage across A and B, i.e.
1000 Ω
VAB = IRAB = 0.057 × 500 = 28.5 V
2. Copper has 8.5 × 1028 free electrons per cubic meter. A 71.0 cm length of 12-gauge Copper wire, that is
2.05 mm in diameter, carries 4.85 A current. How much time does it take for an electron to travel the
length of the wire?
SOLUTION
Given,
Density of electron (n) = 8.5 × 1028 electrons/m3
Length of wire (l) = 71.0 cm = 71.0 × 10–2 m.
Diameter of wire (d) = 2.05 mm = 2.05 × 10–3 m
Current (I) = 4.85 A
Time (t) = ?
we know that
I
vd = neA
l I
or, t =
πd2
ne⎛ 4 ⎞
⎝ ⎠
πd2 ne
or, t = l × 4 × I
π × (2.05 × 10–3)2 8.5 × 1028 × 1.6 × 10–19 127.419 × 103
or, 0.71× 4 × 4.85 = 19.4 = 6567.98 sec = 109.5 min
3. A battery of emf 4 V and internal resistance 2 Ω is joined to a resistor of 8 Ω. Calculate the terminal
potential difference. What additional resistance in series with 8 Ω resistor would produce a terminal
p.d. of 3.6 V?
SOLUTION
Given,
Internal resistance (r) = 2 Ω
External resistance (R) = 8 Ω

E 4
Total current (I) = R + r = 8 + 2 = 0.4 A
Let x be the additional resistance in series with or, 36 + 3.6 x = 32 + 4x

8 Ω resistor to produce terminal p.d. of 3.6 V. or 4x – 3.6x = 36 – 32
Total external resistance (R) = 8 + x or, 0.4 x = 4
E 4 4 4
Total current (I) = R + r = 8 + x + 2 = 10 + x or, x = 0.4
Emf (e) = 4 V
∴ x = 10 Ω
Now, Terminal p.d. = IR
∴ Additional resistance is 10 Ω.
4
3.6 = (10 + x) (8 + x)
4. The resistance of a conductor of 20°C is 3.15 Ω and at 100°C is 3.75 Ω. Determine the temperature
coefficient of resistance of conductor. What will be the resistance of the conductor at 0°C ?
SOLUTION
Resistance at 20°C (R20) = 3.15Ω 1 + 100 α

or, 1.19 =
1 + 20 α
Resistance at 100°C (R100) = 3.75Ω
or, 1 + 100 α = 1.19 (1 + 20 α)
Temperature coefficient (α) = ? or, 1 + 100 α = 1.19 + 23.89 α
Resistance at 0°C (R0) = ? or, 100 α – 23.89 α = 0.19 – 1
We know, or, 76.11 α = 0.19
R20 = R0 [1 + α (20 – 0)] 0.19
∴ α = 76.19 = 2.5 × 10–3/°C
R20 = R0 (1 + 20 α) … (i)
and R100 = R0 [1 + α (100 – 0)] Now,
From equation (i)
= R0 (1 + 100 α) … (ii)
Dividing (ii) by (i), we get, R20= R0(1 + 2.5 × 10–3 × 20)
R100 R0(1 + 100 α) 3.15 = R0(1 + 50 × 10–3)
R20 = R0 (1 + 20 α) 3.15
R0 = 1.05 = 3.0 Ω
3.75 1 + 100 α
or, 3.15 = 1 + 20 α ∴ Resistance at 0°C = 3.0 Ω
5. The resistance of a conductor is 10 ohm at 50ºC and 15 ohm at 100ºC. Calculate its resistance at 0ºC.
SOLUTION
Given, R100 1 + 100α
∴ R50 = 1 + 50α
Temperature (t) = 50º C
Resistance (R50) = 10 Ω 15 1 + 100α
or, 10 = 1 + 50α
at 100ºC, R100 = 15 Ω
at 0ºC, R0 = ? or, 15 + 750α = 10 + 1000α
We know, or, 5 = 250 α
Rθ = R0 (1 + αΔθ) [α = temp. coefficient of resista or, α = 0.02 K–1
so, ∴ R50 = R0 (1 + α 50)
R50 = R0 (1 + α × 50) 10 = R0 (1 + 0.02 × 50)
and 10 = R0 (1 + 1)
R100 = R0 (1 + α × 100) ∴ R0 = 5 Ω
6. In the given circuit, calculate the potential difference between the points B and D. 6V
SOLUTION
Given,
6Ω 12Ω
Emf of cell (E) = 6 V B
•
Potential difference between B and D, A
•
•
•
C
12Ω D 6Ω

(VBD ) = ?
Total resistance RAC = (6 + 12) || (6 + 12) = 18 || 18
18 × 18 Now,
= 18 + 18 = 9 Ω 1
VAB = 3 × 6 = 2 V
E 6 2
Total current in the circuit (I) = R = 9 = 3 A 1
AC
VAD= 3 × 12 = 4 V
1 1
Then, IAB = 3 and IAD = 3 ∴ VBD = VAD – VAB
=4–2=2V
7. A capacity of a storage battery, such as those used in automobile electrical systems, is rated in ampere-
hours (A.h). A 50 A.h battery can supply a current of 50 A for 1.0 h, or 25 A for 2.0 h and so on. What
total energy can be supplied by a 12 V, 60 A.h battery if its internal resistance is negligible?
SOLUTION
Given,
Voltage, V = 12 V
Current, I = 60 A
Time, t = 1 h = 3600 s
Total energy supplied, E = ?
We know that,
E
P= t
∴ E = Pt = IVt = 60 × 12 × 3600 = 2.6 × 106 J
8. An electrical heating coil is connected in series with a resistance of X Ω across the 240 V mains, the coil
being immersed in a kilogram of water at 20°C. The temperature of the water rises to boiling point in
10 minutes. When a second heating experiment is made with the resistance X short-circuited the time
required to develop the same quantity of heat is reduced to 6 minutes. Calculate the value of X.
SOLUTION
P.d of mains (V) = 240 V, or I2Rt2 = mcwΔθ
2
Mass of water (mw) = 1 kg,
or ⎛240⎞ R × 6 × 60 = 1 × 4200 (100 – 20)
θ1 = 20°C ⎝ ⎠R
t1 = 10 min, θ2 = 100°C , t2 = 6 min 240 × 240 4200 × 80
or R = 6 × 60
Let R be the resistance of the heating coil.
Heat developed in the coil = heat absorbed by 240 × 240 × 6 × 60
or R= 4200 × 80 = 61.71 Ω
water
or I2Rt1 = mcwΔθ Putting the value of R in (i), we get
2
240 2
or ⎛ R + X⎞ R × 10 × 60 = 1 × 4200 (100 – 20)
⎛ 240 ⎞ × 61.71 = 560
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 61.71 + X⎠
2
240 2 4200× 80 ⎛ 240 ⎞ = 560 = 9.075
or ⎛ R + X⎞ R =
or
⎝ ⎠ 600 = 560 . . . (i) ⎝ 61.71 + X⎠ 61.71
240
When resistance x is short circuited, we can or 61.71 + X = 3.012
write
240
240 or 61.71 + X = 3.012
I= R
240
Also, Heat developed in the coil = heat or X = 3.012 – 61.71 = 18 Ω
absorbed by water

9. An electric lamp consumes 60 W at 220 V. How many dry cells of emf 1.5 V and internal resistance 1 Ω
are required to glow the lamp?
SOLUTION
Given, R = 806.75 Ω
And, R
Power (P) = 60 W.
E.M. F of cell (E) = 1.5 V nE
I = R + nr E, r
Internal resistance (r) = 1 Ω
No. of cell (n) = ? n × 1.5
0.28 = 806.75 + n
We have,
P = IV or, 220 + 0.28 × n = n × 1.5
60 = I × 220 or, 220 = 1.23 × n
I = 0.28 A 220
or, n = 1.23
Again,
V = IR = 179
200 = 0.28 × R ∴ no. of cell = 179
10. Two lamps rated 25 W – 220 V and 100 W – 220 V are connected to 220 V supply. Calculate the powers
consumed by the lamps.
SOLUTION
Given, V2 = 220 V
First lamp = 25 W – 220 V V22 220 × 220
R2 = P = 100 = 484 Ω
Second lamp = 100 W – 220 V 2
Voltage (V) = 220 V If two lamps are connected in series and joined
Power consumed (P) = ? R1 R2 to 220 V mains, the current in the circuit, I is
Now, given as,
For first lamp, V 220
I = R + R = 1936 + 484 = 0.091A
P1 = 25 W 1 2
V1 = 220 V Power consumed by first lamp,

220V
V12 220 × 220 I2R1 = (0.091)2 × 1936 = 16 W
R1 = P = 25 = 1936 Ω Power consumed by second lamp,
1
For second lamp, P2 = 100 W I2R2 = (0.091)2 × 484 = 4 W
11. An electric fire dissipates 1 kW when connected to a 250 V supply. Calculate to the nearest whole
number the percentage change that must be made in the resistance of the heating element in order that
it may dissipate 1 kW on a 200 V supply. What percentage change in the length of the heating element
will produce this change of resistance if the consequent increase in the temperature of the wire causes
its resistivity to increase by a factor 1.05? The cross sectional area may be assumed constant.
SOLUTIOIN
Given,
P1 = 1 kW = 103 W
V1 = 250 V
P2= 1 kW = 103 W
ρ1
V2 = 200 V, = 1.05
ρ2
% change in resistance = ?
V2
P= R
So, we can write
2
V1 (250)2 250 × 250
R1 = P = 103 = 1000 = 62.5 Ω
1

2 R1 A 62.5 A
V2 (200)2 200 × 200 ∴ l1 = =
R2 = P = 10003 = 1000 = 40 Ω ρ1 ρ1
2
62.5 – 40 R2 A 40 A 38.1 A
∴ % change in resistance = 62.5 × 100% = 36% ∴ l2 = = =
ρ2 1.05 ρ1 ρ1
Also, we have l1 - l2
Thus, % change in length = l × 100 %
l 1
R=ρ A 62.5 – 38.1
= 62.5 × 100% = 39%
RA
or l =
ρ

1. A Copper wire has a square cross section 2.3 mm on a side. The wire is 4.0 m long and carries a
current of 3.6 A. The density of free electrons is 8.5 × 1028 m–3. Find the magnitudes of (a) the current
density in the wire; (b) the electric field in the wire. (c) How much time is required for an electron to
travel the length of the wire? [ρ = 1.72 × 10–8 Ωm]
Ans: (a) 6.8 × 10 5 Am – 2 (b) 0.012 V/m (c) 22 h
2. In an experiment conducted at room temperature, a current of 0.820 A flows through a wire 3.26 mm
in diameter. Find the magnitude of the electric field in the wire if the wire is made of (a) tungsten; (b)
aluminum. [ρt = 5.25 × 10– 8 Ω m; ρAl = 2.75 × 10–8 Ω m]
Ans: (a) 5.16 × 10 – 3 Vm – 1 (b) 2.70 × 10 – 3 N/m
3. You need to produce a set of cylindrical Copper wire 3.50 m long that will have a resistance of 0.125
Ω each. What will be the mass of each of these wires? [ρc = 1.72 × 10– 8 Ωm, Density of Copper wire
(D) = 8.9 × 103 kgm– 3]
Ans: 0.015 kg
4. A current carrying gold wire has diameter 0.84 mm. The electric field in the wire is 0.49 V/m. What is
(a) The current carried by the wire? (b) The potential difference between two points in the wire 6.4 m
apart? (c) The resistance of a 6.4 m length of the wire? [ρ = 2.44 × 10– 8 Ωm]
Ans: (a) 11.12 A (b) 3.13 V (c) 0.281 Ω
5. A strand of wire has resistance 5.60 μΩ. Find the net resistance of 120 such strands if they are (a)
placed side by side to form a cable of the same length as a single strand; (b) connected end to end to
form a wire 120 times as long as a single strand. Ans: (a) 4.67 × 10–8 Ω (b) 6.72 × 10–4 Ω
6. A 150 V voltmeter has a resistance of 30,000 Ω. When connected in series with a large resistance R
across a 110 V line, the meter reads 68 V. Find the resistance R. Ans: 18.6 × 103 Ω
7. A thin film resistor in a solid-state circuit has a thickness of 1 μm and is made of nichrome of
resistively 10–6 Ωm. Calculate the resistance available between opposite edges of a 1 mm2 area of film
a. If it is square shaped
b. If it is rectangular, 20 times as long as it is wide Ans: (a) 1 Ω (b) 0.05 Ω
8. Two resistors of 1200 Ω and 800 Ω are connected in series with a battery of emf 24 V and negligible
internal resistance as in figure (i). What is the potential difference across each resistor? A voltmeter V
of resistance 600 Ω is now connected firstly across the 1200 Ω resistor as shown, and then across the
800 Ω resistor. Find the potential difference recorded by the voltmeter in each case.
E E E
I R1 R2 I R1 I R1
R2 R2
(i) v v
(ii) (iii)
Rv Rv
Ans: 14.4 V, 9.6 V, 8 V, 5.33 V
9. The open-circuit terminal voltage of a battery is 12.6 V, when a resistor R = 4.00 Ω is connected
between the terminals of the battery, the terminal voltage of the battery is 10.4 V. What is the internal
resistance of the battery? Ans: 0.85 Ω
10. A complete circuit consists of a 24.0 V battery, a 5.60 Ω resistor and a switch. The internal resistance
of the battery is 0.28 Ω. The switch is opened. (i) What does an ideal voltmeter read when placed (a)
across the terminals of the battery? (b) across the resistor? (c) across the switch?
(ii) Repeat parts (a), (b) and (c) for the case when the switch is closed.
ANS: (i) (a) 24 V (b) 0 (c) 24 V (ii) (a) 22.85 V (b) 22.85 V (c)0
11. When switch S in figure is open, the voltmeter V of the battery V

reads 3.08 V. When the switch is closed, the voltmeter reading E
drops to 2.97 V, and the ammeter A reads 1.65 A. Find the
r
internal resistance of the battery, and the circuit resistance R.
Assume that the two meters are ideal, so they don’t affect the
circuit. A
S R
ANS: 0.07 Ω and 1.8 Ω
12. To stun its prey, the electric eel electrophorus electrius generates 0.8 A pushes of current along its
skin. This current flows across a 650 V potential difference. At what rate does electrophorus deliver
energy to its prey? Ans: 520 W
13. A battery-powered global positioning system (GPS) receiver operating on 9.0 V draws a current of
1
0.13 A. How much electrical energy does it consume during 1 2 h? Ans: 6.3 × 103 J
a 1.0Ω 12.0 V d
14. In the circuit in figure, find (a) the rate of conversion of internal
(chemical) energy to electrical energy within the battery; (b) the rate of
dissipation of electrical energy in the battery; (c) the rate of dissipation of
electrical energy in external resistor.
Ans: (a) 24 W (b) 4 W (c) 20 W b 5.0Ω c
15. The potential difference across the terminals of a battery is 8.4 V when there is a current of 1.50 A in
the battery from the negative to the positive terminal. When the current is 3.50 A in the reverse
direction, the potential difference becomes 9.4 V. (a) What is the internal resistance of the battery? (b)
What is the emf of the battery? Ans: (a) 0.2 Ω (b) 8.7 V
εE11 = 12.0 V r1= 1.0 Ω
16. In the following circuit, find (a) the current through
the 8.0 Ω resistor; (b) the total rate of dissipation of
electrical energy in the 8.0 Ω resistor and in the
internal resistance of the batteries. R = 8.0 Ω
Eε2 = 8.0 V r2= 1.0 Ω
Ans: (a) 0.40 A (b) 1.6 W
17. A surge suppressor is made of a material whose conducting properties are such that the current
passing through is directly proportional to the fourth power of the applied voltage. If the suppressor
dissipates energy at a rate of 6.0 W when the potential difference across it is 240 V, estimate the
power dissipated when the potential difference rises to 1200 V. Ans: 18.75 kW
potential difference. What additional resistance in series with the 8 Ω resistor would produce a
terminal potential difference of 3.6 V? Ans: 3.20 V and 10 Ω
Ex , r x Ey , r y
19. A battery X of emf 6 V and internal resistance 2 Ω is in series with a
battery Y of emf 4 V and internal resistance 8 Ω so that the two emfs X Y
act in the same direction. A 10 Ω resistor is connected to the batteries.
Calculate the terminal potential difference of each battery. If Y is
reversed so that the emf now opposes each other, what is the new R=10Ω

terminal potential difference of X and Y? Ans: 5 V, 0 V, 5.8 V, 4.8 V
20. A voltmeter having a resistance of 1800 Ω is used to measure the potential difference across a 200 Ω
resistance which is connected to the terminals of a.d.c. power supply having an emf of 50 V and an
internal resistance of 20 Ω. Determine the percentage change in the potential difference across the 200
Ω resistor as a result of connecting the voltmeter across it. Ans: 1%
21. A heating coil of power rating 10 W is required when the potential difference across it is 20 V.
Calculate the length of nichrome wire needed to make the coil if the cross-sectional area of the wire
used is 1 × 10–7 m2 and the resistivity of nichrome is 1 × 10–6 Ωm. What length of wire would be
needed if its diameter was half that previous used? Ans: 4 m and 1 m
Exercises
Very Short Answer Questions
1. Is the resistivity of a metal a constant quantity?
2. Which combination of resistance increases the equivalent resistance?
3. What is drift velocity?
4. Which combination of resistance decreases the equivalent resistance?
5. What are the order of magnitude of thermal velocity and drift velocity of electrons in a current
carrying conductor at room temperature.
6. What do you mean by conductivity of a material? Give its SI units.
7. What is temperature coefficient of resistivity? What is its unit?
8. How are the electric lamps connected in houses, series or parallel?
9. What do you mean by electric power?
10. Define watt, kilowatt, kilowatt-hour and horsepower.
11. What is the relation between “emf ”and “terminal potential difference”?
12. An electric current move along the length of conductor. If so, why it is not the vector quantity?
13. Why an electric bulb becomes dim when an electric heater in parallel circuit is switched on?
14. Which resistance, internal or external, should be greater to draw the maximum current the series
combination of the cells?
Short Answer Questions

1. How drift velocity is related with current through a conductor?
2. It is dangerous to operate electrical appliances with wet hands. Why?
3. Is ohm's law applicable to all conductors?
4. How drift velocity is related with current through a conductor?
5. Does a conductor charge when current flows through it?
6. Is the resistivity of a metal a constant quantity?
7. Differentiate between ohmic and non ohmic resistance.
8. What is the ratio of n-equal resistances when they are connected in series to parallel?
9. Large amount of current flows through the conductor, why?
10. Why do we use connecting wires made of copper?
11. A proton beam is going from East to West. Is there an electric current? If yes, in what direction?
12. Silver is a homogeneous conductor and it obeys Ohm’s law. An electrical device is made-up of pure
silver, will it obey Ohm’s law for all values of electric field?
13. What are the factors on which resistivity of a material depend?
14. The same current is passed through the line wire and filament of a bulb, the filament becomes hot but
not the line wire, why?
15. On an electric bulb, it is written 100 W and 220 V, what does it mean?
16. When electric circuits are shorted light spark appears, why?
17. Which of the combination will you prefer if you have to draw large current if external resistance is
negligible compared to internal resistance of a cell? Also, internal resistance is negligible compared to
external resistance?
18. What are the factors on which the internal resistance of a cell depends?
19. Though the same current flows through the electric line wires and the bulb filament, yet only the
filament glows, why?
20. In what respect does a heater wire differ from a fuse wire?
21. Resistors R1 and R2 are connected in parallel to an emf source that has negligible internal resistance.
What happens to the current through R1 when R2 is removed from the circuit?
22. What is the cause of resistance of a conductor?
23. The charges in a conductor are supposed to reside on the surface, then why don't the free electrons
all go to the surface?
24. Name three materials used for making standard resistance. Give reason, Why they are suitable?
25. When resistors are connected in series the effective resistance is increased. Why?
26. How does the internal resistance of a cell vary with temperature?
27. Why heat is generated in a conductor, when current flows through it?
28. Can terminal potential difference be greater than emf of a cell?
29. What is internal resistance? Write the relation between E,V and r.
30. Three bulbs 40 W, 60 W and 100 W are connected to 220 V mains. Which bulb will glow brightly, if
they are connected in series?
Long-Answer Type Questions
1. Describe the mechanism of current flow in a conductor and derive a relation between current density
and drift velocity to electrons.
2. What is drift velocity of an electron? Derive a relation between the current through a metallic
conductor and the drift velocity in terms of the number of free electrons per unit volume of the
conductor.
3. What is current density? Derive an expression for drift velocity of electrons in a conductor in term of
current density?
4. State Ohm’s law. How it is experimentally verified?
5. State and explain Ohm’s law. Two resistors are connected in parallel and third resistor be connected
in series with the combination of parallel resistors. If this combination be connected with a battery of
the negligible internal resistance, find the potential difference across each resistor.
6. What is equivalent resistance of resistors? Derive its expression when the resistors are connected (i)
in series (ii) in parallel.
7. What is resistance of a conductor? On what factor does it depends? Give the correspondence relation.
8. What is internal resistance of a cell? On what factors does it depend? Derive circuit formula for a cell
in a circuit.
9. Define emf of a cell. Show that the voltage drop across a resistor connected in parallel with a cell is
different from the emf of the cell.
10. What is a cell? Two identical cells, each of emf (E) and internal resistance(r) are connected in series to
an external resistance(R). Find the expression for total current in the circuit.
LEVEL I
1. A 2 Ω resistance coil is to be constructed from a constantan wire of diameter 0.315 mm. If the
resistivity of constantan is 4.9 × 10-6 Ω cm, find the length of the wire required to construct the coil.
Ans: 318 cm

2. Two resistors 500 Ω and 300 Ω are connected in series with a battery of emf 20 V. A voltmeter of
resistance 500 Ω is used to measure the p d across the 500 Ω resistor. Find the error in the
measurement. Ans: 3.4 V
3. Wire A has a resistance of 2 Ω. Wire B, made of the same materials is twice as long and has half the
thickness of wire A. Find the resistance of B. Ans: 16 Ω
4. Calculate the current in each resistance of the following current divider electric circuit.
Ans: 12 A, 6 A, 4 A
5. A tungsten coil has a resistance of 12.0 Ω at 15°C. If the temperature coefficient of resistance of
tungsten is 0.004 K-1, calculate the coil resistance at 80°C. Ans: 14.94 Ω
6. A 20 Ω resistor and a resistor X are placed in series with a battery of 10 V and of negligible resistance.
If the voltage across X is 2 V, what is the value of X? Ans: 5 Ω
7. A long copper wire of mass 4.5 kg has a resistance of 14 Ω. Calculate the length and diameter of the
wire. Density of copper is 8930 kg m–3 and resistivity is 1.8 × 10–8 Ωm.
Ans: 6.26 × 10 2 m, 1.013 mm
Ans: 15 Ω
E
8. In the circuit shown in figure, the voltage across the 2.00 Ω
1.00 Ω 2.00 Ω
resistor is 12.0 V. What are the emf of the battery and the
current through the 6.00 Ω resistor? 6.00 Ω
Ans: 18 V, 3 A
9. The maximum power dissipated in a 10000 Ω resistor is 1 W. What is the maximum current?
Ans: 0.01 A
10. A 32 Ω and a 20 Ω resistor are connected in parallel, and the combination is connected across a 240 V
d.c. line. (a) What is the resistance of the parallel combination? (b) What is the total current through
the parallel combination? (c) What is the current trough each resistor?
Ans: (a) 12.3 Ω (b) 19.5 A (c) 7.5 A and 12 A
r 24.0 V
11. The terminal voltage of the 24.0 V battery is 21.2 V. What is (a) the +
internal resistance r of the battery; (b) the resistance R of the circuit 4.00 A
R 4.00 A
resistor?
Ans: (a) 0.7 Ω (b) 5.3 Ω
12. Eight cells, each of emf 1.5 V, are connected in series. If a current of 3 A flows through an external
resistance of 2 Ω, calculate the internal resistance of a cell.
Ans: 0.25 Ω
13. A resistor with a 15.0 V potential difference across its ends develops thermal energy at a rate of 327
W. (a) What is its resistance? (b) What is the current in the resistor?
Ans: (a) 0.688 Ω (b) 21.8 A
14. To stun its prey, the electric eel electrophorus electrius generates 0.8 A pushes of current along its
skin. This current flows across a 650 V potential difference. At what rate does electrophorus deliver
energy to its prey?
Ans: 520 W
15. The wire of a fuse in an electric circuit melts when the current density increases to 600 A/cm2. What
should be the diameter of the wire so that it may limit the current to 0.4 A?
Ans: 0.29 mm

16. At 27.0°C, the resistance of a resistor is 83 Ω. What is the temperature of the resistor if the resistance
is found to be 100 Ω and the temperature coefficient of the material of the resistor is 1.7 × 10–4 °C–1?
Ans: 1205.1°C
17. A battery of emf 10 V and internal resistance 0.5 Ω is charged by a d.c. source of 100 V with the help
of a series resistor of 10.0 Ω. Find the terminal voltage of the battery when it is being charged.
Ans: 14.3 V
18. Find the minimum number of cells required to produce an electric current of 1.5 A through a
resistance of 30 Ω. Given that the emf of each cell is 1.5 V and internal resistance of each cell is 1.0 Ω.
Ans: 120
19. A metallic wire has a diameter of 4.12 mm. When the current in the wire is 8.00 A, the drift velocity is
5.40 × 10–5 ms–1. What is the density of free electrons in the metal?
Ans: 6.94 × 10 2 8 electrons/m 3
20. What diameter must a Copper wire have if its resistance is to be the same as that of an equal length of
aluminum wire diameter 3.26 mm? [ ρc = 1.72 × 10– 8 Ω m, ρa= 2.75 × 10– 8 Ω m]
Ans: 2.58 × 10 – 3 m
21. An aluminum cube has a side length of 1.80 m. What is the resistance between two opposite faces of
the cube? [ρ = 2.75 × 10– 8 Ωm] Ans: 1.53 × 10–8 Ω
22. You apply a potential difference of 4.50 V between the ends of a wire that is 2.50 m in length and
0.654 mm in radius. The resulting current through the wire is 17.6 A. What is the resistivity of the
wire? Ans: 1.37 × 10–7 Ωm
23. What is the resistance of a Nichrome wire at 0.0 C if its resistance is 100.00 Ω at 11.5 C?
o o
[α = 0.0004oC–1] Ans: 99.54 Ω
24. A resistor with a 15.0 V potential difference across its ends develops thermal energy at a rate of 327
W. (a) What is its resistance? (b) What is the current in the resistor?
Ans: (a) 0.688 Ω (b) 21.8 A
25. Two heating coils A and B, connected in parallel in a circuit, produce power of 12 W and 24 W
respectively. What is the ratio of their resistances, RA/RB, when use? Ans: 2 : 1
26. A 3 Ω and 6 Ω resistors are connected in parallel and the combination is connected series with 8 Ω
resistors. Calculate the equivalent resistance and total current in the circuit if a cell of 2 V is
connected in the circuit. Ans: 10 Ω, 0.2 A
27. When a wire carries a current of 1.20 A, the drift velocity is 1.20 × 10–4 ms–1. What is the drift velocity
when the current is 6.00 A? Ans: 6 × 10–4 ms–1
28. A Copper transmission cable 100 km long and 10.0 cm in diameter carries a current of 125 A. (a)
What is the potential drop across the cable? (b) How much electrical energy is dissipated as thermal
energy every hour? [ρ = 1.72 × 10– 8 Ωm] Ans: (a) 27.4 V (b) 12.3 × 106 J
29. A copper wire has a diameter of 1.02 mm and carries a constant current of 1.67A. If the density of free
electrons in copper is 8.5 × 1028/m3, calculate the current density and the drift velocity of the
electrons. Ans: 1.5 × 10–4 ms–1
30. Two resistance of 1000 Ω and 2000 Ω are placed in series with 50 V mains supply. What will be the
reading on a voltmeter of internal resistance 2000 Ω when placed across the 1000 Ω resistor? What
fractional change in voltage occurs when voltmeter is connected? Ans: 25%
31. A cell of internal resistance of 0.2 Ω is connected two coils of resistance 6.0 Ω and 8.0 Ω joined
parallel. There is a current of 0.2 A in the 8.0 Ω coil. Find the emf of cell. Ans: 1.7 V
potential difference. What additional resistance in series with 8 Ω resistor would produce a terminal
p.d. of 3.6 V? Ans: 10 Ω.
LEVEL II
1. A silver wire 2.6 mm in diameter transfers a charge of 420 C in 80 min. Silver contains 5.8 × 1028 free
electrons per cubic meter. What is the current in the wire? What is the magnitude of the drift velocity
of the electrons in the wire?
Ans: 87.5 × 10 – 3 A, 1.77 × 10 – 3 ms – 1

2. The earth has a negative surface charge density of 10–9 Cm–2. The potential difference of 500 kV
between the top of the atmosphere and the surface results in a current of 2000 A over the entire earth.
How much time is supposed to neutralise the earth's surface? (Radius of earth = 6370 km)
Ans: 33.998 min
3. A copper wire of radius 1.0 mm carries a current of 10 A. Calculate the drift velocity of the electrons.
Metallic copper has one conduction electron per atom, the atomic mass of copper is 64 u and density
of copper is 8900 kgm–3. Given 1u = 1.66 × 10–27 kg.
Ans: 2.37×10 – 4 ms – 1
R1
4. Four resistors and a battery of negligible internal resistance
are assembled to make the circuit in figure. Let E = 6.00 V, R1 R3 R4
= 3.50 Ω, R2 = 8.20 Ω, R3 = 1.50 Ω and R4 = 4.50 Ω. Find (a) the E R2
equivalent resistance of the network (b) the current in each
resistor.
Ans: (a) 4.49 Ω (b) I 1 = 1.34 A, I 2 = 0.162 A, I 3 = 0.884 A, I 4 = 0.294 A 9Ω
A B
5. Find the equivalent resistance between B and C points.
Ans: 3.68 Ω 3Ω 10 Ω
6. Find the equivalent resistance between the points A and B of 5Ω
R
the following circuit. Ans:
2 D C
7Ω
A B
2R 2R R
R1 =100 Ω
7. Determine the equivalent resistance of following
network. Also, find out the currents in each resistor. R2 =50 Ω
Ans: R = 118.75 Ω, current through r 1 = 0.05 A, current R3 =50 Ω
through 6V R4 =75 Ω
r 2 = 0.02 A, current through r 3 = 0.018 A, current through r 4
= 0.012 A
8. Find out the equivalent resistance between A and B in
the following circuits.
3Ω B
R R
3Ω
3Ω 6Ω 6Ω
6Ω A R C
3Ω
B R R
3Ω A 3Ω D
(i) (ii)
1Ω 1Ω 1Ω
A
1Ω 1Ω 1Ω To infinity
B
1Ω 1Ω 1Ω
(iii)

1Ω 1Ω 1Ω
A
2Ω 2Ω 2Ω To infinity
B
(iv) 5
Ans:(i) 2 Ω, (ii) R (iii) 1.41 Ω (iv) 1 Ω
8
9. The temperature of 0.3 kg of oil in a vacuum flask rises 10°C per minute with an immersion heater of
12.3 watts input. On repeating with 0.4 kg of oil the temperature rises by 1.2°C per minute for an
input of 19.2 watts. Find the specific heat capacity of the oil and the thermal capacity of the flask.
Ans:2220 Jkg - 1 K - 1 , 72 J K – 1
10. An electric hot plate has two coils of manganin wire, each 20 m in length and 0.23 mm2 cross sectional
area. Show that it will be possible to arrange for three different rates of heating, and calculate the
wattage in each case when the heater is supplied from 200 V mains. The resistivity of manganin is 4.6
× 10-7 Ωm. Ans: 1 kW, 0.5 kW, 2 kW
11. A capacity of a storage battery, such as those used in automobile electrical systems, is rated in
ampere-hours (A.h). A 50 A.h battery can supply a current of 50 A for 1.0 h, or 25 A for 2.0 h and so
on. What total energy can be supplied by a 12 V, 60 A.h battery if its internal resistance is negligible?
Ans: 2.6 × 10 6 J
12. An electric hot plate has two coils of manganin wire, each 20 m in length and 0.23 mm2 cross
sectional
area. Show that it will be possible to arrange for three different rates of heating, and calculate the
wattage in each case when the heater is supplied from 200 V mains. The resistivity of manganin is
4.6 × 10-7 Ωm. Ans: 1 kW, 0.5 kW, 2 kW
13. An electric heating element to dissipate 400 W on 220 V mains is to be made from a wire 1 mm wide
and 0.05 mm thick. Calculate the length of the wire required if the resistivity of material is
1.1 × 10–6 Ωm. Ans: 5.5 m
14. A fuse of lead wire has an area of cross-section 0.2 mm2. On short circuiting, the current in the fuse
wire reaches 30 A. How long the short circuiting, will the fuse begin to melt? For lead, specific heat
capacity = 0.032 cal g–3 °C–1. Melting point = 327°C, density = 11.34 g cm–3 and resistivity = 22 × 10–6
Ω cm. The initial temperature of wire is 200C, Neglect heat losses.
Ans: 0.945 sc
15. As shown in the figure, a battery of emf 24 V and internal R1 = 3 Ω

resistance r is connected to a circuit containing two I1 R3 = 8 Ω
parallel resistors of 3 Ω and 6 Ω in series with an 8 Ω
I2
resistor. The current flowing in the 3 Ω is 0.8 A. Calculate I I
R2 = 6 Ω
(i) the current in the 6 Ω resistor, (ii) r and (ii) the terminal
potential difference of the battery.
Ans: (i) 0.4 A (ii) 10 Ω (iii) 12 V E = 24 V, r
16. Twelve cells each of e.m.f. 2 V and of internal resistance 0.5 ohm are arranged in a battery of n rows
and an external resistance 0.4 ohm is connected to the poles of the battery. Estimate the current
60n
flowing through the resistance in terms of n. Ans:
15 + n2
Ampere

1. When 5.5 ohm and 4.5 ohm resistance are joined together in series and a 10 ohm resistance is joined
in parallel the final resistance of the system is:
a. 2 Ω b. 5 Ω
c. 2.5 Ω d. 20 Ω

2. A piece of wire of resistance 4 ohm is bent through 180º at mid-point and the two halves are twisted
together, their resistance is:
a. 8 Ω b. 1 Ω
c. 2 Ω d. 5 Ω
3. The resistance of two wires connected in parallel in 3.43 Ω while the resistance of the same wires
connected in series is 14 Ω. The resistance are:
a. 5 and 6 b. 6 and 7
c. 7 and 8 d. 6 and 8
4. When the diameter of a nichrome wire is reduced to half, the resistance changes by:
a. 2 b. 4
c. 8 d. 16
5. The sound travels with speed 30 ms–1 in string. Then find the distance between successive nodes. If
frequency is 100 Hz
a. 20 cm b. 30 cm
c. 15 cm d. 45 cm
6. Three resisters R1, R2 and R3 ohms are connected in a parallel combination. If R1 < R2 < R3 the
equivalent resistance will be:
a. Less than R1 b. Equal to R2
c. Less than R2 d. Greater than R1
7. The current flowing through a resistance of 900 Ω is desired to reduce by 90%. What shunt should be
joined across it?
a. 100 Ω b. 90 Ω
c. 900 Ω d. 10 Ω
8. The resistance of the series combination of two resistance is R. When they are joined in parallel, the
total resistance is r. If R = nr, then the minimum possible value of n is
a. 4 b. 3
c. 2 d. 1
9. n resistance, each of r ohm, when connected in parallel give an equivalent resistance of R ohm. If
these resistance were connected in series, the combination would have a resistance, in ohm, equal to
a. n2R b. R/n2
c. R/n d. nR
10. A wire of a certain material is stretched slowly by ten percent. Its new resistance and specific
resistance become respectively
a. 1.1times, 1.1 times b. 1.2 times, 1.1 times
c. 1.21 times, same d. both remain the same
11. A thin wire of resistance 4 Ω is bent to form a circle. The resistance across any diameter is
a. 4 Ω b. 2 Ω
c. 1 Ω d. 8 Ω
12. Dimensions of resistance in an electrical circuit, in terms of dimension of mass M, of length L, of time
T and of current I, would be:
a. ML2T–2 b. ML2T–1I–1
c. ML2T–3I–2 d. ML2T–3I–1
13. A colour coded carbon resistor has the colors orange, blue, green and silver. Its resistance value and
tolerance percentage respectively are
a. 36 × 105 Ω and 10% b. 36 × 104 Ω and 5%
c. 63 × 105 Ω and 10% d. 35 × 106 Ω and 5%

14. The dimensions of 'resistance' are same as those of ........ where h is the Planck's constant, e is the
charge.
h2 h2
a. e2 b. e
h h
c. e2 d. e
15. A coil has resistance 25.00 ohm and 25.17 ohm at 20ºC and 35ºC respectively. What is the temperature
coefficient of resistance?
a. 4.545 × 10–4/ ºC b. 4.545 × 10–3/ºC
c. 4.545 × 10–2/ ºC d. 4.545 × 10–5/ºC
16. 4 bulbs is rated at 100 V, 200 W, when the voltage drops by 2%, then change in power of bulb is:
a. Increased by 2% b. Increased by 4%
c. Decreased by 2% d. Decreased by 4%
17. The power of a bulb is 100 watt at 200 V. When the voltage is 110 V, power of the bulb is:
a. 150 W b. 50 W
c. 120 W d. 25 W
18. The power of two heater coils is P1 and P2. If they are connected in series, the resultant power is:
P1P2
a. P1 + P2 b. P + P
1 2
c. 0 d. P1P2
19. In order to light a 6 W, 6 V bulb at rated power a battery of emf 6 V and internal resistance 2 Ω is
used. The bulb will light at power:
a. 6 W b. 27/8 W
c. 4 W d. 16/3 W
20. 5 cells each of emf 'E' and internal resistance 'r' are connected in series, by mistake one of the cell was
connected wrongly; then equivalent emf and internal resistance will be:
a. 5E, 3r b. 3E, 5r
c. 3E, 3r d. 5E, 5r
21. In a dynamo, voltage is 6 V current 0.5 A. What is the power generated?
a. 12 b. 1.5
c. 3 d. 5
ANSWERS
1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (d) 5. (c) 6. (a) 7. (a) 8. (a) 9. (a) 10. (c)
11. (c) 12. (c) 13. (a) 14. (c) 15. (a) 16. (d) 17. (d) 18. (b) 19. (b) 20. (b)
21. (c)


UNIT 5
MODERN PHYSICS
The main aim of this section is to update the recent development in Physics, basically
the Atomic physics, communication technology and Astronomy. To fulfill this aim, the
major objectives are put forth in this unit.
1. Nuclear Physics: Provides the knowledge on structure of nucleus, nuclear energy
production and its applications.
2. Solids: Convey the fundamental knowledge on construction of electronic devices.
3. Recent Trends in Physics: Make the study to familiar on very recent development in
Physics, specially Particle physics and Astronomy.

Nuclear Physics  Chapter 24  603
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
24.1 Introduction
In the early years of 20th century, much less was known about the structure of atoms beside the fact
that they contain electrons. J. J. Thompson discovered electrons in 1897, but its mass was still
unknown. So, it was not possible even to say how many electrons were contained in an atom. Since
the atoms are electrically neutral, scientist reasoned that an atom must also contain positive charge in
order to compensate the negative charge. But, nobody knew in what form did this positive charge
exist. Different models were proposed to describe the structure of an atom, but none of them had
convincing explanation of experimentally observed facts. It was Earnest Rutherford, who proposed a
satisfactory model to explain the existence of positive charge and its position in an atom based on his
α-scattering experiment by gold foil. According to him, the positive charge of the atom is densely
concentrated at the centre of atom forming its nucleus. Many other properties of nucleus could then
be known. The branch of physics that deals with the study of properties of nucleus and the nuclear
phenomena in terms of its constituents, interaction of nuclei, nuclear transmutation and their
application is called nuclear physics. This field of physics finds broad application in high energy
physics, medicine, material engineering, archaeology, etc. The most commonly known applications
of nuclear physics are nuclear power plants and nuclear weapons.
Discovery of Nucleus
Just after the discovery of negative electric charges, i.e., electrons, in 1897, it was speculated that
these negative charge particles were moving inside a kind of magma of positive charges. The nature
and layout of positive charges had not been known. In 1909, Ernest Rutherford assigned a student to
solve some problems regarding the atomic structure. The student reported some unexpected results
from the his work. Rutherford called this news the most incredible result of his life. Afterward, he set
up an experiment, in which alpha particles were observed to scatter backward from a gold foil, a
famous Rutherford's alpha scattering experiment. Then, he published a research paper in 1911
incorporating his finding. His major finding was that the scattering of alpha-particles was caused by
a hard, dense core at the center of the atom, called the nucleus.
24.2 Nucleus of an Atom

As mentioned earlier, the discovery of nucleus of an atom was made by Rutherford α-scattering
experiment. In his experiment, α particles emitted from a source were made to interact with gold foil,
and their corresponding deflections were studied. Based on the experimental observations, following
conclusions were made.
1. Most of the α particles passed undeviated from gold foil which indicates that an atom is mostly
an empty space.

2. Some α particles were scattered through large angles
which is due to the interaction (Coulomb repulsion) with a
massive dense core probably located at the centre. This
central core of an atom was named nucleus.
3. A very few α particles nearly 1 in 8,000 traced back their
original path which is due to head on collision with the
nucleus. This suggests that the nucleus is impenetrable.
These facts are shown in the Fig. 24.1.
Thus, according to Rutherford, nucleus is a positively charged
dense sphere located at the centre of an atom. The experimental
measurement of its diameter is about 10–15 m (1 fm). So, the size
of the nucleus is significantly small as compared to that of atom
(∼ 10–10 m). Nucleus is about 105 times smaller than atom.)
24.3 Constituents of a Nucleus

Every atom consists of a nucleus and electrons. Electrons revolve around the nucleus through a
specified orbit. The nucleus is dense part of an atom. The
existence of nucleus was first modelled by the Rutherford's α-
scattering experiment.
Nucleus contains two types of particles protons and neutrons
which are of nearly equal masses. The particles in the nucleus
are collectively called as nucleons. Hydrogen nucleus contains
only one proton, but the nucleus of atoms of all other
elements contains both protons and neutrons. Protons are
positively charged particles and neutrons are chargeless.
Therefore, the nucleus is positively charged. The mass of
neutron is slightly greater than that of the proton. Total mass
of an atom is supposed to be concentrated at the nucleus
because electron is around 1836 times lighter than the proton or neutron
Important Facts about Nucleus

i. A nucleus is regarded as a positively charged sphere, which is impenetrable.
ii. The charge of nucleus is provided by the charge of proton. Let Z be the number of protons in a
nucleus, then the charge of nucleus of an atom is written Ze, where e is the charge of an electron
(equivalently, the charge of a proton).
iii. Nucleus is the central (or core) part of an atom.
iv. The radius of nucleus is about fermi unit (i.e. 10–15 m). The radius of a nucleus depends on the
mass number of an atom. It is calculated from,
R = R0 A1/3 … (24.1)
where, R0 = 1.2 × 10–15m, is a constant quantity and A is the atomic mass of an atom.
v. The nuclear density has extremely large value. Its density is in the order of 1017 kg/m3. It is
almost independent of atomic number.

EXAMPLE 1: Find the nuclear radius of uranium atom. (Given R0 = 1.2 × 10−15 m and A of uranium is 235)
SOLUTION
Given, Radius constant (R0) = 1.2 × 10−15 m
Atomic mass (A) = 235
Radius of nucleus (R) = ?
We have,
R = R0 A1/3
= 1.2 × 10−15 (235)1/3
= 1.2 × 10−15 × 6.17 = 7.4 × 10−15 m
∴ The nuclear radius of U235 is 7.4 × 10−15 m.
EXAMPLE 2: The nuclear radius of oxygen-16 is 3.0 × 10−15 m. What is the nuclear radius of Iodine-131?
SOLUTION
Given, Atomic mass number of oxygen (A1) = 16
Atomic mass number of iodine (A2) = 131
The radius of oxygen-16 (R1) = 3.0 × 10−15 m
The radius of iodine-131 (R2) = ?
The radius of nucleus of the nucleus of an atom,
R = R0 A1/3.
For oxygen, R1 = R0 A1/3
1 ... (i)
For iodine, R2 = R0 A1/3
2 ... (ii)
Dividing (ii) by (i), we get,
1/3
R2 A2 1/3
⎛ A 2⎞
R1 = A1/3 = ⎝A1⎠
1
A2 1/3 131 1/3

∴ R2 = ⎛A ⎞ R1 = ⎛ 16 ⎞ −15
⎝ 1⎠ ⎝ ⎠ × 3 × 10
= 2.0 × 3.0 × 10−15 = 6.0 × 10−15 m
 Check Point: The nuclear radius of iodine-131 is 6.0 × 10−15 m. Find the nuclear radius of lead-205.
Ans: 7.0 × 10−15 m
24.4 Nuclear Density

The mass per unit volume of the nucleus is called nuclear density. Consider a nucleus of mass
number A and radius R.
Mass of nucleus (m) = A amu = A × 1.66 × 10–27 kg
4 4
also, the volume of nucleus (V) = 3 πR03 = 3 π (1.2 × 10–15)3 A = 7.24 × 10–45 A m3
m A × 1.66 × 10–27
Now, the density of nucleus (ρ) = V = = 2.29 × 1017 kgm–3
7.24 × 10–45 × A
This shows that, the density of nucleus has extremely large value. It does not depend on mass
number of an atom. All nuclei possess nearly the same value. It should be noted that, nuclear density
is not uniform through out the nucleus. It has maximum density at the centre and decreases
gradually towards the surface.
24.5 Atomic Number and Atomic Mass

The physical and chemical property of an element depend on the number of nucleons of an atom. So,
it is very important to know the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. Moreover, a nucleus
provides individuality of an atom.
Atomic Number
The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is called its atomic number. Atomic number is
denoted by Z. For example,
i. The atomic number of hydrogen is 1, i.e. Z = 1 (since there is only one proton in the nucleus of
hydrogen atom).
ii. The atomic number of helium is 2, i.e. Z = 2 (since the helium nucleus contains two protons).
Similarly, for lithium, Z = 3; for calcium, Z = 20; for uranium, Z = 92, and so on.
Atomic Mass Number

Total number of neutrons and protons in the nucleus of an atom is called its atomic mass number. It
is denoted by A. Therefore,
A=Z+N
where, N = number of neutrons.
For example, hydrogen has only one proton in its nucleus, so it has A = 1. Also, helium has two
protons and two neutrons in its nucleus, so it has A = 4.
24.6 Representation of a Nucleus of an Atom

The nucleus of an atom is represented symbolically as ZXA,
where, Z = atomic number
X = name of element
A = atomic mass number
For example,
i. Hydrogen nucleus, 1H1
ii. Helium nucleus, 2He4
iii. Oxygen nucleus, 8O16
iv. Uranium nucleus, 92U235 (for an isotope)
24.7 Isotopes, Isobars, Isotones

Isotopes
Two or more nuclei having same atomic number but different atomic mass numbers are called
isotopes of an element. 6C12, 6C13, 6C14 are the isotopes of carbon. Similarly, 19K40, 19K42 are the isotopes
of potassium.
Isobars
Two or more nuclei having same atomic mass number but different atomic numbers are called
isobars. Isobars are formed from two or more elements. For example, C14, 7N14 are the isobars of
carbon and nitrogen. Similarly, 19K40 and 20Ca40 are the isobars of potassium and calcium. The
chemical properties of isobars are different.
Isotones
Two or more nuclei having equal number of neutrons are called isotones. For examples, 17Cl37 and
19K
39 are isotones of chlorine and potassium. Similarly,
12Mg
24 and
11Na
23 are the isotones of
magnesium and sodium.

24.8 Einstein's Mass-Energy Relation

At the beginning, the terms mass and energy emerged as two entirely different concepts
independent to each other. Specifically, during the initial development of science of chemistry, it was
assumed that in chemical reactions energy and mass are conserved separately. It was Einstein in 1905,
as a consequence of his special theory of relativity, who showed that mass and energy are inter
related to each other. In fact, these two quantities are equivalent and can be converted into one
another i.e. mass can be converted to energy and vice versa.
In any chemical reaction, the amount of mass that is converted into other forms of energy is very tiny
fraction compared to total mass involved. So, there is no hope of measuring the mass change even
with the best laboratory balance and hence, mass and energy truly seem to be conserved separately.
However, in a nuclear reaction, the energy released is tremendous (about a million times greater
than in a chemical reaction) and the change in mass can easily be measured. So, mass and energy are
conserved combinedly in such reaction. Thus, the conservation of energy is really the law of
conservation of mass and energy.
According to Einstein, "in an isolated system when the sum of rest masses changes, there is always a change
1
in c2 times the total energy other than rest mass energy". This means if m is the change in rest mass of an
isolated system and E is the corresponding change in the rest mass energy, then,
1
m = c2 E
E = mc2 . . . (24.2)
This change is equal in magnitude but opposite in sign to the change in sum of the rest masses. For
example, when a uranium nucleus undergoes fission in a nuclear reactor, the sum of the rest masses
of the resulting fragments is less than the rest mass of the parent nucleus. This decrease in mass
when multiplied by c2 (a conversion factor) equals the energy that is released in the process.
Mass – energy equivalence is the concept that asserts mass of a body as a measure of its energy
content. In this concept, the total internal energy of a body at rest is equal to the product of its rest
mass (m0) and a suitable conversion factor c2, to transform from units of mass to units of energy i.e.,
E0 = m0c2, where c is the speed of light in vacuum and m0 is the rest mass of the body.
In general, if a body is moving with velocity v, then the total energy of the body according to
Einstein, given by E = mc2 is the sum of rest mass energy and the kinetic energy of the body.
Thus, if the object is moving with speed v, its total energy is given by,
E = mc2 . . . (24.3)
From mass velocity relation, we know that,
m0
m =
v2
1 – c2
Therefore, equation (24.3) can be written as,

m0c2
E =
v2
1 – c2
1
⎛1 – v2 ⎞ –2
2
= m0 c2
⎝ c⎠
Using binomial expansion (1 + x)n = 1 + nx + . . ., we can write,
⎛ 1 + 1 v2 ⎞ , Neglecting the terms containing higher powers of ⎛v⎞ .

2
E = m0c2
⎝ 2c⎠ ⎝c⎠
Therefore,
1
E = m0 c2 + 2 m0v2 . . . (24.4)
= rest mass energy + kinetic energy of object

For v = 0 (mass at rest), we get ,
E = m0c2 . . . (24.5)
Equation (24.5) shows that the energy of stationary particle is not zero, rather it has energy in the
form of mass, which we call rest mass energy. This discovery is popularly known as Einstein's mass
energy relation.
EXAMPLE 2: "Little boy" was the code name of nuclear bomb dropped on the Japanese city of Hiroshima on 6 August
1945 during World War II. About 0.7 g mass equivalent was estimated as blast yield product. Find the equivalent energy of
the blast yield product.
SOLUTION
Given,
Mass of blast yield product (m) = 0.7 g
We know speed of light (c) = 3 × 108 ms−1
Now, energy equivalent of this mass is
E = mc2
= 0.7 × 10−3 × (3 × 108)2
= 6.3 × 1013 J.
∴ The equivalent energy of 0.7 g of mass is 6.3 × 1013 J.
 Check Point: Calculate the energy equivalence of 0.9 g of substance. Ans: 8.1 × 1013 J
Units of Energy
The SI unit of energy is joule (J). When we measure in the atomic level, the quantity of energy is
relatively small. Therefore, we use different unit of energy in nuclear level. Nuclear energy is
generally measured in electron volt (eV). It is defined as the amount of energy gained by an electron
when accelerated through a potential difference of 1 volt.
∴ 1 eV = 1.6 × 10–19 C × 1V
=1.6 × 10–19 J
The megaelectron volt (MeV) is a large energy and has the relation,
106 eV = 1 MeV
So, 1 MeV = 1.6 × 10–13 J
24.9 Atomic Mass Unit

The measurement of mass in the nuclear level is not scientific when we measure in kilogram unit. So,
another unit is used to measure the mass of nucleus. It is named atomic mass unit (amu). The atomic
mass unit (amu) of nucleus is determined by comparing it with highly stable nucleus of carbon (C12).
1 th
One atomic mass unit (1 amu) is defined as the 12 of the mass of carbon atom 6C12.
One mole of carbon has mass 12 g. It means 6.023 × 1023 atoms of carbon have the mass of 12 g.
Therefore,

12
Mass of 1 atom of carbon = 6.023 × 1023 g
1 12
∴ 1 amu = 12 × 6.023 × 1023 g = 1.66 × 10–24 g
∴ 1 amu = 1.66 × 10–27 kg

The energy equivalence of 1 amu mass is
E = mc2
E = 1 amu × c2
= 1.66 × 10–27 × (3 × 108)2
= 931 × 1.6 × 10–13 J (approximately)
∴ 1 amu = 931 MeV (approx)
An electron mass, me = 9.1 × 10–31 kg = 0.000568 amu
The energy equivalence of this mass of electron is 0.51 MeV.
Similarly, A proton mass, mp = 1.007276 amu
A neutron mass, mn = 1.008665 amu
24.10 Pair Production: Creation of Particle-Antiparticle Pair

Pair production is the process of conversion of a photon, always γ-rays photon, into particle-
antiparticle pair. In nature, the particle pairs are usually observe the electron and positron pair. Since
the photon has no rest mass, it can be considered that this process converts energy into mass in
accordance with Einstein's mass energy relation. Thus, pair production is the materialization process.
The particle antiparticle creation process is represented by the following reaction process.
γ ⎯→ e+ + e–
However, this process does not occur in the vacuum. This production always takes place in a
material medium. The observed fact shows that when γ-ray passes in the field of an electron. The
pair production mechanism is more accurately written as,
γ + X ⎯→ e– + e+ + X*
Where X and X* represent the ground and excited states of the nucleus.
24.11 Particle Annihilation

Annihilation is the process of production of pair of photons, usually gamma rays photons, during
the collision of particle antiparticle pair. It is the reverse process of pair production. The photons,
thus, produced travel in the opposite direction to ensure the momentum conservation. When an
electron comes closer to its antiparticle, positron, they attract electrostatically and are converted in a
pair of identical pair of photons as shown,
e+ + e– ⎯→ γ + γ
This process may take place anywhere in the space.
Energy conversion takes place in the mechanism of particle creation and annihilation.
The mass of an electron is, m = 9.1 × 10–31 kg
Equivalent energy of an electron is Ee = mec2

= 9.1 × 10–31 × (3 × 108)2
= 8.19 × 10–14 J
For 1 eV = 1.6 × 10–19 J
8.19 × 10–14
Ee = = 0.51 ×106 eV = 0.51 MeV
1.6 × 10–19
Since positron also have the equal mass as the electron total energy (E) = 2Ee = 1.02 MeV. Hence, to
produce electron-positron pair, the incident photon must have the energy greater than or equal to
1.02 MeV. If the energy of photon is greater than the value 1.02 MeV, the excess energy is equally
transferred to the pair particles, i.e., e+ + e– + Ee– + Ee+
Where Ee– = K.E. of electron
Ee+ = K.E. of position
Wavelength of photon emitted in annihilation: As we describe previously that two photons are
produced during the annihilation of electron and positron so,
hc
E=
λ
Here, 2E = 1.02 MeV = 1.02 × 106 × 1.60 × 10–19 J
= 1.63 × 1013 J
1.63 × 10–13
E= 2 = 8.15 × 10–14 J
Now, the wave length of a photon,

hc 6.62 × 10–34 × 3 × 108
λ= E = = 2.44 × 10–12 m
8.15 × 10–14
This value lies within the range of wavelength of γ-rays. Hence, the photon produced in annihilation
of electron and positron, λ-ray is produced.
Nuclear Forces
The nucleons (protons and neutrons) are bound tightly within a very small dimension with high
density of the order of ~ 1017 kgm–3. The gravitational attraction among the nucleons is of the order of
10–34 N. If we calculate the electrostatic repulsive force among the protons in nucleus, it is of the
order of 10–2 N. So, the repulsive force between the nucleons is 1036 times greater than the
gravitational force. This shows that the nucleus would not be stable. But in reality, it is not so.
Nucleus is stable in many atoms. So, there must be another force which must dominate the
electrostatic repulsion among the nucleons. This third force is called nuclear force or strong force.
Nuclear force binds the nucleons in a small volume and provides the stability of nucleus. Some
important properties of nuclear force are mentioned below:
i. Nuclear forces are attractive in nature.
ii. Nuclear force are charge independent.
iii. They are short range forces. Nuclear forces vanish beyond 10 fm.
iv. They are spin dependent. The force between two nucleons having parallel spins is stronger than
the anti parallel spins.
v. Nuclear forces are non-central forces.
vi. They show saturation effect i.e. a nucleon interacts only with its neighbouring particle.

24.12 Mass Defect

The observable fact shows that, the mass of a composite nucleus of an atom is smaller than that of
sum of individual masses of nucleons. For example, the sum of mass of 6 protons and 6 neutrons is
found greater than the composite mass of carbon nucleus (6C12). Similar property can be observed in
all other nuclei. This difference of mass in such condition is termed as mass defect. The difference
between the rest mass of the nucleus and the sum of the masses of the nucleons constituting a nucleus is known
as mass defect. It is denoted by Δm.
Let M be the composite mass of a nucleus of an atom having atomic mass numbers A and atomic
number Z. Also, mp and mn be the mass of a proton and a neutron respectively. Then, the total mass
of constituent nucleus is,
Zmp + (A – Z) mn
Then,
the mass defect (Δm) = [Zmp + (A – Z) mn] – M …(24.6)
24.13 Packing Fraction

Packing fraction of a nucleus in an atom is defined as the mass defect per nucleon of that nucleus. It
is also called atomic packing fraction.
mass defect (Δm)
Packing fraction (f) = atomic mass number (A)
Δm
∴ f= A
EXAMPLE 4: Calculate the mass defect and packing fraction of 15P31. Given mass of 15P31 = 30.973763 amu, mass of 1H1 =
1.00783 amu and mass of 0n1 = 1.000867 amu.
SOLUTION
Given, mass of 15P31 (M) = 30.97376 amu
mass of 1H1 (mp) = 1.00783 amu
mass of 0n1 (mn) = 1.00867 amu
We know,
Δm = (Zmp + (A − Z) mn) − M
= (15 × 1.00783 + (31 − 15) × 1.00867) − 30.97376
= 0.28241 amu.
∴ mass defect is 0.28241 amu.
Δm
Also, packing fraction (f) = A
0.28241 amu
= 31 = 9.11 × 10−3 nucleon
 Check Point: Find the mass defect and packing fraction of 3Li6. Given mass of 3Li6 = 6.01512 amu
mass of 1H1 = 1.00813 amu
amu
mass of 0n1 = 1.00893 amu Ans: 0.03605 amu, 6.66 × 10−3
nucleon

24.14 Binding Energy

Initially, when mass defect was observed in the nucleus, it seemed to be very curious matter. Later
on, it was disclosed that this reduced mass of nucleus is actually converted into energy that binds the
nucleons in a nucleus. This energy was termed as binding energy. This means, binding energy is the
energy equivalence of mass defect. Conversely, the binding energy is the amount of energy required to
break up a nucleus into its constituent parts and place them at an infinite distance from one another.
Therefore, the binding energy of a nucleus is written as,
Binding energy = Δm c2
where, c is the velocity of light.
In terms of MeV
Binding energy (BE) = Δm × 931 MeV
= [{Zmp + (A – Z) mn} – M] × 931 MeV … (24.7)
Binding energy per nucleon is calculated by dividing the binding energy of a nucleus with atomic
mass number of corresponding nucleus. Therefore,
Binding energy
Binding energy per nucleon = A … (24.8)
The binding energy per nucleon is very important to study the stability of nucleus. The nucleus
having greater binding energy per nucleon has greater stability. Thus, this quantity gives a better
information about the stability of nucleus. Fig. 24.2, shows the plot of average binding energy per
nucleon versus atomic mass number for naturally occurring nuclei.
Important Features of Binding Energy per Nucleon

i. The maximum binding energy per nucleon occurs at around mass number A = 60 and
corresponds to the most stable nuclei. An isotope of nickel Ni62 has the maximum binding
energy per nucleon, then Fe58, Fe56.
ii. Nuclei with very low or very high mass number have lesser binding energy per nucleon and are
less stable.
iii. The smaller the binding energy per nucleon, the easier it is to disrupt the nucleus into its
constituent nucleons.
Fig. 24.2: Binding energy per nucleon versus atomic mass number

iv. Nuclei with low mass number may undergo nuclear fusion, where light nuclei are joined
together under certain conditions so that the final product may have a greater binding energy
per nucleon and become stable.
v. Nuclei with high mass numbers may undergo nuclear fission, where the nucleus splits to give
two daughter nuclei with the release of neutrons. The daughter nuclei will possess greater
binding energy per nucleon.
EXAMPLE 5: Calculate the mass defect, binding energy and binding energy per nucleon of helium (2He4) nucleus.
SOLUTION
Given,
Mass of proton (mp) = 1.007276 amu
Mass of neutron (mn) = 1.008665 amu
Mass of 2He4 (M) = 4.001506 amu
Mass defect (Δm) = (Zmp = Nmn) – M
Here, Z = 2, A = 4 ∴A–Z= –2=2
Now,
Δm = (2 × 1.007276 + 2 × 1.008665) – 4.001506
= 0.030376 amu
ii. Binding energy (BE) = Δm × 931 MeV
= 0.030376 × 931 MeV = 28.28 MeV
BE
iii. Binding energy per nucleon = A
28.28
= 4 = 7.07 MeV
 Check Point: Find (i) mass defect (ii) binding energy (iii) binding energy per nucleon and (iv)
packing fraction for the Helium atom (2He4). ( mass of 2He4 = 4.001509 amu, mass of 1H1 = 1.007277
amu, mass of neutron = 1.0086666 amu)
Ans: 0.030377 amu, 28.3 MeV, 7.07 MeV, 7.59 x 10-3 amu
24.15 Nuclear Reaction

Nuclear reaction is defined as the change in composition of a nucleus when it is bombarded with nucleons or
other sub-atomic particles. When a light particle collides with the nucleus, the interaction between the
nuclear particles and the light particles takes place and nucleus transforms into new nucleus with
different mass and energy.
Nuclear reactions are basically two types; nuclear decay reaction and nuclear transmutation reaction.
Nuclear decay reaction is also called radioactivity. Radioactivity will be studied in next chapter.
In contrast, the nuclear transmutation reaction refers to the interaction of a nucleus with other
nucleus. These reactions occur at very special conditions. For example, the fusion reaction (in which
two nuclei combine to form a single nucleus) can take place whenever two nuclei come in the nuclear
range, so that nuclear force becomes effective. For this, one of the nuclei should be accelerated to
very high energy and made to collide with the other. Similarly, in fission reaction (in which a single
nucleus splits into two or more lighter nuclei) very energetic charged particles such as protons, α-
particles, etc. are used to bombard the nucleus or neutral particles such as thermal neutrons.
The particles or nucleus which are used to initiate nuclear reaction are called projectile particles. The
projectile particles may be α-particles, protons, ions of element, electrons, neutrons, etc. The kinetic
energy of these projectiles are very high extending from megaelectron volts to a few giga electron
volts. The nucleus that undergoes transmutation is called target nucleus.

The nucleus which is bombarded with a light particle is known as mother nucleus and the
bombarding particles are known as projectile. This pair of mother nucleus and the projectile is called
parent pair. The new nucleus which is formed after transformation is known as daughter nucleus
and the ejected particle is known as emitted particle. This pair is called final pair. The nuclear
reaction can be represented as the following nuclear equation.
A+a=B+b+Q … (24.9)
Where, A = mother nucleus
a = projectile
B = daughter nucleus
b = emitted particle
Q = radiated energy
The value of Q may be positive or negative. If the energy is evolved in the nuclear reaction, Q is
greater than zero, Q > 0 (i.e. positive value of Q). This type of reaction is called exoergic or
exothermic reaction. If the energy is absorbed in the nuclear reaction this is called endoergic or
endothermic reaction (Q < 0, negative value of Q). If the energy is neither evolved nor emitted, Q = 0.
It should be noted that mass-energy conservation is strictly obeyed in nuclear reaction.
Important nuclear reactions are:
(a) Particle disintegration (b) Photo disintegration (c) Radioactive capture
Two types of basic nuclear reactions are explained below:
Nuclear Fission
The nuclear reaction in which a heavy nucleus disintegrates into two nuclei of nearly comparable mass along
with emission of some particles and liberation of energy is known as nuclear fission. In nuclear fission, heavy
nucleus is made to collide with a light particle in order to disintegrate it.
In 1939, (in the beginning days of world war second), a German scientist Otto Hahn and Strassmann
studied the nuclear fission reaction in uranium nucleus and discovered that when a uranium nucleus
(92U235) is bombarded with a neutron, it explodes into two nearly equal fragments, barium (56Ba141)
and krypton (36Kr92) along with the emission of three neutrons (0n1), releasing some energy (Q) in the
form of γ-rays. This fission reaction is represented by the following nuclear equation,
235 ⎯⎯⎯→ U236 ⎯⎯⎯→
0n + 92U 56Ba
1 141 + Kr92 + 3 n1 + Q
92 36 0
It is noted that barium and krypton are not produced in all fission reaction, the fragments may be
other nuclei.
Energy released in fission reaction

In the nuclear reaction, the mass-energy conservation must be strictly followed. In the above nuclear
reaction,
Before reaction
Mass of 92U235 = 235.0439 amu
Mass of 0n1 = 1.0087 amu
Total mass of parent pair = 236.0526 amu
After reaction
Mass of 56Ba141 = 140.9129 amu
Mass of 36Kr92 = 91.8973 amu
Mass of three 0n = 3.0261 amu
1
Total mass of final pair = 235.8363 amu

Now,
Mass defect (Δm) = mass of parent pair – Mass of final pair = 236.0526 – 235.8363 = 0.2163 amu.
This lost mass equivalently appears in the form of energy so that total mass energy is conserved.
1 amu = 931 MeV
Energy released = 931 × 0.2163 = 201.37 MeV ≈ 200 MeV
Thus, large amount of energy is released which is mainly in the form of lights γ-rays and K.E. of
the fission products.
EXAMPLE 6: The energy librated in the fission of single uranium – 235 atom is 3.2 × 10–11 J. Calculate the power
production corresponding to the fission of 1 g of uranium per day. Assume Avogadro constant as 6.02 × 1023 mol–1.
SOLUTION
Given,
Mass number of Uranium (A) = 235
Energy (E) = 3.2 × 10–11 J per atom
Mass (m) = 1 g
Avogadro constant (NA) = 6.02 × 1023 mol–1
Total number of uranium disintegration per day
N = nNA
m
= ⎛ A ⎞ NA m = total mass and A = molar mass
⎝ ⎠
1 × 10–3
= ⎛235 × 10–3⎞ × 6.02 × 1023
⎝ ⎠
= 2.56 × 10 21
Total energy production per day,

Et = N × E
= 2.56 × 1021 × 3.2 × 10–11
= 8.19 × 1010 J
Et 8.19 × 1010
Now, power production (P) = time = 60 × 60 × 24 = 9.48 × 105 watt
 Check Point: Calculate the total amount of energy released if 25 g of matter is completely.
annihilated. Ans: 2.25 × 1015 J
Fission chain reaction

When a 92U235 nucleus is bombarded with a slow neutron, two almost equal mass nuclei (56Ba141 and
36K ) are produced, which are called fission pair (F.P.) and three neutrons are released
92
simultaneously. These released neutrons are absorbed in the body of the source (and some may be
lost). If the number of absorbed neutrons is greater than the lost neutrons, the reaction continues to
the further steps. Suppose two neutrons are absorbed and one is lost in every reaction, the reaction
takes place in faster rate and the whole process proceeds in a geometric progression. Thus, the
reaction once started continues until whole source disintegrates, which is known as chain reaction. A
chain reaction is a self propagating nuclear reaction process in which number of product neutrons is
more than the number of neutrons required to initiate the reaction so that the reaction proceeds as a
chain. Enormous energy is released from the Uranium source in chain reaction, which once started
becomes uncontrolled. The chain reaction of 92U235 is shown in Fig. 24.3.

F.P
n
F.P U n
n
n
F.P
U n
F.P F.P
n n n
1 F.P U n
0n 235
92U n
n
n F.P
F.P
n F.P
F.P U
U
n
n
n n
F.P n
F.P
U F.P
n
n F.P. = Fission product
n
F.P
Fig. 24.3: Uncontrolled chain reaction
Uncontrolled chain reaction

When nucleus of 92U235 is bombarded by a slow neutron, it undergoes fission by capturing neutron
and split into two fragments 56Ba141 and 36Kr92 together with three neutrons. As explained above,
three neutrons are emitted in every reaction of uranium fission. These emitted neutrons are
employed to combine other nearby uranium nuclei to continue the sustainable chain reaction. But all
the neutrons so produced are not used for the further nuclear reaction. They may interact with air
molecules or escape out from the source. If the multiplication factor of chain reaction is greater than 1,
the fission rate is multiplied rapidly so that whole source would explode radiating enormous energy
and hence becomes uncontrolled. This type of nuclear reaction is called uncontrolled chain reaction.
In such reaction, the large amount of thermal energy is produced in a very short time. Thus, nuclear
disaster occurs. Atom bomb works on the principle of uncontrolled chain reaction.
Controlled chain reaction

Nuclear chain reaction is not always devastating. If the reaction is preceded in a controlled way, the
energy so produced can be used in electricity generation, propulsion of ships and submarines. This
type of nuclear reaction in which the rate of reaction can be varied at our will is known as controlled
chain reaction. Simply, number of neutron and energy can be controlled in required level. Controlled
reaction can be performed by making the absorption of excess neutrons in the nuclear source as
shown in Fig. 24.4. A special type of material is used for the absorption of excess neutrons which is
called moderator. The moderator is arranged so suitably that the multiplication factor can be 1. In

general graphite, heavy water (D2O), beryllium, etc. are used as the moderators. Mostly, moderators
are made with elements of low atomic number.
F.F.
F.P. F.F.
F.P.
moderator
n
n
n n
n n Slow n
235 235
U U
neutron
n n
F.P.
F.F.
F.P.
Fig. 24.4: Controlled chain reaction
Multiplication factor
When fission chain reaction is started, it may or may not be sustained until all the nuclei undergo
fission. To examine whether the chain reaction increases, decreases or remains steady, a parameter is
to be defined, which is called multiplication factor.
The multiplication factor of a fissionable mass is defined as the ratio of number of neutrons present
at the beginning of particular generation to the number of neutrons present at the beginning of the
previous generation. It is denoted by k.
Number of neutrons present at the beginning of one generation
∴ k = Number of neutrons present at the beginning of previous generation
The physical meaning of multiplication factor for its different values are as follows:
i. If k > 1, the fission chain reaction grows. It is also called uncontrolled chain reaction. If the chain
reaction is started for k > 1, whole the source is exploded within a few second. Explosion of
atom bomb is an example of uncontrolled chain reaction.
ii. If k = 1, the chain reaction remains steady. This type of chain reaction is controlled by means of
machinery. It is also called controlled chain reaction. This principle is used in nuclear power
generation from power plants.
iii. If k < 1, the chain reaction gradually dies out.
Due to the lack of necessary number of
neutrons for nuclear fission, the rate of fission
decreases and is terminated.
Critical size and critical mass

In nuclear fission reaction, slow neutron bombards
the uranium atom to break into daughter nuclei.
The emitted neutron after fission reaction, travels a
certain average distance through the material
before it encounters another uranium nucleus and
triggers another fission event. If the size of uranium
source is too small, a neutron is likely to escape
through the surface before it finds another nucleus.
Therefore, for the sustained chain reaction, the size
and mass of uranium source must have at least a
critical value. If the size and mass of the source is Atom bomb dropped at Nagasaki, second world war 1945
smaller than critical value, the nuclear fission reaction decreases and dies out.
The amount of mass in fission source for which each fission event produces one additional fission
event is called critical mass and the corresponding size of source is known as critical size. The
multiplication factor k,
i. If k = 1, the neutron population and critical mass remains stationary and the nuclear reaction
proceeds steadily.
ii. If k > 1, the neutron population increases rapidly in the source and chain reaction proceeds very
fast. The mass for such condition is supercritical mass and the size is called supercritical size.
iii. If k < 1, the neutron population decreases rapidly and the chain reaction ceases. This mass in
the source is called sub-critical mass and corresponding size is called sub-critical size.
24.16 Nuclear Fusion Reaction

The nuclear reaction in which two or more lighter nuclei merge into a single nucleus releasing some energy is
known as nuclear fusion reaction. In nuclear fission reaction, one heavy nucleus splits into lighter nuclei,
in contrast, two or more lighter nuclei fuse together, in order H1 H1 H1 H1
fusion.
When two deuterium nuclei 1H2 are fused together, a single hf

h
helium nucleus is formed with the release of energy about 24 H1 H1
H2 H2
MeV. This fusion reaction is written in the following nuclear
equation.
1H + 1H2 2He +Q
2 4
hf hf
To find the released energy, we have, He 3
He3
mass of a deuteron, 1H2 = 2.01471 amu

∴ mass of two deuteron = 4.02942 amu
mass of a helium nucleus = 4.00388 amu H1 H1
Now, the mass defect (Δm) = 4.02942 – 4.00388
= 0.02554 amu He4 Radiation
Also, 1 amu = 931 MeV Fig. 24.5: Nuclear fusion chain
The energy liberated, Q = 0.02554 × 931 = 23.71 MeV
≈ 24 MeV
The energy released during fusion is much less than that in fission. However, energy released per
nucleon during fusion is much greater than that liberated during fission.
The energy radiated from the sun and stars is considered due to the nuclear fusion reaction on its
surface. For the nuclear fusion, large temperature and pressure is required, which is possible only on
the sun and stars.
The hydrogen bomb is an example of the uncontrolled nuclear fusion reaction in which tremendous
amount of energy is released.
Difference between Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion

The major differences between nuclear fission reaction and nuclear fusion reaction are mentioned
below.

Nuclear Fission Nuclear Fusion
1. Nuclear fission is a nuclear reaction in 1. Nuclear fusion is a nuclear reaction in which
which a heavy nucleus is bombarded with a two or more lighter nuclei are fused
light particle such that two fragments of together to form a single nucleus releasing
roughly equal masses are formed along with some energy
emission of energetic neutrons and energy.
2. It can occur in room temperature and 2. Very high temperature and pressure are
normal pressure. required for this reaction.
3. The energy released from a nucleus is 3. The energy released from a nucleus is
relatively high (≈ 200 MeV). But the energy relatively low but the energy released per
released per nucleon is about 0.85 MeV. nucleon is about 6.75 MeV.
4. This reaction takes place in high atomic 4. This reaction takes place in low atomic
number nuclei. For example: Uranium, number, nuclei. For example: Hydrogen,
Plutonium and Thorium. Deuterons, Tritium.
5. The radiations produced in nuclear fission 5. The produced rays are relatively less
are harmful. harmful.
6. Radiation pollution is created. 6. Thermal pollution is created.
7. Atom bomb is based on this principle. 7. Hydrogen bomb is based on this principle.
8. It completes in single stage. 8. It is multistage reaction.
Tips for MCQs
Quantitative Tips
1. The radius (R) and volume (V) of nucleus are determined from the formula,
1
R = R0A3 , where R0 = 1.2 × 10–15 m
4 3
V = 3 πR0 A
m0
2. Einstein's mass energy relation, m =
v2
1 – c2
3. Mass defeat (Δm)

i. The mass of the nucleus (M) formed is less than the sum of the masses of the individual
nucleons (Zmp + (A – Z)mn). This difference is called mass defect (Δm).
ii. Δm = [Zmp + (A – Z)mn] – M.
Δm
iii. Packing fraction = A
4. Binding energy
i. The mass defect (Δm) is converted into the binding energy to hold the nucleons in a small
dimension.
ii. Binding energy (BE) = Δm × 931 MeV
or, B.E. = Δm c2 (joule)
iii. Binding energy is usually expressed in MeV.
1 amu = 931 MeV
B.E.
iv. Binding energy per nucleon = A

B.E. Δm × 931 ⎛ MeV ⎞ Δmc2 ⎛ joule ⎞
∴ =
nucleon A ⎝nucleon⎠ = A ⎝nucleon⎠
5. Equation for nuclear reaction is, ZXA + a = Z'YA' + b + Q
It is also represented on, ZXA (a, b) Z'YA'
Conceptual Tips
1. Subatomic particles are: electron, proton and neutron. Proton and neutron lie in the nucleus and
electron revolves around them.
2. Except hydrogen, the nucleus of each atom contains proton and neutron. Hydrogen atom contains
only one proton.
3. The density of nucleus is very high ~ 2.29 × 1017 kgm–3. Density of nucleus does not depend on
atomic mass number.
5. The symbol of nucleus, ZXA (A = Atomic mass number, Z = atomic number, X is name of element)
6. Isotopes of an element consist of same atomic number but different atomic mass number. (i.e. ZXA,
ZXA') Where A ≠ A'.
7. Isobars of different elements consists of different atomic number but same atomic mass number.
8. Mass of atom and subatomic particles is measured in atomic mass unit (amu)
1 amu = 1.66 × 10–27 kg
9. Nuclear force is the strongest force in nature, it is also termed as strong force. This force holds the
nucleons in a very small volume.
10. The size of nucleus is in the order of 10–15 m and the size of atom is in the order of 10–10 m.
11. The nuclei containing even number of protons and even number of neutrons are relatively more
stable.
12. Nuclear reaction
i. In nuclear reaction
a. number of nucleons is conserved
b. total charge is conserved
c. linear momentum is conserved
d. total energy is conserved
13. Nuclear fission
i. Discovered by Otto Hann and Strassmann
ii. Example of nuclear fission
+ 0n1 → 92U236 → 56B141 + 36Kr92 + 3 0n1 + Q
92U235
Here, Mass defect = 0.2153 amu
Exothermic energy ≈ 200 MeV
iii. Chain reaction:
i. In uncontrolled chain reaction:
a. multiplication factor (K) is greater than 1.
b. mass is greater than 1
c. principle of atom bomb.
ii. In controlled chain reaction:
a. multiplication factor (K) is equal to 1.
b. mass is equal to 1
c. principle of nuclear power production.
14. Nuclear fusion:
i. Example: 1H2 + 1H2 → 2He4 + 24 MeV
ii. Energy released per unit atom is greater in nuclear fission, but the energy released per unit
mass is greater in nuclear fusion.
iii. It occurs in large temperature and pressure, so it is also called thermonuclear reaction.
iv. The source of solar energy and stellar energy are considered due to the effect of nuclear fusion
reaction.
Quick Reply
1. By what factor, must the mass number of a nucleus increase to double its volume? Explain.
4
 The volume of nucleus, V = 3 πR03A.
4
The factor 3 πR03A is constant. So, to double the volume, the atomic mass number also should be
doubled.
2. Why is the nuclear fusion not possible in laboratory?
 Nuclear fusion takes place at a very high temperature and pressure. These conditions can not be
realized in laboratory. Nuclear fusion reaction takes place in the sun and other celestial bodies.
3. What is atomic mass unit (amu)? Why this unit is necessary?
 1 amu (1 atomic mass unit) is defined as the one-twelfth the mass of one 6C12 atom, which is the most
abundant naturally occuring isotope of carbon.
1 amu = 1.66 × 10–27 kg (in mass)
and 1 amu = 931 MeV (equivalent energy)
In the study of atomic mass, the unit 'kilogram (kg)' seems unscientific because of relatively high unit
in the measurement of atomic mass. So, for the efficient comparison and calculation of mass in atomic
level, amu is appropriate.
4. Complete the nuclear fusion equation.
1H3 + 1H2 ⎯⎯⎯→ 2He4 + ………… + 17.6 MeV
1H3 + 1H2 ⎯⎯⎯→ 2He4 + 0n1 + 17.6 MeV

5. Why do lighter nuclei tend to fuse together?
 The binding energy per unit nucleon is relatively greater in middle class nucleus. For instance, the
binding energy per nucleon of helium is greater than that of hydrogen. The nuclei having greater
binding energy per nucleon are relatively more stable. Hence, to be stable nuclei in nature, lighter
nuclei tend to fuse together.

1. Why is neutron considered the most effective bombarding particle in a nuclear reaction?
 Neutron is a charge less subatomic particle, it does not interact electrically with electrons and
protons. As it passes into an atom, it is not deflected by orbital electrons, and also by the proton in
the nucleus. Hence, it can combine into the nucleus easily. Further, when it enters into the nucleus, it
increases the neutron to proton ratio. This makes the nucleus unstable. Thus, the nuclear reaction
takes place.
6. According to properties of charges, like charges repel each other. Then, how do the protons in a
nucleus stay together?
 Nucleons are bound together not by the electrical force but by another nature of attractive nuclear
force, called strong force, but is very strong in magnitude within the nuclear range (~ 10–15 m).
1
Electric force between the charge particles decreases as the inverse square law ⎛F ∝ r2⎞. In nucleus,
⎝ ⎠
neutrons occupy the space between protons, so the electrical influence between protons is dominated
by strong force. Hence, protons in a nucleus stay together.
7. Diameter of Al27 nucleus is DAl. How can one express the diameter of Cu64 in terms of DAl? Explain.
 Let DAl and DCu be the diameter of alumium nucleus and copper nucleus respectively. We have,
( )
1/3
DAl = 2 R0 AAl …(i) and

( )
1/3
DCu = 2 R0 ACu …(ii)
From equation (i),
DAl
Ro = 1/3 …(iii)
2 AAl
Using R0 in equation (ii), we get
1 1
DAl ⎞ ACu 3 64 3 4
=2⎛ = DAl ⎛ A ⎞ = DAl ⎛27⎞ = ⎛3⎞
1/3
DCu
⎜2 A ⎟ ⋅ A
1/3 Cu
⎝ Al ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝⎠ DAl
⎝ ⎠Al
4
∴ DCu = ⎛3⎞ DAl
⎝⎠
8. A fusion reaction is more energetic than a fission. Explain.
 The energy released per unit mass in fusion reaction is more than that of fission reaction. Nuclear
fission reaction occurs in heavy nuclei like U235, but the nuclear fusion reaction occurs in light like H1,
H2, etc. Although, energy released per unit atom is larger in fission reaction energy, released per unit
mass is much greater in fusion reaction.
9. In heavy nuclei, the numbers of neutrons are much greater than number of protons. Why?
 Nucleus contains protons and neutrons. Protons are positive charge particles, they repel to each
other. So, they always tend to move away from each other due to the charge of similar nature. For the
stability of nucleus, the repulsive force between these particles should be minimized. That can be
done by separating them placing far to each other, which is naturally possible only when number of
neutrons (neutral particles) are much greater than the number of protons.
10. All the nuclei have nearly the same density. Justify.
 The average mass of a nucleon is 1.66 × 10–27 kg. For any nucleus, its total mass can be A × 1.66 × 10–27
kg.
4 4 4
Also, the volume of nucleus, V = 3 πR3 = 3 π(R0A1/3)3 = 3 πR03A
m A × 1.66 × 10–27
Now, the density, ρ = V = 4 = 2.29 × 1017 kgm–3
3 π (1.2 × 10–15)3 A
This shows that density of nucleus does not depend on atomic mass number. Hence, the density of
any nucleus is almost constant.
11. Why should the emitted neutrons be slowed down in sustainable chain reaction?
 The emitted neutrons in the nuclear fission reaction should combine to other uranium nuclei to
proceed the reaction continuously. If the fission neutrons were produced instantaneously and move
swiftly, there would be no time for the neutron capture into the nucleus that ultimately ceases the
reaction.
12. Why are fusion reactions also known as thermo nuclear reaction?
 In nuclear fusion reaction, two or more nuclei has to be combined to form a heavy nuclei. In such
nuclear combination, large thermal energy is required to work against the electrostatic repulsion
between these nuclei. That is why, nuclear fusion reactions are also known as thermo-nuclear
reaction.
13. What does high binding energy per nucleon mean?
 Binding energy per nucleon means the average energy required to remove a nucleon from the
nucleus. In order to compare the stability of different nucleons, we require to find the binding energy
per nucleon of that nucleus. Greater the binding energy per nucleus of a nucleus, greater the stability
of nucleus.

Worked Out Problems

1. A neutron is absorbed by a 3Li6 nucleus with subsequent emission of an α-particle. Write the
corresponding nuclear reaction and calculate the energy released in the reaction.
SOLUTION
Given, = 6.015126 + 1.008665 = 7.023791 amu
Mass of neutron = 1.008665 amu Mass of constituents after reaction
Mass of 3Li6 = 6.015126 amu m2 = 1H3 + 2He4
Mass of 2He4 = 4.002603 amu = 3.016049 + 4.002603 amu
Mass of 1H3 = 3.0164049 amu = 7.018652 amu
1 amu = 931 MeV The mass loss, Δm = m1 – m2
The appropriate nuclear reaction to satisfy the = (7.023791 – 7.018652) amu
given condition, = 0.005139 amu
3Li6 + 0n1 ⎯⎯⎯⎯→ 1H3 + 2He4 (α- particle) Now, equivalent energy is,
Mass of constituents before reaction ΔE = Δm × 931 MeV
m1 = 3Li6 + on1 = 4.784 MeV
2. The mass of 17Cl35 is 34.9800 amu. Calculate its binding energy and binding energy per nucleon. Mass
of one proton = 1.007825 amu and mass of one neutron = 1.00865 amu.
SOLUTION
Given,
Mass of 17Cl35 (M) = 34.9800 amu
Mass of proton (mp) = 1.007825 amu
Mass of neutron (mn) = 1.00865 amu
Binding energy (BE) = ?
Binding energy per nucleon = ?
We have,
Mass defect (Δm) = Zmp + (A – Z)mn – M
= 17 × 1.007825 + (35 – 17) × 1.00865 – 34.9800 = 0.308725 amu
We have,
1 amu = 931 MeV
So, BE = Δm × 931 = 287.42 MeV
BE 287.42
Also, binding energy per nucleon = A = 35 = 8.21 MeV.
3. Assuming that about 200 MeV energy is released per fission of 92U235 nuclei, what would be the mass
of U235, consumed per day in the fission reactor of power 1 MW approximately?
SOLUTION
Given, N = 2.7 × 1021
Energy per atom (E) = 200 MeV Also,
= 200 × 106 × 1.6 × 10–19 We have,
= 3.2 × 10–11 J m
N = nNA = ⎛ A ⎞ NA
Molar mass (A) = 235 × 10–3 kg ⎝ ⎠
Power (P) = 1 MW = 106 W N×A
Now, total energy released per day m = N
A
Etotal = P × time 2.7 × 1021 × 235 × 10–3
= 106 × 24 × 3600= 8.64 × 1010 J = 6.023 × 1023
Now, total number of atoms disintegrated
= 1.05 × 10–3 kg
Etotal 8.64 × 1010
N = E = 3.2 × 10–11 Mass consumed = 1.05 g

4. A city requires 107 watts of electrical power on the average. If this is to be supplied by a nuclear
reactor of efficiency 20%. Using 92U235 as the fuel source, calculate the amount of fuel required per
day (Energy released per fission 92U235 = 200 MeV).
SOLUTION
Given, Energy E = Pin × t = 5 × 107 × 86400
Output power (Pout) = 107 watts = 4.32 × 1012 J
Efficiency (η) = 20% Again,
Input power (Pin) = ? 235 amu = 235 × 1.66 × 10–27 kg
Mass required = ? = 3.9 × 10–25 kg
Time (t) = 1 day = 24 × 60 × 60 = 86400 sec Energy released per fission of 235
92 U
Energy, released per fission of 235
92 U = 200 MeV
= 200 MeV = 200 × 106× 1.6 × 10–19
235
Mass of 92 U = ? = 3.2 × 10–11J
∴ 3.2 × 10 J energy is released by 3.9 × 10–
–11
We have, 25 kg of uranium.
Pout
η= P or, 4.32 × 1012 J energy is released by
in
3.9 × 10–25
107
3.2 × 10–11 × 4.32 × 10 kg of uranium =
12
or, 0.20 = P
in
0.0527 kg
107
or, Pin = 0.20 = 5 × 107 watt ∴ Mass of 235
92 U required = 0.0527 kg

1. The nuclear radius of 8O16 is 3 × 10–15 m. Calculate the nuclear radius of 82Pb205. Ans: 7.02 fermi
2. Calculate in MeV the energy liberated when a helium nucleus (2He4) is produced (a) by fusing two
neutrons and two protons, and (b) by fusing two deuterium nuclei (1H2). Mass of neutron = 1.00898
amu, Mass of proton = 1.00759 amu, mass of helium = 4.00277 amu, mass of deuterium = 2.01419
amu, 1 amu = 931 MeV.] Ans: (a) 28.27 MeV (b) 23.84 MeV
3. If 10 g of a matter is completely annihilated, find the quantity of energy produced. Ans: 9 × 1014 J
4. The energy liberated in the fission of a single uranium- 235 atom is 3.2 × 10-11 J. Calculate the power
production corresponding to the fission of 1 g of uranium per day. Assume, Avogadro constant =
6.0 × 1023 mol -1. Ans: 0.946 MW
5. A nucleus of uranium 238 can disintegrate with the emission of an alpha particle according to the
reaction.
238 234 4
92 U → 90 Th + 2 He.
Calculate the total energy related in the disintegration [Mass of 238U = 238.12492 amu. Mass of
234Th= 234.11650 amu. Mass of 4He = 4.00387 amu . 1 amu is equivalent to 930 MeV] Ans: 4.16 MeV
Exercises
1. What are the constituents of a nucleus?
2. What do you mean by nuclear reaction?
3. Is it possible that, the mass defect of an atom is negative?
4. What are thermonuclear reactions? Why are they called so?

5. A chain reaction dies out sometimes, why?
6. Why is the neutron so effective as a bombarding particle?
14. What are the number of protons and the number of neutrons in a nucleus of 82Pb206?
15. The binding energy per nucleons of Fe56 is 8.8 MeV. What does this mean?
16. Which principles are applied in the production of atom bomb and hydrogen bomb?

1. Define (a) atomic mass unit (b) mass defect (c) binding energy (d) binding energy per nucleons.
2. Explain Einstein's mass-energy relationship theory.
3. Differentiate between nuclear fission and nuclear fusion.
4. Intermediate mass elements are more stable than light and heavy elements. Explain.
5. Explain the terms (i) nuclear binding energy, (ii) nucleon and (iii) nuclide.
6. What is binding energy per nucleon? What is its maximum value?
7. "Heavy nuclei split into lighter nuclei, by a process called fission." Why?
8. Lighter nuclei fuse together under suitable conditions." Why?
9. Define nuclear fission. Why it is called so?
10. Light energy emitted by the sun and stars comes from the fusion process. What conditions in the
interior of star makes this possible?
11. Why do nuclear reactions not occur just like chemical reactions?
12. Distinguish between nuclear fission and fusion.
13. Distinguish between chemical and nuclear reactions.
14. Why is the mass of a nucleus slightly less than the mass of constituent particles?
15. Which is more stable, 3Li7 or 3Li4?
17. Give the mass number and atomic number of elements on the right hand side of the decay process,
18. The sun is constantly losing mass due to thermo nuclear reaction. Comment.
19. Define mass defect and binding energy.
20. How mass defect is related to the binding energy of nucleons?
Long Answer Questions

1. State and explain Einstein’s mass energy relation with example.
2. Define binding energy. Draw a graph showing the relation between the binding energy per nucleon
and atomic number.
3. Define the terms, binding energy and mass defect. Establish the relation between them.
4. What is nuclear fission? Give an example of nuclear reaction.
5. Distinguish between nuclear fusion and fission with examples.
6. What is nuclear fusion? How energy is released in nuclear fusion reaction?
Numerical Problems
LEVEL I
1. Find (i) mass defect (ii) binding energy (iii) binding energy per nucleon and (iv) packing fraction for
the Helium atom (2He4). (mass of 2He4 = 4.001509 amu, mass of 1H1 = 1.007277 amu, mass of neutron
= 1.0086666 amu) Ans: 0.030377 amu, 28.3 MeV, 7.07 MeV, 7.59 x 10-3 amu
2. Calculate the Q-value of the nuclear reaction represented by 7N14 (α,p) 8O17 Relevant masses in amu
are (7N14 =14.007514 mα= 4.003837 amu 8O17 = 17.004533 amu mp = 1.008142 amu) Ans: -1.233 MeV
3. How much energy will be liberated if 1.0 g of matter is destroyed completely? Ans: 9.0 × 1013 J
4. Calculate in MeV the energy liberated when a helium nucleus (2He4) is produced by fusing two
deuterium nuclei.
Mass of deuterium = 2.01419 amu, Mass of helium = 4.00277 amu, 1 amu = 931 MeV Ans: 23.8 MeV

LEVEL II
1. The mass of the nucleus of the isotope 3Li7 is 7.0143514. Find it's binding energy and binding energy
per nucleon. (Mass of proton=1.0072754 amu, Mass of neutron =1.0086654 amu) (1 amu = 931 MeV)
Ans: 39.2 MeV, 5.6 MeV
2. Calculate the mass defect, binding energy and binding energy per nucleon of 26Fe56.
(Given, mass of proton = 1.007276 amu, mass of neutron = 1.008665 amu, mass of 26Fe56 = 55.934939
amu). Ans: 0.514 amu, 478.7 MeV, 8.55 MeV
3. Calculate the energy released in fission of a uranium 92U235 atom in the following nuclear reaction,
92U235 + 0n1 = 56Ba141 + 36Kr92 + 30n1 + Q,
(mass of 92U235 = 235.045933 amu, mass of 0n1 = 1.008665 amu, 56Ba141 = 140.9177 amu,
36Kr92 = 91.8854 amu, 1 amu = 931 MeV) Ans: 209.8 MeV
4. The mass of 8O16 is 15.9949 amu. Calculate its binding energy. What is the binding energy per
nucleon? (Given mn = 1.008665 amu, mp = 1.007825 amu). Ans: 127.54 MeV, 7.97 MeV / nucleon
5. Calculate (i) the mass defect (ii) binding energy (iii) binding energy per nucleon for 6C12 nucleus.
Atomic mass of 6C12= 12 amu, mass of proton = 1.007825 amu and mass of neutron = 1.008665 amu.
Ans: (i) 0.09894 amu (ii) 92.113 MeV (iii) 7.676 MeV per nucleon
6. When 3Li6 is bombarded by neutron so that, 1H3 and 2H4 are released. Write the reaction and find the
reaction energy
Mass of 3Li6 = 6.015126 amu, Mass of 2He4 = 4.002604 amu, Mass of 1H3 = 3.016049 amu
Mass of 0n1 = 1.008665 u Ans: 4.78 MeV
7. How much energy will be created if a man of mass 50 kg is destroyed completely? Ans: 4.5 × 1018 J
8. Calculate the mass defect, binding energy and binding energy per nucleon of helium (2He4) nucleus.
Ans: 0.030376 amu , 28.28 MeV, 7.07 MeV
238
9. Using the values given below, calculate binding energy value for 92 U. Ans: 1800.730 MeV
238 1 1
( 92 U = 238.0508 amu, 0n = 1.008665 amu, 1 p = 1.007825 amu, 1 amu = 931 MeV.)

1. The percentage of mass which changes into energy during fission is in the order of:
a. 10% b. 1%
c. 0.4% d. 0.1%
2. For an isobaric family members of nuclei, which of the following condition is true?
a. Neutron number remains same
b. Atomic number remains same
c. Both neutron and proton numbers remain same
d. Mass number remain same
3. The diameter of an atom is of the order of:
a. 10–8 cm b. 10–9 cm
c. 10–10 cm d. 10-12 cm
4. In a nuclear reaction, a deuteron particle is bombarded with a target nucleus, then energy is released
along with a neutron and a product. The new product has the atomic mass:
a. Smaller than a parent nucleus b. Greater than the parent nucleus
c. Equal to the parent nucleus d. Can't be concluded
5. Energy equivalent of 1 g of U235 is nearly:
a. 3 × 1016 J b. 3 × 1023 J
c. 9 × 1019 J d. 9 × 1013 J

6. The radius of gold nucleus is approximately:
a. 4.29 × 10–14 m b. 1.5 × 10–10 m
c. 2.5 × 10–8m d. 6.0 × 10–24 m
7. A nucleus ZXA decays to Z+1YA plus an additional nuclear particle. The resulting particle may be:
a. Positron b. Alpha
c. Beta d. Gamma
8. What are the appropriate conditions for a fusion reaction to occur?
a. High temperature and low pressure b. Low temperature and high pressure
c. High temperature and high pressure d. Low temperature and low pressure
9. The ratio of the mass defect of the nucleus to its mass number is maximum among following nuclei
in
a. 14N b. 28Si
c. 56Fe d. 238U
10. A nuclear transformation is denoted by X(n, α) 73Li. Which of the following is the nucleus of element
X?
9 11
a. 5
B b. 4
Be
12 10
c. 6
C d. 5
B
11. What is the size of gold nuclei?
a. 3 R0 b. 4 R0
c. 5 R0 d. 5.8 R0
12. On bombarding 235U by slow neutron, 200 MeV energy is released. If the power output of atomic
reactor is 1.6 MW, then the rate of fission will be
a. 5 × 1022 s–1 b. 5 × 1016 s–1
c. 8 × 1016 s–1 d. 20 × 1016 s–1
13. If the radius of a nucleus of 256X is 8 fermi, then the radius of 4He nucleus will be
a. 16 fermi b. 2 fermi
c. 32 fermi d. 4 fermi
14. The density of a nucleus of mass number A is proportional to
a. A3 b. A1/3
c. A1 d. A0
15. The energy equivalent of neutron-proton mass differences is 1.3 MeV and the rest mass energy of
electron is 0.51 MeV. What is the maximum kinetic energy of electron emitted in neutron decay?
a. 1.81 MeV b. 1.3 MeV
c. 0.79 MeV d. 0.905 MeV
16. The ratio between the radii of nuclei with mass number 27 and 125 is
a. 5 : 3 b. 3 : 5
c. 27 : 125 d. 125 : 27
17. Four atoms of hydrogen combine to form an 42He atom with a release of energy of
a. 26.7 MeV b. 216 MeV
c. 3.27 MeV d. 1 MeV
ANSWERS
1. (d) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (d) 6. (a) 7. (c) 8. (c) 9. (c) 10. (d)
11. (d) 12. (b) 13. (b) 14. (d) 15. (c) 16. (b) 17. (a)


SOLIDS
25.1 Introduction
In the modern world electricity has become a vital part of life. We use electricity as a way of
transferring energy from place to place for heating, lighting, moving things from place to place. For
this purpose, we use different types of materials depending up on their conducting properties. These
conducting properties in turn have their tremendous use in the realm of modern science and
technology. It is the study of conducting properties of materials that has helped us to design the
instruments such as magnetic levitating trains, magnetic resonance imaging, and many other devices
that help us to probe into the world ranging from the atomic to cosmos. In this chapter, we shall
discuss the conduction properties of different materials. Especially, the mechanism of conduction in
the semiconductors and their use will be dealt in depth here.
25.2 Band Theory of Solids

The electrons revolving round the nucleus in particular orbits carry particular energy of that orbit.
So, in an isolated atom, the electrons possess discrete energies as determined by Bohr’s theory. But,
in a crystal there are many atoms that are arranged in a regular pattern. In a crystal, the inter-atomic
spacing decreases and atoms interact with all other neighboring atoms. So, the electrons in different
orbit do not possess defined energy. For example, the electrons in valence orbit of different atoms
now have different energies that it would have when the atom is isolated. In fact, some of the valence
electrons have slightly less energy while others have slightly more energies than in the case of
isolated atoms. The valence electrons in different atoms now have different energies that differ by
very small amount. The energy difference is so small that, it constitutes a continuous range. In
another word, it can be said that energy level of different atoms splits up into many separated levels
due to atomic interaction which are so closely spaced that they may be treated as a continuous band
of allowed energy states. The energy of electrons can change almost continuously in these bands.
However, the electrons in the inner orbits are less affected by this interaction. The plot of inter-
atomic spacing with energy is as shown in Fig. 25.1.
Solids  Chapter 25  629
Fig. 25.1: Energy bands in crystalline solid

The range of energy possessed by the electrons in an orbit due to atomic interaction is known as
energy bands. There are following important energy bands in solids according to band theory.
Valence band
Valence band is the range of energies possessed by the electrons in the valence orbitals. This is the
band that valence electrons actually occupy. The electrons in this band are known as valence
electrons. This band is completely or partially filled but is never completely empty.
Conduction band
Conduction band is the range of energies possessed by the electrons that have jumped from the
valence band when excited. The electrons in these bands have enough energy to move freely in the
material and are responsible for the conduction of electricity. So, these electrons are known as
conduction electrons. Thus, the range of energy possessed by the conduction electrons is known as
conduction band. This band can be empty or partially filled depending upon the material but are
never completely filled.
Forbidden band
The energy gap between the valence and conduction band is known as forbidden band. This is also
known as band gap and is the characteristic of different materials. This gap corresponds to the
energy that must be supplied to excite a valence electron to make it conduction electron. Larger the
band gap, the greater is the bond between the valence electrons and the nucleus. And so, greater
amount of energy has to be supplied to valence electrons in order to excite them to conduction band.
This band is completely empty as there are no allowed energy states. This means, the electrons are
forbidden to be in this band and hence the name forbidden band.
Classification of solids on the basis of band theory:
S. N. Conductors Insulators Semiconductors
1. In such materials, the There is large bad gap The band gap is very small.
valence band and the between the valence band
conduction band overlap and conduction band.
each other, i.e. there is no
band gap.

2. Large number of conduction There are no electrons in Some of the conduction

electrons is available owing the conduction band and electrons are always
to no band gap. So, these hence these materials are available at room
materials are good conductor bad conductors of temperature. The thermal
of electricity. electricity. Very high energy at room
electric field has to be temperature is sufficient
supplied to make the enough to overcome the
valence electrons jump to band gap in such materials.
the conduction band.
3. Since the valence and These have completely The conduction band of
conduction band overlap, filled valence band and such materials is
there are plenty of free completely empty completely empty at
electrons available in the conduction band. absolute zero and hence
conduction band. serves as perfect insulator
at this temperature.
However, at room
temperature, both valence
band and conduction band
are partially filled.
4. Examples: metals like Examples: Nonmetals like Examples: Germanium,
copper, sodium , silver, etc. diamond, paper, glass, air Silicon, graphite etc.
etc.,
Conduction Band
Conduction Band
Conduction Band
Band Energy
Band Energy
Band Energy
Overlapping region ≈1
Forbidden
5.5 eV Valence Band
Band
Valence Band
Valence Band
25.3 Semiconductors
Semiconductors are those substances whose electrical resistivity is intermediate between those of
good conductors and good insulator. These substances usually form the Group IV - elements of the
periodic table. Semiconductor in a bulk is regular crystal of these elements which bind each other
with covalent bond. Out of many semiconductor elements, Silicon and Germanium are the most
studied in terms of their use in modern electronics. Both of these elements have four electrons in
their outermost orbit each of which are involved in the covalent bonding with other atoms to form a
crystalline structure as shown in Fig. 25.2 (i) and (ii). The figure shows, the covalent bonding
between the electrons in Ge and Si.

Ge Ge Ge Si Si Si
Ge Ge Ge Si Si Si
Ge Ge Ge Si Si Si
(i) (ii)
Fig. 25.2: (i) Ge-atoms in a crystal (ii) Si-atoms in a crystal
Practically, there are no free electrons (charge carriers) in them. This is the case when the
temperature is at absolute zero. And hence, such materials behave as perfect insulator at absolute
zero of temperature. In terms of band theory, the conduction band of such materials is completely
empty at absolute zero. The band gap between conduction band and valence band is however very
small for such materials (1.12 eV for Si a 0.67 eV for Ge). When the temperature is slightly raised,
even at room temperature; the covalent bonds are broken and the electron acquire enough energy to
jump to conduction band owing to small band gap. The electrons in the conduction band are those
dissociated from their parent atoms which are free to move about the crystal. This means, the
semiconductor now becomes conducting. The number of these electrons increases rapidly with
temperature. But, only the electrons in the conduction band don't tell about the electrical conduction
in the semiconductors which shall be discussed in this chapter.
25.4 Charge Carriers in Semiconductor

As discussed above, when the electrons from valence band jump to the conduction band, these leave
behind a vacancy for an electron. This vacancy of electron in the valence band is called hole. This
vacancy can be occupied by an electron from neighbouring atom, leaving it again with a vacancy.
This vacancy has an effective positive electronic charge and behaves as an apparent free particle with
a charge +e. So, this vacancy can travel through the material and serve as an additional current
carrier. This means there are two types of charge carrier in a semiconductor; one the electrons in the
conduction band and the other holes in the valence band.
25.5 Types of Semiconductor

The electrical sensitivity of semiconductor tremendously varies when small concentration of suitable
impurities is added. The process of adding suitable impurities to pure semiconductor is known
doping. These semiconductors added with impurities are called extrinsic semiconductors where as
the pure form of semiconductors are called intrinsic semiconductors.
Semiconductor
Intrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor

(Pure form of semiconductor) (Impurity added semiconductor)

Intrinsic Semiconductor
A semiconductor in its pure form and free from all kind of impurities is called intrinsic
semiconductor. That means, pure Silicon (Si) and pure Germanium (Ge) are intrinsic semiconductor.
The Silicon and Germanium each has 4 electrons in its outermost orbit. Each of these valence
electrons forms a covalent bond with neighbouring atoms in a crystalline structure and form a
perfect diamond like structure. That is, all the electrons of Si or Ge are bonded and hence are not
available for conduction. However, even at room temperature, these electrons get enough thermal
energy to excite them to the conduction band thereby breaking covalent bond. These electrons in
conduction band account for the electrical conductivity. If the temperature is increased, more
electrons break the covalent bonds and become available for conduction. This means, conductivity of
semiconductor increases with temperature i.e. resistivity decreases with temperature. So,
semiconductors are said to have negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
After the electrons jump to the conduction band, empty spaces are left behind in the valence band.
These empty spaces are called holes. So, in intrinsic semiconductor number of holes in valence band
is equal to number of electrons in conduction band.
Extrinsic Semiconductor
These are the semiconductors obtained by adding suitable impurities to pure form of semiconductor.
This process of adding impurities to pure semiconductor is called doping. Such process also can lead
to increased carrier concentration. Depending upon the impurities used for doping, extrinsic
semiconductors can be classified into following two categories.
i. P-type ii. N-type
P-type semiconductor
These are the semiconductors obtained by doping trivalent impurities such as indium, aluminium,
Gallium etc. to pure form of Silicon or Germanium. When a trivalent impurity say indium (In) is
added to a Silicon crystal three of its valence electrons share covalent bonding with three
neighbouring Silicon (host) atoms but the fourth bond with the Silicon is incomplete. So, the indium
atom robs an electron from neighbouring covalent bond and possesses eight electrons in its valence
shell as shown in Fig. 25.3. Meanwhile, a vacancy of electron called hole is created in the covalent
bond from where electron has been robbed. Thus, for every trivalent impurity added to the Silicon
crystal a hole will be created and hence accepts electron from Silicon crystal. So, it is also called
acceptor atom. The number of acceptor atoms is equal to number of holes. At higher temperatures,
the electrons can get knocked out of the bond and rise to conduction band. And again, this process
also creates a hole for each transition. Hence, holes are greater in number than conduction electrons
in such materials and are called majority charge carriers. Conduction electrons are called minority
charge carriers in P-type semiconductor. Since the majority charge carriers are the positive holes, it is
called P-type (or p-type) semiconductor. This can be remembered as (P-for positive). Though we call
it positive type, the material as a whole is electrically neutral. However, the concentration of the
positive holes is more.

Si Si Si
Si In Si
hole
Si Si Si
Fig. 25.3: P-type crystal formed by doping Indium (In) in Silicon (Si) crystal
N-type semiconductor
When a pure form of semiconductor is doped with pentavalent impurities such as arsenic (As),
antimony, phosphorus etc, the resulting semiconductor is N-type (or n-type) semiconductor. Such
impurities have five valence electrons in their outer most orbits, four of which are engaged in the
covalent bonding with the Silicon atoms. The fifth electron is unattended as shown in Fig. 25.4 and
hence is available for conduction. As such impurities provide free electrons for conduction, they are
called donor impurities. Again, due to temperature effects, some of the covalent bonds are broken
and electrons free from such bonds jump to conduction band leaving behind corresponding hole in
the valence bond. However, the number of conduction electrons in conduction band are greater and
are known as majority charge carriers. And holes in valence band are called minority charge carriers.
Since majority charge carriers are the negatively charged electrons, these are called N-type
semiconductor. It can be remembered as N for Negative, however the material as a whole is
electrically neutral.
Si Si Si
Si As Si
free electron
Si Si Si
Fig. 25.4: N-type crystal formed by doping arsenic (As) in the Silicon (Si) crystal

Tips for MCQs

1. About band theory:
i. There are two types of energy bands in solids: Valence energy band and conduction energy band.
The separation of these energy bands is called forbidden gap.
ii. The conduction band always lies above the forbidden gap and valence band lies below the
forbidden gap.
iii. The maximum energy possessed by an electron in the energy band at 0 K temperature is called
Fermi energy and the corresponding energy level is called Fermi level.
iv. At 0 K, conduction energy band is complete empty.
2. Characteristics of semiconductor:
i. Its resistivity is greater than conductor and smaller than insulator. Likewise, its conductivity is
greater than insulator and smaller than conductor.
ii. Its forbidden energy gap is quite small about 1 eV, (however it varies over a certain range).
iii. It behaves a perfect insulator at 0K.
iv. The conductivity of semiconductor can be increased by (i) raising temperature (ii) by doping
trivalent or pentavalent impurities.
v. Holes and free electrons are the charge carriers in a semiconductor.
3. About holes and free electrons in semiconductor:
i. Holes are vacancy in valence band, which behaves as positive charge particles and the magnitude
of charge is equal to that of an electron.
ii. Holes acts as a virtual charge because of no physical charge in it.
iii. Free electrons are the mobile electrons in conduction band.
iv. Electron are real charge particles.
v. The mobility of electrons is greater than that of holes.
vi. Holes act as positive charge carriers and free electrons act as negative charge carriers.
vii. The effective current in the semiconductor is the sum of hole current and electron current.
4. P-type and N-type semiconductor:
i. P-type semiconductor:
a. It is made by doping trivalent impurities like Indium, Boron, Aluminium, etc. in semiconductor.
b. Holes are majority charge carriers and electrons are minority charge carriers.
c. It is called acceptor type, because it accepts the electrons for conduction.
ii. N-type semiconductors:
a. It is made by doping pentavalent impurities like Arsenic, Antimony, Phosphorus, etc, in
semiconductor.
b. Free electrons are the majority charge carriers and holes are minority chare carriers.
c. It is called donor type because the doped impurity atom donates the electron.
d. Both P-type and N-type semiconductors are electrically neutral.
e. The electrical conductivity in semiconductors is written, σ = σe + σn.
Quick Reply
1. What is a semiconductor?
 Semiconductor is a solid substance that has a conductivity between conductor and insulator, either
due to the addition of an impurity or because of temperature effect. The conductivity of
semiconductor is smaller than conductors like metals and greater than insulators like plastics. The
semiconductor materials contain four electrons in their valence orbit, so they form covalent bonding
in crystal formation.

2. What forbidden energy gap?
 The energy difference between the top of the valence band and the bottom of the conduction band is
called forbidden energy gap. Electrons are not found in this gap, hence the name forbidden. Such
type of gap is found in semiconductors and insulators. Forbidden gap separates the conduction
energy band and valence energy band in solids.
3. What is charge carrier? What type of charge carries are found in semiconductors?
 A charge carrier is a particle free to move carrying electric charge. In semiconductors, holes and free
electrons are charge carriers. Holes are positive charge carriers and free electrons are negative charge
carriers.
4. What are holes in semiconductors?
 Holes are the vacancy created in the valence band of semiconductor when an electron on acquiring
energy jumps from valence energy band to conduction energy band. Electrons comes to fulfill the
holes in valence band, hence it is considered positive charge carriers. It acts as the virtual charge
because there is no physical charge on it.
5. What is doping in semiconductor?
 The process of addition of a desirable impurity atoms deliberately to a pure semiconductor to modify
its properties in a controlled manner is called doping in semiconductor. The doping of a
semiconductor increases its conductivity to a great extent. Trivalent or pentavalent impurities can be
doped in pure semiconductors to increase holes or free electrons.

1. What are the energy bands in solids?
 Solids have two energy bands: Valence energy band and conduction energy band. The valence
energy band is the outermost electron orbital of an atom of any specific material that electrons
actually occupy. Conduction energy band is a delocalized band of energy levels in a crystalline solid
which is partially filled with electrons. These electrons have great mobility and are responsible for
electrical conductivity.
2. Write any three characteristics of semiconductors.
 There are several characteristics of semiconductor. Three of them are written below.
i. Its conductivity is smaller than conductors and greater than insulators. Also, its resistivity is
greater than conductors and smaller than insulators.
ii. It behaves perfect insulator of zero Kelvin. Also, the conductivity increases as the temperature
increases.
iii. Its forbidden energy gap is quite small about 1 eV.
3. Distinguish between hole current and electron current.
 When an electron from a nearby covalent bond jumps to fill vacancy, the vacancy shifts in a direction
opposite to that in which the electron jumps. This gives rise to hole current. On the other hand,
electron current is constituted by the drift of free electrons.
4. What are dopants? Give examples.
 The impurities which are added to increase the conductivity of semiconductors are called dopants.
There are two types of dopants used in tetravalent Silicon or Germanium.
i. Trivalent dopants: They increases the number of holes when appropriately dopped in semi-
conductors. Examples; Indium (In), Boron (B), Aluminium (Al) etc.
ii. Pentavalent dopants: They increases the number of free electrons when appropriately dopped in
semiconductors. Examples: Arsenic (As), Anti-mony (Sb) and Phosphorus (P), etc.
5. Does P-type or N-type semiconductor crystal is electrically charged? Explain.
 No. In these semiconductors, the charge carriers can be increased by doping trivalent or pentavalent
impurities. In P-type semiconductor, trivalent impurities are doped to enhance the number of holes.
In N-type semiconductor, pentavalent impurities are doped to increase the concentration of free
electrons. However, the semiconductor materials (Silicon and Germanium) and added material both
are chargeless. When they mix, net charge is still zero, only the conductivity will be changed.
6. Why does a pure semiconductor behave like an insulator at absolute zero temperature?
 For a pure semiconductor at a temperature of absolute zero (-273.15°C)the valence band is usually
full and there are no electrons in the conduction band. It is difficult to provide additional energy
required for lifting electron from valence band to conduction band by applying electric field. Hence,
the conductivity of a pure semiconductor at absolute zero temperature is zero and it behaves like an
insulator.
7. What happens to the conductivity of semiconductor with the rise in temperature? Compare with the
conductivity of metals.
 When semiconductors are heated, valence electrons jump to the conduction band creating more holes
in valence band and consequently more free electrons in conduction band. With the increase in
temperature, the concentration of charge carriers increases resulting in increase in conductivity of
semiconductors. However, the conductivity of metal decreases with the increase in temperature.
8. Why temperature coefficient of resistance of a semiconductor is negative?
 With the increase in temperature, the concentration of charge carriers (electrons and holes) increases.
As more charge carriers are made available, the conductivity of a pure semiconductor increases i.e.
resistivity of a pure semiconductor decreases with the rise in temperature. Thus, semiconductors are
said to have negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
9. What do you mean by donor and acceptor impurities?
 Donor impurities (such as arsenic, antimony, bismuth or phosphorous) when added to a pure
semiconductor lattice, form N-type extrinsic semiconductor. The pentavalent impurities are called
donor impurities as such impurities donate electrons to the lattice. Acceptor impurities (such as
boron, gallium, indium or aluminium) when added to a semiconductor lattice form P-type extrinsic
semiconductor. The trivalent impurities are called acceptor impurities because such impurities accept
electrons from the lattice.
10. What are the differences between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor?
 Differences between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors are as follows:
Intrinsic semiconductor Extrinsic semiconductor
1. Impurity are not added in intrinsic 1. A small amount of impurity is doped in a
semiconductor. pure semiconductor for preparing
extrinsic semiconductor.
2. The number of free electrons in the 2. The number of electrons and holes are
conduction band is equal to the number not equal.
of holes in the valence band.
3. Electrical conductivity is low. 3. Electrical conductivity is high.
4. Electrical conductivity is a function of 4. Electrical conductivity depends on
temperature alone. temperature as well as on the amount of
impurity doped in the pure
semiconductor.
Exercises
1. Why do Ge and Si behave like semiconductor?
2. Why are N-type semiconductors so called?
3. Why are P-type semiconductors so called?

4. Is there any hole in an N-type semiconductor?
6. What is a semiconductor?
7. What forbidden energy gap?

1. What are the basic properties of semiconductor?
2. What do you mean by doping? Why is it done?
3. What happens if both, the emitter and collector of a transistor are forward biased?
4. What are valance band, conduction band and forbidden energy gap?
5. What is the advantage of a semiconductor over a metal?
6. Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.
7. Distinguish between an N-type and P-type semiconductors.
8. What are the energy bands in solids?
9. Write any three characteristics of semiconductors.
10. Distinguish between hole current and electron current.
11. What are dopants? Give examples.
12. Why does a pure semiconductor behave like an insulator at absolute zero temperature?
13. What are the differences between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor?

1. What is band theory of metals? What are the differences among conductor, semiconductor and bad
conductor in terms of energy band?
2. What are intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors? What is doping? Explain the process of doping in
semiconductor.
3. What are n-type and p-type semiconductors? What are their main differences?

1. The depletion layer in a P-N junction is caused by
a. drift of holes. b. diffusion of charge carriers.
c. migration of impurity atoms. d. drift of electrons.
2. Holes are majority charge carriers in
a. N-type semiconductors. b. ionic solids.
c. P-type semiconductors. d. metals.
3. When a semiconductor is doped with a donor impurity, then
a. the hole concentration increases. b. the hole concentration decreases.
c. the electron concentration increases. d. the electron concentration decreases.
4. The energy gap between the conduction band and the valence band of certain material is 0.7 eV. The
material is
a. an insulator b. a conductor
c. semi conductor d. semimetal
5. The impurity atom with which pure Silicon is doped to make P-type semiconductor is
a. Indium b. Phosphorus
c. Antimony d. Arsenic
ANSWERS
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (c) 5. (a)


RECENT TRENDS
IN PHYSICS
26.1 Particle Physics

Elementary particles are those particles whose internal structures are unknown. The internal
structure is said "unknown" in the sense that no simpler particles have been detected other than
these particles. So, they are considered as the most fundamental particles in nature. Before the
discovery of electron by J.J. Thomson, atoms were considered as the fundamental particles. In Greek
language, 'atomos' means 'indivisible' it means atom can not be broken into more fundamental
particles. J.J. Thomson purposed that an atom is composed of electrons and nucleus. After the
discovery of neutron, in 1932, by Chadwick, it was considered that an atom is composed of three
subatomic particles: electron, proton and neuron. After the development of quantum mechanical
theory, it was established that some of the subatomic particles like proton and neutron have also
internal structure, they are composed of quarks. Likewise, many other elementary particles have also
been identified. Till date, Leptons, quarks and mediator particles are considered as the elementary
particles.
26.2 History of Elementary Particles

 In 1897, J.J. Thomson discovered negatively charged particle, electron and another positively
charged particle; proton.
 In 1911, Rutherford discovered positively charged central core of atom known as nucleus.
 Bohr in 1932 purposed that the nucleus consists of proton and electron is revolving around the
nucleus. Electron and proton are basic units of charge.
 Chadwick in 1932 discovered existence of chargeless particle in the nucleus called neutron.
 In 1924 de-Broglie suggested that the photon behaves as particle. (de-Broglie hypothesis)
 In 1928 Dirac-predicated the existence of positron (e+), antiparticle of electron, having the same
mass and the positive charge.
 Anderson in 1932 discovered the positron.
 In 1955, the existence of antiproton was discovered by Serge, Chamberlain and their
collaborators.
 In 1956, similarly, the existence of antineutron, the antiparticle of neutron, was discovered by
Cook, Chamberton and Wenzel.
 In 1928, Pauli discovered neutrino to account the missing energy of particle along with
antineutrino.
 The discovery of antiparticle of a particle finally leads to the existence of antimatter of the
matter and antiworld of world.

Recent Trends in Physics  Chapter 26  639
 In 1995, Japanese scientists Yukawa gave the idea of a particle of mass intermediate between
that of an electron and proton, i.e. meson which makes the proton and neutron glued together
in nucleus.
 In 1937, the μ-meson was discovered by Anderson and Neddermeyer in the cosmic ray
researches. Their discovery was confirmed in 1940 by Leprince-Ringuet and found that the μ-
mesons are 207 times heavier than electron.
 In 1947, Powell group in England discovered π-meson where π+ and π– meson have rest masses
of 273 me and π0-meson is slightly less than 264me.
 Similarly, around or more than 200 particles have been discovered up to now.
 By the end of 1977 five flavours of quark (u,d,s,c,b) were known to exist together with six
flavours of lepton (e, μ, τ, νe, νμ, ντ). Assuming that quarks and leptons are the fundamental
constituents of matter, many of the strong and weak interactions of hadrons and the weak
interactions of leptons are explained. However anticipating a symmetry in nature's building
blocks, it was expected that a sixth quark would eventually reveal itself. This quark, labeled top
(t), would be 2/3 electronic charge partner to the (bottom) quark. In 1998 the top quark was
found at CERN in Geneva and the symmetry of six quarks with six leptons was finally verified.
 In 1978 the standard model was proposed as the definitive theory of the fundamental
constituents of matter. In the current view, all matter consists of three kinds of particles : leptons,
quarks and mediators. Mediators are the particles by which the four fundamental interactions
are mediated.
26.3 Particles and antiparticles

A particle is said to be antiparticle of a particle if that has equal mass and magnitude of electric
charge, but nature of charge is opposite. The antiparticle of an electron is positron. Positron has
exactly equal mass of electron (= 9.1 × 10–31 kg) and magnitude of charge 1.6 × 10–19 C, but the nature
of its charge is positive. Dirac purposed that every particle in nature must have its antiparticle.
Another important method of identifying particle-antiparticle pair is the property of annihilation. In
particle-antiparticle annihilation, they combine to form energy, usually, a pair of γ-rays satisfying the
conservation of energy and momentum. Some examples of particle-antiparticle pair are explained
below.
i. Electron and Positron: The positron is exactly the counterpart of an electron having equal
mass and one unit of positive charge (i.e. 1.6 × 10–19 C). It was discovered by Anderson in 1932.
Its mean life is approximately 10–10 s. When an electron combines with positron, they
disappear and form two quanta of γ-rays.
ii. Proton and antiproton: Antiproton is the antiparticle of a proton. The existence of antiparticle
was discovered by Serge, chamberlin and their coworkers in 1955.
iii. Neutron and antineutron: Antineutron is the anti-particle of a neutron. Antineutron was
discovered by Cork, Lamberton and Wenzel in 1950. Although neutron and anti-neutron have
zero electric charge, they are supposed to have a certain internal charge distribution.
iv. Neutrino and anti-neutrino: Pauli purposed the existence of neutrino in β-decay process. He
purposed, in 1931, that β-decay is always accompanied by another particle of almost zero rest
mass and zero-charge, called neutrino. Antineutrino is the antiparticle of neutrino.
v. Matter and antimatter: A matter is composed of electron, and nucleus. If we take a
consideration of hydrogen, it is composed of an electron and proton. According to particle-
antiparticle concept, when a positron and an antiproton combine, an antihydrogen is formed.
Likewise, anti-elements are formed from positron, antiproton and antineutron. Antielements
are responsible to form antimatter. If matters are annihilated with anti-matters, possibly
tremendous energy will be released.
26.4 Annihilation
When a particle interacts with its antiparticle, whole masses γ
of both particle and antiparticle are completely converted
into energy (photons), usually, a pair of γ-rays (sometimes
x-rays). This process of conversion of matter into energy is
called annihilation. Most common annihilation on Earth
e– e+
occurs between an electron and its antiparticle, positron.
A particle and an antiparticle can not annihilate into a single
photon, they have to annihilate into at least two photons to γ
conserve energy and momentum.

Fig. 26.1: Electron Position annihilation
26.5 Pair Production

An x-ray or γ-ray, may interact with the matter while
traversing nearer from the nucleus. When a photon of x- Nucleus Electron (e–)
ray or γ-ray passes through the nuclear field, a electron-
θ
positron pair, one negative and one positive, appears in θ
place of the photon. This materialization process of Photon (γ)
energy is known as pair production. Since the energy

equivalent to the mass of an electron is 0.51 MeV, the
Positron (e+)
creation of electron-positron pair requires, 2 × 0.51 =
1.02 MeV. Consequently, photons with energy less than Fig. 26.2: Pair Production
1.02 MeV do not interact by pair production. During pair production, energy in excess of 1.02 MeV is
released as kinetic energy of the pair particles.
26.6 Concept of Spin

In classical physics, spin is simply the rotation of an object along
its axis, but it is quite different in the context of elementary
particles. It is somehow difficult to have insight of the concept of
spin by using classical physics. It is quantity that requires
quantum mechanical explanation to be described at its full.
However, the basic concept regarding the spin can be visualized
considering the following Fig. 26.3.
Every particle is assigned with certain value of spin in the form of
numbers. Each number has the special information regarding
rotation of the particle.
Fig. 26.3: Spin of particles
i. Half spin: The particles having half spin, reverse their direction in 2π rotation (i.e. upside turns
down) and after another 2π rotation, come to their original position. That is to say, such particles can
recover their original position after 4π rotation. Fermions are half-spin particles.
ii. Integer spin: The particles having integer spin, recover their original position after 2π rotation.
Bosons are integer spin particles.

26.7 Classification of Elementary Particles

Elementary particles are considered as the structureless and are not regarded as made up of any
other particles. They can be detected in the matter of the earth and cosmic rays. Elementary particles
are broadly classified into two types: fermions and Bosons. Their antiparticles are also the
elementary particles. The classification of elementary particles in accordance with standard model is
given below.
Elementary Particles
Fermions Bosons
Leptons Quarks Gauge Boson Higg's Boson
Gluons
Electron (e¯) Up (u)
Photons
Electron neutrino (νe) Down (d)
W and Z bosons
Muon (μ¯) Charm (c)
Gravitons
Muon neutrino (νμ) Strange (s)
Taun (τ¯) Top (t)
Taun neutrino (ντ) Bottom (b)
26.8 Fermions
The elementary particles with half-integer spins are called fermions. Half integer can be the odd
1 1 3 5
multiples of 2 . i.e. 2 , 2 , 2 . Leptons, quarks and composite particles made up of quarks belong to
this family. These particles obey Pauli Exclusion Principle. According to Pauli Exclusion Principle,
the particles cannot occupy same quantum state simultaneously.
26.9 Leptons
Light elementary particles are incorporated in this class. In Greek language, 'Lepton' refers the 'light
particles'. In this class, all particles are stable except muon and taun. Taun is heavier than many
mesons (lie in the class of heavy particles), but it has no internal structure and have no measurable
size. Its electric charge is similar to electron. Therefore, taun belongs to lepton family. There are six
leptons. Some important information of lepton's are tabulated below.

Particle Symbol Charge Rest Mass (MeV)

Electron e- -e 0.51
Muon μ- -e 106
Taun τ- -e 1784
e-neutrino νe 0 0
μ-neutrino νμ 0 0
τ-neutrino ντ 0 0
(All antiparticles have charge just opposite to that of particles)
26.10 Quarks
Quarks are elementary particles which are the fundamental constituents of matter. They are fermions.
They combine to form composite particles called hadrons. Protons and neutrons are the most stable
composite particles, they are the components of nucleus. Quark model was independently purposed
by Murray Gell-Mann and George Zweig in 1964. We cannot see quark separately, since the strong
force between them increases as we try to separate them. Although M. Gell-Mann contributed prime
role in the discovery of quark, he gave the name "quark", when he found the word quark in James
Joyce's book "Finnegan's wake."
Initially, M.Gell Mann, and George Zweig purposed only three quarks, up, down and strange, and
their antiquarks. Then, other three more quarks namely charm, bottom, and top quarks were
1
discovered in Fermi lab. Each quark has baryon number 3 . Quarks have fractional electric charge
2 1
value + 3 e or – 3 e. (Where e = 1.6 × 10–19 C). The short description of quarks are tabulated below.
Baryon
Types of quarks Symbol Charge Antiquarks
number
Up u 2 1 ⎯u
+3e 3
Down d 1 1 ⎯d
-3e 3
Charm c 2 1 ⎯c
+3e 3
Strange s 1 1 ⎯s
-3e 3
Top t 2 1 ⎯t
+3e 3
Bottom b 1 1 ⎯b
-3e 3

26.11 Bosons
The elementary particles with zero or integer spins (0, 1, 2,.......) are bosons. Gauge bosons and Higgs
bosons are the examples of bosons. These particles do not obey Pauli Exclusion Principle. Bosons
which are responsible for the four fundamental forces are called gauge bosons. Strong interaction is
mediated by gluons, electromagnetic interaction is mediated by photons, weak interaction is
mediated by W and Z bosons, and the gravitational interaction is mediated by gravitons. Higgs
bosons are supposed to explain the origin of particles mass. The properties of four fundamental
forces are tabulated below.
Four fundamental forces
Types of force Nature
Strong force This force holds the nucleons together in nucleus. It squeezes the
protons and neutrons into volume that is about 10–15 m. It is the
strongest among all four forces.
Electromagnetic force This force acts between electrically charged particles. It includes
the electrostatic force acting between charged particles at rest and
combined effect of electric and magnetic forces acting between
charged particles moving relative to each other.
Weak force This force is responsible for radioactive decay, specially, beta
decay where a neutron within nucleus changes into a proton and
an electron, also acts in nuclear fusion in stars. It is weaker than
electromagnetic force and stronger than gravitational force.
Gravitational force It is the weakest force among all four forces. This force is relevant
for large celestial bodies such as planets, stars and galaxies and
attraction between them.
The brief description of mediators is tabulated below.
Mediator Particles
All particles in the mediator group mediate in the interaction for the four kinds of forces: strong
nuclear forces, electromagnetic force, weak force and gravitational force.
Particle Symbol Force Charge
Gluon G Strong 0
Photon ν Electromagnetic 0
Plus W W+ Weak +e
Minus W W- Weak -e
Zero Z Z0 Weak 0
Graviton G Gravitational 0
26.12 Hadrons
Hadrons are strongly interacting heavy composite particles. They are composed of quarks. Hadrons
are basically two types: Mesons and Baryons. Mesons contain one quark and an antiquark. Baryons
contain three quarks. Quarks held together to form a hadrons by the strong force. Hadrons

containing more than three quarks are also discovered in recent years. A tetraquark state was
discovered in 2007 and two pentaquark states were discovered in 2015. Tetraquark and pentaquark
states will not be described below.
The hadrons are classified as below.
Hadrons
Mesons Baryons
K Mesons π Mesons η Mesons Nucleons Hyperons
Proton Neutron
Lamda Sigma Xi Omega
26.13 Mesons
Ordinary mesons are made up of a quark and an antiquark. Since they are composed from a quark
and an antiquark, they have the spin 0 or 1. They possess a single unit of charge (except zero meson)
and mass intermediate between electron and proton. The rest mass of these particles varies from 250
me to 1000 me. Short information for some mesons is tabulated below.
Particle Symbol Charge Rest mass (MeV) Mean life, sec
Pion-zero π0 0 135 8.3 × 10-3
±
Pion plus/minus π ±e 140 2.6 × 10-8
Kaon-zero K0 0 498 9 × 10-11
Kaon plus/minus K± ±e 494 1.2 × 10-8
Eta meson η0 0 549 7 × 10-19
Quark and Mesons

Each meson is a combination of a quark and antiquark. The baryon number of each meson is zero.
Mesons are unstable and they decay into lighter mesons or leptons. The charge and baryon number
of π+ meson is taken as an example below.
Pion π+ meson
π+ = u⎯d
Q = (+2/3 +1/3) e = +e
Baryon number (B) = (1/3)+(–1/3) = 0

Quark Structure of Source Mesons

Mesons Quark combination Charge
π+ ud̄ +e
π- ūd -e
ko ds̄ 0
k+ us̄ +e
k- ūs -e
26.14 Baryons
Baryons are composite particles including nucleons. They have equal or greater mass than the mass
of a proton. They have half integer spins. Baryons heavier than nucleons are hyperons. Baryons are
basically divided into two classes: nucleons and hyperons. Every baryon has an antiparticle.
Nucleons
These are the lightest baryons. This group includes protons, neutrons and their antiparticles. A
nucleus of an atom is composed up of nucleons.
Hyperons
These are the special baryons having the mass value intermediate between those of neutron and
deuteron. Lamda (λ), Sigma (∑), Xi (Ξ) and omega (Ω) are examples of hyperons. Actually, hyperons
contain strange quarks. Their decay time is very much greater than the time of formation.
The short description of nucleons and hyperons are presented below.
Energy equivalence of
Particle Symbol Charge
Rest mass(MeV)
Proton p +e 938.3
Neutron n 0 939.6
Lambda λ0 0 1116
Sigma Σ+ +e 1189
Σ0 0 1192
Σ– –e 1997
Xi(cascade) Ξ0 0 1315
Ξ– –e 1321
Omega Ω– –e 1672
Quarks and baryon

Each baryon is combination of three quarks and baryon number is 1 for each baryon.
i. Proton: It consists of three quarks uud, i.e., two u quarks and one d quarks.
p = uud
Total charge, Q = (+2/3 +2/3 -1/3) e = +e
Also baryon number, B = 1/3 + 1/3 + 1/3 = 1
Similarly, Antiproton contains, ⎯p = ⎯u⎯u⎯d
ii. Neutron: It consists of one up quark and two down quarks.
n = udd, charge Q = (+2/3 - 1/3 - 1/3) e = 0
Also baryon number (B) = +1/3 + 1/3 +1/3 = 1
Similarly, Antineutron, n̄ = ū d̄ d̄
iii. Sigma: It is a hyperon. The Σ+ quark is made up of two up quarks and a strange quark.
Σ+ = uus, Charge no. Q = (+2/3 +2/3 – 1/3) e = +e
Similarly, Σ0 = uds
Σ– = dds
Quark structure of baryons

Baryon Q-combination Charge
p uud +e
n udd 0
Λ0 uds 0
Σ+ uus +e
Σ0 uds 0
Σ- dds –e
Ξ0 uss 0
Ξ- dss –e
Ω- sss –e
26.15 Three Generations of Quarks and Leptons

The generations of elementary particles are the divisions of particles in accordance with flavour,
quantum number and mass. Each generation is divided into two types of leptons and two types of
quarks. Two leptons are classified into one with one electric charge -1 (electron-like) and one neutral
2 1
(neutrino); two quarks may be classified into one with + 3 e and another with – 3 e.
The first generations contains two leptons, the electron and the electron neutrino, and two quarks,
up and down. All the properties of ordinary matter can be understood on the basis of these particles.
The second generation includes the muon and muon-neutrino and the charm and strange quarks.
These particles are responsible for most of the unstable particles and resonances created in high
energy collisions. The third generations includes the tau and the tau-neutrino and the top and
bottom quarks.
Generations of matter
Type First Second Third
Quarks
up-type up (u) charm (c) top (t)
down-type down (d) strange (s) bottom (b)
Leptons
charged electron (e) muon (μ) taun (τ)
neutral electron neutrino (νe) muon neutrino (νμ) taun neutrino (ντ)

26.16 Universe
The universe is all around us, in our vision and beyond our vision. It is all of space and time and
their contents, including solar system, other stars and planets, galaxies, and all other forms of matter
and energy. The size of universe is still unknown. Many matters and energy of the universe have not
been measured yet. Many of its constituents are invisible and are called dark matter and dark energy.
The aggregation of matters and energy that are in measured form is known as observable universe.
The branch of science, which deals with the study of the origin, evolution and nature of the universe,
is called cosmology. Cosmology includes the study of the nature of the universe on its very large
scales: planets orbit stars, stars are controlled into galaxies, galaxies are gravitationally bound into
clusters and even clusters of galaxies are found with in larger super clusters.
In the earliest form, the study of cosmology was considered as the study of heavens, now it is known
as celestial mechanics. In the beginning of study on it, Greek philosophers Aristotle and Ptolemy
proposed different cosmological theories to explain the mystery of universe. Later on, Newton
disclosed many unsolved problems associated with the universe after his universal law of
Gravitation. Modern scientific cosmology is considered to have begun in 1917 with Albert Einstein's
publication on his final modification of "General Theory of Relatively (GTR)".
26.17 Big Bang

It is the big curiosity of scientists that how our universe was created and what is its age. Many
scientists put their views regarding the origin and evolution of the universe, however this question is
still debatable. The broadly accepted theory on this issue is big bang model. This model states that
the universe began as an incredibly hot, dense point roughly 14 billion years ago. At this time all
matter was compacted into a very small ball with finite density and intense heat called a singularity.
Suddenly, the singularity began expanding, and the universe as we know it began. Between 10–36
seconds to 10–33 seconds were after Big Bang the universe expanded as fast as speed of light. The
fundamental particles formed in the first three minutes after Big Bang. The first particles to form
were the quarries and as the universe expanded and cooled, they jointed to gather to make protons,
neutrons and other particles. The solar system formed about 9 billion years after Big bang. The
universe was subjected to mere activity during Big bang than in all the billions of years since.
Big bang theory is the most widely accepted and popular theory. It explains not only the origin of all
known matter, the laws of physics and the large scale structure of the universe, it also accounts for
the expansion of universe and broad range of other phenomena. Besides big bang model, there are
other theories on this regard: Steady state theory and the oscillating universe theory. The steady state
theory purposed that the overall mass and size of universe remain constant, where, as the pulsating
theory assumes that the universe is expanding and contracting periodically in billions of years.
Cosmic rays
Cosmic rays are the highly energetic atomic nucleus or other particles travelling through space at a
speed approaching that of light. They are mainly originated outside the solar system and even from
distant galaxies. Upon impact with Earth's atmosphere, cosmic rays can produce showers of
secondary particles that sometimes reach the surface.
It is still impossible to trace where they come from. It is because their path has been changed as they
travelled through multiple magnetic fields. Scientists are trying to trace back cosmic ray origins by

looking at what the cosmic rays are made up of. They have been trying to figure out the origin from
spectroscopic signature each nucleus gives off in radiation.
Red shift
The shifting of colour of light coming from a distant object into red, when the objects are going away
from an observer is known as red shift. The red shift that can be observed in light from distant
galaxies suggests that the universe is expanding, and thus supports the Big Bang theory. According
to Doppler's effect, when a source of wave recedes from the observer, the wavelength of wave is
observed larger than actual value. This effect is the basic concept of explanation of red shift. In
visible spectrum, red colour has the longest wavelength. The colour of light as observed from earth,
is gradually shifting to red colour. This means, the source of light might traversing away from us.
If there is blue shift, the object would come towards us. The red shift of a distant galaxies or quasars
can be easily measured by comparing its spectrum with a reference laboratory spectrum. Atomic
emission and absorption line occur at well known wavelengths. By measuring the location of these
lines in astronomical spectra, astronomers can determine the red shift of the receding source.
26.18 Expanding of Universe

From the early era of human civilization, the curiosity regarding the origin, size and age of the
universe began to hunt their mind. The questions such as how large the universe is? Does it have
edge? From how long has this universe been existing and for how long will it exist?, remained
unanswered. There were many myths regarding these questions but were not acceptable in scientific
community as there were no strong proof behind them. In 1929, Edwin Hubble an astronomer at
Carnegie observatories, made a critical discovery that the universe is expanding, which led to a
interpretation consistent with Big bang theory. If the universe is expanding today, it was smaller and
denser in the past.
In 1929 Edwin Hubble, working at the Carnegie observatories in Pasadena, California, measured the
redshifts of a number of distant galaxies. He observed that the colour of light coming from distant
galaxies is shifting to red. It shows that the wavelength of light is increasing as explained by
Doppler's effect. When a source of light is moving away from us, its wavelength is observed
increasing. This phenomenon had disclosed two important consequences: One the universe is not
static and the another it is expanding, rather contraction.
26.19 Hubble's Law

Edwin Hubble, an astronomer, measured the relative distant galaxies by measuring the apparent
brightness of a class of variable stars called Cepheid's in each galaxy. When he plotted red-shifts
against relative distance, he found that the red shift of distant galaxies increased as a linear function
of their distance. Then, he formulated what he observed regarding the expanding of universe and is
then called Hubble's law.
Hubble's law states that the speed of recession of a galaxy is directly proportional to the distance from the earth.
Let v be the speed of recession of a galaxy at distance r from the earth, then the law is expressed
mathematically as,
v∝r
v = H0r ... (28.5)
Where, H0 is proportionality constant and is called Hubble constant.

v [LT–1]
The dimension of H0: H0 = r = [L] = [T–1].
As an example,
71 km/s −18 –1
H0 = mpc = 2.3 × 10 s
The exact value of the Hubble constant is still somewhat uncertain, but is generally believed to the
around 65 kilometers per second for every mega parsec in distance. (A mega parsec is given by 1
Mpc = 3.26 × 106 light years). This means that a galaxy 1 mega parsec away will be moving away
from us at a speed of 65 km/s, while another galaxy 100 mega parsecs away will be receding at 100
times this speed. Thus, the recession velocities of distant galaxies are known from the red shift.
Hubble's constant reflects the rate at which the universe is expanding.
Hubble discovered that the light coming from the distant galaxies are all red shifted. More the
distance from galaxies, higher the red shift. Then, he plotted the recession velocity as a function of
distance from the earth the graph was found linear as shown in Fig. (28.6).
Fig. 26.1: Interpretation of Hubble's law
Consequence of Hubble's law and age of universe

Once scientist understood that the universe was expanding, they immediately realized that it would
have been smaller in the past. At some point in the past, the entire universe would have been a single
point. This point, later called the big bang, was the beginning of the universe as we understood it
today.
Although the value of Hubble's constant is still debated issue, the present estimation is
kms–1
H0 = 50 Mpc ≈ 1.6 × 10–18 s–1 = 5 × 10–11 year–1
Considering the recession velocity is the speed of light, the Hubble's radius is,
c 3 × 105 km/s
RH = H = kms–1 = 6000 Mpc
0
50 Mpc
The time taken by light to travel about 6000 Mpc is called Hubble's time, and is taken to estimate the
age of universe,
1
The age of universe (τ) =H
0
1
= kms–1 = 19.3 × 10 years
9
50 Mpc

26.20 Critical Density

The universe includes planets, stars, galaxies dust clouds, light and even time. It contains billions of
galaxies, each containing millions or billions of stars. The space between the stars and galaxies is
largely empty. In accordance with Hubble's law, the universe is expanding. It means the density of
universe is changing. The challenging question is that the expansion is continued forever or stopped
somewhere. To solve this query, the concept of critical density is essential.
The critical density of the universe is the average density of matter required for the universe to just
stop its expansion. This condition may come after an infinite time. After the density becomes critical,
the universe will begin to contract and it will eventually become closed and will ultimately end up
collapsing in on itself.
Let R be the radius of universe considering earth as the center and ρ be the average density of the
universe. Then, the total mass of the universe,
M = Volume × density
4
= 3 πR3 × ρ
The expansion of universe continues until the critical density will be reached. At this condition, the
gravitational potential energy of the universe is equal to the kinetic energy of recessive galaxies, so,
GmM 1
R = 2 mv2 ... (28.6)
Where m is the mass of the galaxy and v is its recession velocity.

4
When the critical density is reached, M = 3 πR3ρc, ρc is the critical density of universe. Also, v = H0R,
then,
G ⎛4 πR3ρc⎞ 1
= 2 (H0R)2
R ⎝3 ⎠
4 1 2
3 πR Gρc = 2 H0 R
2 2
2
3 H0
ρc = 8 ... (28.7)
πG
For H0 = 50 kms–1/Mpc and G = 6.67 × 10–11 Nm2kg–2
ρc = 5.8 × 10–27 kgm–3.
It shows that the universe continues expanding until the density drops to 5.8 × 10–27 kgm–3, then halts
the expansion.
26.21 Dark Matter and Dark Energy

Dark matter
The undetectable form of mass in the universe that emits little or no light but its existence we infer
from its gravitational influence is known as dark matters. It neither emits or absorbs light or other
electromagnetic radiation at any significant level. It is believed that the dark matter may account for
approximately 80% of the mass energy of matter in the observable universe. Dark matter has not
been directly observed, but its presence is implied in a variety of astrophysical measurements,
notably when observing gravitational effects that cannot be explained by visible matter alone.

Different astronomical observations show that the average density of the matter in the universe is
27% of the critical density, but the average density of the luminous matter is only about 4% of the
critical density. It means, most of the matter in the universe is not visible, it does not emit
electromagnetic radiation of any kind such type of invisible matters are, now, termed as dark matters.
Dark energy
Gravitational force is always attractive in nature. In our general sense, the expansion of universe
would be slowed down due to the gravitational attraction between matters in different parts of the
universe. But in reality, it has been observed that the expansion of universe is speeding up rather
than slowing down. This can be confirmed observing the red shift in extremely distant galaxies. Very
distant galaxies actually have smaller red shifts than predicted by Hubble law, which would be the
evidence of accelerating universe. This evidence convinced the astronomers and physicists that the
space must contain a kind of energy that has no gravitational effect and emits no electromagnetic
radiation, but rather acts as a kind of antigravity that produces a universal repulsion. This invisible
form of energy which can be the source of a repulsive force causing the expansion of the universe to
accelerate is known as dark energy.
Black hole
There are two main processes going on continuously in stars. One process is gravitation, which tends
to crunch all solar material towards the centre. The other is
thermo nuclear fusion consisting of reactions similar to
those in a hydrogen bomb when the processes of
gravitation and thermonuclear fusion balance each other,
the result is the stars, they are existing now.
For a heavy star, one that is at least three times the mass of
sun, once the flame of thermonuclear fusion is extinguished,
gravitational collapse take over. The collapse does not stop
and the density becomes literally infinite. Gravitation near
it is so enormous that nothing can get back out. Even light Fig. 26.2: Black hole
can not escape. They have crushed themselves out of
visible existence. They are called black holes. Although black holes can't be seen, their effect can be
measured.
The velocity of escape from the surface of a spherical mass M with radius R is given by
2GM
v= R …(28.1)
If ρ be the average density of the body, V be its volume then,

4
M = ρV = 3 πR3ρ
Using this value in equation (28.1) we get,

8 πGρ
v= 3 R …(28.2)
This equation shows that, for a given value of density ρ, the escape velocity v is directly proportional
to radius R. In 1783, John Mitchell noted that for a body with same average density as the sun and
radius 500 times the radius of sun, the magnitude of escape velocity would be greater than velocity
of light c. So, all the light emitted from such bodies would return toward it i.e., no light (radiation)
can escape from the field of such bodies. Such bodies are called black hole. This a black hole is a
region of space time exhibiting such strong gravitational effects that nothing -not even particles and
electromagnetic radiation such as light can escape from it.
Again from equation (28.1), the radius R can be expressed in terms of escape speed as,
2 GM
R= v2 … (28.3)
Thus, a body of mass M will act as a black hole if its radius R is less than or equal to certain critical
radius (Rs). In 1961, Karl Schwarzchild used Einstein's special theory of relativity to derive an
expression for the critical radius, which is so called as Schwarzchild radius (Rs). The expression for Rs
is obtained by setting v = c in equation (28.3) as,
2 GM
Rs = c2 ... (28.4)
which is required expression for Schwarzchild's radius.

Thus, if a spherical non-rotating body with mass M has a radius less than Rs, nothing, not even light can
escape from the surface of the body, such body is called black hole. Any other body within a distance of Rs
from the center of black hole is attracted by the immense gravitational pull of black hole and hence
can't escape from it. The surface of the sphere with radius Rs surrounding a black hole is called event
horizon, and we can't see events occurring inside. All that can be known about black hole from
outside the event horizon is its mass (due to gravitational effect on other bodies), its electric charge
(from the electric forces it exerts on other charged bodies) and its angular momentum (because a
rotating black hole tends to drag space and everything in that space-around within it). All other
information of the body is lost when it collapses inside it (event horizon). At points far from a black
hole, its gravitational effects are the same as those of any normal body with the same mass. So, if
somehow sun collapsed to form a black hole, the orbits of the planets would be unaffected provided,
the planets revolve far from the event horizon of sun.
26.22 Gravitational Wave

Gravitational waves are ripples in space-time caused by some of the most violent and energetic
processes in the universe. It is produced by cataclysmic events such as colliding of black holes,
supernovae and colliding of neutron stars. They are invisible and travel at the speed of light. The
existence of gravitational waves was predicted by Albert Einstein in 1916, in his general theory of
relativity (GTR).
Every massive object that accelerates produces gravitational waves, even humans, vehicles,
aeroplanes etc, but problem is in its detection even. The gravitational waves produced by our solar
system is undetectable. Only, the waves generated by incredibly massive objects in rapid
acceleration can be detected by highly sensitive laser interferometers. Gravitational waves are the
carriers of the information of such heavenly bodies and clues to the nature of gravity itself.
Laser interferometer gravitational wave observatory (LIGO) has announced the first direct
observation of gravitational waves in February 11, 2016 (Just one hundred years after the Einstein's
prediction) in scientific collaboration with virgo (a large interferometer designed to detect
gravitational waves). This discovery has been considered as one of the humanity's greatest scientific
achievements.
Gravitational waves interact very weakly with matter, so it can easily penetrate the materials. The
discovery of the wave, paved the way for new research in physics, astronomy and astrophysics.
There are same properties of gravitational waves. They are:

i. They are invisible.
ii. These waves have the speed equal to the speed of light.
iii. They have very weak interactions with the matters so they can penetrate regions of space that
electromagnetic waves can not.
iv. These waves squeeze and stretch anything in their path as they pass by.
v. Gravitational waves could exist in any frequency, however, very low frequency waves would
be impossible to detect.
vi. These waves obey the inverse square law.
Tips for MCQs

1. Elementary particles are structureless. They are not composed of any other fundamental particles.
2. Every elementary particle has its anti-particle.
3. Fermions (spin half particle) and bosons (zero or integer spin particles) are two main categories of
elementary particles.
4. Pair production is the materialization process and annihilation is the mass to energy conversion
process.
5. There are six leptons, six quarks and four types of mediator particles.
6. Hadrons and Mesons are composite particles Hadrons are composed up of three quarks and mesons
are composed up of a quark and an anti-quark.
7. Hyperons and nucleons are Baryons. Hyperons are heavier than nucleons.
8. The basic forces in nature are strong, electromagnetic, weak and gravitational.
Quick Reply
1. Define bosons.
 The elementary particles with zero or integer spins (0, 1, 2,.......) are bosons. Gauge bosons and Higg's
bosons are the examples of bosons. These particles do not obey Pauli exclusion principle. Bosons
which are responsible for the four fundamental forces are called gauge bosons.
2. What are mesons? Write the name of three mesons.
 Ordinary mesons are made up of a quark and an antiquark. Hence, they have the spin 0 or 1. They
possess a single unit of charge (except zero meson) and mass varies between electron and proton.
Pion, Kaon, Eta, etc. are some examples of mesons.
3. What are the fundamental forces in nature?
 Strong force, electromagnetic force, weak force and gravitational force are the fundamental forces in
nature. The elementary particles, gluons mediate for strong interaction, photons mediate for
electromagnetic interaction, W and Z bosons mediate for weak interaction and gravitons mediate
gravitational interaction.
4. What is the evidence of expanding of universe?
 The event of red shift in the distant stars gives the strong evidence for the expanding of universe.
Hubble's telescope has confirmed that the speed of distant stars is directly proportional with the
distance from the earth. So, it has been speculated that the universe is not only expanding but also
accelerating outwards.


1. Define antiparticle of a particle. Give examples.
 A particle is said to be an antiparticle of a particle if it has equal mass and magnitude of electric
charge, but nature of charge is opposite. Every particle has its antiparticle. For example: (i)
antiparticle of electron is positron (ii) antiparticle of proton is antiproton. (iii) antiparticle of neutron
is antineutron.
2. Write the quark combination of proton and neutron.
 The quark combination of proton is uud. It means a proton is composed with two up quarks and one
down quark.
2 2 1
The charge combination is 3 e + 3 e – 3 e = e
The quark combination of neutron is, udd,
2 1 1
The charge combination is, 3 e – 3 e – 3 e = 0
3. Give quark combination of K+, K–, K0
 Kaon (K-meson):
i. K+ meson: It made of one up quark and another antistrange quark. i.e. K+ = u s̄ ,
Total charge, Q = (+ 2/3 + 1/3) e = +e
Total baryon number (B) = 1/3 – 1/3 = 0
ii. K– meson: It is made of one antiup and a strange quark. i.e. ū s
Q = (– 2/3 – 1/3) e = –e
B = – 1/3 + 1/3 = 0
iii. K0 meson: It is made of a down quark and an antistrange quark. . i.e. d s̄
Q for d⎯s = (– 1/3 + 1/3) e = 0
B = 1/3 – 1/3 = 0
4. Define fermions. Give two examples.
 The elementary particles with half-integer spins are called fermions. Half integer can be the odd
1 1 3 5
multiples of 2 . i.e. 2 , 2 , 2 . Leptons, quarks and composite particles made up of quarks belong to this
family. These particles obey Pauli exclusion principle. According to Pauli exclusion principle, the
particles cannot occupy same quantum state simultaneously.
5. Write the quark combination of antiproton and antineutron.
 The quark combination of antiproton is ūūd̄. It means a antiproton is composed with two antiup
quarks and one antidown quark.
2 2 1
The charge combination is –3 –e – 3 e + 3 e = –e
The quark combination of antineutron is, ūd̄d̄,

2 1 1
The charge combination is, –3 e + 3 e + 3 e = 0
6. Hadrons are not truly fundamental particles, why?

 Hadrons are composite particles. They are composed of quarks. Their internal structure is known.
Hadrons are of basically two types: mesons and baryons. To be fundamental particles, internal
structure should be unknown.
7. What are quarks? Do they exist separately?
 Quarks are elementary particles which are the fundamental constituents of matters. They are
fermions. They combine to form composite particles called hadrons. Protons and neutrons are the
most stable composite particles, they are the components of nucleus. No, they do not exist separately.

8. What is Hubble’s constant? Does Hubble’s constant is universal constant?
 The Hubble’s constant is the unit of measurement used to describe the expansion of the universe. It is
Hubble’s constant gives the expansion rate of the universe and the universe is accelerating. So, It is
not universal constant.
9. Why big bang is most accepted theory?
 Astronomers Edwin Hubble and Milton Humason in the early 20th century discovered that galaxies
are moving away from the milkyway. Every galaxy is moving away from every other galaxy on
average, which means the whole universe is expanding. In the past, then, the whole cosmos must
have been much smaller, hotter and denser.
10. It is believed that the universe is not only expanding, but speeding up also. Is there an antigravity?
 Current studies of distant exploding stars have led astronomers to conclude that the universe is not
only expanding, the expansion may be accelerating with time. There is not due to antigravity force,
but may be by the dark energy.
11. What are the properties of gravitational wave?
 They are:
i. They are invisible.
ii. These waves have the speed equal to the speed of light.
iii. They have very weak interactions with the matters so they can penetrate regions of space
that electromagnetic waves can not.
iv. These waves squeeze and stretch anything in their path as they pass by.
v. Gravitational waves could exist in any frequency, however, very low frequency waves
would be impossible to detect.
vi. These waves obey the inverse square law.
Worked Out Problems

1. Find the distance of the galaxy moving with speed 1.55 ×107m/s from the earth, according to the
Hubble law. (H0 = 17 × 10–3 ms–1/ly).
SOLUTION
Given, v 1.55 × 107
∴ r = H = 17 × 10–3 ly
Speed (v) = 1.55 × 107 m/s 0
H0 = 17 × 10–3 ms–1/ly (ly = light year) = 9.2 × 108 ly

distance (r) = ? = 9.2 × 108 × 9.46 × 1015 m
From Hubble's law, we have ∴ r = 87.032 × 1023 m .
v = H0 r
2. If the galaxy moving with the speed 6480 km/s is at a distance of 430 million light years from us,
determine Hubble’s constant H and the corresponding age of the universe.
SOLUTION
Given, The reciprocal of Hubble's constant (H) gives the age
Speed (v) = 6480 km/s of the universe. So,
= 6.48 × 106 m/s 1
Distance (r) = 430 million light year t = H
0
= 430 × 106 × 9.46 × 1015 m (∵ 1 million = 1

= 1.59 × 10–18
106 and 1 light year = 9.46 × 1015 m)
H0 =? = 0.629 × 1018 s
v 6.48 × 106 0.629 × 1018
∴ H0 = r = 430 × 106 × 9.46 × 1015 = 3.15 × 107 (∵ 1 year = 3.15 × 107 s)
6.48 = 0.199 × 10 year

11
= 4067.8 × 10–15 = 1.59 × 10–18 s–1 = 1.99 × 1010 years

Exercises
1. What are the similarities and differences between a neutrino and a photon?
2. Which particle does the ⎯u⎯u⎯d combinations produce?
3. Give two examples of the pairs of particle-antiparticle system.
4. What is visible universe?
5. Write down the expression of critical density of the universe and its significance.
12. What are elementary particles?
13. What is meant by annihilation of particle-antiparticle pair?
14. What is cosmology?
15. What is gravitational wave?
1. How many types of quark you know? Name them with their electronic charges.
2. Show that proton contains three quarks: up, up and down.
3. What are quarks? Write their names with charge.
4. What are the similarities and differences between quarks and leptons?
5. Show that a proton contains three quarks: up, up and down (uud)
6. What are mesons? Write the names of two mesons.
7. Which is the modern theory of study in cosmology?
8. Why were atoms unable to exist until hundreds of thousands of years after the Big-Bang?
9. Where are cosmic rays come from?
10. Does whether the universe continues to expand forever or eventually slows down and re-collapses?
11. Why will the sun stop fusing hydrogen long before all its hydrogen has been converted to helium?
12. State Hubble’s law and give its significance.
13. Why dark energy and dark matter are named so?
14. What are mediator particles?
15. Does the universe have edge?
16. Will the Universe expand forever or recollapse?
17. What is the evidence for the Big Bang?
18. What are cosmic rays?
1. Name the quarks you know. Also present the quark combinations of baryon and meson groups of
particles.
2. Give an account of simple classification of elementary particles with examples.
3. Give brief history of elementary particles.
4. What are mediator particles? To which interactions they are associated?
5. Write brief notes about fermions and bosons.
6. What are generations of elementary particles? Describe their significances.
7. What is universe? Explain the constituents of the universe.
8. Explain how universe expands. Explain the Hubble’s law.
9. Describe the existence of black hole.
10. What is the critical density of the universe? Derive its expression.
11. State Hubble’s law. How does the Hubble’s constant help to estimate the age of the universe?
12. State Hubble’s law. How this law can be used to explain that universe is expanding?
13. What is red shift? How does it support the expansion of universe?
14. State briefly Big Bang theory and mention observational evidence that supports this theory.
15. Discuss the future of the universe on the basis of critical density.
16. Describe the evidence of dark matter and dark energy?
Numerical Problems
1. Estimate the temperature of the sun from the following data: Average radius of the sun = 7.0 × 105
km; solar constant = 1400 Wm–2. Average radius of the earth’s orbit = 1.5 × 108 km.
Ans: 5802.7 K
2. If a galaxy is at a distance of 500 million light years from us and is receding with a speed of 8× 106
m/s, find the value of Hubble’s constant and the corresponding age of the universe.
Ans: 1.6× 10–5 km s–1 light year–1; 1.875 × 1010 years

1. Which is the particle-antiparticle pair?
a. electron and proton b. electron and positron
c. proton and neutron d. neutron and electron
2. Which of the following particle is considered as responsibility of mass giving?
a. proton b. neutron
c. Higgs boson d. Graviton
3. The quark combination of antineutron is,
a. uud b. udd
c. ūūd̄ d. ūd̄d̄
4. Which is the weakest fundamental force?
a. Gravitational b. Electromagnetic
c. Weak d. Strong
5. Mesons are made up of,
a. One quark and an antiquark b. two quarks
c. two antiquarks d. three quarks
6. Which is not the fundamental particle?
a. up b. down
c. electron d. proton
7. From Hubble's law, it has been estimated that the age of this universe is,
a. 1.93 × 109 years b. 19.3 × 109 years
c. 1930 years d. Will be destroyed in a few years.
8. 1 Mega parsec is equal to
a. One hour b. 1 light year
c. 3 × 106 light year d. Infinity
9. The critical density of universe is,
a. 5.8 × 10–27 kgm–3 b. 5.8 × 1027 kgm–3
c. 8.5 × 10 kgm
–27 –3 c. 8.5 × 1027 kgm–3
10. Which of the following theories is the most satisfactory about the origin of the universe?
a. Big-Bang theory. b. Pulsating theory.
c. Steady state theory. d. None of above.
11. One main characteristics of black hole is that, it
a. emits a photon. b. absorbs a photon.
c. changes photon into mass. d. charges all colours into black one.
12. Hubble's law is based on
a. Stefans' law. b. Wien's law.
c. Doppler's effect. d. Newton's law of gravitation.
ANSWERS
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (a) 5. (a) 6. (d) 7. (b) 8. (c) 9. (a) 10. (a)
11. (b) 12. (c)

Fundamentals on Research
1. Scientific Journals
Scientific journals are the periodic publications that publish the research articles mostly written
by active scientists such as students, researchers, and professors. They do not publish daily
events written by professional journalists. The main aim of scientific journals is to further
progress in science and technology by reporting the new research works. There are thousands
of scientific journals, some of them are highly specific in a particular research area and many
others incorporate the research in diverse fields. "Nature" is a high level scientific journal.
Journals are not bound in a specific country; you can publish the work at any journal in the
world, if your research level meets the standard of corresponding journals. Once you submit
the article for the publication, they are usually sent for the peer-review. Peer reviewed journals
are those journals in which other scholars of related fields evaluate the articles whether it is
suitable for publication or not. This enhances the research level and eliminates the possible
weaknesses in the articles.
2. Scientific writing
Scientific writing is a high skilled technical writing. Proper technical writing has the great
importance in scientific society. If the presentation of the work is not systematically arranged,
no body give importance in your work. So, it is extremely essential to follow the basic format of
writing project works, lab reports, proposal writing etc.
3. Research articles
Research articles are the reports of original researches written in a specific pattern. Journals
have their own writing format. You can easily get access the journal article in web site
"scholar.google.com". There are many other web sites to get the research articles. Many of
the articles are access for full page free download and some of article should pay. Even
though the writing formats are different, the major section of articles carry the similar
objectives. Research articles are basically carried out in the sections: abstract, introduction,
research methodology, results, discussion and conclusions. The articles incorporates a
specific research related topics, citation of the articles and their references.
4. Plagiarism
If someone adopted another's language, thoughts, ideas or expression as one's own
original work, such types of "academic robbery" is termed as plagiarism. Plagiarism is
extremely undesirable in the scientific community. You must avoid the plagiarism in your
research articles. There are several types of plagiarisms, out of them some common
plagiarism are as follows:
1. Publishing someone's work as their own.
2. Copying paragraphs of other's articles without citations.
3. Missing the citations of someone's work, i.e., use a few citations, but not all properly.

Fundamentals on Research 659
4. Citing the article but failing to change the structure and wording of idea that is
borrowed from.
5. Incorrect citing a source.
6. Using quotations without citation.
7. Using physical relationships with-out citing the original source.
In research works, a researcher usually gets idea from the previous works in the related
fields. During research paper writing, one should give the background of the study. In this
section, the author should praises the previous researchers and should link up the present
work and such related works, and methods. In these conditions, you should clarify the
source from which you have taken the ideas and the methods. Further, some cares must be
given in the preparation of research articles in order to eliminate the plagiarism.
1. Read the other's article, understand it, digest the main theme of article and interpret it
in your own word.
2. Paraphrase or quote the source and add your own idea.
3. Give the credit to original author in the text and references.
4. You can use a plagiarism checker before submitting the article for the publication.
5. Citations and References

Citation is the quoting of original source of research article from where you have taken the
information. It is given immediately after the information that is written in your articles. It
is in brief form. There are several method of citations in research articles. References are
the description of the source from where you have taken the information to support your
article. It is in elaborated form of citation. A article reader can go to the original article
taking this references.
Here is a paragraph of a research article. Read the paragraph and correlate the citations with
references.
Example 1
"Diffusion is a dynamic property of matter in which its particles are transported from the
higher concentration region to the lower concentration region. It occurs due to the
concentration inhomogeneity and thermal agitation of particles18. Diffusion plays many
important roles in non-living substances as well as in living organisms. The diffusion in a
homogeneous system having no chemical concentration gradient is called self-diffusion, and
the corresponding diffusion coefficient is termed self-diffusion coefficient19. Einstein’s equation
is used to calculate the self-diffusion coefficients, which relates the diffusion coefficient with the
mean square displacement (MSD) of the particles20,21"
References
18. J. Crank, The Mathematics of Diffusion, 2nd ed. (Oxford University Press, Ely House,
London, WI, 1975). Google Scholar
19. H. Hirakawa, Y. kamei, and O. Yasumichi, Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn. 46, 2659 (1973).
https://doi.org/10.1246/bcsj.46.2659, Google ScholarCrossref
20. D. Frenkel and B. Smith, Understanding Molecular Simulation from Algorithms to
Applications, 2nd ed. (Academic Press, USA, 2002). Google Scholar
21. M. P. Allen and D. J. Tildesley, Computer Simulations of Liquids (Oxford University
Press, USA, 1989).
Example 2
"Non-covalent binding plays a significant role in molecular recognition and binding. Bio-
molecular recognition strongly depends on the convoluted network of noncovalent bonded
interactions. Such type of interaction holds for all biological interactions including protein
protein complex, protein-DNA complex and integral membrane proteins (Contreras et al., 2012;
Etheve et al., 2016; Wan et al., 2013; Zhang et al., 2016). A study on the influences of these
interactions in binding DNA and protein molecules revealed many important body
mechanisms (Donald et al., 2007)."
References
Contreras, F. X., Ernst, A. M., Haberkant, P., Bjorkholm, P., Lindahl, E., Gonen, B., . . . Brugger,
B. (2012). Molecular recognition of a single sphingolipid species by a protein's
transmembrane domain. Nature, 481(7382), 525-529.
Donald, J. E., Chen, W. W., & Shakhnovich, E. I. (2007). Energetics of protein-DNA interactions.
Nucleic Acids Research, 35(4), 1039-1047.
Etheve, L., Martin, J., & Lavery, R. (2016). Dynamics and recognition within a protein-DNA
complex: a molecular dynamics study of the SKN-1/DNA interaction. Nucleic Acids
Research, 44(3), 1440-1448.
Wan, H., Hu, J. P., Li, K. S., Tian, X. H., & Chang, S. (2013). Molecular dynamics simulations of
DNAfree and DNA-bound TAL effectors. PLoS One, 8(10), e76045.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0076045.
Zhang, Y., Vukovic, L., Rudack, T., Han, W., & Schulten, K. (2016). Recognition of poly-
ubiquitins by the proteasome through protein refolding guided by electrostatic and
hydrophobic interactions. Journal of Physical Chemistry B, 120(33), 8137-8146.
6. Parts of Project Work Writing

1. The title of work: It is the concise term of your work and its findings. The title should
specify what the whole document is about and what you are studying on. It should be
single representative sentence.
2. Abstract: It is basically the summarized version of the entire work. It would typically
about 250 words. The abstract would be used to quickly understandable with brief
explanation. One can figure out the work after reading the abstract. In few sentences, you
should incorporate, the introduction, objective and hypothesis, methods, summary of
findings in abstract.
3. Introduction: Introduction should provide the background information of your work.
The section should include the scopes and objectives of the study. Also, this should link
up your work with the previous work that somebody has done already. It does not mean
that you repeat work of other, rather you should move ahead taking support of previous
work. You can use different resource materials to make it concise and understandable.
4. Materials and Methodology: Materials section should include the experimental design,
materials, equipment and apparatus used in the experiment. The methodology section
incorporates the methods of gathering and analyzing the data, and interpretation of
result.
All the information you write in this section should be understandable such that other
people could repeat this experiment based on your methodology should get the similar

outcome. Since you have already carried out all these procedures, you have to write this
part in of present participle or past tense. You should take care the following points while
writing materials and methodology section.
⇒ Reference should be mentioned for all methodology which you adopted from other
sources.
⇒ Illustration, figures, maps should be used to describe the experimental set up, if
necessary.
5. Results and discussion: In this section, you should write only the outcomes of your
experiment, not the finding of other's work. You can compare your work with previously
published work in the discussion part. Necessary tables, figures, graphs, statistical bar
diagram, histogram etc. can be used to interpret your findings.
Supporting figures and tables can be moved to appendix section of the project work. The
discussion part must be descriptive so that a new reader can understand your finding
easily. Also, you would have to accept or reject the hypothesis you had written.
6. Conclusion: and concluding remarks: The gist of outcomes in your research work
should be written in this section. The sentences should be short and easy. It should be the
brief introduction of the outcomes of the experiment. Also, it should include how above
results are important to the field of study.
7. References: It is the detail collection of previous research publication, which are
supporting to your work. It has the specific pattern of writing research papers, reports
and books. There are plenty of reports, literatures etc. available online, you can use them.
The concise format the project work

Title of the work
⇓
Abstract
⇓
Introduction
(background, scope, objectives, link to previous work, importance of study, limitation, etc.)
⇓
Materials and methodology
(experimental design, equipments, apparatus, procedure, analysis techniques, methods and
interpretation)
⇓
Results and discussion
(Outcomes of study and their interpretation in terms of graph, figures, statistical shapes like,
bar diagram, histogram etc. and also detail description of the results)
⇓
Conclusions
(Brief listing of methods used and results, and importance of work)
⇓
References
List of previous works in systematic way.

Many scientific works have to be carried out in the laboratory. It is very important to report the
work in a systematic way. A template regarding the science lab report is given as an example.
Science Lab Report Template
Name:
Lab experiments:
Date: Class:
Period:
Introduction
The brief background of experiment purpose of study and hypothesis of
outcomes.
Materials
The materials and equipments that are needed for the experiment.
Procedures
Systematic steps of the experiments.
Observation
Data that are observed to interpret them in term a table, charts, graphs, etc.
Results and Result Analysis

Explain the data, graphs, etc. in words.
Discussion
Detail explanation of finding and their importance compare with previous
results.
Conclusions
What major outcome you can draw from the experiment; accept or reject the
hypothesis.
7. Format of Research Proposal writing

A research proposal is a document proposing a research project generally in the academic field
and constitutes a request for financial sponsorship of your research area. It summarizes the
question you want to go through and demonstrates the knowledge of the targeted subject area
and clear explanation of your pathway to complete the research.
Funding agencies develop their own format for the research proposal. A sample format has
been presented below with brief explanation.
1. Title of the study: Concise form of nature and scope of the purposed study.
2. Introduction: Background information of the purposed study and link up to the previous
studies.
3. Statement of the problem: Lucid and concise form of problem that can address the answer
of purposed question.
4. Objective of the study: Exploration of outcomes that should address the hypothesis of the
study.
(Note: It should be noted that 'statement of problem' describes the problems, however
'objective' explains the expectation after the study.)
5. Literature review: Summarizes the several research works that have been done in the
purposed area. (All consulted research must be cited)
6. Methodology/Theoretical framework: Gives the clear roadmap of procedure to fulfill the
purposed study with necessary equipment and analysis techniques. It incorporates method
of data collection, sampling technique, data analysis etc.
7. Expected outcomes: Expected result to fulfil the objectives.
8. Manpower planning: Information on manpower involvement, their job descriptions,
desired qualifications and their experiences.
9. Scheduling of time: Detail explanation of time frame that is needed to complete the work,
like, time needed for initializing, observation, analysis, writing and drafting etc.
10. Estimate of expenses: A detailed and itemized budget planning, how the researcher invest
the funding in the purposed study area.
11. References: List of literature reviews and other supporting works that were done
previously in this area.
Project works and innovative works

Course syllabus of 2076 has prescribed some sample project works and innovative works for
grade 11.
Sample Project Works for Grade 11
1. Study the variation in the range of a jet of water with angle of projection
2. Study the factors affecting the rate of loss of heat of a liquid
3. Study the nature and size of the image formed by a convex lens using a candle and a
screen
4. Study of uses of alternative energy sources in Nepal
5. Study of energy consumption patterns in the neighborhood
6. Study of electricity consumption pattern in the neighborhood
7. Study of application of laws and principle of physics in any indigenous technology
8. Verification of the laws of solid friction
9. Study the temperature dependence of refractive index of different liquids using a hollow
prism and laser beam.
10. Study the frequency dependence of refractive index of glass using a glass prism and white
light beam.
Some Examples of Innovative Works for Grade 11

1. Construct a hygrometer using dry and wet bulb thermometers and use it to measure
relative humidity of a given place.
2. Design and construct a system to demonstrate the phenomenon of total internal reflection
(TIR) of a laser beam through a jet of water.
3. Construct a digital Newton meter using the concept of potential divider.

MATHEMATICAL TOOLS IN PHYSICS
A. Trigonometric Functions
Trigonometry is a part of mathematics that studies the relationships of lengths and angles of
triangles. It is most simply associated with two dimensional (i.e., planar) right-angled triangles. If
non-right-angled triangles are to be considered in calculation, they can be bisected to create the two
right-angled triangles.
The relations of lengths and angles of right-angled triangles are developed in trigonometric ratios or
trigonometric functions. There are three basic trigonometric functions and three reciprocal forms of
these functions.
Trigonometric
Reciprocals Relations Right-angled triangle
functions
p h 1 A
1. sin θ = h cosec θ = p cosec θ =
sin θ
h
b h 1 p
2. cos θ = h sec θ = b sec θ =
cos θ
q
B C
p p 1 b
3. tan θ = b cos θ = b cot θ = Here, ∠ABC = 90°
tan θ
∠ACB = θ = base angle
AB = p = perpendicular
BC = b = base
CA = h = hypotenuse
In physics, we mostly use three trigonometric functions (sine, cosine and tangent). If you see your
scientific calculator, you can find only tree basic trigonometric functions: sin, cos, and tan, but not the
reciprocal forms.
If you are supplied magnitudes of one side and an angle (except right angle's value), you can
determine the remaining angles and sides of that triangle.
Applications in Physics
These functions are essential in several parts of physics. Some important uses for undergraduate
level students to study physics are explained below:
(i) Height and distance: If a body moves in an inclined plane, Pythagoras theorem is used to find
how far or what height a body travels from the original position, where we use trigonometric
functions rigorously.
(ii) Vector problems: Trigonometric functions are basic blocks in the vector addition, subtraction,
and multiplications.
(iii) Periodic functions: 'Sine' and 'cosine' functions are also called periodic functions because their
values are exactly repeated in every one complete rotation i.e., after every 360° or 2πc rotation.
These functions are very important in the study of uniform circular motion, simple harmonic
motion, and rotational dynamics.

Mathematical Tools in Physics 665
(iv) Modeling the waves: Trigonometric functions are essential in the modeling of wave forms of
mechanical and electromagnetic waves. Model of waves based on trigonometric functions are
very useful in the study of sound waves, electromagnetic waves in optics, and
electromagnetisms.
B. Logarithm and Exponential

Logarithm
The logarithm (shortly 'log') is a part of the calculus in physics and mathematics. We generally
encounter with long numbers which are not easy to divide or multiply. So, we use 'log' to state those
numbers in an efficient manner. Then, we just antilog to get original number.
Actually, a logarithm is the power to which (i.e., base a number) must be raised in order to get some
other number.
For example: If we take base 10 to 100,
log10(100) = log10(102) = 2 log10 10 = 2
Similarly, if we take base 2 of 32,
log2(32) = log2(25) = 5 log2 2 = 5
[It is to be noted that if a given number for logarithm is equal to the base number, the result is 1. For
example: log5 5 = 1, log8 8 = 1, log20 20 = 1]
Some basic rules of logarithms

For an arbitrary base 'a', the formulae for logarithms are as follows:
1. Product rule: loga (xy) = loga x + loga y
x
2. Quotient rule: loga ⎛y⎞ = logax − loga y
⎝ ⎠
3. Power rule: loga (xy) = y loga x
4. Base-changing rule: loga m = loga b × logb m
In physics, we basically study two types of logarithms

i. Natural logarithm: The natural logarithm of a number is its logarithm to the base of the
mathematical constant 'e' which is approximately equal to 2.718281828459. This basic number
was found by mathematician 'Euler'. Natural logarithm of x is generally written as loge x. In
electronic devices like scientific calculators and computers, it is represented by 'ln', i.e., logex =
ln x.
This logarithm can be used in various branches of physics. Specifically, in undergraduate level,
it is used to describe the phenomena of radioactivity and laws of thermodynamics.
ii. Common logarithm (or base 10 logarithm): It is the logarithm with base 10. It is also called
decadic logarithm and is the standard logarithm in use. It is written for logarithm x of base 10 as
log10 (x) or log(x) with upper case 'L'. In scientific calculators and computers, it is simply
denoted by 'log'. In undergraduate level physics, base 10 logarithm is basically used in the
study of intensity of waves and laws of thermodynamics.
Exponential
In ordinary sense, 'exponential change' refers the 'quick change' of a quantity. In physics, this term is
used to explain non-linear variation of a physical quantity with respect to another. If a physical
quantity is exponentially increasing, there must be the changing rate expedite later than before.

Similarly, exponentially decreasing means the rate of changing is faster in the beginning and
gradually decreasing in the later. The graphical representation of exponential is very useful in the
study of many physical phenomena like radioactivity and laws of thermodynamics.
Relation between natural logarithm and exponential

The exponential and natural logarithm functions are inverse functions of each other. The function
f(x) = ex is called the natural exponential function. Its 'beauty' is that if we take derivative or anti-
derivative of that function, its output is same.
i.e.,
d(ex)
dx = e and ∫ e dx = e
x x x
If y = ex , then logey = x
C. Derivatives
Derivative is a mathematical tool to show the rate of change of a function with respect to the
independent variable. Derivative measures the sensitivity to the change in functional value (output
value) with respect to the change in its argument (input value). In a graph, the slope of the tangent
line is equal to the derivative of the function at the tangent point.
dy
The derivative of 'y' with respect to 'x' is represented by dx , where 'd' represents the increment
change (very small change) As an example, consider your growth from childhood to your present
(say teenage). Your size is significantly large with compare to the childhood. The interesting thing is
that no one can observe your instantaneous growth. Actually, the sum of increment growth of your
body results the significant change after a long time, what you are now. Such a very small change is
termed as "derivative" in your growth.
There are several applications of derivative in physics. For example:
(i) The derivative of the position (s) of a moving object with respect to time (t) is the object's
velocity (v)
ds
i.e., dt = v
(ii) The derivative of the velocity (v) of a moving object with respect to time (t) is the object's
acceleration (a).
dv
i.e., dt = a
Some fundamental formulae of differentiation

d(a)
(i) The derivative of constant quantity is zero. i.e., dx = 0. Where, 'a' is a constant quantity.
d
(ii) dx (xn) = n xn−1.
d(cy) dy
(iii) For constant 'c' and variable 'y', dx = c dx
d dy dz
(iv) Derivative or sum/difference of two functions, 'y' and 'z'. dx (y ± z) = dx ± dx

(v) Derivative of product of two functions, u and v.
d dv du
dx (u.v) = u dx + v dx
(vi) Derivative of a quotient
du dv
v dx − u dx
d ⎛u ⎞ =
dx ⎝v ⎠ v2
(vii) Derivatives of trigonometric functions.
d d
(a) dx (sin x) = cos x (b) dx (cos x) = − sin x
d d
(c) dx (tan x) = sec2x (d) dx (sec) = sec x tan x
d d
(e) dx (cot x) = − cosec2x (f) dx (cosec x) = − cosec x . cot x
(viii) Derivatives of logarithmic and exponential functions.

d 1 d
(a) dx (loge x) = x (b) dx (ax) = ax loge a
d d
(c) dx (ex) = ex (d) dx (eax) = aeax, where a is constant.
(ix) Derivative of the function of a function,

dy dy du
dx = du . dx , where y = F(u) and u = g(x).
(x) Theorem of maxima or minima:
For a function y = f(x) (like y = 2x2 + 1),
(a) For a maximum or a minimum value of 'y' for a value of 'x', first take derivative of y with
respect to x then set it to zero.
dy
i.e., dx = 0, this helps to find the value of x.
d2y d2y
(b) If dx2 is negative (i.e., dx2 < 0), then y is maximum for a given value of x.
d2y d2y
(c) If dx2 is positive (i.e., dx2 > 0), then y is minimum for a given value of x.
D. Integrations (Antiderivatives)
This is an mathematical operation which acts inverse or opposite of the derivative.
Basic formulae for integration:

xn+1
(i) ⌠x dx = n + 1
n +C
⌡
axn+1
(ii) ⌠ax dx = n + 1
n +C
⌡

eax
(iii) ⌠e dx = e + C
x x (iv) ⌠e ax dx =
a +C
⌡ ⌡
eax + b ax
(v) ⌠e ax+b dx = a +C (vi) ⌠ax dx = log a + C
⌡ ⌡ e
1
(vii) ⌠x dx = logex + C
⌡
(viii) Integration of trigonometric functions:
(a) ⌠sin x dx = − cos x + C (b) ⌠ cos x dx = sin x + C
⌡ ⌡
(c) ⌠ sec2x dx = tan x + C (d) ⌠cosec2 x dx = −cot x + C
⌡ ⌡
(e) ⌠sec x tan x dx = sec x + C (f) ⌠cosec x cot x dx = −cosec x + C
⌡ ⌡
(ix) Integration of zero, ⌠0 dx = constant
⌡
(x) Integration of one, ⌠1 dx = x + C
⌡
Where 'a' and 'b' are constant multiplication factor.
In the above integrations, the limitations of integration are not mentioned, such type of integrations
are called indefinite integrals. In such integration, constant C is added in the result.
Definite integrals
b
The integration consisting of upper and lower limits are fixed are called definite integrals. In ⌠a f(x)
⌡
dx, 'a' is the lower limit and 'b' is the upper limit of integration. The definite integrals are solved as:
b
⌠ f(x) dx = [F(x)]ba = F(x = b) − F(x = a).
⌡a
dF(x)
where, dx = F(x)
For example,
⎡x ⎤ = 1 [b2 − a2]
b 2 b
(i) ⌠a x dx =
⌡ ⎣ 2 ⎦a 2
1 x−2+1 ⎤b
=⎡
b b −
(ii) ⌠ x2 dx = ⌠ x 2 dx
⌡a ⌡a ⎣−2 + 1⎦a
−1
= ⎡x ⎤b 1 b 1 1 1 1
= − ⎡x⎤ = − ⎡b − a⎤ = a − b
⎣ −1 ⎦a ⎣ ⎦a ⎣ ⎦
r GmM r 1
(iii) ⌠ x2 dx = GmM ⌠ dx
⌡∞ ⌡∞ x2
1 r
= GmM ⎡ − x⎤
⎣ ⎦∞

1 r
= − GmM ⎡x⎤
⎣ ⎦∞
1 1
= − GmM ⎡ r − ⎤
⎣ ∞⎦
1 GmM 1
= − GmM ⎡ r − 0⎤ = − r [... = 0]
⎣ ⎦ ∞
π π 1
sec x tan x dx = [sec x]0π/2 = ⎡sec 2 − sec 0⎤ = ∞ − 1 = ∞ [... sec 2 = 0 = ∞]
π/2
(iv) ⌠
⌡0 ⎣ ⎦
a
(v) ⌠ ex dx = [ex]a− ∞ = ea − e−∞ = ea − 0 = ea [... e∞ = ∞ and e−∞ = 0]
⌡−∞
E. Binomial Expansion
If |x| < 1, i.e., x lies between −1 and +1, then, (1 + x)n, can be expanded as,
nx n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1) (n − 2) 3
(1 + x)n = 1 + 1! + 2! x + 3! x + ..........
Where n is any number that may be positive or negative integer or a fraction.

Here, 0! = 1, 1! = 1, 2! = 2 × 1, 3! = 3 × 2 × 1, etc.
In the above expression, usually we find |x| << 1. In such case only the first two terms of the
expansion are significant. The square and higher terms can be neglected.
F. Graphs
A diagrammatic representation of the variation of one quantity with respect to another quantity is
called a graph. Conventionally, the independent variable (the cause) is plotted along x-axis and the
dependent variable (the effect) is plotted along y-axis. The graph expresses the clear idea about the
relationship between two quantities represented by it.
(i) If a straight line graph is observed between two variables, then the relation between the
variables is linear. It is represented by the equation y = mx + c; where m is called slope and c is
called, y-intercept.
(a) The graph sketched from y = mx gives a (b) The graph sketched from y = mx + c
straight line passing through the origin. (where c > 0), gives the straight line
passing above the origin in y-axis.
y
x o x

(c) The graph sketched from y = mx + c (where c < 0 i.e., negative) gives the straight line graph
passing below the origin in y-axis.
o
x
(ii) Graph for parabolic equation:

(a) For equation, y2 = 4ax (b) For equation, y2 = −4ax
y y
x x
(c) For equation, x2 = 4ay (d) The general equation of a parabola is,
y
y = ax2 + bx + c
x
x
(iv) The equation of a circle (v) The equation of an exponential curve, y = e−ax
with centre at origin and
radius 'a' is,
x2 + y2 = a2 y
(vi) The equation of an (vii) The equation of periodic functions:

x 2 y2 (a) y = sin x (b) y = cos x
ellipse, a2 + b2 = 1.
y y
x x

Bibliography 671
Bibliography
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Brij Lal and Subrahmanyam, N. (1994), Principles of Physics. India: S. Chand and Company Ltd.
Duncan, T. (2000), Advanced Physics. UK: Hudder Education.
Feynman, R.P. (1965), The Feynman Lectures on Physics. California: Addision-Wesley, San
Francisco.
Ghosh, N.N. (1989), Introductory Physics. India: Bharati Bhawan.
Giambattista, A. and Richardon (2008), Fundamentals of Physics. India: Tata McGraw Hill
Publishing Company, Ltd.
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Kaplan, I. (2002), Nuclear Physics. India: Narosa Publishing House.
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Appendix A: The Greek Alphabet

Name Capital Lowercase Name Capital Lowercase
Alpha A α Nu N ν
Beta B β Xi Ξ ξ
Gamma Γ γ Omicron O ο
Delta Δ δ Pi Π π
Epsilon E ε Rho P ρ
Zeta Z ζ Sigma ∑ σ
Eta H η Tau T τ
Theta Θ θ Upsilon ϒ υ
Iota I ι Phi Φ φ
Kappa K κ Chi X χ
Lamda Λ λ Psi Ψ ψ
Mu M μ Omega Ω ω
Appendix B: Fundamental Physical Constants

Name Symbol Value
Speed of light c 2.99792458 × 10 m/s
8
Magnitude of charge of electron ę 1.602176462 (63) × 10−19 C

Gravitation constant G 6.673 (10) × 10−11 N • m2/kg2
Planck's constant h 6.62606876(52)× 10−34 J • s
Boltzmann constant k 1.3806503(24) × 10−23 J/K
Avogadro's number NA 6.02214199(47) × 1023 molecules/mol
Gas constant R 8.314472(15) J/mol • K
Mass of electron me 9.10938188(72) × 10−31 kg
Mass of proton mp 1.67262158 (13) × 10−27 kg
Mass of neutron mn 1.67492716 (13) × 10−27 kg
Permeability of free space μ0 4 π × 10−7 Wb/A • m
Permittivity of free space ε0 = 1/μ0c2 8.854187817... × 10−12 C2/N • m2
Appendix C: Error or Uncertainty

Measured result: p ± Δp Best estimated value = p
Δp
Absolute error = Δp Relative error = p
Δp
Percentage error = p × 100%
Combination of uncertainties (s + Δs)

s=p±q Δs = Δp + Δq
s = p × q or p/q Δs = (Δp/p) + (Δq/q)
s = kpb Δs = b Δp/p
s = pa qb/rc Δs = a(Δp/p) + b(Δq/q) + c(Δr/r)
Where, Δp, Δq and Δr are errors in quantities p, q and r respectively. Also a, b, c and k are constants.

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Grade XI

Rajendra Pd. Koirala Prajjwal Khanal

Distributors: Kasthamandap Pustak Pasal

Price: Rs. 855/-

5. Work, Energy and Power

Unit II: Heat

Unit III: Geometric Optics

Unit IV: Electrostatics and DC Circuits

Unit V: Modern Physics

Z Fundamentals on Research 658

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1.2 Nature of Physics

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1.3 Physical Quantity

1.4 Measurements and Units

1.5 Rules of Writing Units

1.6 System of Units

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Some Supplementary Quantities

Plane Angle and Solid Angle

Total plane angle of a circle is equal to 2π radian.

For total solid angle, the value of dA becomes 4πr2

Total solid angle is equal to 4π steradian.

Prefixes for Power of Ten

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1.7 Precision and Accuracy

Fig. 1.3: Micrometer screw gauge Fig. 1.4: Vernier calipers

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True value True value True value

1.8 Uncertainty in Measurement

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1.9 Rounding Numbers after Decimal

1.10 Significant Figures

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7. Universal constants have π 22 π, c and NA are universal

1.11 Algebric Operations with Significant Figures

Some more examples:

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Rules of most significant digits and least significant digits

1.12 Types of Physical Quantities

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Physical quantities Explanation Examples

1.13 Dimensions, Dimensional Formula and Dimensional Equation

Workdone Acceleration Time Ö

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Arbitrary Basic Quantities

1.14 Uses of Dimensional Formula

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∴ Dimensional formula of η is [ML–1T–1].

Limitations of Dimensional Formula

Table of Units and Dimensions of Physical Quantities

Derived Physical Quantities

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6. Momentum mass × velocity [M1 L1 T–1] kg m s–1

Gravitational constant force × (distance)2

Coefficient force Nsm–2 or daP