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Old Alluvium: Engineering Properties and Braced Excavation Performance

Conference Paper · November 2001

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 Underground Singapore 2001

Old Alluvium: Engineering Properties and Braced

Excavation Performance
K.S. Wong & W. Li
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore

J.N. Shirlaw, J.C.W. Ong, D.Wen, & J.C.W. Hsu

Land Transport Authority, Singapore

ABSTRACT: Old Alluvium (OA) is one of the main geological formations in Singapore. The
construction of the North-East Line (NEL) of Singapore Mass Rapid Transit System provides many
opportunities to study the behaviour of deep excavations in this material. Extensive site
investigations had been carried out to characterise the OA and to determine the engineering
properties. The stations and cut-and-cover tunnels were instrumented to monitor the performance of
the temporary support systems. In this paper, the engineering properties and useful correlations of
the OA soils were summarised. The performance of soldier piles, sheetpile and diaphragm walls in
OA is presented in terms of the lateral wall deflections, ground settlements, strut loads and ground
water table changes.

1 INTRODUCTION

The Old Alluvium is one of the main geological formations in Singapore. According to Tan et al.
(1980), the Old Alluvium (OA) is a soil that possesses excellent shearing strength, low compressibility
and good workability as a construction material. Dames and Moore (1983) summarized the
geotechnical properties of OA based on test data from the North-South and East-West MRT Lines.
The ranges of some of the soil parameters were given but no correlation was presented. It was noted
that this soil was highly variable. Poh et al. (1987) reported that the particle size distribution of OA
covered a quite wide range. Orihara and Khoo (1998) reported some correlations based on limit data
from three sites. The construction of the North-East MRT Line provided an excellent opportunity to
study the physical and engineering properties of OA soils as well as the behaviour and performance of
deep excavations in this material.

2 PROJECT BACKGROUND OF NORTH-EAST LINE

The construction of the NEL stations and tunnels in the Old Alluvium (OA) involved deep excavations
to formation levels of up to 22 m below ground surface. The conventional bottom-up method is used at
most stations. The top-down method was adopted at Potong Pasir and Boon Keng stations. Open cut,
cut-and-cover and bored tunnelling methods are adopted in the sections between stations.

Diaphragm walls, sheetpile walls and soldier piles with timber lagging were used as retaining walls for
stations and cut-and-cover tunnels. At locations with thick soft marine clay (MC) overlying OA,
diaphragm walls were used. Where the Old Alluvium is encountered at shallow depth, soldier piles
with timber lagging and sheetpile walls were used. The walls typically were embedded 2 m into the
hard layer of OA where SPT N-value is greater than 100. Struts were used as support in all excavations
except those with top-down construction and open excavations. Table 1 summarised the geological
conditions, excavation dimensions and support system in excavations studied in this project. It should
be noted that for Cases 1, 2 and 3, retaining walls were used in limited sections; open cut was
generally used.

223
Table 1. Summary of soil conditions and temporary works of excavations in this study.
Case Site Soil Excavation Excavation Retaining Wall Penetratn. Strut
Condition Depth (m) Width (m) Depth (m)

1 Punggol – Sengkang OA 10~10.6 16~18 Soldier Pile Wall 5~6.5 3 layers @

Section 8.0 m c/c

2 Sengkang – OA 12 20 Sheetpile Wall 8 4 layers @

Buangkok Section 8.0 m c/c

3 Buangkok – OA 13.3~16.3 16.5 Sheetpile Wall 4.7~7.2 4 layers @

Hougang Section 7.5 m c/c

4 Hougang Station OA 17.9 22~55 Diaphragm Wall 12.1 5 layers @

6.5 m c/c

5 Kovan Station OA 18.85 22~52 Diaphragm Wall 8.15 5 layers @

6.5 m c/c

6 Woodleigh Station OA 21.65 42~60 Soldier Piles Wall 9.9~11.4 5~6 layers @
6~8 m c/c

The North-East Line (NEL) crosses four geological formations, namely Bukit Timah Granite, Jurong
Formation, Old Alluvium and Kallang Formation. The Old Alluvium was encountered just over half of
the 20 km line. At the southern part, the Kallang Formation with the estuarine, fluvial and marine
members infill the buried valleys in the Old Alluvium. The marine clay is up to 25 m thick in places
and represents a marine transgression. At the northern part, the Old Alluvium was located at or near
the ground surface with shallow infill of estuarine and fluvial deposits of the Kallang Formation. The
estuarine deposits in this area contain peat and very soft organic silts and clays.

3 GEOTECHNICAL PROPERTIES OF THE OLD ALLUVIUM

The Old Alluvium was encountered in over 400 boreholes along the North East Line (NEL).
Numerous laboratory and in-situ tests were conducted on this material. The characterisation of this
material and the development of useful correlations with index properties have been presented by Li
(2001) and Li et al. (2001). A brief summary is given below. These typical values and correlations can
be used in a preliminary design. However, site-specific information should be used in the evaluation of
soil properties in the final design because the OA soils are highly variable.

3.1 Soil Profile and Zoning

The Old Alluvium can be subdivided into three zones according to the weathering degree and SPT
blowcounts. They are the residual soil zone (OAI), weathered zone (OAII), and cemented zone
(OAIII). The soils encountered in residual soil zone (OAI) are mainly clayey sand, silty sand, silty clay
and locally some gravel. The colour varies from yellowish, reddish, greyish to purplish brown. The
consistency of the soil ranges from loose to medium dense for sand and gravel, medium stiff to very
stiff for silt and clay. The sand component is fine to medium in size. The gravels are mostly quartz and
sometimes weathered feldspar. The SPT N-values vary from 5 to 25.

The soils in weathered zone (OAII) are predominantly clayey sand and silty sand. The colour ranges
from yellowish brown to light grey or greenish grey. The sand component is fine to coarse. The
consistency is medium dense to very dense or very stiff to hard. The SPT N-values vary from 26 to 99.
The soils encountered in the cemented zone (OAIII) are mainly clayey sand and silty sand. The colour
is light grey to greenish grey. The consistency is very dense or hard. The soil is slightly cemented but
the bond is fragile and can be easily broken. The sand size is fine to coarse with quartz gravel
occasionally. The gravels are flat, angular to sub-angular in shape and white, milky in colour. The SPT
N-values are more than 100.

3.2 Soil Composition and Classification

Based on the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS), OA encompasses many soil types including
CH, CL, SM, SC, SP and SW. Figure 1 shows the distributions of different soil types of OA. A total of
224
774 soil samples along NEL were used in this analysis. Due to the lack of information on Atterberg
Limits on many of the sand samples, the SC and SM soils are combined into one group. The sandy
soils with fines content less than 12% are also combined as one group.

Table 2 displays the soil type distributions of OAI, OAII, and OAIII. SC and SM soils have the largest
portion, about 70% in all three zones of OA. Sandy soils with fines<12% is only 2% in OAI but it
increases to 21% in OAIII, which means that the soil becomes more sandy with depth. CH soil was not
encountered in OAIII. A decrease in clay content with depth reflects a decrease in the degree of
weathering. As a whole, the SC and SM soils make up 70% of OA. CL and CH soils cover 20% and
sandy soils with fines<12% make up the remaining 10%.

Table 2 Soil type distribution of OAI, OAII and OAIII

Soil Classification OAI OAII OAIII
SM and SC soils 74% 68% 75%
CL soil 15% 17% 4%
CH soil 9% 10% -
Sandy soils with fines < 12% 2% 5% 21%

The average fines content for CH, CL, SM&SC, sandy soils with fines<12% are 84%, 67%, 24%, and
8.3% respectively. There is a slight reduction in fines content with OAI, OAII, and OAIII with the
mean values varying from 29%, 24% to 22%. Figure 1 shows the fines content of SM&SC soil in OAI,
OAII, and OAIII. The fines content is typically between 20 ~ 30%. This suggests that the SM&SC soil
would behave more like clay even though it is classified as sand. In fact, with more than 95% of the
soils in OAI and OAII are SM&SC, CL and CH, the engineering behaviour of OA soils in these two
zones is more like an over-consolidated clay except for the relatively clean sand in isolated pockets.

3.3 Index Properties

The bulk unit weight () does not vary much. The average value for OAI, OAII and OAIII is 20.3
kN/m3. The water content (w) of OA is usually within the range of 10 to 40%. OAI has an average
water content of 22%, while OAII and OAIII are 18.2 and 16.3% respectively. This indicates a trend of
decreasing water content with depth. The variations of water content with depth are shown in Figure 2.

The liquid limits (LL) vary from 20 to 140 but the plastic limits stay close to 20. Results are plotted on
the plasticity chart as shown in Figure 3. Nearly all the points stay above the A-line. Therefore the
soils are more clayey than silty. In general, the liquid limit and plasticity index decrease with depth.
The average liquidity indices of OAI, OAII, and OAIII are 0.05, -0.04 and –0.3 respectively The
average specific gravity (G) is 2.65. Results of the index properties are summarised in Table 3.

Table 3. Summary of index properties of OA soils.

Index OAI OAII OAIII
Properties Min. Max. Ave. Min. Max. Ave. Min. Max. Ave.
wn (%) 12.6 43.5 22 8 41 18.2 10 26 16.3
(kN/m3) 17.9 22.7 20.3 16.2 22.7 20.7 17.5 22 20.3
d (kN/m3) 12.5 20.1 16.6 12.8 21.4 17.6 15.5 20.9 17.7
G 2.58 2.75 2.66 2.57 2.72 2.64 2.57 2.72 2.64
LL 25 137 55 20 118 49 25 78 38
PL 9 42 23 9 41 20 9 32 19
PI 5 95 32 5 88 28 7 50 19
LI -0.67 0.53 0.05 -0.75 0.4 -0.04 -1.2 0.39 -0.3

225
 (a)
(a)
Water Content (%)
Fines Content (%)
0 15 30 45 60
0 20 40 60 80 100
0
0
5
10 10
15

Depth (m)
Depth (m)

20 20
25
30 30
Mean=29 35
40 Standard Deviation=8 40
45
50
(b)
(b)
Water Content (%)
Fines Content (%)
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 15 30 45 60
0 0
5
10 10
15
Depth (m)
Depth (m)

20 20
25
30
30
Mean=24 35
40
Standard Deviation=7 40

50 45

(c) (c)
Fines Content (%) Water Content (%)
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 15 30 45 60
0 0

10 10
Depth (m)

20
Depth (m)

20
30
30
40
Mean=22
40 50
Standard Deviation=6

50 60

Figure 1 Fines content of SC& SM soils in OA Figure 2 Water content of the Old Alluvium soils

226
3.4 Shear Strength
Undisturbed samples of cohesive soils were obtained by pushing a 76 mm diameter and 700 mm long
thin-walled sampling tube into the bottom of the borehole. Where the soils were too stiff for thin-
walled sampler, Mazier sampling was used. The soil samples were obtained by rotary core drilling
with water flushing. Soil samples were collected in PVC linings placed inside the core barrel.
Laboratory tests were then conducted by trimming these undisturbed samples to the required sizes.

The undrained shear strength (su) was determined from Unconsolidated Undrained (UU) Triaxial
Compression Tests on standard 38 mm diameter and 76 mm height specimens. There were altogether
766 UU tests conducted on OA samples. After a careful review of the test results, only 174 tests were
adopted for further study. Results of UU tests are correlated with the SPT N-values as shown in Figure
4. This result is in good agreement with the findings by Stroud (1974) who proposed a correlation of
s u = 4 to 6 N for insensitive clays and soft rocks and by Orihara and Khoo (1998) who proposed s u =
6N based on data from the three sites in OA.

su = 5.4 N (kPa) (1)

100 700

600
80 s u = 5.4N
Plasticity Index (PI)

2
500 R = 0.8005

60 A-Line
su (kPa)

400

40 300

OAI 200
20 OAII
OAIII 100

0 0
0 50 100 150 0 20 40 60 80 100
Liquid Limit (LL) N

Figure 3 Old Alluvium soils in plasticity chart. Figure 4 Correlation between s u (UU) and SPT-N

The effective strength parameters ( c ' and  ' ) were determined from isotropically consolidated
undrained triaxial (ICU) tests with pore pressure measurement. Results of a total of 150 ICU tests on
OA soils are shown in Figure 5. The friction angle varies within a narrow range of 35 ~ 36.5 among
the different soil zones in OA. However, c varies with the different soil zones. OAI has a very low
cohesion, near 0 kPa. The high cohesion (c=30.3 kPa) of OAIII is obviously attributed to the
cementation between the sand particles. Results from isotropically consolidated drained triaxial (ICD)
tests yielded a slightly lower friction angle and no cohesion. Results as well as the recommended
effective shear strength parameters are summarised in Table 4.

Table 4. Effective shear strength parameters for OA soils

OAI OAII OAIII
c' (kPa) ' (°) c' (kPa) ' (°) c' (kPa) ' (°)
CU test 1.9 36.1 8.3 35.9 30.3 35.1
CD test 0 34 0 34.8 Insufficient data
Recommended 0 35 5 35 25 35

3.5 Deformation Properties

The deformation parameters are the compression index (cc) and recompression index (cr). They were
determined from results of conventional oedometer (OED) tests. There were altogether 99 tests on OA
soils. Unfortunately, some of them were highly disturbed or some had not been loaded past the
preconsolidation pressure. Only 16 tests were adopted for further study. Figures 6 and 7 shows the
227
variations of compression index (cc) and recompression index (cr) with natural water content (wn)
respectively. The correlations are expressed in Eqns.(2) and (3).

(a) OAI
600

500 y = 0.582x + 3.5324

(s 1'-s 3')/2 (kPa)

400
c'=1.9kPa
300 '=36.1°

200

100

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
(s 1'+s 3')/2 (kPa)

(b) OAII
1400
1200
(s 1'-s 3')/2 (kPa)

1000 y = 0.5863x + 6.6945

800 c'=8.3kPa
'=35.9°
600
400
200
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500

(s 1'+s 3')/2 (kPa)

(c) OAIII
1200

1000
(s 1'-s 3')/2 (kPa)

y = 0.5745x + 24.841
800

600 c'=30.3kPa
'=35.1°
400

200

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000
(s 1'+s 3')/2 (kPa)

Figure 5 Modified Mohr diagrams of CU test results: (a) OAI, (b) OAII, (c) OAIII.

228
 0.35 0.1

0.3 cc = 0.0093w n - 0.028

2 cr = 0.003w n - 0.0232
R = 0.811 0.08
2
R = 0.7464
0.25

0.06
0.2

cr
cc

0.15
0.04

0.1
0.02
0.05

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
w n (%) w n (%)

Figure 6 Correlation between Cc and water content. Figure 7 Correlation between Cr and water content.

Cc = 0.0093 wn – 0.028 (2)

Cc = 0.003 wn – 0.023 (3)

Figure 8 shows the correlation between OCR and c/p ratio. The OCR values were determined from
oedometer tests. The undrained shear strength in c/p was determined using Eqn. (1) with su =5.4 N.

(c/p) = 0.25 OCR 0.8 (4)

This correlation implies that the c/p ratio at normally consolidated state is 0.25 for OA soils. The
correlations between N-value and OCR can be obtained as follows:

OCR = 47 ( N / svo )1.25 (5)

where svo is the insitu effective overburden pressure. By substituting (1) into (5),

OCR = 5.67 ( cu / svo )1.25 (6)

3.6 Permeability
The coefficient of permeability (k) was determined from both oedometer tests and insitu falling-head
permeability tests. The permeability from oedometer tests gives a k-value in the vertical direction
whereas the in-situ tests may reflect permeability predominantly in the horizontal direction. The
variation of permeability with fines content are shown in Figure 9. The permeability generally
decreases with increasing fines content but no meaningful correlation can be obtained. The
permeability obtained from oedometer tests varies from 1x10-10 to 1x10-8 m/s whereas the field
permeability ranges from 1x10-9 to 1x10-6 m/s, which is about 100 times of those obtained from
laboratory tests.

4 EXCAVATION PERFORMANCE IN OLD ALLUVIUM

The MRT stations and tunnels along the North-East Line (NEL) were instrumented to monitor the
performance of the earth retention systems. These instruments included inclinometers, settlement
points, vibrating strain gauges, load cells, piezometers, water standpipes, and tilt gauges. The
temporary works reviewed in this study include soldier pile wall with timber lagging, sheetpile wall
and diaphragm wall. The performance of these earth retention systems with respect to wall deflection,
ground settlement, strut load, and change in water table is discussed and evaluated in the sections
below.

229
 4

3.5
0.8
3 (c/p)OC = 0.25OCR
R2 = 0.8795
2.5
(c/p)OC

1.5

0.5

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
OCR

Figure 8 Correlation of c/p ratio with OCR

1.0E-04

Oedometer Test
1.0E-05
Insitu Test

1.0E-06

1.0E-07
k (m/s)

1.0E-08

1.0E-09

1.0E-10

1.0E-11
0 20 40 60 80 100
Fines Content (%)

Figure 9 Variation of permeability with fines content

230
4.1 Wall Deflections
Figure 10 shows the variations of maximum wall lateral deflection ( H,max) with excavation depth (H)
for the stiff soil condition. In general, the maximum lateral deflection increases with increasing
excavation depth with an upper limit of 0.2%H except for a few points with large movements. The
wall deflection is not affected by the different wall types. The average H,max is about 0.11%H.

The data points that are close to the 0.5%H line are all from one site where soldier pile walls were
used. The large movements were caused by the formation of local cavities behind wall as a result of
delayed placement of the timber laggings. This suggests that a proper construction procedure is very
important in controlling excavation-induced movements.

140
Diaphragm Wall
120 Sheetpile Wall
(H,max/H)=0.5%
Soldier Pile Wall
100
LC: Local Cavity
 H,max (mm)

80 LC
LC
60
(H,max/H)=0.2%

40
LC LC

20

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Depth of Excavation, H (m)

Figure 10 Variation of H,max with excavation depth

.
4.2 Ground Settlements
The variations of maximum ground settlement (V,max) with excavation depth (H) are shown Figure 11.
Except for the local cavity cases, all points fall below the 0.1%H line. The different wall types have
little effect on ground settlement. The average V,max is about 0.06%H. The maximum ground
settlement is related to maximum wall deflection. For the stiff soil condition, V,max is around 1/3 to 2/3
of H,max.

140
Diaphragm Wall
LC
120 Sheetpile Wall
Soldier Pile Wall
LC
LC: Local Cavity
100
 v,max (mm)

80 (v,max/H)=0.5%
LC

60
LC
40
LC (v,max/H)=0.1%
LC
20

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Depth of Excavation, H (m)

231
 Figure 11 Variation of V,max with excavation depth.
4.3 Apparent Pressure Diagram for Strut Loads
The measured strut loads in the stiff soil condition have been converted into equivalent earth pressures
as shown in Figure 12. The apparent pressure envelopes suggested by Terzaghi and Peck (1967) for
stiff clay are also plotted. An apparent pressure of 0.3H seems to work well for the stiff soil condition
in OA. There is no significant difference among results from the different wall types.

Apparent Earth Pressure H)

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
0
Soldier Pile Wall
Sheetpile Wall
Percent of Excavation Height

20 Diaphragm Wall

40

0.4 H
0.2 H (a)
60
Distance from Wall, d (m)

0 10 20 30 40
80
5
Change in Ground Water Table

100
0

Figure 12 Variation of apparent earth pressure with H.

-5
 Hw(m)

Case 4(DW)
-10 Case 5(DW)
4.4 Changes in Ground Water Table Case 9(DW)
Figure 13 shows the changes
-15 in ground water table (Hw) withCase
the 3(SHP)
distance ratio (d/Hmax) where d is
the distance away from the wall. For diaphragm walls and sheetpile walls, the dropping in water table
Case 6(SP)
is small and is within 0.2Hmax. Diaphragm walls and sheetpile walls appear to be more effective in
-20
limiting the water table drawdown. However, for soldier pile walls, the maximum drop can be as large
as 16 m or 0.74 Hmax. The water flew freely through the gaps between timber laggings. The data in this
figure are very limited. They can only serve as a rough indication of the magnitude of water drawdown
for excavations in OA for the various wall types.
(b)

d/Hmax

0 0.5 1 1.5 2
0.1

-0.1

-0.2
 Hw/Hmax

-0.3
Case 4(DW)
-0.4 Case 5(DW)
Case 9(DW)
-0.5
Case 3(SHP)
-0.6 Case 6(SP)

-0.7

-0.8

Figure 13 Changes in ground water

232table (Hw/ Hmax) with the distance (d/Hmax)
 5 CONCLUSIONS

The Old Alluvium can be subdivided into three zones according to the weathering degree and SPT
blowcounts: residual soil zone (OAI) with N25, weathered zone (OAII) with N between 26 and 99,
and cemented zone (OAIII) with N100. The Old Alluvium encompasses many soil types. About 70%
of the Old Alluvium soils are classified as SC and SM soils. With the fines content exceeding 20%, the
OA soils would behave more like an over-consolidated clay than sand.

The undrained shear strength of the Old Alluvium generally increases with depth and is approximately
equal to 5.4N in kPa. The effective friction angle of all OA soils is about 35. The effective cohesion
intercept generally increases with depth up to about 30 kPa. The compression index (cc) can be related
to the natural water content where Cc = 0.0093 wn – 0.028. The OCR can be estimated from the cu/sv
ratio where OCR=5.67 (cu/sv)1.25. The insitu permeability of OA is generally in the range of 1E-6 to
1E-9 m/s.

Based on the limited data, it appears that for excavations in the OA soils regardless of wall types, the
maximum wall movement is likely to be less than 0.2%H with an average of 0.11%H. The maximum
ground settlement is likely to be less than 0.2%H with an average of 0.06%H. The maximum ground
settlement is about 60% of the maximum wall deflection. The upper bound of the apparent earth
pressure diagram is 0.3H. The maximum drop in water table associated with sheetpile and diaphragm
walls is much smaller than that associated with soldier pile walls.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The writers would like to express their gratitude to the Land Transport Authority of Singapore for
permission to publish data reported here, as well as their cooperation and support.

REFERENCES

Dames & Moore. 1983. Mass Rapid Transit System, Singapore: Detailed Geotechnical Study – Interpretative
Report, Provisional Mass Rapid Transit Authority, Singapore, pp85-98.
Li, W. 2001. Deep Excavations in Old Alluvium, PhD Thesis, Nanyang Technological University, School of
Civil & Structural Engineering, Singapore.
Li, W. & Wong, K.S. 2001. Engineering Properties of Old Alluvium, Journal of Institution of Engi-neers,
Singapore, accepted for publication in 2001.
Mana, A. I., & Clough, G. W. 1981. Prediction of movements for braced cuts in clay, J. Geotech. Eng. Div.,
ASCE, 107, No. GT6, pp759-777.
Orihara, K. & Khoo, K. S. 1998. Engineering Properties of Old Alluvium in Singapore and Its Parameters for
Bored Pile and Excavation Design, Proc. 13th Southeast Asian Geotechnical Conference, Taiwan, 545-550.
Poh, K. B., Buttling, S. & Hwang, R. 1987. Some MRT experiences of the soils and geology of Singapore,
Singapore Mass Rapid Transit Conference, Singapore, pp177-191.
Stroud, M. A. 1974. The standard penetration test – its application and interpretation, Proc. European Symp. On
Penetration Testing, Stockholm, Vol. 2.2, pp367-375.
Tan, S. B., Loy, W. C. & Lee, K. W. 1980. Engineering geology of the Old Alluvium in Singapore, Proc., 11th
S. E. Asian Conf. On Soil Engrg., Taipei, Vol. 1, pp673-783.
Terzaghi, K and Peck, R. B. 1967. Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice, 2nd Edition, John Wiley & Sons,
New York.

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