Answer 1:

Taper turning by combining longitudinal and crossfeed: In this method of taper turning, both longitudinal
and cross feeds are provided simultaneously. This results in the diagonal motion of the tool. The angle of the
diagonal motion can be controlled by the varying rate of either crossfeed or longitudinal feed or both. This can
be achieved by altering the gear ratios inside the apron.

Answer 2:
Turret indexing mechanism: In turret lathe, the tailstock is replaced by a hexagonal turret. On the faces of the
hexagonal turret, different tools can be mounted. Thereby a turret can hold six different kinds of tools which can
be brought into the axis of lathe by indexing mechanism.
In order to index the turret, it has to be rotated by 60 degrees or multiples of 60 degrees.
A typical line diagram of the turret indexing mechanism from the top view is illustrated in figure1.

A vertical spindle is mounted on the turret saddle. This vertical spindle is mounted with indexing ratchet,
bevel gear, indexing or geneva plate and turret head. On one side of the saddle, a plunger pin is provided to
lock the rotation of turret while feeding axially.
On lathe bed, spring-loaded indexing pawl and actuating cam are attached. As the turret moves
backwards, the plunger pin is moved out of the groove on indexing plate by the cam thereby unlocks the
indexing plate. Simultaneously, the spring-loaded pawl engages the ratchet plate which rotates the turret head.
As the turret head rotates through 60 degrees the plunger pin is automatically dropped. This locks the indexing
plate at next groove thereby the turret is locked in a new position. The tool held by this face of the turret is fed.
This releases the pawl from ratchet due to spring pressure.
The turret of the capstan lathe is lighter, therefore, it can be indexed automatically and manually,
whereas the turrets of turret lathes cannot be indexed automatically, as the saddles upon which they are
mounted are heavy. The automatic indexing mechanism may differ from manufacturer to manufacturer.
The forward movement of the turret head is stopped when the set-screw corresponding to the working tool
(turret face) is restricted by the mechanical stop (screw stop rods).
The forward distance to be travelled by the tool or turret head is controlled by presetting the screw. There are
six such kinds of screws, each one for each face of the turret. The drum supporting the screws with various
distances is rotated along with the rotation of the turret head through a pair of bevel gears

Answer 3:
Tool wear plays a prominent role in determining the tool life. Hence one must know about the mechanisms of
tool wear at various operating conditions to avoid them.
The following are the mechanisms of tool wear,
1. Mechanical wear
i. Adhesion wear
ii. Abrasion wear
2. Thermochemical wear
i. Diffusion wear
a. Micro-diffusion
b. Macro diffusion
3. Fatigue wear
4. Chemical wear
5. Galvanic wear

1. Adhesion wear: At high cutting pressures, friction at chip-tool interface increases as a result
temperature is increased at localised spots. Due to this, metallic bonds are formed at localised spots
and these bonds get continuously broken due to chip flow and small amounts of metal is eroded. This
phenomenon is termed as adhesion wear.
2. Abrasion wear: this kind of wear is observed when the lower surface of chip contains hard particles or
hard protuberances like sand particles, strain hardened particles, built up edges etc that cause erosion
of tool material while chip flowing over tool at high temperatures. At higher temperatures the tool
material becomes soft.
3. Diffusion wear: At higher temperatures, the tool material transfer to chip material in the form of atoms
or in bulk, as a result, the strength of the tool decreases and even result in its failure. If the diffusion
occurs by transfer of atoms then it is called Micro diffusion and if the diffusion occurs by bulk transfer
of material then it is called Macro diffusion. This phenomenon is mainly observed at the chip-tool
interface and is a function of the contact area, bonding affinity and temperature. This kind of wear is
mainly observed in carbide tools.
4. Fatigue wear: while machining at higher pressures, if the surfaces of chip and tool are rough, the
surface irregularities get interlocked due to which one side of the surface will develop compressive
forces and another side will develop tensile forces and result in the surface crack.
5. Chemical wear: this kind of wear occurs due to the chemical reaction between tool material and cutting
fluid. Therefore proper cutting fluid which is chemically inactive must be used.
6. Galvanic wear: This kind of wear mainly occurs due to the electrochemical dissolution of tool material.
This occurs at high temperatures only if the tool and work materials are electrically conductive and
cutting fluid behave as an electrolyte.
ANSWER 4

Analysis of thermal aspects of machining plays a crucial role as it evaluates the magnitudes of temperatures in
various zones which facilitate in the following
1. Estimation of machinability which is mainly determined by studying cutting forces, temperature and tool
life.
2. Design and selection of cutting tools according to requirement.
3. Estimation of the magnitude of variation in various machining parameters with respect to cutting
temperature
4. Selection and application of proper cutting fluid
5. Temperature distribution in the chip, tool and work.

Unit 2 figures
Negative rake angle figure
Unit 3 figures