As 102-Module 1-Introduction To Social Science Research - 1-1 PDF

1
AS 102: INTRODUCTION TO
SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH
METHODS I
Introduction to Social Science Research
November , 2017 Dr. Mathew Senga

1.1: The Meaning of Research
¨  From a very general view, research refers to a

search for knowledge.
¨  It is also being viewed as a scientific and

systematic search for pertinent information on a
specific topic and also an art of scientific
investigation.
¨  Redman and Mory (1923: 10) for example

define research as a “systematized effort to gain
new knowledge.
¨  The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current
English (1952:1069) defines research as “a careful
investigation or inquiry specially through search for
new facts in any branch of knowledge.” Research is
also defined as;
¨  … the systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of
hypothetical propositions about presumed relations among natural
phenomena (Kerlinger, 1970: 8).
OR
¨  … a step-by-step process that involves collecting and examining
information. We do research to improve our knowledge and
understanding about the world we live in. It almost always involves
finding out something new.
OR
¨  … a search or investigation directed to the discovery of some fact by
careful consideration or study of a subject; a course of critical or
scientific inquiry. To search into (a matter or subject); to investigate or
study closely (The Oxford English Dictionary, 1989).
¨  In the definitions above, research is identified as a

process or practice by which we can extend our
knowledge or find the answers to our questions.
¨  More precisely, Kothari (2004) defines research as

…the systematic method consisting of enunciating the problem, formulating
a hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analysing the facts and reaching
certain conclusions either in the form of solutions(s) towards the concerned
problem or in certain generalisations for some theoretical formulation.
¨  In many ways, the process of research is quite
simple. In its simplest form it can be thought of as
having only three components:
i.  The question

ii.  The research process
iii.  The answer.
1.1.1: Objectives of Research
¨  The purpose of research is to discover answers to
questions through the application of scientific
procedures.
¨  The main aim of research is to find out the truth

which is hidden and which has not been discovered
as yet.
¨  Though each research study has its own specific

purpose, we may think of research objectives as
falling into a number of following broad groupings:
1.1.1: Objectives of Research
v  To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new
insights into it (studies with this object in view are termed as
exploratory or formulative research studies);
v  To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular

individual, situation or a group (studies with this object in view
are known as descriptive research studies);
v  To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with

which it is associated with something else (studies with this
object in view are known as diagnostic research studies);
v  To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables

(such studies are known as hypothesis-testing research studies).
1.1.2: Types of Research
¨  The basic types of research are as follows:
i.  Descriptive vs. Analytical: Descriptive research includes surveys

and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds. The major
purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of
affairs, as it exists at present. In analytical research, on the
other hand, the researcher has to use facts or information
already available, and analyse these to make a critical
evaluation of the material.
ii. Applied vs. Fundamental: Research can either be applied (or
action) research or fundamental (basic or pure) research. Applied
research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem
facing a society or an industrial/business organisation, whereas
fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalisations and
with the formulation of a theory.
iii. Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Quantitative research is based on

the measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable to
phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.
Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with
qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or involving
quality or kind.
iv. Conceptual vs. Empirical: Conceptual research is that related to
some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is generally used by
philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to re-
interpret existing ones. On the other hand, empirical research
relies on experience or observation alone, often without due
regard for system and theory. It is data-based research, coming
up with conclusions which are capable of being verified by
observation or experiment.
v. Some Other Types of Research: All other types of research are

variations of one or more of the above stated approaches, based
on either the purpose of research, or the time required to
accomplish research, on the environment in which research is done,
or on the basis of some other similar factor.
¨  Form the point of view of time, we can think of research either
as:
ü  One-time research or longitudinal research. In the former case
the research is confined to a single time-period, whereas in the
latter case the research is carried on over several time-periods.
ü  Research can be field-setting research or laboratory research or

simulation research, depending upon the environment in which it
is to be carried out.
ü  Research can as well be understood as clinical or diagnostic

research. Such research follow case-study methods or in-depth
approaches to reach the basic causal relations.
-  Such studies usually go deep into the causes of things or events
that interest us, using very small samples and very deep
probing data gathering devices.
ü  The research may be exploratory or it may be formalised. The

objective of exploratory research is the development of
hypotheses rather than their testing, whereas formalised
research studies are those with substantial structure and with
specific hypotheses to be tested.
ü  Historical research is that which utilizes historical sources like

documents, remains, etc. to study events or ideas of the past,
including the philosophy of persons and groups at any remote
point of time.
-  Research can also be classified as conclusion-oriented and
decision-oriented. While doing conclusion-oriented research, a
researcher is free to pick up a problem, redesign the enquiry
as he proceeds and is prepared to conceptualize as he wishes.
Decision-oriented research is always for the need of a decision
maker and the researcher in this case is not free to embark
upon research according to his own inclination. Operations
research is an example of decision-oriented research since it is
a scientific method of providing executive departments with a
quantitative basis for decisions regarding operations under
their control.
1.1.3: Significance of Research
¨  Research inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and it
promotes the development of logical habits of thinking and
organisation. Research is quite significant as it;
o  Provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic
system.
o  Solves various operational and planning problems of business and
industry. e.g. Operations research and market research, along with
motivational research.
o  Studies social relationships and seeks answers to various social
problems.
1.1.4: Processes (Stages) of Research
¨  Research processes (stages) include:
i.  Formulating the research problem;

ii.  Extensive literature survey;
iii.  Developing the hypothesis (or research questions);
iv.  Preparing the research design;
v.  Determining sample design;
vi.  Collecting the data;
vii.  Execution of the project (study);
viii.  Analysis of data;
ix.  Hypothesis testing;
x.  Generalisations and interpretation
xi.  Preparation of the report or presentation of the results, i.e., formal write-
up of conclusions reached.
1.1.4: Processes (Stages) of Research
¨  When you’re thinking about your research, it is important to ask
yourself the five ‘Ws’:
1.  What is my research?

2.  Why do I want to do the research?
3.  Who are my research participants (respondents)?
4.  Where am I going to do the research?
5.  When am I going to do the research?
1.1.5: Components of Research
Theory
Method
Epistemology
1.2 Historical Overview of
Research in Social Sciences
¨  The historical overview of research in social sciences cuts across
several phases, each of which is partly determined by the
changed circumstances of those responsible for carrying it out:
o  Early prehistory (pre-1820): ‘gentleman scientists’ (often in

part as members of scientific societies) commenting on social
information.
o  Early history (1820-1900): ‘gentlemen (and a few women)

scientists’ (often in part as members of statistical societies,
social reform institutions or as ‘commissioners’) developing
statistically based studies or extensive reports on social matters
both domestically and internationally.
o  Development phase (1890-1930s): statisticians and academic
sociologists involved in first-hand study of people and social
contexts, with some formal development of methodologies.
o  World War II and post-World War II consensus

(1930s-1980s): more formal development of data-collection
and analysis methodologies and pedagogies, with an emphasis
on a broadly positivist approach, but supplemented with
exploratory and qualitative research methods, developed
largely by specialist methodologists employed within academic
sociology departments and (both academic and non-academic)
applied social research centres (including survey research units
and more generally social statistics developments).
¨  The contemporary situation (1970s- present): extension of
‘mainstream’ social research methodologies to cover more
cultural, feminist, participative and historical aspects of social
research methodologies, morphing into a more balanced
framework of ‘mixed methods’ by academic methodologists
(situated not just within academic sociology departments but
across the full array of social sciences, although differential
disciplinary emphases remain) who now collectively share
‘ownership’ of the range of social research methodologies, with
supportive nurturing from specialist methodology journals and
other infrastructural props.
1.2.1 Research in Natural and Social
Sciences
¨  Science is generally understood as an endeavor to understand,
explain and predict the world we live in using distinctive
methods of enquiry in an attempt to construct theories.
¨  There are a number of similarities between the natural and

social sciences, which include the use of similar methods and
partly overlapping epistemological and ontological stances, i.e.
stances regarding the creation of knowledge and the nature of
reality.
¨  However, there are also a number of elements that distinguish

the two, such as their different origins, subjects of study, and
limitations.
Sciences
¨  Natural Science
Ø  Definition:
§  Ledoux (2002, p. 34) defines natural sciences as “disciplines
that deal only with natural events (i.e. independent and
dependent variables in nature) using scientific methods”.
§  While the employment of scientific methods is generally

regarded as typical but not exclusive of natural sciences, it is
the focus on natural events that distinguishes natural from social
science.
Sciences
Ø  Origin:
§  According to Büchel (1992), the birth of natural science is marked by
changing world views introduced by Renaissance thinkers who
questioned earlier explanations about the world and turned to more
systematic methods of investigation.
§  Early leaders of this ‘Scientific Revolution’ included Copernicus and

Galileo who were concerned with problems from disciplines including
astronomy and physics, among others.
§  Natural sciences arose from curiosity about the world, as well as the
endeavor to transform nature in favor of human necessities of life,
both of which had not been possible to pursue freely in the era of
slavery of the ancient society (Büchel, 1992).
Sciences
Ø  Subject of study:
§  The aim of the natural sciences is to discover the laws that rule the
world (Büchel, 1992).
§  The focus lies hereby on the natural and not on the social world,
although the differentiation is not always simple. There are
historically three core areas of the natural sciences: chemistry,
biology and physics. Nevertheless this is not a final list of research
areas, since many other disciplines were later born out of these.
§  As more knowledge is created, more specific questions arise. This

leads to the fact that early natural scientists were generalists from
today’s perspective, and later specialized in newly emerging
disciplines such as astronomy, robotics or bionics.
Sciences
Ø  Methods:
§  Scientific methods are methods characterizing “natural science
since the 17th century, consisting in systematic observation,
measurement, and experiment”.
§  Compared to the social sciences, the natural sciences rely more
on mathematically based methods. While physics or chemistry
rely to a large extend on controlled experimental settings, such
settings cannot be created so easily for most investigations in
economics or sociology.
Sciences
Ø  Philosophical stances:
§  With thinkers including Karl Popper and Thomas Kuhn, fundamental
criticism of natural science approaches has emerged during the 20th
century.
§  Before Popper, the way in which knowledge is created was not
questioned by most scientists, most of whom adopted an inductive
epistemology, in which a finding is regarded as general truth when a
sufficient number of experiments have led to the same outcome.
§  Criticizing this, Popper put forward that a theory cannot be confirmed
by induction, but only falsified by a simple observation. For instance, a
scientist observing the color of swans on a lake who has seen a number of
only white swans cannot conclude that all swans are white. Rather his
theory (‘all swans are white’) must be tried to falsify through the search of
a black swan.
Sciences
Ø  Philosophical stances:
§  Later criticism by Kuhn addressed the values or “paradigms”
which exist when scientific investigations are carried out, and
which are usually accepted without any reflection by scientists.
§  A paradigm consists of a set of fundamental theoretical

assumptions and a set of particular scientific problems that
have been solved by means of these theoretical assumptions
Kuhn stresses that normal scientists are not trying to test the
paradigm, but rather question their experimental technique,
when a conflicting result appears. The discovery of knowledge
is therefore restricted to situations in which enough scientists
become convinced that a paradigm may be wrong, which leads
to paradigm shift, i.e. the establishment of a new paradigm.
Sciences
Ø  Limitations:
§  Among the most common limitations of natural science research are
technical and financial boundaries, both of which have been
constantly pushed in history.
ü  Technical boundaries are related to the inability to conduct precise

measurements. These boundaries have always been research foci
themselves, and were pushed through the invention of the telescope,
the microscope, the geiger counter and many other measurement
instruments.
ü  Financial boundaries play a role in most research projects, but can
become especially severe when expensive equipment has to be
employed. Examples include experiments for which space shuttles
have to be launched
Sciences
q  Social Science
Ø  Definition:
§  The disciplines of social sciences are viewed as those that deal
with “human society, societal groups, individuals in their
relationships with others or institutions of societies and material
goods as expression of human cohabitation”
Sciences
Ø  Origin:
¨  The social sciences are much younger than the natural sciences.
Even though the social interactions in a society have probably
been of interest for many centuries, scientific studies of social
interactions began as late as during the 19th century with
sociological publications including “Suicide” by Émile Durkheim
and “Système de politique positive” by Auguste Comte, the
latter of which also set stone for a positivist approach to social
sciences.
Sciences
Ø  Subject of Study:
¨  In contrast to the natural sciences, the study objects of social
sciences can take notice of the forecast of scientists. Subject of
study are the phenomena of social interaction and coexistence.
Social Sciences can rather be classified by their common
perspective then through a specific subject of study. This
perspective consists of the understanding and studying of a
social aspect of society, a group of people or a single
individual.
Sciences
Ø  Methods:
¨  One of the mainly used methods is the observation, as a social
science counterpart of the natural sciences experiment.
¨  It is much more difficult to carry out an experiment in social, than in

natural sciences. The reason therefore lies in the uncontrollability of
social environments. Because of that the measurability of the highly
complex social processes is often difficult or sometimes not possible
at all.
¨  Nevertheless experiments are used in for example in the behavioral

economics and social psychology, even though not with the
overwhelming success of the natural sciences experiments. Other
important methods in social sciences are: Interviews, surveys, case
studies.
Sciences
Ø  Philosophical Stances:
¨  In contrast to the natural sciences, there was much more debate
about the question of what is acceptable knowledge among
social scientists.
¨  Therefore, a number epistemological stances exist, which shall

only be introduced very briefly here.
¨  Among the first popular stances in the social sciences is the
positivist position, which had been advocated by early social
scientists like Comte who argued that studies of social reality
should apply the same methods as the natural sciences.
Sciences
Ø  Philosophical Stances:
¨  It was criticized by advocates of interpretivism, who argue
that the social reality cannot be measured in the same way as
natural events. Rather, scientists have to aim at grasping the
subjective meaning of social actions. This thought is, e.g.,
reflected in Max Weber’s notion of Verstehen.
Sciences
Ø  Limitations:
¨  Studies in social sciences are often limited by various factors
including:
i.  The need to base findings on interpretations

ii.  The complexity of a field in which single variables cannot be
controlled for easily
iii.  Ethical issues
iv.  Financial problems.
1.2.2 Development of SSRM
¨  As we have seen, the development of Social Science Research
Methods (SSRM) has proceeded on several levels:
¨  One was the meta-theoretical (i.e. philosophical concern) about the
deployment of scientific method to deal with ‘social things’
¨  But also formalisation of methodology and detailed empirical

investigations into how methods actually work and can be improved.
¨  Sometimes the levels of social research methods are referred through
the contrast between the more philosophical “Methodology” (with a
capital initial letter) and the more practical methods (with lower case
initial letters and in the plural). There is a tendency in discussing
SSRM to focus on data-collection, but the other stages of Research
Design and of Data Analysis are equally important.
1.3 Types and Designs of Social
Research
¨  Designing research means going back to your hypotheses or
research questions and thinking about what you are hoping to
be able to do with the data you will collect in order to be able
to test the hypothesis or address the research questions.
¨  Depending on the research question or hypothesis you have

chosen, you may be seeking to gather data that will help you
to:
(a)  Describe the current (or past) situation – that is, in this example,
set out the nature and extent of alcohol consumption between
different groups of students and in different situations;
Research
(b) Explain the differences and similarities between different
groups of students and situations by looking for possible causal
relationships;
(c) Explore your data, looking for possible reasons for differences
between students and situations, for ideas about why some
students drink alcohol and what opinions they have on whether
and why this is regarded as a ‘problem’.
q  What you can do with social research data falls into two
categories – looking for similarities and differences and
looking for relationships – these form the basis for your
research design.
Research
¨  What is Research Design?
o  It is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of
data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research
purpose with economy in procedure (Selltiz et al., 1962: 50).
o  It is the plan, structure, and strategy of research--the blueprint

that will guide the research process.
q  In fact, the research design is the conceptual structure within which
research is conducted; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection,
measurement and analysis of data.
q  As such the design includes an outline of what the researcher will do
from writing the hypothesis and its operational implications to the
final analysis of data.
Research
q  More explicitly, the designing decisions happen to be in respect
of:
i.  What is the study about?
ii.  Why is the study being made?
iii.  Where will the study be carried out?
iv.  What type of data is required?
v.  Where can the required data be found?
vi.  What periods of time will the study include?
vii.  What will be the sample design?
viii.  What techniques of data collection will be used?
ix.  How will the data be analysed?
x.  In what style will the report be prepared?
Research
¤  What--What was studied? 1. Introduction,
Research Problems/
¤  What about--What aspects of
Objectives, &
the subject were studied? Justification
¤  What for--What is/was the
significance of the study?
¤  What did prior lit./research say? 2. Literature Review
3. Methodology
¤  Whatwas done--How was the (Research sample, data
collection, measurement,
study conducted? data analysis)
4.  Results & Discussion

¤  What was found?
5.  Implications
¤  So what?
6. Conclusions and
¤  What now? Recommendations for
Future Research
Research
Intriguing Observation, More Careful Studying Defining Research

Intellectual Curiosity of the Phenomenon Problem & Objectives
Building the Theoretical

Refinement of theory
Framework and the
(Inductive Reasoning) THE PROCESS OF Research Model
EMPIRICAL RESEARCH
Testing Hypo.:
Data Analysis & Developing Research
Interpretation Hypotheses
Data Coding, Developing Operational

And Definitions for
Editing Research Variables
Data Collection Sampling Design

Research
¨  From what has been stated, we can state the important
features of a research design as under:
i.  It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of information

relevant to the research problem.
ii.  It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for

gathering and analysing the data.
iii.  It also includes the time and cost budgets since most studies
are done under these two constraints.
Research
¨  In brief, research design must, at least, contain-
(a)  A clear statement of the research problem;
(b)  Procedures and techniques to be used for gathering

information;
(c)  The population to be studied; and
(d)  Methods to be used in processing and analysing data.

Research
¨  We need Research design because it facilitates the smooth
sailing of the various research operations, thereby making
research as efficient as possible yielding maximal information
with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money.
1.3.1 Types of Research Designs
¨  According to Kothari (2004), different research designs can be
conveniently described if we categorize them as:
o  (1) research design in case of exploratory research studies;
o  (2) research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic

research studies, and
o  (3) research design in case of hypothesis-testing research

studies.
(i)  Research design in case of exploratory research studies:
¨  Also termed as formulative research studies.
¨  The main purpose of such studies is that of formulating a

problem for more precise investigation or of developing the
working hypotheses from an operational point of view.
¨  The major emphasis in such studies is on the discovery of ideas

and insights.
(ii) Research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic
research studies:
¨  Are those studies which are concerned with describing the
characteristics of a particular individual, or of a group,

whereas diagnostic research studies determine the frequency
with which something occurs or its association with something
else.
¨  The studies concerning whether certain variables are

associated are examples of diagnostic research studies.
(ii) Research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic
research studies:
¨  In descriptive as well as in diagnostic studies, the researcher
must be able to define clearly, what he wants to measure and

must find adequate methods for measuring it along with a
clear cut definition of ‘population’ he wants to study.
¨  Since the aim is to obtain complete and accurate information in

the said studies, the procedure to be used must be carefully
planned.
¨  The research design must make enough provision for protection
against bias and must maximise reliability, with due concern for
the economical completion of the research study.
¨  The design in such studies must be rigid and not flexible and
must focus attention on the following:
i.  Formulating the objective of the study (what the study is about and
why is it being made?)
ii.  Designing the methods of data collection (what techniques of
gathering data will be adopted?)
iii.  Selecting the sample (how much material will be needed?)
iv.  Collecting the data (where can the required data be found and with
what time period should
the data be related?)
v.  Processing and analysing the data.
vi.  Reporting the findings.
(iii) Research design in case of hypothesis-testing research
studies:
¨  Hypothesis-testing research studies (generally known as
experimental studies) are those where the researcher tests the

hypotheses of causal relationships between variables.
¨  Such studies require procedures that will not only reduce bias
and increase reliability, but will permit drawing inferences
about causality.
¨  Usually experiments meet this requirement. Hence, when we

talk of research design in such studies, we often mean the
design of experiments.
• Formulate problems more precisely • Literature search

• Develop Hypotheses • Experience survey
Exploratory
• Establish priorities for research • Analysis of select cases
Research
• Eliminate impractical ideas • Interviews
• Clarify concepts • Ethnographies
• Focus groups
• Describe segment characteristics • Etc.
Descriptive • Estimate proportion of people
Research who behave in a certain way
• Longitudinal study
• Make specific predictions
• Panels
• Sample Survey
Hypothesis-testing • Provide evidence regarding causal
Research relationships
• Rule out all other explanations • Laboratory experiment
• Field experiment
Uses Types
¨  Additionally to 3 major types of research design proposed by
Kothari (2004), other scholars (e.g. Matthews and Ross, 2010)
propose four major types of research design, namely:
①  Experimental
②  Cross-sectional
③  Longitudinal
④  Case studies
1.3.1.1 Experimental Research Design
Experimental research refers to studies where the researcher

manipulates one (or more) variable and controls the other
variable(s) to determine whether there is a causal relation between
the manipulated variable and the outcome.
§  Pre-Experimental
§  True Experimental (Random
Controlled Trial)
§  Quasi-Experimental
¨  In experimental research, the researcher deliberately does
something to something in order to provoke and then measure a
reaction (test effect of independent variable on dependent
variable).
¨  More for science based projects.
¨  For example, interested in influence of crowd on anxiety:

pretest post-test effect
anxiety(1) è crowd è anxiety(2)
Therefore: effect = [anxiety (2)] – [anxiety (1)]

¨  An experiment usually has two key elements:
1.  Experimental group – this is the group of people or materials

that are manipulated or changed in some way.
2.  Control group – this is a group of people or materials that

are the same as the experimental group in every way except
the aspect of manipulation or change.
¨  So:
Ø  Group ‘a’ − ‘treatment’ (crowd)

Ø  Group ‘b’ − ‘no treatment’ (control)
¨  All other variables remain constant (to some extent!)

pretest post-test effect
A: anxiety(1) è crowd è anxiety(2) x = (2 - 1)
B: anxiety(3) è no treatment è anxiety(4) y = (4 – 3)
¨  Effect of crowd = x – y
¨  You MUST have a control group wherever possible.
¨  Ethical issues apply to experimental research – depending on

treatment.
¨  Experimental research involves a direct assessment of

how one variable influences another
¨  This allows the establishment of causality
¨  All extraneous variables must be held constant while a
single variable is manipulated and the effect measured
¨  Definition of variables:

Independent Variable = this variable is the ‘cause’
= can be manipulated or
allowed to vary
=also known as the predictor variable
Dependent Variable = this variable is the ‘effect’

= should only vary in response to the IV
= also known as the criterion variable
o  Law of the single variable:

Ø  there will always be uncontrollable influences
Extraneous Variables = must be controlled to isolate the

effect of the IV on the DV
Confounding Variables = extraneous variables which have

co-varied with the IV
¨  Pre-Experimental
¨  Quasi-Experimental
¨  True-Experimental
Key:
¤  R = random assignment for equivalent groups
¨  Random Group Assignment
§  List 20 individuals

§  All to be assigned to treatment (T) or placebo (P)
§  Group 1: toss a coin for each individual
§  Group 2: ‘think-up’ a list that seems random.
¨  Quasi-Experimental …or via repeated measures design,
matched pairs design or
matched groups design
Key:
¤  R = random assignment for equivalent groups
¤  O1,2… = observation of group x (recording of DV)

¤  Oa,b… = observation of group y (recording of DV)
¤  T = treatment (IV)
¤  P = placebo (IV).

¨  Quasi-Experimental
Question:
“Does protein supplementation increase muscle
hypertrophy?”
Pre-Experimental Designs
One Shot Study
T O 1
u  One Shot Design
¨  A.K.A. – after-only design
¨  A single measure is recorded after the treatment is
administered
¨  Study lacks any comparison or control of extraneous influences
¨  No measure of test units not exposed to the experimental
treatment
¨  May be the only viable choice in taste tests
¨  Diagrammed as: X O1
One Group Pre-test Post-test
O 1
T O
2
u  One Group Pre-test Post-test:
¨  Subjects in the experimental group are measured before and
after the treatment is administered.
¨  No control group
¨  Offers comparison of the same individuals before and after
the treatment (e.g., training)
¨  If time between 1st & 2nd measurements is extended, may
suffer maturation
¨  Can also suffer from history, mortality, and testing effects
¨  Diagrammed as O1 X O2
Static Group Comparison
T O 1
P
Oa
Static Group Comparison
O 1
Oa
Daniel 1:8
u  Static Group Comparison:
¨  A.K.A., after-only design with control group
¨  Experimental group is measured after being exposed to the
experimental treatment
¨  Control group is measured without having been exposed to the
experimental treatment
¨  No pre-measure is taken
¨  Major weakness is lack of assurance that the groups were equal
on variables of interest prior to the treatment
¨  Diagrammed as: Experimental Group X O1
Control Group O2
Quasi-Experimental Designs
Time series
O 1 O 2 O 3 T O 4 O 5 O 6
Quasi-Experimental Designs
u  Time Series:
¨  Involves periodic measurements on the dependent variable for a
group of test units
¨  After multiple measurements, experimental treatment is
administered (or occurs naturally)
¨  After the treatment, periodic measurements are continued in order
to determine the treatment effect
¨  Diagrammed as:
O1 O2 O3 O4 X O5 O6 O7 O8
True-Experimental Designs
Randomised Group Comparison
T O 1
R
P
O 2
Earliest recorded example of random group

allocation as recent as 1928 (Forsetlund et al. 2007)
Pre-test Post-test Randomised Group Comparison
O 1 T O 2
R
O 3
P O 4
Solomon Four-Group Design
T
O 1
O 2
P O
O 4
R
3
T
O 5
P O 6
q  Solomon Four-Group Design:
o  True experimental design

o  Combines pretest-posttest with control group design and the
posttest-only with control group design
o  Provides means for controlling the interactive testing effect and
other sources of extraneous variation
o  Does include random assignment
1.3.1.2 Cross-sectional Research Design
¨  Most social science research is conducted after the event we are
interested in or at a particular point in time.
¨  As researchers, we are likely to be looking at people’s expressed

history or reporting on their experience and opinions, and
comparing the differing characteristics of their experience and the
outcome or current state.
¨  We can work with data about past and current experiences to try
to identify possible cause-and-effect associations.
¨  Cross-sectional studies are often associated with large-scale

surveys using questionnaires.
1.3.1.2 Cross-sectional Research Design
¨  A cross-sectional research design:
¤  Includes more than one case;
¤  Collects data at one particular time;
¤  Includes within its research participants groups of people or

cases that can be compared, e.g. men and women, people of
different ages or ethnicities, or people from different cities.
1.3.1.3 Longitudinal Research Design
¨  While cross-sectional study gathers data from one point in time, if
your research questions relate to changes over time you may wish to
consider designing a longitudinal study.
¨  This will enable you to look at the same people or situations at key
points in time and to consider how the changes over time have
affected different groups of people.
¨  Data is gathered on at least two occasions separated in time.

¨  Many longitudinal studies are large scale and are set up as longitudinal
studies from the beginning (prospective longitudinal studies).
¨  There are a number of well-known examples of longitudinal studies, which

look at babies born at a particular time (cohort studies) and then gather
data about them at set points throughout their early years – or indeed
their lifetime (e.g. “7 Up”- a television documentary).
¨  For practical reasons some longitudinal studies cannot involve the same
participants on each of the data-gathering occasions. This may be
because the participants have died or moved and cannot be contacted or
because they no longer want to take part. A study may therefore include
different samples of people but using similar criteria for selection.
¨  Similarly, while a longitudinal study is usually planned as such, there
are some situations where data is available from the past (a
retrospective longitudinal study) which can be used.
¨  For example, where participants can be asked to provide data

about their past experiences; or where records may be available –
e.g., medical records or social work case notes.
¨  A life history approach to gathering data, where participants are

asked to tell their life story focusing on common events, could be
considered a longitudinal research design if participants are asked
to report and reflect on the same key points in their life.
¨  While many large-scale longitudinal studies depend on the
gathering of quantitative data from large numbers of participants,
a longitudinal study may also be based on gathering in-depth data
from a small number of selected participants on a number of
occasions.
1.3.1.4 Case Studies Research Design
¨  A case study includes either a single case or a small number of
cases but each case is explored in detail and great depth.
¨  A variety of different types of data about the case may be

gathered, and both cross-sectional and longitudinal data may be
included.
¨  The subject of the case may be a person, an organisation, a

situation or a country, but the study must relate to a particular
aspect of the case as demonstrated in your research question.
¨  Yin (2003) sets out a number of criteria for the selection of case
studies, which may help you to understand the nature of a case
study better:
¤  Critical case. Here the case is chosen as one that will enable the
researcher to test a theory or hypothesis. The case includes the
potential to show whether the theory holds up or not. This could be a
case where an event or change has occurred which provides the
researcher with the opportunity to study what happens as a result.
¤  Extreme or unique case. Here the focus is on a situation or group that is
perceived to be different to any other and the focus is on its
uniqueness. It may be the only case where a particular combination of
people and events are found.
¤  Representative or typical case: The opposite of the unique case. It is

chosen because it is seen to represent many other similar cases.
¤  Revelatory case: A case that has the potential to shed light on the
research topic.
¤  Longitudinal case: A case that enable a researcher to carry out

successive studies over a period of time.
Basic Principles of Research Design
Four main features of research design, which are distinct, but closely
related:
¨  Ontology: How you, the researcher, view the world and the
assumptions that you make about the nature of the world and of
reality (what is the nature of reality?)
¨  Epistemology: The assumptions that you make about the best way of
investigating the world and about reality (how do we acquire
knowledge?)
¨  Methodology: The way that you group together your research
techniques to make a coherent picture
¨  Methods and techniques: What you actually do in order to collect
your data and carry out your investigations
Basic Principles of Research Design
¨  These principles will inform which methods you choose: you
need to understand how they fit with your ‘bigger picture’ of
the world, and how you choose to investigate it, to ensure that
your work will be coherent and effective.
1.3.2 Qualitative Research
¨  Qualitative Research is based on insights and understandings
about individual perception of events (by the subjects)
¨  It explores attitudes, behaviour and experiences through such

methods as in-depth/key informant interviews (IDI/KIIs) or focus
group discussions (FGDs)
¨  Qualitative Research attempts to get an in-depth opinion from

participants. As it is attitudes, behaviour and experiences, which
are important, fewer people take part in the research, but the
contact with these people tends to last a bit longer.
1.3.2.1 Qualitative Research
¨  Qualitative Research is primarily concerned with stories and
accounts including subjective understandings, feelings, opinions
and beliefs.
¨  Qualitative data is typically gathered when an interpretivist

epistemological approach is taken and when the data collected
is the words or expressions of the research participants
themselves.
¨  Under the umbrella of qualitative research there are many

different methodologies (approaches). Some of these are;
action research, ethnography, feminist research, grounded theory
etc.
Qualitative Research
These often involve face-
to-face interactions beteen
researcher and participant
Step 1
Participant
The researchers need to be
Observations, flexible and sensitive to
the needs of the social
IDIs, FGDs, context within which the
data is obtained.
Cases studies,
etc.
The data is then analysed
Step 2 and interpreted. To look for
themes is more common
than trying to confirm a
hypothesis.
Qualitative Research: Advantages
¨  Helps explain relationships ¨  Less dependent on

in detail; individualistic instrument
¨  Can help validate ¨  Can bring change in
quantitative findings by institutions and society
further investigation ¤  In-depth
¨  Can help close gap ¤  Personalized
between research and ¤  Examines specific issues
practice
¤  Needs of individuals in
institutions
¤  Study problems more relevant
to policy makers
Qualitative Research: Disadvantages
¨  Strong dependency on ¨  Convenience sampling

sample population
¤  Access
¤  Honest and valid
information
¨  Time and resources needed
for collection and analysis
is intensive
¨  Lack of objectivity and bias
by researcher
¤  Inferences made
¤  Incorrect conclusions
1.3.2.2 Quantitative Research
¨  “an inquiry into a social or human problem based on
testing a theory composed of variables, measured with
numbers, and analyzed with statistical procedures, in order
to determine whether the predictive generalizations of the
theory hold true.”
(Creswell, J. Research Design: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches. Sage: 1994.)
OR
¨  "a formal, objective, systematic process in which numerical
data are utilized to obtain information about the world"
(Burns & Grove, as cited by Cormack, 1991, p. 140).
¨  Quantitative Research is based on manipulation and control,
results verified by sense data (by the researcher)
¨  This type of research reaches many more people, but the
contact with those people is much quicker than it is in qualitative
research.
¨  Quantitative research is primarily concerned with gathering

and working with data that is structured and can be
represented numerically.
¨  Quantitative data is typically gathered when a positivist

epistemological approach is taken and data is collected that
can be statistically analysed.
¨  Positivist thought – can be verified by observation and

experimentation
¨  Distribution of variables that can be generalized to entire
population
¨  Less interaction between researcher and subjects – more
objectivity
¨  Three main categories:
¤  Descriptive design
¤  Casual-comparative
¤  Experimental
Quantitative Research: Advantages
¨  Observations are used ¨  Predicts correlation

throughout studies between objects
¨  Formulating hypotheses ¨  Systematic data collection
allows for speculation and analysis
about outcomes; applicable ¨  Generalizable to other
instrument institutions for further
¨  Safeguards used to research
minimize or eliminate bias ¨  Recognized criteria for
assessment and validity
¨  More research conducted
by this method
Quantitative Research: Disadvantages
¨  Should only be used if data ¨  Individuals’ decisions not

can be measured by evaluated based on their culture
numbers, results quantified or social interactions
¨  Instrument or method chosen is ¨  Decisions made without regard to
individual human thought or
subjective and research is
choice to predict behavior
dependent upon tool chosen
¨  All individuals are measured
¨  Lack of independent thought same way
by researcher when ¤  Experiences
dependent on instrument or
¤  Backgrounds
mathematics used to extract
or evaluate data ¤  Intelligence
¤  Ability to change decisions at
any given point in time
¤  Independent though
Features of Qual. and Quant.
Approaches
Data Collection in Qual. and Quant.
Approaches
¨  The key difference between quantitative and qualitative approaches
in terms of data collection is the way the data that is collected is
structured and by whom.
o  Quantitative approach gather and work with data that is structured
(categorised or coded so that it can be counted). The researcher
decides on both the questions that are asked and the type of answer
that can be given (often a choice between a set of categories or
answers).
o  Qualitative approach gather and work with data that is constructed

by the research participant in their own way and interpreted by the
researcher as part of the analytical process.
Data Collection in Qual. and Quant.
Approaches
Basic and Applied Research
¨  The terms basic and applied imply a clear

distinction between two classes of research.
¨  In basic research, general theories, ideas, and

questions are explored and tested. It may even be
argued that this type of research should not have
priority, because it does not always result in an
immediate benefit to humans, but without basic
research, many applied research programs would
be hard-pressed to get the start they need.
Basic and Applied Research
¨  Doing basic research ensures that applied
researchers do not need to reinvent the wheel every
time they start on a new project, because the
groundwork has been done.
Basic and Applied Research:
Comparisons
Basic Research Applied Research
¨  Domain- driven - intended ¨  Demand-driven – intended
to lead theoretical to lead to solution of
development specific problems
¨  Justified in terms of gaining ¨  Designed to solve practical
knowledge for its sake – problems of the modern
they focus on making things world
better and creating a more ¨  Can take the research
humane society basic research further
¨  The main motivation is to based on the results, where
expand man's knowledge applicable
Comparisons
Basic Research Applied Research
¨  Done for the ¨  Done to test theories in
intellectual pleasure of the field to achieve
learning better validity.
¨  Aims at finding a
¨  Mainly concerned with solution for an

generalizations and immediate problem
with the formulation of facing a society
a theory
Comparisons
Basic Applied
¨  Directed towards ¨  The central aim is to
finding information discover a solution for

that has broad base some pressing
of applications practical problem
¨  No commercial value ¨  There is commercial
attached to the value, e.g. research to

discoveries that result improve agricultural
from basic research. crop production
Comparisons
Basic Applied
¨  Analytic ¨  Synthetic
¨  Involves a search for ¨  Entails a search for
enduring or general pragmatics solutions to

truths particular problems
¨  Exploration curious ¨  Entirely a pursuit of
rather than mundane social concerns

events
Participatory Action
Research (PAR)
¨  Method used to involve community residents, clients, and other
constituents in social change oriented research.
¨  Participants work with a facilitator to identify a community

problem, develop research methodology, collect data, and
analyze findings.
¨  The data is then used to make recommendations about how the
problem should be resolved.
¨  Participants advocate for funding, legislation, or government

action to adopt the findings.
¨  The end result is to alleviate oppression or improve community

or service quality.
Participatory Action
Research (PAR)
It is a process of “investigating reality in order to

change it”
It is research with, rather that research on or for.
It is rooted in resistant values such as mutual aid,
care, communalism, intentionality, and reflective
action.
PAR: ASSUMPTIONS
¨  People who experience the problem are in the

best position to conduct research on the issue.
¨  All people can learn basic research skills.
¨  Participants can establish equal partnerships with

researchers that can be used to address
community problems.
¨  PAR related activities help empower members of
powerless groups. Participation in the PAR
process is a critical component of community
interventions.
Key Features of PAR
Planning a change
Acting and observing the process and consequences of the
change
Reflecting on these processes and consequences
Re-planning
Acting and observing again
Reflecting again

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1

Introduction to Social Science Research

November , 2017 Dr. Mathew Senga

¨ From a very general view, research refers to a

¨ It is also being viewed as a scientific and

¨ Redman and Mory (1923: 10) for example

¨ In the definitions above, research is identified as a

¨ More precisely, Kothari (2004) defines research as

i. The question

¨ The main aim of research is to find out the truth

¨ Though each research study has its own specific

v To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular

v To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with

v To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables

i. Descriptive vs. Analytical: Descriptive research includes surveys

iii. Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Quantitative research is based on

v. Some Other Types of Research: All other types of research are

ü Research can be field-setting research or laboratory research or

ü Research can as well be understood as clinical or diagnostic

ü The research may be exploratory or it may be formalised. The

ü Historical research is that which utilizes historical sources like

i. Formulating the research problem;

1. What is my research?

o Early prehistory (pre-1820): ‘gentleman scientists’ (often in

o Early history (1820-1900): ‘gentlemen (and a few women)

o World War II and post-World War II consensus

¨ There are a number of similarities between the natural and

¨ However, there are also a number of elements that distinguish

§ While the employment of scientific methods is generally

§ Early leaders of this ‘Scientific Revolution’ included Copernicus and

§ As more knowledge is created, more specific questions arise. This

§ A paradigm consists of a set of fundamental theoretical

ü Technical boundaries are related to the inability to conduct precise

¨ It is much more difficult to carry out an experiment in social, than in

¨ Nevertheless experiments are used in for example in the behavioral

¨ Therefore, a number epistemological stances exist, which shall

i. The need to base findings on interpretations

¨ But also formalisation of methodology and detailed empirical

¨ Depending on the research question or hypothesis you have

o It is the plan, structure, and strategy of research--the blueprint

4. Results & Discussion

Intriguing Observation, More Careful Studying Defining Research

Building the Theoretical

Data Coding, Developing Operational

Data Collection Sampling Design

i. It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of information

ii. It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for

(a) A clear statement of the research problem;

(b) Procedures and techniques to be used for gathering

(c) The population to be studied; and

(d) Methods to be used in processing and analysing data.

o (1) research design in case of exploratory research studies;

o (2) research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic

o (3) research design in case of hypothesis-testing research

¨ The main purpose of such studies is that of formulating a

¨ The major emphasis in such studies is on the discovery of ideas

characteristics of a particular individual, or of a group,

¨ The studies concerning whether certain variables are

must be able to define clearly, what he wants to measure and

¨ Since the aim is to obtain complete and accurate information in

experimental studies) are those where the researcher tests the

¨ Usually experiments meet this requirement. Hence, when we

¨  From a very general view, research refers to a

¨  It is also being viewed as a scientific and

¨  Redman and Mory (1923: 10) for example

¨  In the definitions above, research is identified as a

¨  More precisely, Kothari (2004) defines research as

i.  The question

¨  The main aim of research is to find out the truth

¨  Though each research study has its own specific

v  To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular

v  To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with

v  To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables

i.  Descriptive vs. Analytical: Descriptive research includes surveys

ü  Research can be field-setting research or laboratory research or

ü  Research can as well be understood as clinical or diagnostic

ü  The research may be exploratory or it may be formalised. The

ü  Historical research is that which utilizes historical sources like

i.  Formulating the research problem;

1.  What is my research?

o  Early prehistory (pre-1820): ‘gentleman scientists’ (often in

o  Early history (1820-1900): ‘gentlemen (and a few women)

o  World War II and post-World War II consensus

¨  There are a number of similarities between the natural and

¨  However, there are also a number of elements that distinguish

§  While the employment of scientific methods is generally

§  Early leaders of this ‘Scientific Revolution’ included Copernicus and

§  As more knowledge is created, more specific questions arise. This

§  A paradigm consists of a set of fundamental theoretical

ü  Technical boundaries are related to the inability to conduct precise

¨  It is much more difficult to carry out an experiment in social, than in

¨  Nevertheless experiments are used in for example in the behavioral

¨  Therefore, a number epistemological stances exist, which shall

i.  The need to base findings on interpretations

¨  But also formalisation of methodology and detailed empirical

¨  Depending on the research question or hypothesis you have

o  It is the plan, structure, and strategy of research--the blueprint

4.  Results & Discussion

i.  It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of information

ii.  It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for

(a)  A clear statement of the research problem;

(b)  Procedures and techniques to be used for gathering

(c)  The population to be studied; and

(d)  Methods to be used in processing and analysing data.

o  (1) research design in case of exploratory research studies;

o  (2) research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic

o  (3) research design in case of hypothesis-testing research

¨  The main purpose of such studies is that of formulating a

¨  The major emphasis in such studies is on the discovery of ideas

¨  The studies concerning whether certain variables are

¨  Since the aim is to obtain complete and accurate information in

¨  Usually experiments meet this requirement. Hence, when we

• Formulate problems more precisely • Literature search

¨  For example, interested in influence of crowd on anxiety:

1.  Experimental group – this is the group of people or materials

2.  Control group – this is a group of people or materials that

Ø  Group ‘a’ − ‘treatment’ (crowd)

¨  All other variables remain constant (to some extent!)

¨  You MUST have a control group wherever possible.

¨  Ethical issues apply to experimental research – depending on

¨  Experimental research involves a direct assessment of

¨  All extraneous variables must be held constant while a

¨  Definition of variables:

¨  Definition of variables:

o  Law of the single variable:

¨  Definition of variables:

¨  Definition of variables:

¨  Random Group Assignment

§  List 20 individuals

¤  O1,2… = observation of group x (recording of DV)

¤  P = placebo (IV).

q  Solomon Four-Group Design:

o  True experimental design

¨  As researchers, we are likely to be looking at people’s expressed

¨  Cross-sectional studies are often associated with large-scale

¤  Includes more than one case;

¤  Collects data at one particular time;

¤  Includes within its research participants groups of people or

¨  Data is gathered on at least two occasions separated in time.

¨  There are a number of well-known examples of longitudinal studies, which

¨  For example, where participants can be asked to provide data

¨  A life history approach to gathering data, where participants are