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Nonlinear Finite Element Analysis of elastomers-MSC MArc
Nonlinear Finite Element Analysis of elastomers-MSC MArc
Technical Paper
R
P R E F A C E
1
T A B L E O F C O N T E N T S
CASE STUDIES
A O-Ring Under Compression 9
B Car Tire 14
C Constant-Velocity Rubber Boot Compression and Bending 20
D Rubber Mount 28
E Car Door Seal: Automated Multibody Contact 31
APPENDICES
A Physics of Rubber 40
B Numerical Treatment of Incompressibility 42
C Material Testing Methods 44
D Answers to Commonly Asked Questions in Rubber Product Design 57
LOCATIONS 62
On the Cover
The cover shows a photorealistic rendition of the strain energy density on the deformed
configuration of a rubber constant velocity automotive boot. One can observe the hidden
portion of the bellows in the reflections on the visible surfaces.
2
S E EC XT EI OC NU T I V E
1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This white paper discusses Rubber is a very unique material. For certain foam rubber materials, the assumption
the salient features During processing and shaping, it of near incompressibility is relaxed, since large
regarding the mechanics behaves mostly like a highly volume change can be achieved by the application
and finite element viscous fluid. After its polymer of relatively moderate stresses.
analysis (FEA) of chains have been crosslinked by
elastomers. Although the vulcanization (or by curing),
main focus of the paper is rubber can undergo large reversible
on elastomers (or rubber- elastic deformations. Unless
like materials) and foams, damage occurs, it will return to its
O-RING
many of these concepts original shape
are also applicable to the FEA of glass, plastics, and after removal of the load.
biomaterials. Therefore, this White Paper should be Proper analysis of rubber
of value not only to the rubber and tire industries, components requires special
but also to those involved in the following: material modeling and nonlinear
• Glass, plastics, finite element
ceramic, and solid analysis tools that
propellant industries are quite different
• Biomechanics and the than those used for
medical/dental metallic parts. The GASKET
professions—implantable unique properties of
surgery devices, rubber are such that:
prostheses, orthopedics, 1. It can undergo large
orthodontics, dental deformations under load,
CAR DOOR SEAL
implants, artificial limbs, sustaining strains of up to 500
artificial organs, percent in
wheelchairs and beds, monitoring equipment engineering applications.
• Highway safety and flight safety—seat belt 2. Its load-extension behavior is
design, impact analysis, seat and padding design, markedly nonlinear.
passenger protection 3. Because it is
• Packaging industry viscoelastic, it
• Sports and consumer exhibits
industries—helmet significant
design, shoe design, damping
RUBBER BOOT
athletic protection gear, properties. Its
sports equipment safety. behavior is time-
and temperature-dependent,
Elastomers are used making it similar to glass and
SHOCK MOUNT
extensively in many plastics in
industries because of their this respect.
wide availability and low cost. They are also used
because of their excellent damping and energy 4. It is nearly incompressible.
absorption characteristics, flexibility, resiliency, This means its volume does not
long service life, ability to seal against moisture, change appreciably with stress. It
heat, and pressure, non-toxic properties, cannot be compressed significantly
moldability, and variable stiffness. under hydrostatic load.
CAR TIRE
3
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
4
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
1968 Taylor, Pister, and Herrmann extended 1997 MARC introduced Narayanswamy The benefits of performing nonlinear
Herrmann’s work to orthotropic materials. S.W. Key model for Glass Relaxation behavior. FEA of elastomeric products are
extended it to anisotropy [1969]. essentially the same as those for
1998 MARC introduced fully parallel
linear FEA. FEA should be an
1971 First release of MARC—the world’s software based on domain decomposition.
integral part of the design
first commercial, nonlinear general-
2000 MSC.Marc introduced the following: process, preferably from the CAD
purpose FEA code.
or blueprint stage. The
• Boyce-Arruda and Gent
1970s – today Most FEA codes claiming ability to advantages of this enhanced
rubber models
analyze contact problems use “gap” or “interface” design process include: improved
elements. (The user needs to know a priori where to • Special lower-order performance and quality of the
specify these interface elements—not an easy task!) triangular and tetrahedral finished product; faster time to market;
elements to handle optimal use of materials; weight
1974 MARC introduced Mooney-Rivlin model incompressible materials savings; verification of structural
and special Herrmann elements to analyze
• Automated integrity before prototyping; and
incompressible behavior.
remeshing and overall reduction of development
1979 Special viscoelastic models for harmonic analysis rezoning for rubber and and production costs.
to model damping behavior introduced by MARC. metallic materials. TIRE TREAD CONTACT AFTER INFLATION Furthermore, a good predictive
Generalized Maxwell model added shortly thereafter.
• Coupled structural- capability can help to reduce the
1985 Oden and Martins published comprehensive acoustic model for harmonic analysis. scrap rate in manufacturing stage, that is, “green” stage
treatise on modeling and computational issues for • AXITO3D feature for transfer on axisymmetric to the finally “molded” state, thereby ensuring a
dynamic friction phenomena. results to perform three-dimensional analysis competitive edge.
MARC pioneered use of rigid or deformable contact for rubber and metals.
bodies in an automated solution procedure to solve 2-D • Continuum composite elements for large
variable contact problems--typically found in metal deformation analysis.
forming and rubber applications. Also, first introduction
of large-strain viscoelastic capabilities for rubber
materials by MARC. Today, with the widespread use of
affordable workstations and high-end
1988 Oden and Kikuchi published monograph on
PCs (with sufficient speed, memory,
contact problems in elasticity--treating this class of
and disk space), the computational
problems as variational inequalities.
power required to solve “real-world”
MARC extended automated contact FEA capability to nonlinear FEA problems on a routine
3-D problems. basis has finally arrived.
5
S E C T I O N
2 M AT E R I A L B E H AV I O R
E = 1/2 (λ – 1)
2
6
2.1 TIME-INDEPENDENT NONLINEAR ELASTICITY
This section discusses aspects of nonlinear elasticity: generalized Mooney-Rivlin polynomial function of represented to simulate the non-Gaussian behavior of
namely, strain energy density functions and strain energy led to a better agreement with test data for individual chains in the network thus representing the
incompressibility constraint. both unfilled as well as filled rubbers. The models along physics of network deformation.
these lines incorporated in Marc are:
The Arruda-Boyce model can be described as:
material is isotropic and elastic. If we take the derivative Third Order Invariant:
while the constitutive relation from Gent can be
of W with respect to strain, we obtain the stress.
W = C10 (I1 – 3) + C01(I2 – 3) + represented as:
The commonly available strain energy functions have
been represented either in terms of the strain invariants
C11(I1 – 3) (I2 – 3) +
C20(I1 – 3) 2
W=
−
—
ΕΙm Ιm
6 log Ιm−Ι 1*
—
[ ]
which are functions of the stretch ratios or directly in where
Third Order Deformation (or James-Green-Simpson):
terms of the stretch ratios themselves. The three strain
W = C10 (I1 – 3) + C01(I2 – 3) + Ι 1* =Ι 1 − 3
invariants can be expressed as:
C11(I1 – 3)(I2 – 3) + Ogden proposed the energy function as separable
I1 = λ21 + λ22 + λ23 C20(I1 – 3)2 + C30(I1 – 3) 3 functions of principal stretches, which is implemented
in Marc in its generalized form as:
I2 = λ21 λ22 + λ22 λ23 + λ23 λ21 All the models listed above account for nonconstant
N –α
µ—n —
W= Σ —α
I3 = λ λ λ 2 2 2 shear modulus. However, caution needs to be exercised n αn αn
1 2 3
J 3 (λ1 + λ2 +
on inclusion of higher order terms to fit the data, since n= 1 n
In case of perfectly incompressible material, I3 = 1.
this may result in unstable energy functions yielding αn
λ3 – 3) + 4.5K(J 1/3– 1)2
–
Appealing to the notion of statistical mechanics and nonphysical results outside the range of the
thermodynamics principles, the simplest model of experimental data. Please see Section 2.5 for issues where J is the Jacobian measuring dilatancy, defined as
rubber elasticity is the Neo-Hookean model regarding material stability. the determinant of deformation gradient ƒ.
represented as:
The Yeoh model differs from the above higher
The Neo-Hookean, Mooney-Rivlin, and Varga material
W = C10 (I1 –3) order models in that it depends on the first strain
models can be recovered as special cases from the Ogden
This model exhibits a constant shear modulus, and gives invariant only:
model. The model gives a good correlation with test data
a good correlation with the experimental data up to 40% W = C10 (I1 – 3) + C20(I1 – 3) 2 in simple tension up to 700%. The model accommodates
strain in uniaxial tension and up to 90% strains in
+ C30(I1 – 3) 3 nonconstant shear modulus and slightly compressible
simple shear. material behavior. Also, for α <2 or >2, the material
This model is more versatile than the others since it has
softens or stiffens respectively with increasing strain. The
The earliest phenomenological theory of nonlinear been demonstrated to fit various modes of deformation
using the data obtained from a uniaxial tension test Ogden model has become quite popular recently, and
elasticity was propounded by Mooney as:
only. This leads to reduced requirements on material has been successfully applied to the analysis of O-rings,
W = C10 (I1 – 3) + C01(I2 – 3) testing. However, caution needs to be exercised when seals, and other industrial products.
Although, it shows a good agreement with tensile test applying this model for deformations involving low Other strain energy functions include Klesner-Segel,
data up to 100% strains, it has been found inadequate strains [Yeoh, 1995]. The Arruda-Boyce model Hart-Smith, Gent-Thomas, and Valanis-Landel for
in describing the compression mode of deformation. ameliorates this defect and is unique since the standard
modeling the nonlinear elastic response. For materials
Moreover, the Mooney-Rivlin model fails to account for tensile test data provides sufficient accuracy for multiple
going through large volumetric deformations, several
the stiffening of the material at large strains. modes of deformation at all strain levels.
models have been suggested; for example, Blatz-Ko’s,
Tschoegl’s investigations [Tschoegl, 1971] underscored In the Arruda-Boyce and Gent strain energy models, the Penn’s, and Storaker’s. Marc has adopted the foam
the fact that the retention of higher order terms in the underlying molecular structure of elastomer is
7
2.1 TIME-INDEPENDENT NONLINEAR ELASTICITY
W= Σ µα (λα + λα + λα – 3)
n= 1
——
n
n
1
n
2
n
3
n
N
µ
+Σ (I – Jβn)
n
——
—
n= 1 β n
DISPLACEMENT
8
C A S E S T U D Y
A O-RING UNDER COMPRESSION
O-RING AXISYMMETRIC MODEL the top surface moves down in the radial direction a total distance of 0.2 cm,
compressing the O-ring. During the subsequent 50 increments, a total pressure
load of 2 MPa is applied in the Z-direction, compressing the O-ring against the
opposite contact surface. The final deformed shape is shown for increment 70.
Also shown are the increment 70 final contact
forces distribution, and the increment 20
radial Cauchy stress distribution. The
Ogden material parameters are
assigned values of µ1=0.63 MPa,
µ2=0.0012 MPa, µ3=0.01 MPa,
a1=1.3, a2=5.0, and a3=2.0.
(These parameters are explained
in Section 2.)
At the end of increment 70, the
originally circular cross-section of the
CONTACT FORCES DISTRIBUTION
O-ring has filled a rectangular region
(INCREMENT 70)
on the right while remaining circular on
the left (where the pressure loading is applied).
CAUCHY STRESSES IN RADIAL DIRECTION This type of elastomeric analysis may encounter
(INCREMENT 20) instability problems because of the large
compressive stresses; the solution algorithm in the FEA code must be able to
pinpoint such difficulties during the analysis and follow alternative paths.
Otherwise, the FEA code may give incorrect results!
The O-ring is also analyzed using a 2-term Mooney-Rivlin model. It is found
that the CPU and memory usage are about the same per iteration as for the 3-
term Ogden model.
Notes: For this type of rubber contact analysis, the nonlinear FEA code must be
able to handle “deformable-to-rigid” contact, the incompressibility of the
FINAL DEFORMED GEOMETRY material, friction, mesh distortions (especially at the two corners), and
(INCREMENT 70) potential instability problems as the analysis progresses. The important point to
note about this example is that the applied pressure is many times larger than
the material constants. Although the analysis is 2-D, the solution of this rubber
problem is not trivial.
9
2.2 VISCOELASTICITY
This section introduces the concept of viscoelasticity and consists of a spring and dashpot in parallel. A sudden called the Generalized Maxwell model, which is an
mentions some important mechanisms through which application of force produces no immediate deflection, exponential or Prony series representation of the
temperature and fillers influence rubber behavior. because the dashpot (arranged in parallel with the stress relaxation function. This model contains, as
Rubber exhibits a rate-dependent behavior and can be spring) will not move instantaneously. Instead, a special cases, the Maxwell, Kelvin, and standard linear
modeled as a viscoelastic material, with its properties deformation builds up gradually, while the spring solid models.
depending on both temperature and time. When assumes an increasing share of the load. The dashpot
unloaded, it eventually returns to the original, displacement relaxes exponentially. A third model is the
NONLINEAR VISCOELASTICITY
undeformed state. When subjected to a constant stress, it standard linear solid, which is a combination of two
creeps. When given a prescribed strain, the stress springs and a dashpot as shown. Its behavior is a Nonlinear viscoelastic behavior may result when the
decreases with time; this phenomenon is called stress combination of the Maxwell and Kelvin models. Creep strain is large. A finite strain viscoelastic model may be
relaxation, or relaxation. Hysteresis refers to the functions and relaxation functions for these three derived by generalizing linear viscoelasticity in the sense
different stress-strain relationship during unloading (as models are also shown [Fung, 1981]. The Marc program that the 2nd Piola-Kirchhoff stress is substituted for
compared to the loading process) in such materials features a more comprehensive mechanical model engineering stress, and Green-Lagrange strain is used
when the material is subjected to cyclic loading
(see Section 2.4). Collectively, these features of
hysteresis, creep, and relaxation—all
MAXWELL MODEL KELVIN (VOIGT) MODEL STANDARD LINEAR SOLID
dependent upon temperature—are often called
features of “viscoelasticity” [See the texts by
Fung-1965, Christensen-1982, and Ferry-1970].
LINEAR VISCOELASTICITY
Linear viscoelasticity refers to a theory which
follows the linear superposition principle, where
the relaxation rate is proportional to the
instantaneous stress. Experimental data shows
that “classical” linear viscoelasticity (applicable
to a few percent strain) represents the behavior
of many materials at small strains. In this case,
the instantaneous stress is also proportional to
the strain. Details of the material test data
fitting, to determine input data required for
viscoelastic analysis (such as calculating the
necessary Prony series coefficients for a
CREEP FUNCTIONS
relaxation curve) are discussed in Section 3.
10
2.2 VISCOELASTICITY
11
2.3 COMPOSITES
Rubber composites can be classified as particulate, the Mullins’ effect [Govindjee and Simo, 1992]. This Such composites pose a challenge, both from a
laminated, or fibrous depending on their construction. Itdamage model has been extended to include the Ogden manufacturing perspective, where adhesion of the
is well known that such composites usually exhibit strain energy function; results agree well with fibers to the rubber matrix can occur, as well as from a
highly anisotropic response due to directionality in experimental data for cyclic tension tests with quasi- numerical point of view, in which numerical ill-
material properties. static loading conditioning can occur due to the stiffness differential
rates. Marc offers between rubber and cords. Such cord-reinforced
The most commonly
a damage rubber composites can be modeled using the
available particulate
model capability membrane or continuum rebar elements [Liu,
composites are filled
in conjunction Choudhry, and Wertheimer, 1997].
elastomers where the
with the large
carbon black Typical cord-rubber composites have a fiber to matrix
strain viscoelastic
particles are modulus ratio of 10 4 – 10 6 : 1. This gives rise to an
model for all
dispersed in a internal constraint of near-inextensibility of cords
strain energy
network of polymeric which is analogous to the near-incompressibility of
functions. This
chains. Fillers are rubber. Such composites have a volume fraction of
makes it an
added to rubber cords less than a typical stiff fiber composite (used in
extremely useful
products such as car aerospace applications). This is primarily to provide
tool to simulate
tires and shock added flexibility to the system and to prevent frictional
the energy
mounts to enhance sliding between the cords in large deformation
YEOH MODEL: TENSILE AND COMPRESSIVE DATA dissipation or
their stiffness and REPLOTTED AGAINST (I1–3). From Yeoh [1990]. situations. Adding further complications is the fact
hysteresis in
toughness properties. that the cords themselves are composed of twisted
filled rubbers.
Common fillers filaments. This gives rise to a bimodular system
include carbon black and silica, where the carbon Laminated elastomer/polymer composites occur in dependent on the tension or compression due to
particles range in size from a few hundred to thousands rubber/steel plate bearings used for seismic base microbuckling of the fibers. Material modeling of such
of angstroms. They influence the dynamic and damping isolation of buildings and bridges where horizontal composites has traditionally been carried out by
behavior of rubber in a very complex and flexibility coupled with vertical rigidity is desired. smearing or averaging out material properties over the
nonproportional manner. The unique behavior of Another area of application is composite sheet domain of the composite structure. [Walter-Patel,
carbon black-filled elastomers results due to a rigid, metal forming where a layer of rubber/polymer 1979] have shown good correlation of the
particulate phase and the interaction of the elastomer may be sandwiched between two metal sheets experimental data with Halpin-Tsai, Gough-Tangorra,
chains with this phase [Bauer and Crossland, 1990]. for desired stiffness and damping characteristics. and Akasaka-Hirano equations to derive equivalent
Unlike unfilled rubbers, the relaxation rate (in filled Computationally, this problem is handled by Marc mechanical properties for cord-rubber composites.
rubbers) is not proportional to the stress, and one may using a nonlinear elasticity model within a total or
Marc offers several options to model the large strain
need a general nonlinear finite-strain time-dependent updated Lagrangian framework for the rubber while
behavior of cord-rubber composites. The most popular
theory. Current research on the characterization of filled resorting to large deformation plasticity within an
ones include modeling the composite plies as
rubber shows promising results [Yeoh, 1990]. Yeoh updated Lagrangian framework for the metallic
anisotropic membranes sandwiched between
derived a third-order strain energy density function sheets. Laminated structures can be modeled using the
continuum or brick elements representing the rubber.
which does not depend on the second strain invariant; lower- or higher-order continuum composite elements
features a shear modulus that can change with in Marc. The standard failure
deformation; and can represent both tension and criterion for composite materials
compression behavior equally well. Unfortunately, can be used in analysis with
among the existing strain energy functions, both the brittle materials.
polynomial as well as Ogden models are unable to
An important class of composites
capture the sharp decrease in shear modulus for filled
arises due to the presence of textile or
rubbers at small strains.
steel cords in the rubber matrix
On the computational side, a numerically efficient [Clark, 1981]. Applications of such LAMINATED RUBBER/STEEL SHOCK ISOLATION
phenomenological model has recently been developed to composites can be found in tires, air BEARING IN SHEAR. From Billings and
Shepherd [1992].
analyze carbon black-filled rubber which accounts for springs, shock isolators, and hoses.
12
2.3 COMPOSITES
TABLE I
MODULUS RATIO COMPARISONS FOR RIGID AND FLEXIBLE COMPOSITES
E1 and E2 are calculated at volume fractions typical of use for the different composites.
13
C A S E S T U D Y
B CAR TIRE
Analyzing the interaction of an automobile tire with the road is one of the
most challenging problems in computational mechanics today. It is a very
complex 3-D contact analysis, involving a complicated shape (tire cross
section), composite materials (comprised of polyester or steel cords, steel
wire beads, and rubber–leading to anisotropic behavior), uncertain loading
conditions (mounting loads, inflation pressure, car weight, side impact,
hitting a curb, temperature effects for a car cruising for a while at high
speeds, etc.), and large deformations. Friction, dynamic, and fatigue effects
TIRE SECTION SHOWING are also important. All leading tire manufacturers use nonlinear FEA to help
DIFFERENT MATERIALS design safer and better tires...but none has, as of yet, abandoned
full-scale testing.
TIRE MODEL
14
2.4 HYSTERESIS
Under cyclic loading, rubber dissipates energy—due to regions. Such a strain-induced crystallization produces the material is loaded in tension to a strain state labeled
hysteresis effects. The steady-state response is quite hysteresis effects. During the retraction phase, the stress “1” along path “a”. If the material is again loaded, the
different from the initial response. Filled rubber relaxation rate usually exceeds the rate at which the stress-strain curve now follows path “b” to point “1” and
undergoes so-called stress-induced softening molecular chains disorient leading to an extended not path “a”. If additional loading is applied, path “a”
(sometimes referred to as damage), a is followed to a point labeled “2”. Upon
phenomenon caused by a breakdown unloading, path “c” is followed, thereby
of crosslinks and a progressive resulting in an even greater loss of stiffness
detachment of rubber molecules from in the material. Features contributing to
the surfaces of reinforcing fillers. the stress-softening behavior include the
Although rubber will stiffen under load modification and reformation of rubber
in certain situations, here we will only network structures involve chemical
discuss the more common case of effects, microstructural damage, multi-
rubber softening. A typical one-cycle chain damage, and microvoid formation.
force-extension plot for rubber in These mechanisms are considerably
biaxial tension is shown on the right. enhanced by strain amplification caused
by rigid particles in filled rubbers.
The five primary, underlying
mechanisms responsible for hysteresis
of rubber are: 4. STRUCTURAL
FRACTURE BEHAVIOR OF POLYMERS BREAKDOWN
1. INTERNAL FRICTION In a filled rubber with carbon black-filler
period of crystallization. In this regard, an unfilled particles, the carbon black particles tend to form a loose
The internal friction is primarily a result of
natural rubber exhibits more hysteresis than its unfilled reticulated structure because of their surface activity or
rearrangement of the molecular structure under applied
synthetic counterpart as shown in the figure. mutual interactions. They are also interlaced by the
load and subsequent sliding of chains, past each other.
network of rubber chain molecules which are
The phenomenon of internal friction or internal viscosity
crosslinked during vulcanization. The breakdown of
is highly temperature dependent and its temperature 3. STRESS SOFTENING
these aggregates, and of the matrix/filler interfacial
dependence may be described by the concept of flow
Modification and reformation of rubber network bonds due to loading, gives rise to hysteresis.
viscosity. The flow viscosity, ηv, decreases as temperature
structures in the initial loading stages can show a lower
increases and at temperature T> Tg, it is related to its
stiffness and changes in damping characteristics. This
value at the glass transition temperature, Tg, typically by 5. DOMAIN DEFORMATION
strain-induced stress softening in carbon black-filled
the Williams-Landel-Ferry equation:
rubbers is called the Mullins’ effect [Mullins-1969; Viscoelastic stress analysis of two-phase systems [Radok
Simo-1987; Govindjee and Simo, 1992], although such and Tai, 1962] has shown that dispersed inclusions or
ηv (T) – C1 (T – Tg) domains in a viscoelastic medium contribute to an
log ———— = ——————— a phenomenon has been observed in unfilled rubbers
ηv (Tg) C2 + T – Tg also. It manifests itself as increase in the energy
history-dependent stiffness. loss even when the
An increase in temperature results in increased
The uniaxial stress-strain domains are
segmental mobility, thereby leading to decreased
curve remains insensitive at themselves perfectly
viscosity and reduced hysteresis. Presence of particulate
strains above the previous elastic in nature. In
filler, for example, carbon black, leads to decreased
achieved maximum, but some instances,
segmental mobility and hence increased viscosity and
experiences a substantial however, the domains
increased hysteresis.
softening below this are themselves capable
maximum strain. The of exhibiting an
2. STRAIN-INDUCED larger the previously energy dissipating
CRYSTALLIZATION attained maximum, the mechanism. Also,
larger the subsequent loss CYCLIC TENSION TEST DEMONSTRATING certain elastomers
Large extension and retraction of elastomeric material
of stiffness. In a cyclic test, MULLINS’ EFFECT. From Govindjee and contain domains of
gives rise to formation and melting of crystallized
Simo [1992].
15
2.4 HYSTERESIS
16
2.5 STABILITY
Instabilities that arise in the FEA of elastomers can be present an example of structure whose stability limits are These instabilities do not usually occur in the actual
either “physical” or “numerical.” Physical instabilities governed by air pressure and construction parameters in structure and are often the result of the mathematical
include buckling of a structure. Possible onset of addition to the material properties. abstraction of the real material. The numerical
buckling may be characterized by a limit point when the algorithms in Marc enable the user to avoid these
Numerical instabilities
rubber structure can instabilities. Sophisticated arc-length iteration methods
include: instabilities in the
snap-through from exist in order to determine the deformed configuration
mathematical description of the
one equilibrium and load carrying capacity of the buckled structure.
material law, and instabilities in
configuration to
the numerical enforcement of
another, or a
the incompressibility constraint.
bifurcation point
The material model must satisfy
which is
certain restrictions on its elastic
characterized as an
moduli [Rivlin, 1980] to
intersection of two
produce physically acceptable
equilibrium paths.
modes of deformation. In short,
Other types of SURFACE INSTABILITY the material must satisfy the
instabilities would
Drucker Stability criterion that
include necking of a
the change of energy in a closed
sheet, or sudden folds
cycle is non-negative. For isotropic, incompressible
or wrinkles which occur due to high compressive stresses
materials, the Drucker Stability criterion is expressed as:
near a surface. The FEA code must be able to analyze
rubber-to-rubber contact beyond the initial stage of ∑∑ dσi j dε i j ≥ 0
folding. These instabilities which result in a sudden i j
change in stiffness pose a severe test of a code’s For elastic materials without energy dissipation, the
solution algorithm. above criterion reduces to an equality. Marc material
[Padovan et al., 1991] have studied the occurrence of parameter evaluation solves a constrained optimization
physical instabilities associated with surface wrinkles problem to assure the stability
and local bifurcations in seals and gaskets. Typical of energy functions. [Tabaddor,
mesh densification results are shown for those elements 1987] has shown the existence
bordering the folds. In studying surface instabilities of of multiple solutions with more
oil well valve rubber packings, Padovan has found that than one stable solution in
strains will reach 400 to 450 percent and that low cycle pure, homogeneous modes of
fatigue becomes important. With valve closure, a deformation using WRINKLING OF SEAL
hierarchy of folds appears: single folds, folds of folds, perturbation method.
and multiple foldings. In those cases where folds occur
near a rigid or very stiff boundary, refining
the model would not help to achieve a
converged solution!
17
2 . 6 • O T H E R P O LY M E R I C M AT E R I A L S
Many of the concepts used to analyze not ordinarily used as load-carrying members). Like
rubber behavior are also applicable to concrete and plastics, glass creeps with time.
glass, plastics, foams, solid
The proper FEA of glass products must pay attention to
propellants, and biomaterials [Harper,
several important characteristics of glass when
1982]. These include: large
considering various forming processes and
deformations, variable contact, strain
environmental conditions.
energy density functions, near
incompressibility, and viscoelastic (1) Glass exhibits an abrupt transition from its
effects. Here, we’ll briefly note some fluid to its glassy state—known as the glass
important considerations in the transition temperature.
modeling and design/analysis of (2) Transient residual stresses are developed during
these materials. manufacturing, thus requiring a time-
dependent analysis.
BIOMATERIALS include human
(3) For safety reasons, many common glass
tissues and polymeric materials used
products (such as car windshields and shower
in modern medical/dental implants
doors) are tempered: in which the glass is
and devices (for example, cardiac
intentionally heated, then cooled, in a
pacemaker seals, filled dental TYPICAL STRESS/STRAIN CURVES IN LOADING AND controlled manner to develop a thin surface
composite resins). Plastics and other UNLOADING FOR FOUR SPECIES. From Fung [1981],
layer under compressive stress, in order to
synthetic polymeric materials are by permission.
resist crack propagation and tension-
viscoelastic. Human tissues may also
induced cracking.
be treated as viscoelastic materials;
foams may have plastic yield, and ceramic foams are (4) For optical applications such as lenses and
these include blood vessels, heart muscles, articular
brittle and crushable. Resilient foams are used for car mirrors, the curvature of the surface and its
cartilage, mucus, saliva, etc. [Fung, 1981]. They creep
seats, mattresses, shipping insulation materials, and birefringence are of crucial importance. Here,
and relax. Many of the concepts introduced in this White
other applications which undergo repeated loading the critical design parameter is deflection,
Paper are also applicable to biomechanics studies. These
where light weight and high compliance is desirable. not stress.
include, for instance: curve-fitting of test data to
Some foams (for example, rigid polymer foams) show
determine material parameters for FEA, viscoelastic (5) In hostile environments, such as those faced by
plastic yielding in compression but are brittle in tension.
modeling, response of a viscoelastic body to harmonic solar heliostats in deserts, the adhesive bond
excitation, large deformations, hysteresis and softening, Crushable foams are used widely in shock-isolation cementing the mirror to its substrate is highly
and so forth. The figure shows typical room-temperature structures and components. These are sometimes susceptible to deterioration by ultraviolet
stress-strain curves in loading and unloading for four analyzed by “foam plasticity” models. In compression, radiation, intense heat, moisture, etc.—usually
species. Notice that, in all four cases, softening occurs volumetric deformations are related to cell wall
and the unloading behavior is different from the loading buckling processes. It is assumed that the
behavior (as in the case of rubber). resulting deformation is not recoverable
instantaneously and the process can be
FOAMS are often made of polyurethane, are soft and idealized as elastic-plastic. In tension, these cell
spongy—almost any solid can be foamed. Techniques walls break easily, and the resulting tensile
now exist for making three-dimensional cellular solids strength of the foam is much smaller than the
out of polymers, metals, ceramics, and even glasses. compressive strength. Strain rate sensitivity is
Man-made foams, manufactured on a large scale, are also significant for such foams.
used for absorbing the energy of impacts (in packaging
and crash protection) and in lightweight structures (in GLASS is brittle, isotropic, and viscoelastic.
the cores of sandwich panels, for instance). Unlike Crack initiation and propagation are important
rubber, foam products are highly compressible, and are concerns (even though most glass products are
porous with a large portion of the volume being air.
Elastomeric foams are fully elastic (resilient), metal BLATZ-KO MODEL FOR FOAMS
18
2 . 6 • O T H E R P O LY M E R I C M AT E R I A L S
leading to a change of the mirror’s intended model). One important distinction, from a modeling (6) In some cases, linear FEA may be satisfactory
curvature or flatness after continued exposure. standpoint, is that plastics, unlike most metals, behave when designing plastic materials under low
(6) Many glass products in their service life differently in tension and compression. In this respect, level loading and low strains. However, for
experience a combination of thermal and plastics are similar to rubber and composite materials. those problems involving large deformations,
mechanical loads, thus requiring a coupled buckling/postbuckling, contact/impact, high
The proper FEA of plastic products requires the analyst to
thermo-mechanical analysis as part of the loading, or where residual stresses are to be
be aware of certain important characteristics of plastics.
design procedure. determined, nonlinear FEA is a must.
(1) The plastic forming process (for example,
PLASTICS behave similarly to rubber in some aspects, injection molding) results in a deformed shape
but differently in others. For instance, plastics and with residual stresses. Coupled thermal-
rubber exhibit no linear region in their stress-strain mechanical analysis is necessary, and
behavior except at very small strains. Load duration and automated contact analysis becomes very
temperature greatly influence the behavior of both. Like important. Properties are dependent upon
elastomers, plastics are viscoelastic materials. Both are temperature and time.
dependent on strain rate. However, while the elastomers (2) “Non-equilibrium” rapid heating and cooling
typically undergo large deformations even at room effects are also important. In this respect,
temperature, plastics usually do not. plastics are similar to glass and solid
propellants. For most plastics, the bulk
Additional complications arise in the characterization of
modulus and coefficient of thermal expansion
plastics. Two generic types of plastics exist: thermosets
are known to be sensitive to pressure.
and thermoplastics. Thermosets (such as phenolics) are
formed by chemical reaction at high temperatures. (3) Before actual cracking, a phenomenon called
When reheated, they resist degradation up to very high crazing often occurs. This is associated with
temperatures, with localized regions where
minimal changes in polymer chains have
properties. However, at become excessively
extremely elevated stretched due to high local
temperatures, this type of stress concentrations.
plastic will char and Rupture is most often
decompose. At this point, initiated there. Crazing is
the thermal and associated with a region of
mechanical properties altered density which is
degrade dramatically. detrimental to the desired
Thermoplastics, when optical or aesthetic
heated, will soften and then qualities of plastic
melt. The metamorphosis products such as
SNAP FIT OF PLASTIC PART
is more continuous. The transparent utensils
relative variation in and containers.
properties is more significant for thermoplastics than (4) Birefringence is important, as for glass.
thermosets for temperatures below the point at which
(5) Plastics are also susceptible to damage due to
the latter decomposes. Thermoplastics generally exhibit
hostile environments, such as ultraviolet
a broad “glass transition” range over which the material
radiation and steam. Plastic products used in
behaves in a viscoelastic manner. This behavior is
sterilization and autoclave applications often
contrasted with thermosets that exhibit an abrupt
fail due to steam effects. They exhibit
transition. Some plastics (such as certain polyethylenes)
significant reduction in ductility with
deform inelastically and may be analyzed with standard
continued exposure to steam.
metal plasticity models (for example, Drucker-Prager
19
C A S E S T U D Y
C C O N S TA N T- V E L O C I T Y R U B B E R B O O T
COMPRESSION AND BENDING
RUBBER BOOT HALF-MODEL not come into contact with each other, because the resultant wear would
produce failure of the rubber. Such undesirable contact would mean
abrasion during rotation of the shaft, leading to premature failure of the
joint. Local buckling can also occur in one of the bellows.
The FEA of rubber boots presents many interesting features:
(1) large displacements; (2) large strains; (3) incompressible
material behavior; (4) susceptibility to local buckling;
and (5) varying boundary conditions caused by the
3-D contact between various parts of the boot.
Proper design should also consider bellows
shape optimization, fatigue life,
maintainability and replaceability,
and cost.
This example shows the analysis of
AXIAL COMPRESSION the axial compression and bending
(INCREMENT 13)
of a rubber boot. Due to symmetry,
it is only necessary to model half of
the boot. The boot is clamped on
one side to a rigid surface, and on
the other side to a translating and
rotating axis. Axial compression is
first applied, followed by bending.
The deformed shapes are shown for the
axial compression and bending loads.
Notes: One leading U.S. rubber boot manufacturer has applied such 3-D
contact analysis techniques to evaluate and optimize new boot designs (one
design had a longitudinal seam to facilitate installation). Improved fatigue life
was the design goal, and nonlinear FEA was successfully used to minimize
BENDING time and cost—and come up with a boot design which achieved an
acceptable product life cycle. The analysis was correlated with test results,
and showed that a modified design with a seam attained a similar fatigue life
as the original design (without a seam). The new design with a seam
substantially reduced the installation costs. Note that “do-it-yourself” kits
using this split boot design are now available to replace worn-out boots.
20
S E C T I O N
3 A U T O M AT I C D E T E R M I N AT I O N O F
M AT E R I A L PA R A M E T E R S F R O M T E S T D ATA
Successful modeling and design of rubber Mentat shows how other modes would behave. The data; (3) plotting/display—where the user sees
components hinges on the selection of an example below shows how a great tension fit for a graphical verification of the results and is able to
appropriate strain energy function, and accurate 3-term Ogden material greatly overpredicts the observe the behavior beyond the test range; and (4)
determination of material constants in the biaxial response. write—where the program automatically creates a
function. Appendix C describes the data set and the necessary
tests required to characterize the coefficients for the strain energy
mechanical response of the density function of choice.
polymeric material. Marc offers the Typical curve-fitting results
capability to evaluate the material are shown.
constants for nonlinear elastic and For the generalized Ogden as well
viscoelastic materials in its as the Foam model (principle
graphical user interface, stretch-based models), the
MSC.Marc Mentat. material constants follow from a
set of nonlinear equations and
RUBBER ELASTICITY
the data is fitted based on the
For time-independent nonlinear Downhill-Simpson algorithm.
elasticity, the fitting procedure may
be carried out for polynomial
representations of incompressible
materials, the generalized Ogden
model for slightly compressible
materials, and the Foam model for compressible From a mathematical point of view, determining the
materials. Six different types of experiments are material constants for an incompressible material is
supported, namely, uniaxial tension, uniaxial relatively easy, since they follow from the least squares
compression, equibiaxial, planar (or pure) shear, method in a straight forward fashion. However, the
simple shear, and volumetric tests. The significance material constants may turn out to be negative and
of (non-equivalent) multiple tests for material therefore physically not meaningful. The phenomenon
modeling cannot be overemphasized. In general, a is a numerical serendipity and not a fundamental
combination of uniaxial tension/compression and material behavior. In this case, a constrained
simple shear is required at the very least. Data from optimization process can be invoked, based on
equibiaxial tension or planar shear may also be sequential linear programming [Press, Tenkolsky,
needed depending on the deformation modes of the Vetterling, and Flannery, 1992] in order to obtain non-
structure. Volumetric data must be included for negative constants.
materials undergoing large compressible
Automated facilities are
deformations, for example, foams. Also, the curve
available to help the
fitting in MSC.Marc Mentat allows a combined
user determine these
input of more than one test to obtain the
material parameters
appropriate material constants.
from test data. The
Typical elastomeric behavior of many materials curve-fitting program is
have stress-strain curves as shown above. Each of interactive and consists
the three strain states (biaxial, pure shear or planar of four steps: (1) data
tension, and tension) have decreasing stresses for entry—where the user
the same strain level. inputs experimental
The importance of performing multiple mode tests data; (2) evaluation—
is to insure that model predicts the correct behavior where the program
of other modes. The curve-fitting in MSC.Marc mathematically fits the
21
AUTOMATIC DETERMINATION OF MATERIAL PARAMETERS FROM TEST DATA
α2 = – 0.715832,
EXAMPLE 2: DETERMINING 0-1
OGDEN CONSTANTS 0-5 0-6 0-7 0-8 0-9 1-0 α3 = 7.00243,
1/
The figure above shows how a 3-term EXAMPLE 1: DETERMINATION OF MOONEY- β1 = – 5.41755,
Ogden model compares with Treloar’s RIVLIN CONSTANTS FOR VULCANIZED RUBBER
IN SIMPLE TENSION β2 = – 5.41648,
data [Treloar, 1975] in simple tension,
pure shear, and biaxial tension. The β3 = – 6.85885
Ogden constants in this case were
determined to be [for details, see Ogden, 1972]:
µ1 = 0.63 MPa,
µ2 = 0.0012 MPa,
µ3 = – 0.01 MPa
α1 = 1.3,
α2 = 5.0,
α3 = –2.0
22
AUTOMATIC DETERMINATION OF MATERIAL PARAMETERS FROM TEST DATA
VISCOELASTICITY
The data representing a time-dependent or viscoelastic
response of materials can be approximated by a Prony
series, based on relaxation or creep test. If the
deformation is large, a relaxation test is more accurate.
If the data is obtained from a creep test, a Prony series
inversion must be performed before using it as an input
to Marc. For a linear viscoelastic material, either the
shear and bulk moduli, or the Young's modulus and
Poisson's ratio may be expressed in terms of a Prony
series. For large strain viscoelasticity, the elastic strain
energy or the stress is expressed in terms of Prony series.
MSC.Marc Mentat attempts to fit the entered data based
on a procedure described in [Daubisse, 1986].
EXAMPLE 4: DETERMINING
VISCOELASTIC CONSTANTS
The figure on the right shows typical stress-time plot for
large strain viscoelastic material in relaxation test. The
Prony coefficients are obtained from fitting the
relaxation test data.
EXAMPLE 4:: CURVE FIT TO VISCOELASTIC RELAXATION DATA
23
S E C T I O N
4 DAMAGE AND FAILURE
The most important and perhaps the most difficult fracture mode of the rubber is by crack
aspect of design analysis is failure prediction. propagation, breaking away the bulged volume.
Failure in rubber can occur For cord-reinforced
because of flaws introduced composites, besides damage
during the manufacturing and fracture of the rubber
processes (for example, matrix, the critical modes of
compound mixing, failure are ply separation,
extrusion, molding, or debonding between layers of
vulcanization, etc.) or dissimilar materials, fiber
fatigue caused by service pull-out due to lack of
loads and/or material adhesion, and
degradation due TEARING NEAR THE BONDED EDGES.
microbuckling of cords.
to environmental/ From Gent et. al. [1992]
Besides mechanical loading,
mechanical/thermal thermal and viscoelastic
conditions. Along these effects play a critical role in
lines, [Simo, 1987] failure of cord-rubber
developed a damage model composites. Frictional
incorporated in a large- heating at cord-rubber
strain viscoelasticity interface and internal heat
framework to simulate the build-up due to hysteresis in
stiffness loss and energy SPLITTING OPEN OF THE FREE rubber cause the
dissipation in polymers. SURFACE. From Gent et. al. [1992] temperature of the material
This model is currently to rise. Due to low thermal
implemented in Marc. TWO POSSIBLE FRACTURE MODES conductivity of rubber, the
Damage and Mullins’ effect in UNDER STATIC COMPRESSION
temperatures can rise to a
filled polymers was simulated very high value, causing
by Govindjee and Simo, using adhesion failures and microcracking in the rubber
fully micromechanical damage [1991] matrix. No good models exist currently in open
and continuum micromechanical damage literature to simulate the above failures.
[1992] models.
Recently, researchers have calculated tearing energy
to simulate crack growth in an elastomeric
material using the popular fracture mechanics
concept of J-integral [Cheng and Becker, 1992].
Using the virtual crack extension method
[Pidaparti, Yang, and Soedel, 1992] predicted the
critical loads for crack growth. Also, the initiation
and the initiation direction was found in good FATIGUE FAILURE OF BONDED
agreement with the experimental data for filled ELASTOMER BLOCK.
Styrene Butadiene Rubber. In a study of the fracture FROM GENT ET. AL. [1992]
of bonded rubber blocks under compression, [Gent,
Chang, and Leung, 1993] found that: (1) under
static compression, two modes of fracture are
possible—circumferential tearing at or near the
bonded edges, and splitting open of the free surface;
and, (2) under cyclic compression, the most likely
24
S E C T I O N
5 D Y N A M I C S A N D V I B R AT I O N
A widespread use of rubber is for shock/vibration VISCOUS DAMPING—occurs when a viscous damping in dynamics problems may be found in
isolation and noise suppression in transportation fluid hinders the motion of the body. The damping any book on vibrations or structural dynamics.
vehicles, machinery, and buildings. These common forces are proportional to velocity in the equations
rubber components include: snubbers, load bearing of motion. MODAL EXTRACTION
pads, engine mounts, bearings, bushings, air JOINT DAMPING—results from internal friction
springs, bumpers, and so forth. Recent seismic A popular and efficient modal (eigenvalue)
within the material or at connections between
isolation applications have seen increased usage of extraction method in FEA codes is the Lanczos
elements of a structural system.
laminated rubber bearings for the foundation method. This method has been proven by
designs of buildings, highway and bridge structures Internal friction in the elastomer accounts for the researchers to be faster and more accurate than the
(especially in the United States and Japan). These damping nature of elastomeric parts. Because of basic subspace iteration method. For the case of
applications take advantage of well-known the viscoelastic behavior of rubber, damping is proportional damping, real modes give useful
characteristics of rubber: energy absorption and dependent on frequency of the excitation. The information (the natural frequencies). In the case of
damping, flexibility, resilience, long service life, presence of damping forces progressively reduces nonproportional damping, complex modes result.
and moldability. the amplitude of vibration, Natural frequencies are dependent upon pre-stress and
and ultimately stops the material properties; both of these would require
A dynamic analysis is required motion when all energy nonlinear analysis. This factor is important in the
whenever inertial effects are initially stored in the design of isolation mounts for buildings.
important, for example, high system is dissipated.
speed rolling of tires or STEADY STATE Although it also exists in
sudden loss of contact in a VIBRATIONS IN SMALL-AMPLITUDE VIBRATIONS IN
metals, damping is
snap-through buckling A STATICALLY VISCOELASTIC SOLIDS: USE OF
especially important in the
analysis. When inertial effects STRETCHED “PHI-FUNCTIONS” AND TIME VS.
AND TWISTED design of rubber
are unimportant, such as for FREQUENCY DOMAIN ANALYSIS
VISCOELASTIC components. In the
engine mounts and building CYLINDER In the analysis of an engine
bearings, performing a mount, it is often important to
dynamic analysis is model small-amplitude
unnecessary. When the vibrations superimposed upon
NORMAL FORCE N0 (NEWTON)
viscous effects are important FINITE ELEMENT a large initial deformation. The
350 SOLUTION
for such cases, a quasi-static EXACT problem of small-amplitude
300
analysis is performed to 250 vibrations of sinusoidally-
obtain the overall deformation 200 excited deformed viscoelastic
which is followed by a 150
solids was studied by [Morman
harmonic analysis to obtain 100
FINITE ELEMENT and Nagtegaal, 1983] using the
o o2
frequencies and mode shapes.
50
MODEL OF 30° WEDGE
so-called method of Phi-
1 0.9 0.8 0.02 0.04
o, o
0
functions. The method was
=0 = 0.785 applied to improve the design
DAMPING o o
25
DYNAMICS AND VIBRATION
This method is available in the Marc code and uses the include Newmark-beta, Wilson-theta, Hilber-Hughes- material approaches infinity, and hence an extremely
third-order invariant form of the James-Green-Simpson Taylor, and Houbolt methods. The choice of whether to small time step is required. A common solution to
strain energy function. Morman and Nagtegaal’s FEA use an implicit or explicit method is very subtle and overcome these numerical difficulties using explicit
results using Marc for the steady-state vibrations of a depends on: the nature of the dynamic problem and the methods is to conjure up a scaled mass matrix—which
stretched and twisted viscoelastic cylinder which is material; the type of is very often assumed to
subjected to a large initial deformation can be seen to finite elements making be diagonal. Finally, if
agree well with observed results. The finite element up the model; and the Lagrange multipliers
model is a 30-degree wedge. magnitude of the speed are included in the
of sound in analysis, special
The same type of dynamic analysis of a viscoelastic body
the material. formulations are
subjected to harmonic excitation may also be applied to
required because they
many materials, including biomaterials such as human IMPLICIT METHODS
do not have any
tissues [Fung, 1981]. — In an implicit
associated mass.
method, the nonlinear
TIME vs. FREQUENCY DOMAIN VISCOELASTIC
matrix equations of
ANALYSIS — In viscoelastic problems, both time and
motion are solved at COUPLED
frequency domains are used. In time domain analysis,
each time step to FREQUENCY-DEPENDENT STORAGE AND ACOUSTIC –
experimental data is required over the time domain of
advance the solution. LOSS MODULI STRUCTURAL
interest and a Prony series is usually used to represent
Treatment of boundary ANALYSIS
the data. In frequency domain analysis, Laplace
nonlinearities must
transform techniques and harmonic excitation are Coupled acoustic-
occur within a time step. Large time steps may be used
commonly used. The storage modulus and loss modulus structural analysis is of great interest to the automobile
in implicit, dynamic analysis. The most popular implicit
are dependent upon frequency (and amplitude for filled industry. Typical application areas would include—
method (offered in several FEA codes) is the Newmark-
rubbers), and one needs to be aware of the in-phase and determination of sound transmission in an enclosed
beta method, which is unconditionally stable; however, it
out-of-phase concepts [Christensen, 1982]. In linear deformable structural cavity; for example, interior noise
does not preserve the total angular momentum of
viscoelastic problems with harmonic loading, the level in a car compartment. A typical case is modeling
the system.
behavior can be characterized in the frequency domain the deformation of an automobile door seal by the glass
in terms of the storage and loss moduli as shown in the As for the use of dynamic methods in viscoelastic window in order to analyze the static deformation (Case
figure. Notice that in viscoelastic materials (assuming analysis, no additional damping should be Study E ) and conduct acoustic harmonic analysis. The
harmonic loading), the storage modulus typically introduced in the Newmark-beta method or eigenfrequencies, mode shapes, and pressure amplitude
increases with frequency, but the loss modulus first the Hilber-Hughes-Taylor method because in the compartment thus calculated can be used to
increases with frequency and then decreases to zero. This viscoelastic effects are already included in design better door seals. A coupled acoustic-structural
subject is very complex: as the frequency increases, the the material properties. analysis capability also exists in Marc.
state of the rubber changes from an elastomer to a glass, EXPLICIT METHODS — In this method, the solution is In a coupled acoustic-structural analysis (see figure),
with the maximum in the loss modulus signaling the advanced without forming a stiffness matrix, which both the acoustic medium and the structure are
transition to the glassy state. In unfilled rubbers, the makes the coding much simpler, reduces storage modeled. In this way, the effect of the acoustic medium
storage and loss moduli are dependent on the frequency, requirements, and improves computational efficiency. on the dynamic response of the structure and of the
but the former is largely independent on the strain Explicit methods are conditionally stable for undamped structure on the dynamic response of the acoustic
amplitude. In filled rubbers, the storage modulus linear systems. For a given time step, an explicit operator medium can be taken into account. Such a coupled
depends significantly on the strain amplitude. requires fewer computations per time step than an analysis is especially important when the natural
implicit one. frequencies of the acoustic medium and the structure
DIRECT TIME INTEGRATION Explicit methods possess some known disadvantages, are in the same range. Since the interface between the
METHODS and it is important for users to bear in mind that a acoustic medium and the structure is determined
definite stability limit exists, which means that automatically by Marc based on the CONTACT option,
In transient nonlinear dynamics, both implicit and
sometimes extremely small time steps may be setting up the finite element model is relatively easy
explicit direct integration methods are available for
required—resulting in higher computer costs. In nearly since the meshes do not need to be identical at the
solving the equations of motion. Explicit methods
incompressible problems, the speed of sound in the interface. In two-dimension, the ADAPT GLOBAL option
include Central difference, while the implicit schemes
26
DYNAMICS AND VIBRATION
27
C A S E S T U D Y
D RUBBER MOUNT
28
S E C T I O N
6 A U T O M AT E D C O N TA C T
A N A LY S I S T E C H N I Q U E S
Rubber products always seem to involve “contact” addition to the possible numerical ill-conditioning. than “rubber-to-steel” or “rubber-to-rubber” contact.
versus “no-contact” conditions--for instance, rubber In this regard, Marc bypasses the above objectives Experiments have confirmed that the various
gaskets and the contact of a car tire with the road. To by the solver constraint method to solve the general components contributing to friction force in rubber are:
see applications of Marc to analyze typical 2-D 2-D/3-D multibody contact. This method allows an Ffriction = Fadhesive + Fdeformation + Fviscous + Ftearing
rubber contact problems, see Case Studies A, D, and accurate modeling of contact without the problems
E. For 3-D examples, look at Case Studies B associated with other methods. Fadhesive is caused by surface adhesion kinetics and bulk
and C. mechanical properties. Fdeformation is due to partial
Both deformable-to-rigid and deformable-to-
irreversibility (damping loss) during the deformation of
deformable contact situations are allowed in Marc.
rubber. Fviscous represents the existence of a layer of either
CONTACT AS A NONLINEAR The user needs only to identify bodies which are
absorbed or liquid species between rubber and contact
CONSTRAINT PROBLEM potential candidates for contact during the analysis.
surface. Ftearing is due to the fact that some solid surfaces
Contact, by nature, is a nonlinear boundary value Self-contact, common in rubber problems, is also
(due to roughness characteristics) tear off particles from
problem. During contact, both the forces permitted. The bodies can be either rigid or
rubber. This phenomenon is also responsible for the wear.
transmitted across the surface and the area of deformable, and the algorithm tracks variable
contact change. Because rubber is flexible, this contact conditions automatically. Besides In many rubber applications, however, the design
change in the contact area is both significant and modeling the rigid bodies as analytical, Marc also objective is to increase the friction and, hence, the
difficult to model using earlier methodologies allows the analytical treatment of deformable traction (for example, transmission belt, car tire).
(such as gap elements). The contact stress is bodies. This improves the accuracy of the solution
Marc offers two classical friction models: Coulomb
transmitted in the normal direction. If friction is by representing the geometry better than the
friction and shear friction. In addition, a user
present, shear stress is also transmitted. discrete finite elements. This is important for
subroutine is available in Marc, permitting the user to
concentric shafts or rolling simulation. The user no
Mathematically, the contact problem occurs as a constantly monitor the interface conditions and modify
longer needs to worry about the location and
constrained optimization problem where contact the friction effect if necessary. In this way, friction can be
open/close status checks of “gap elements,” or
conditions occur as inequalities described as Kuhn- made to vary arbitrarily—as a function of location,
about “master-slave” relationships. Also, coupled
Tucker conditions. Among the several approaches pressure, temperature, amount of sliding, and other
thermo-mechanical contact problems (for example,
within the finite element framework that have been variables. In order to reduce numerical instabilities in
rolling, casting, extrusion, car tire) and dynamic
used to model the frictional contact and impose the the transition between sticking and slipping, a
contact problems can be handled.
nonpenetration constraint (to prohibit the overlap regularization procedure is applied. Sometimes, the
of contact bodies), the most popular ones include: physics of deformation dictates modeling the regions of
Penalty Methods [Peric and Owen, 1992], FRICTION sticking fairly accurately (for example, driver pulley
Langrange Multiplier [Chaudhary and Bathe, Friction is a complex phenomenon. Martins and transferring torque through the belt to a driven pulley).
1986], Augmented Lagrangian [Laursen and Simo, Oden have published two comprehensive studies on For such cases, a stick-slip friction model based on
1993], Perturbed Lagrangian [Simo, Wriggers, and the physics of static and kinetic friction, and Coulomb friction is also available. Because friction
Taylor, 1985], Hybrid Methods [Wunderlich, 1981], computational models [Martins and Oden, 1985, generates heat, a coupled thermo-mechanical analysis is
Gap Elements, Interface Elements, direct appli- 1990]. Surface imperfections, stick-slip motions, often required in rubber contact problems.
cation of contact forces, and Solver Constraints. material softening due to heat in the contact area,
One important point to recognize is that the use of time- and rate-dependence of the coefficient of
AUTOMATIC BOUNDARY
interface elements of any kind requires the user to static friction, and the oscillatory and unstable
CONDITION HANDLING FOR 3-D
know a priori where contact will occur. Since nature of sliding should all be considered when
CONTACT PROBLEMS
rubber is flexible, guessing the location of the performing sophisticated rubber contact analysis.
Use of a carefully measured friction coefficient will “Real-world” contact problems between rigid and/or
contact area is very difficult, thereby resulting in
also help to achieve success. Experience has shown deformable bodies are three-dimensional in nature. To
incorrect loads being transmitted across the
that the proper simulation of friction is extremely solve such contact problems, one must define bodies
surfaces. An improper choice of penalty parameter
important for success in rubber contact analyses. and their boundary surfaces. In Marc, the definition of
in the penalty methods can lead to either
bodies is the key concept in automatically analyzing 3-D
penetration (low penalty number) or numerical ill- When friction is present, bodies in contact develop
contact. For rigid bodies, one can define the following
conditioning (high penalty number). The frictional shear stresses at the interface. As for the
surfaces: 4-point patch, ruled surface, plane, tabulated
Langrange multiplier method leads to high solution value of the coefficient of friction, “steel-to-steel”
cylinder, surfaces of revolution, Bezier surfaces and
cost due to extra variables for contact pressure, in contact results in a significantly lower coefficient
29
A U T O M AT E D C O N TA C T A N A LY S I S T E C H N I Q U E S
NURBS. These surfaces can be converted into NURBS, contact will still be automatically detected; this
which have the advantage of continuity of the normal prevents self-penetration.
vector along the surface and the flexibility to model
Visualization of relevant contact variables, such as
complex surfaces with a single mathematical
normal and friction forces, are available in
description. Such a description of contact bodies is an
MSC.Marc Mentat.
essential requirement for robustness of solution
algorithm. Virtually all common surface entities as
defined by the latest IGES standard (Initial Graphics
Exchange Standard) are included. RULED SURFACE
Two examples of curved
surfaces that can be used to
define the shape of contact
bodies are the ruled
surface and the Bezier
surface, as shown in the
figures (above and left).
30
C A S E S T U D Y
E C A R D O O R S E A L : A U T O M AT E D
M U LT I B O D Y C O N TA C T
Automotive body seals are necessary due to the presence of openings in the
car body such as passenger doors, windows, engine and trunk lids, and
sunroofs. The requirements of static seals, such as those around
windshields, are important but relatively simple. On the other hand,
dynamic seals, such as door and window seals, are complex in function.
They must not only maximize the seal between fixed and movable
components, but must also compensate for the manufacturing tolerances of
various body parts.
Material requirements for automotive seals include: resilience, weather
resistance (including ultraviolet radiation effects), bonding strength, tear
and abrasion resistance, surface finish, and strain resistance. Mechanical
requirements include: sealing of components against water, air, dust, and EQUIVALENT CAUCHY STRESS CONTOURS:
MOUNT-TO-DOOR FRAME (INCREMENT 17)
noise; ease of installation; and closing/cycling effort. Imagine how annoyed
the passengers inside a car would feel should such a seal fail!
Historically, the design and prototyping of automotive seals have relied on
experience, empirical data, and “trial and error.” Today,
however, most leading seal manufacturers use nonlinear
FEA to optimize their seal designs early in the
design cycle.
A typical car door seal is shown. It is
desired to analyze the seal subjected to
three loading conditions:
(1) mount-to-door frame;
(2) door closure; and
(3) window closure.
DOOR CLOSURE (INCREMENT 46)
The rubber is assumed to be isotropic, with a
Mooney-Rivlin strain energy density function.
Increment 17 shows the deformed geometry and the equivalent Cauchy
stress (see Section 2) distribution when the door frame moves downward.
Increment 46 shows the effects of door closure. And, finally, increment 87
shows the results after window closure.
Notes: In this type of analysis, sliding contact and potential contact of the
body with itself are important. This example illustrates how a modern
nonlinear FEA code can easily handle difficulties with complex boundary
conditions, a problem which defied solution in the 1970-1985 period when
gap and interface elements were widely used in many FEA codes (…and
probably never converged in many cases). An automated solution procedure
which keeps track of the multibody movements and variable contact
conditions is crucial for success here. Such an analysis helps the designer to WINDOW CLOSURE (INCREMENT 87)
understand and improve the seal behavior by providing information about
stresses, strains, reaction forces, and deformation histories. It also tells the
designer where the rubber material is best used— leading to an optimum
design of the car door seal for its expected dynamic loading histories.
31
S E C T I O N
7 A U T O M AT E D S O L U T I O N S T R AT E G I E S
The core of a typical design process encompasses solution schemes which are able to analyze
three phases: preprocessing of data, solution, and buckling and post-buckling regime.
postprocessing. In the preprocessing phase, besides The key innovation for solving the industry scale
the data required in a typical linear analysis, a user elastomers problems with 2-D/3-D models, was the
must specify certain nonlinear analysis
controls (analysis procedures,
“contact” control parameters,
convergence controls, etc.) and
additional material properties (for
example, Mooney-Rivlin and Ogden
coefficients) required for a nonlinear
rubber analysis.
In the solution phase, the key
difference between nonlinear and
linear FEA is that the solver performs
the analysis in load steps (called
increments). Within each increment,
for implicit analysis, the program seeks
a solution by iteration until
equilibrium is achieved, before
proceeding on to the next increment. A
modern nonlinear FEA code like Marc
helps the user achieve success by first
querying for acceptable tolerances in
force, displacement strain energy, or
other parameters. Then, it
automatically increases or decreases
the step size in order to achieve a
converged solution using a minimum
number of increments. Lack of
convergence can take place due to
input errors, improper modeling of
physical phenomenon, or real physical
instabilities. Therefore, the objective of a successful development of state-of-art contact algorithms in
nonlinear analysis is to obtain an accurate, Marc. As a result, even difficult rubber contact
converged solution at the least cost. problems with complex boundary conditions lend
On the computational front, several key features themselves to routine analysis for design.
distinguish Marc from other existing nonlinear FEA Sophisticated algorithms detect contact, warn about
codes. Features on the materials side include, a very penetration, and help the user achieve convergence
robust singularity-free implementation for case of with a minimum of effort and computer time. A
equal stretches of the Ogden model, and special notable feature in Marc is its ability to handle
treatment for extremely large compressive stresses deformable-to deformable contact, a problem which
generated during deformation. Fast, efficient poses a formidable challenge to other nonlinear
elements incorporating special treatment for codes. However, the challenge of rendering such
incompressibility and hourglassing modes, and complex nonlinear analysis to a push-button
technology still looms large.
32
AUTOMATED SOLUTION STRATEGIES
33
S E C T I O N
8 A U T O M AT E D R E M E S H I N G A N D R E Z O N I N G
In the analysis of metal or rubber, the materials deformation to continue the analysis, the analysis for one or more contact bodies at any increment.
may be deformed from some initial (maybe simple) is stopped. A new mesh is created based on the Different bodies can use different
shape to a final, very often, complex shape. During deformed shape of the contact body to be rezoned. A remeshing/rezoning criteria.
the process, the deformation can be so large that data mapping is performed to transfer necessary Besides rezoning, Marc also offers an h-method
the mesh used to model the materials may become data from the old, deformed mesh to the new mesh. based adaptive mesh refinement capability (an
highly distorted, and the analysis cannot go any The contact conditions are redefined, and the automated process in which mesh is repetitively
further without using some special techniques. analysis continues. enriched until the error criterion is satisfied) for
Remeshing/rezoning in Marc is a useful feature to In Marc 2000, the above steps are done both linear as well as nonlinear analysis. Several
overcome these difficulties. automatically (see figure on next page). Based on error criteria are available to the user for
In earlier versions of Marc (before Marc 2000), the the different remeshing criteria you specified, the subdividing the mesh adaptively. This is demonstrated
remeshing/rezoning is done manually. When the program determines when the remeshing/rezoning in Case Study D (page 28).
mesh becomes too distorted because of the large is required. Remeshing/rezoning can be carried out
INCREMENTAL
LOOP ITERATION
• update LOOP REZONING
configuration
• update contact
conditions
OUTPUT
• displacements
• strains • thermal strains
POST-PROCESSING
• stresses • creep strains
• strain energy density • plastic strains
• Cauchy stresses
RESULTS EVALUATION • failure criteria
34
AUTOMATED REMESHING AND REZONING
1 2
3 4
35
S E C T I O N
9 CURRENT TRENDS AND FUTURE RESEARCH
36
S E C T I O N
10 USER CONVENIENCES AND SERVICES
MSC.Software offers an array of tools and services to elastomer experiments using laboratory DOCUMENTATION. In addition to the reference
help the customer design their products efficiently: instruments to create data appropriate for use in documentation; MSC.Software also offers tutorial
MATERIAL CHARACTERIZATION. Very often, building elastomer material models in FEA. documentation. The latter allows new users to try a
obtaining the correct material parameters for Material models are then developed and examined rubber analysis similar to their own, and become
analysis from test data is the major obstacle to a on workstations running Marc. familiar with the recommended procedure before
successful simulation. In such cases, Marc can refer Photos below show attendees performing analysis venturing into a difficult rubber contact problem
the customer to materials testing firms which using MSC.Marc Software. using a large 3-D model.
specialize in this type of testing (the same firm can CUSTOMER SUPPORT. Recognizing the complex ERROR CHECKS AND WARNING MESSAGES.
also be used for testing the structural integrity of nature of FEA of elastomers, MSC.Software offers FEA programs all contain built-in input error
the finished elastomeric product). The required prompt and professional customer support. For checks. In rubber FEA, the program checks for
tests to characterize a material are given in rubber FEA, the user should expect help from a items such as: the completeness of input
Appendix C (Courtesy: Akron Rubber Development knowledgeable support person or, in some coefficients for a certain strain energy density
Lab and Axel Products, Inc.). In addition, a curve complicated cases, the particular developer who function, contact body definition correctness,
fitting procedure is required to determine the created that part of the analysis capability. The consistency of the nonlinear analysis controls
coefficients of the selected model. Details of the availability of competent support is often crucial to (tolerances, step size, etc.), friction definition,
curve fitting program in MSC.Marc Mentat, used success in nonlinear FEA. whether a user subroutine is used and if the
along with Marc, are described in Section 3. required data for that subroutine is completely
CONSULTING. Most nonlinear FEA software defined, etc. To help detect potential instability
TRAINING. The MSC.Institute of Technology developers, such as MSC.Software also offer
offers a wide variety of training workshops, problems, the code also issues warnings to the user
consulting services to assist an organization in during the analysis about possible snap-through,
including MAR 103 “Experimental Elastomer performing rubber FEA. This service is especially
Analysis”. This is a hands-on workshop covering negative eigenvalues, non-positive definiteness, etc.
valuable for a company that either does not possess
material testing, material modeling and finite an FEA capability or their in-house engineers do USER SUBROUTINES. These are a must in
element analysis of elastomers. Instructors from not have nonlinear analysis expertise. The scope of nonlinear FEA that involve complex geometric,
MSC.Software and Axel Products, Inc. present an such consulting work usually includes the material, and boundary nonlinearities (such as in
integrated testing and analysis workshop featuring development of a model(s), analyzing the rubber rubber and metal forming problems). They allow
the experimental facilities of Axel Products, Inc. problem, writing a final report, and sometimes, an the user to define arbitrary variations of material
and the Marc FEA software. Attendees perform oral presentation of the key results. properties, loads, and boundary conditions as a
37
USER CONVENIENCES AND SERVICES
38
S E C T I O N
11 CONCLUSION
39
A P P E N D I X
A PHYSICS OF RUBBER
Early applications of a material which came to be After prolonged exposure to the sun, rubber parts molecular orientation or alignment; thereby,
known as natural rubber (NR), with C5H8 as a become discolored, brittle, and exhibit crazing and blunting the crack tip and diverting the tear
basic monomer unit, involved a product derived stress cracks. To inhibit these ultraviolet radiation from a rapid fracture. Other fillers like wax, paraffin,
from the Hevea Brazieliensis tree. Other varieties of effects, rubber manufacturers typically use and mineral oil are added to increase the heat
NR came from balta, guayule, and gutta-percha. “stabilizers” (for example, carbon black, an dissipation capability.
The superior heat dissipation properties under excellent absorber) and “masks” (for example, The distinctive features of rubber elasticity have a
cyclic loading, resilience, electrical insulation, high urethane-based paint). These are used, for instance, thermodynamical basis:
tensile strength, and wear resistance make NR an in exterior rubber gaskets and seals for cars. In the
δE δS
attractive choice over the synthetics in many
applications even today. Some common uses of NR
United States, federal regulations require that
exposed rubber components must withstand
F = (——
δL )
– T (——–)
TδL T
can be found in golf-ball covers, cable insulation, exposure to ultraviolet radiation for approximately Thus, at equilibrium, the force (F) exerted on stretching
tires, etc. five years. The most damaging effect is due to a rubber strip equals the rate of change of internal
However, the desire to improve ozone, which causes exposed energy (E) and entropy (S) with length (L) for a given
certain properties, like rubber to become brittle. To temperature (T). It has been concluded from
resistance to environmental simulate these effects and to experiments that rubber elasticity manifests itself in the
factors such as ozone improve the design of second term of the above equation, except at low
degradation and ultraviolet rubber parts, manufacturers elongations (<10%), at which the thermal expansion
rays, aging, and protection subject specimens to xenon masks the entropy effect resulting in thermoelastic
against industrial oils, led to (or carbon) arcs, where the inversion, or at very large elongations, at which
the discovery of synthetic rubber. specimen is typically molecular chain orientation and strain-induced
The advent of World War II saw stretched 20% at certain crystallization occurs.
an increased interest and prescribed temperatures.
Rubber is composed of long chains of molecules,
necessity of the development of Fillers play an extremely
oriented randomly due to thermal agitation of their
synthetic rubber compounds. important role in the
segments. Breakdown of chains, due to straining, results
Commonly known synthetic rubbers manufacturing of rubber to
in damage and stiffness reduction of the elastomer.
are Neoprene, Isoprene, Styrene- impart the desired properties.
Entangled chains have significant impact on the
Butadiene, Butyl, Nitril, Acrylic, On one hand, several properties
viscoelastic properties such as creep and stress relaxation
Butadiene, and Urethanes. of unfilled rubbers such as
and melt viscosity.
The basis of modern synthetic TYPICAL POLYMER MOLECULES hardness, abrasion resistance,
rubbers lies in synthesis of tensile, tear strength [Mark,
macromolecules by way of step-growth Erman, and Eirich, 1994] and a possible
or chain-growth polymerization. redistribution of rubber network stresses can be
Rubber products are manufactured via a enhanced by use of carbon black and silica. On the
vulcanization process. In an unvulcanized state, other hand, the viscoelastic response and hysteresis
rubber does not have the desired tensile strength, is losses are greatly enhanced by fillers
sticky, and deforms permanently under large (since the material properties
deformations. Rubber is vulcanized at high depend on the strain history).
temperatures with addition of sulfur, accelerators There is, nevertheless, a correlation
and curatives under application of pressure. The between the above two
sulfur and carbon atoms, together with metal ions characterizations of carbon black.
It is hypothesized that carbon CARBON BLACK FILLED RUBBER.
and organic radicals, form the crosslinks between From Govindjee and Simo [1991].
polymer chains. This crosslink network determines black particles act as stress
the physical properties and is controlled by concentrators and originators of
vulcanization time and temperature. Mechanically, microscopic flaws which precede a gross
the process manifests itself by an increase of macroscopic tearing. However, stress relaxation and
retractile force and a possession of “rubbery” creep reduce the stress concentration at the crack
properties such as increased elasticity. tip. The increased stresses at the particles produce
40
PHYSICS OF RUBBER
The following table shows how some mechanical properties of rubber compare with other materials:
Oak 10,021.00
Plastics:
41
A P P E N D I X
B N U M E R I C A L T R E AT M E N T
OF INCOMPRESSIBILITY
This Appendix explains the principles underlying MESH LOCKING AND CONSTRAINT therefore, the user must exercise extreme care and
the behavior and numerical treatment of COUNTING fully understand the limitations of the elements to
incompressible materials. (For more details, see be used.
Whether a particular finite element code is suitable
any of the finite element textbooks—for example,
for analyzing incompressible problems depends on
[Hughes, 1987]—listed in the Suggestions for
the type of element used and its formulation. For OVERVIEW OF ANALYTICAL
Further Reading.) Incompressibility is one of the
instance, standard lower-order quadrilateral APPROACHES*
most troublesome areas in the finite element
isoparametric elements found in many FEA codes
analysis of elastomers. Modern computational Modern analytical techniques used in treating
exhibit extremely poor performance in analyzing
mechanics practice in the analysis of incompressibility effects in finite element codes are
incompressible or nearly incompressible problems
incompressible materials is to suppress the based on the Hellinger-Reissner and Hu-Washizu
and exhibit a pathological behavior called mesh
volumetric component of the strain field by variational principles [Zienkiewicz and Taylor,
locking. “Mesh locking” refers to the inability of
appropriately selected variational principles. 1989]. Well-known applications of these principles
an element to perform accurately in an
include assumed strain methods, such as: the
incompressible analysis, regardless how refined the
INCOMPRESSIBLE ELASTICITY mixed method of [Herrmann, 1965]; the constant
mesh is, due to an over-constrained condition and
dilatation method of [Nagtegaal, Parks, and Rice,
A simple way to understand why incompressibility insufficient active degrees of freedom. Specifically,
1974]; the related B-bar methods of [Hughes, 1980]
results in numerical problems is to examine the if a standard element is distorted into an hourglass
and [Simo, Taylor, and Pister, 1985]; the Hu-
familiar elasticity relationship: mode, it will lock as the bulk modulus becomes
Washizu methods of [Simo and Taylor, 1991]; the
infinite. Note that the element locks despite the fact
Bulk modulus (K) 2(1+ν) mixed assumed strain methods used with
= that its area has remained constant, resulting in
incompatible modes by [Simo and Rifai, 1990];
Shear modulus (G) 3 (1 – 2ν ) the prediction of too small of a displacement and
and selective-reduced integration methods. Another
too large of a stress. Hence, the locking is a
class of approaches is the so-called assumed stress
For nearly incompressible materials, Poisson’s ratio peculiarity of the finite element discretization, and
methods, which are used by researchers such as
υ approaches 0.5, and the bulk modulus becomes special techniques have been used to improve the
T.H.H. Pian and S.N. Atluri and their colleagues.
large relative to the shear modulus. In the limit, behavior of the elements. Some effective analytical
when the material is completely incompressible approaches to overcome mesh locking are discussed Mixed methods usually have the stresses, strains,
(υ = 0.5), all hydrostatic deformation is precluded. in the next subsection. dilatancy, or a combination
In this limiting case, it is, therefore, not possible to of variables, as unknowns.
To check whether an
determine the complete state of stress from strain The earliest mixed method is
element will lock, a
only. This indeterminacy difficulty applies not only the so-called Herrmann
method called
to isotropic materials, but also to orthotropic and formulation. A modified
constraint counting
anisotropic materials. form of the Hellinger-
has proven to be quite
Reissner variational principle
Most rubbery and polymeric materials are not effective [Nagtegaal,
is used to derive the stiffness
completely incompressible. Typical values of Parks, and Rice, 1974].
equations. A pressure variable
Poisson’s ratio are in the range of 0.49 to 0.49999. The constraint ratio r
(energetically conjugate to
It is important to note that the use of these values is defined as the ratio of 2-D HOURGLASSING MODE
the volumetric strain) is
in finite element codes that have not been tailored the active degrees of
introduced in the form of a
for incompressibility analysis will lead to very freedom to the number
Lagrange multiplier.
serious numerical errors, caused by the ill- of constraints. Optimal constraint ratios are r = 2
Herrmann’s approach has been used since the mid-
conditioning resulting from the division by a value for two-dimensional problems, and r = 3 for three-
1960s and 1970s in FEA codes such as Marc,
which is nearly zero. More importantly, “mesh dimensional problems. A tendency to lock occurs if
TEXGAP, and various in-house codes developed by
locking” may occur! Filled elastomers, however, r is less than these values. While constraint ratios
leading solid rocket propellant manufacturers.
often have Poisson’s ratios of approximately 0.49 are a helpful engineering tool, they do not ensure
and may be considered “nearly incompressible.” convergence. A mathematically rigorous approach The constant dilatation method
Whenever the material is nearly or completely instead makes use of the so-called Babuska-Brezzi of [Nagtegaal et al., 1974] decouples
incompressible, special finite element formulations stability condition [Hughes, 1987]. Before the dilatational (volumetric) and distortional
must be used to obtain reliable results, as explained embarking on an incompressible analysis, (isochoric) deformations and interpolates them
in the following subsections. independently. Appropriately chosen functions will
42
NUMERICAL TREATMENT OF INCOMPRESSIBILITY
43
A P P E N D I X
C M AT E R I A L T E S T I N G M E T H O D S
The testing described herein is to define and to PHYSICAL MEASUREMENTS can be seen at the top of the specimen in the right
satisfy the input requirements of hyperelastic Basic physical measurements discussed here are top figure. The output from the load cell enters the
material models that exist in nonlinear finite limited to force, length, and time. Force is usually data acquisition system in the computer along with
element software like MSC.Marc. Although the measured by a load cell. The load cell actually the initial specimen area. The recorded force is
experiments are performed separately and the strain measures changes in resistance of strain gages divided by the initial specimen area automatically
states are different, data from all of the individual placed in a bridge on a metal shape that deforms by the data acquisition system. Length or position is
experiments is used as a set. This means that the slightly as the specimen is loaded. The change of best measured by a non-contacting device such as a
specimens used for each of the experiments must be resistance is calibrated to report force. The load cell video extensometer as show in the middle right
of the same material. This may seem obvious but if
the specimens are specially molded to
accommodate the differing instrument clamps for CUT SPECIMENS FROM SAME MATERIAL
different experiments, it is possible that you may 150MM X 150MM X 2MM SHEET
be inconsistently testing the material. Remember
to cut specimens from the same material as
the application.
The testing of elastomers for the purpose of
defining material models is often mis-understood.
There are several standards for the testing of
elastomers in tension. However, the experimental
requirements for analysis are somewhat different
than most standardized test methods. The
appropriate experiments are not yet clearly defined
by national or international standards
organizations. This difficulty derives from the
complex mathematical models that are required to
define the nonlinear and the nearly incompressible
attributes of elastomers.The development of
experimental data is so intimately tied to
elastomeric material model development that
MSC.Software joined with the physical testing
laboratory Axel Products, Inc. to create a workshop
SPECIMEN CUTOUTS
called "Experimental Elastomer Analysis" (MAR
103). In the following tests, the material,
temperature, strain range, strain rates, and
preconditioning should be determined by the
application to be modeled.
TESTING MACHINE
44
MATERIAL TESTING METHODS
45
MATERIAL TESTING METHODS
SPECIMEN RESPONSE
46
MATERIAL TESTING METHODS
SPECIMEN SIZES
47
MATERIAL TESTING METHODS
σ1 = σ2 = σ , σ3 = 0
The equal biaxial strain state may be achieved by
radial stretching a circular disc. The nominal
equibiaxial stress contained inside the specimen
inner diameter is calculated as: σ = P/A 0
where: A 0 = πDt 0 , D is the original diameter
between punched holes, P is the sum of radial
forces, and t 0 is the original thickness. Since the
deformation state is uniform in the plane of the
sheet, the radial components of stress and strains
are constant with the polar and in-plane
rectangular components of stress being the same
value. In other words, if a square or circle are
drawn on the specimen, they deform into a larger
square or circle as the specimen is stretched. Once
again, a non-contacting strain measuring device
must be used such that strain is measured away
from the clamp edges. Finally if the instantaneous
thickness, t , is not measured, the material is
assumed to be incompressible, V = V 0. BIAXIAL MACHINE
3
1
BIAXIAL SPECIMEN
48
MATERIAL TESTING METHODS
σ1 = σ2 = σ , σ3 = 0
The equal biaxial strain state may also be achieved by
radial stretching a square sheet. The nominal
equibiaxial stress contained inside the specimen
calculated as: σ = P/A0 where: A0 = Wt0 ,
W is the width and height of the specimen, P is the
average of the forces normal to the width and height of
the specimen, and t0 is the original thickness. Once
again, a non-contacting strain measuring device must
be used such that strain is measured away from the
clamp edges. Finally if the instantaneous thickness, t, is BIAXIAL MACHINE
not measured, the material is assumed to be
incompressible, V = V0.
3
1
BIAXIAL SPECIMEN
49
MATERIAL TESTING METHODS
a. Deformation state:
λ1 = 1, λ 2 = λ = L/L0 , λ3 = λ t/t0
2
b. Stress state:
σ1 ≠ 0 , σ2 = σ , σ3 = 0
The pure shear experiment used for analysis is not what
most of us would expect. The experiment appears at first
glance to be nothing more than a very wide tensile test.
However, because the material is nearly incompressible,
a state of pure shear exists in the specimen at a 45
degree angle to the stretching direction. The most
significant aspect of the specimen is that it is much
shorter in the direction of stretching than the width. The PLANAR SHEAR TEST WITH LASER REFLECTION TAGS
objective is to create an experiment where the specimen
is perfectly constrained in the lateral direction such that
all specimen thinning occurs in the thickness direction.
This requires that the specimen be at least 10 times
wider than the length in the stretching direction. This
experiment is very sensitive to this ratio. A non- 2
contacting strain measuring device must be used to
measure strain away from the clamp edges where the
pure strain state is occurring (top right figure). If the
instantaneous thickness, t, is not measured, the
material is assumed to be incompressible, V = V0.
3
1
LASER EXTENSOMETER
50
MATERIAL TESTING METHODS
a. Deformation state:
λ1 = λ , λ2 = 1/λ , λ3 = 1
b. Stress state:
The dual lap simple shear test is used in the tire industry.
As a result of low shear strains, the end plates do not
move in the vertical direction in this test. The quad lap
simple shear test is used by the bearings industry. Since DUAL LAP SHEAR TEST
the material shear requirements are much higher, the
end plates in the quad lap shear test are allowed to move
in the vertical direction due to development of very high
normal stresses (in mechanics, this phenomenon is
termed as Poynting Effect). This test does not allow for
the measurement of compressibility and as such this the
volumetric compression test can be performed or the
material assumed to be incompressible.
51
MATERIAL TESTING METHODS
VOLUMETRIC TEST
Specimen size: 17.8 mm diameter x 2 mm thickness.
Eight buttons stacked and lubricated with silicone oil.
a. Deformation state:
λ1 = 1 , λ2 = 1, λ3 = L/L0
b. Stress state:
σ1 = σ2 = σ3 = –|P/A0|
A0 is the cross-sectional area of the plunger and P
is the force on the plunger.
a. Deformation state:
λ1 = λ , λ2 = λ , λ3 = λ ,
b. Stress state:
σ1 = σ2 = σ3 = –p
where: λ = (V/V0)1/3 and p is the fluid pressure.
3
1
52
MATERIAL TESTING METHODS
VISCOELASTIC STRESS
RELAXATION T EST
http://www.axelproducts.com/downloads/Relax.pdf
53
MATERIAL TESTING METHODS
FRICTION
Because elastomers are commonly used in sealing
applications, friction plays an important role in the
performance of these applications. Friction is the force
that resists the sliding of two materials relative to each
other. The friction force is: (1) approximately
independent of the area of contact over a wide limits and
(2) is proportional to the normal force between the two
materials. These two laws of friction were discovered
experimentally by Leonardo da Vinci in the 13th century,
rediscovered in 1699 by G. Amontons and latter refined
by Charles Coulomb in the 16th century. Coulomb
performed many experiments on friction and pointed
out the difference between static and dynamic friction.
This type of friction is referred to as Coulomb friction
today. In order to model friction in finite element
analysis, one needs to measure the aforementioned FRICTION TEST
proportionally factor or coefficient of friction, µ . The
measurement of µ is depicted here where a sled with a
rubber bottom is pulled along a glass surface. The
normal force is known and the friction force is
measured. Various lubricants are placed between
the two surfaces which greatly influence the friction
forces measured.
FRICTION DATA
54
MATERIAL TESTING METHODS
55
MATERIAL TESTING METHODS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
56
A P P E N D I X
D A N S W E R S T O C O M M O N LY A S K E D
QUESTIONS IN RUBBER PRODUCT DESIGN
1. What can one expect from the Finite 5. Which rubber material data is needed generalizing viscoelastic models. For extremely small
Element Analysis? for nonlinear analysis (Uniaxial, or very large relaxation times, general finite elasticity
Equibiaxial, Shear)? is recovered.
The quality of the finite element results depends on
several factors including computational technology in For characterizing the time independent behavior of
rubber, the following tests can be done: 8. What type of elements should be used
the code, experience and level of understanding of the
for Finite Element Analysis of
analyst, and the interpretation of the results. Deficiencies (i) Uniaxial tension or compression incompressible materials such as rubber?
in any of the above can lead to erroneous results or a (ii) Equibiaxial tension
Typically in elastomeric analysis, the nearly
poor design. However, an experienced analyst, who has a (iii) Simple shear
incompressible material behavior is modeled by using
good understanding of the design process and the (iv) Planar shear
two- or three-field variational principle giving rise to the
mechanics involved, can use the analysis judiciously as (v) Volumetric
mixed elements. In Marc, either standard displacement
a verification as well as a predictive tool for better
Calculation of the material coefficients for strain energy based or Herrmann elements can be used for elastomer
product and process design.
function requires simultaneous fitting to more than one analysis since they treat the incompressibility constraint
2. How do analysis and testing deformation mode. Besides the uniaxial tension (or the same way. Compressible foam material can be
compliment each other? compression), another deformation mode should be modeled with standard displacement elements. The
Testing comes at two different levers: selected depending on the application of the rubber cord-rubber composites can be analyzed by using rebar
component. For foam-like materials, a volumetric test elements. Analysis can be done using continuum, shell,
(i) Material Testing : Depending on the anticipated
is required. or membrane elements depending on the kinematics of
deformation, different types of tests can be chosen for
deformation. Computational efficiency can be obtained
determination of material coefficients. The quality of To include strain-rate effects into the model
by reduced integration elements (requiring hourglass
results is significantly affected by appropriate choice (viscoelasticity), one requires either:
control for the lower-order elements). Thermal effects
of tests and equally importantly, maintaining (i) Stress-Relaxation test or can be modeled using the heat transfer elements.
material stability with obtained coefficients. (ii) Creep test Recently, special triangular and tetrahedral elements
(ii) Product Testing : Several iterations in the satisfying incompressibility conditions have been
The stress-strain data must be obtained by applying
development cycle can be bypassed if the design is introduced to model elastomers.
ramp type loading if damage or stiffness degradation is
first simulated by analysis. Only incremental changes
to be considered in the elastomer.
will then be necessary to fine tune the prototype. 9. What are the material models available
Finally, during the fitting of the experimental data, in the program?
3. How do you know the answer is correct
care must be taken to insure the positive-definiteness Marc offers a rich library of several material
in a nonlinear Finite Element Analysis?
of the material matrix as dictated by Drucker’s models, namely:
Previous experience, laboratory testing, code verification
Stability Postulate.
against analytical solution and simpler problems, and, (i) Generalized Mooney-Rivlin, Ogden, Boyce-Arruda,
above all, the intuition and engineering judgement of 6. How realistically will the code and Gent models for elastomers.
the analyst are the key factors in obtaining an simulate multiple deformation modes (ii) Foam
accurate answer. (for example, Tension, Compression, (iii) Finite strain viscoelasticity model appropriate for
and Shear)? elastomers and Narayanswamy nonlinear
4. Why is Finite Element Analysis Multiple deformation modes can be accurately predicted viscoelasticity model for glass
necessary along with testing? by fitting experimental data of these deformation modes (iv) User subroutines allow the user to implement
Analysis does not replace component testing, but it will simultaneously. The kinematics of deformation in his/her own model (finite strain kinematics
significantly reduce the product testing for performance Marc is general enough to accommodate any information is passed to the user) which may
and integrity. Several parametric sensitivity analysis deformation mode. include temperature effects or internal variables
before the mold design stage can significantly reduce the in the model.
development cycle of the product. Typically, analysis and 7. How to incorporate stress relaxation
(v) Discontinuous and Continuous Damage models
and creep behavior of rubber in Finite
testing can be used hand-in-hand to iterate for a better to represent progressive stiffness loss, Mullins’
Element Analysis?
design for manufacturing. effect, and fatigue behavior of the elastomer.
Stress relaxation and creep phenomenon can be
modeled by a finite strain viscoelasticity model in Marc.
The viscous response is characterized by a linear rate
equation leading to a convolution representation
57
A N S W E R S T O C O M M O N LY A S K E D Q U E S T I O N S I N R U B B E R P R O D U C T D E S I G N
10. What are the major strategies for 15. How to incorporate a failure criteria
getting convergence for a rubber model? into a Finite Element Analysis?
Typically, full Newton-Raphson or secant methods are Simple fatigue, damage crack growth, and wear models
used to solve the nonlinear system of equations. When can be used to analyze failure. Marc offers two different
instabilities, buckling, snap-through phenomenon exist, damage models: discontinuous damage model (to
then an arc length procedure needs to be used. Marc model Mullins’ effect) and the continuous damage
includes the full Newton-Raphson as well as arc length model (simulate fatigue behavior). Crack propagation is
procedure for the analysis. modeled using the energy release rate method using the
quarter-point elements. The wear models can be
11. What are the convergence criteria? constructed with the information regarding relative slip
Several convergence criterion exist in Marc, based on: between contact bodies and the frictional forces given
(i) Displacement out in the program. Several subroutines exist in
(ii) Rotation Marc to facilitate the user in developing his/her
(iii) Residual force own failure models.
(iv) Residual moment
(v) Strain energy
58
S U G G E S T I O N S F O R F U R T H E R R E A D I N G
CONTACT PROBLEMS, STATIC AND FINITE ELEMENT METHOD Tschoegl, N.W. “Constitutive Equations for
KINETIC FRICTION Elastomers,” J. Polymer Science, AI, pp. 1959-
Bathe, K.J., Finite Element Procedures, Prentice-
1970 , 1971.
Chaudhary, A.B. and K.J. Bathe. “A Solution Method Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1995.
for Static and Dynamic Analysis of Contact Yeoh, O.H. “Phenomenological Theory of Rubber
Cook, R.D., D.S. Malkus, and M.E. Plesha. Concepts
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and Applications of Finite Element Analysis
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(3rd ed.), John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY, 1989.
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Kikuchi, N. and J.T. Oden. Contact Problems in Hughes, T.J.R. The Finite Element Method—Linear
Elasticity: A Study of Variational Inequalities Static and Dynamic Finite Element Analysis,
and Finite Element Methods, Society for NONLINEAR FEA OF ELASTOMERS—
Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1987.
Industrial and Applied Mathematics, THEORETICAL DEVELOPMENTS
Philadelphia, PA, 1988. Oden, J.T. Finite Elements of Nonlinear Continua,
Argyris, J.H., P.C. Dunne, T. Angelpoulos, and B.
McGraw-Hill, New York, NY, 1972.
Laursen, T.A. and J.C. Simo. “Algorithmic Bichat. “Large Nature Strains and Some Special
Symmetrization of Coulomb Frictional Oden, J.T. (Ed.) Research Directions in Difficulties due to Nonlinearity and
Problems Using Augmented Lagrangians,” Computational Mechanics, National Research Incompressibility in Finite Elements,”
Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Council, National Academy Press, Washington Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and
Engineering, V. 108, pp. 133-146, 1993. D.C., 1991. ISBN 0-309-04648-3. Engineering, Vol. 4, pp. 219-278, 1974.
Martins, J.A.C., J.T. Oden, and F.M.F. Simoes. “A Study Zienkiewicz, O.C. and R.L. Taylor. The Finite Atluri, S.N. and E. Reissner. “On The Formulation
of Static and Kinetic Friction,” Int. J. Engineering Element Method (4th ed.) Vol. 1. Basic of Variational Theorems Involving Volume
Sciences, Vol. 28, No. 1, pp. 29-92, 1990. Formulation and Linear Problems (1989), Constraints,” J. Computational Mechanics,
Vol. 2. Solid and Fluid Mechanics, Vol. 5, pp. 337-344, 1989.
Martins, J.A.C. and J.T. Oden. “Existence and Dynamics, and Nonlinearity (1991),
Uniqueness Results for Dynamic Contact Bercovier, M., E. Jankovich, F. Leblanc, and M.A.
McGraw-Hill Book Co., London, U.K.
Problems with Nonlinear Normal and Friction Durand. “A Finite Element Method for the
Interface Laws,” Nonlinear Analysis, Theory, Analysis of Rubber Parts. Experimental and
Methods and Applications, Vol. 11, No. 3, pp. NONLINEAR ELASTICITY Analytical Assessment,” Computers and
407-428, 1987. Ciarlet, P.G. Mathematical Elasticity, North- Structures, Vol. 14, pp. 384-391, 1981.
Oden, J.T. and J.A.C. Martins. “Models and Holland Publishing Co., 1988. Brockman, R.A. “On The Use of the Blatz-Ko
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Fung, Y.C. Biomechanics: Mechanical Properties
634, 1985. Cescotto, S. and G. Fonder. “A Finite Element
of Living Tissues, Springer-Verlag, New York,
Peric, D. and D.R.J. Owen. “Computational Model NY, 1981. Approach for Large Strains of Nearly
for 3-D Contact Problems with Friction Based Incompressible Rubber-Like Materials,” Int. J.
Green, A.E. and J.E. Adkins. Large Elastic
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Holownia, B.P. “Comparison Between Finite Element Padovan, J.F., K. Johnson, and A. Gent. “Part II. Endo, H. and H. Sano. “Analysis of Rubber Parts for
and Finite Difference Methods for Stress Analysis of Applications,” ibid, pp. 211-227.) Automobiles,” (in Japanese), Proc. 10th
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Key, S.W. “A Variational Principle for Materials,” NASA Tech Briefs, Vol. 14, No. 9, Frankus, A. and S. Dhall. “Windshield Wiper Design/
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Structures, Vol. 5, pp. 951-964, 1969. Analysis of Rubber-Like Materials by a Mixed Monterey, CA, pp. 35-45, April 7-8, 1988.
Liu, C.H., Choudhry, S., and Wertheimer, T. B. "Low- Model,” Int. J. Numerical Methods in Jyawook, S., R. LaPointe, and G. Le Compagnon.
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Engineering , Vol. I, Eds. S.N. Atturi and P.E. Strain Methods and the Method of Incompatible Division of the American Chemical Society,
O'Donoghue, pp. 272-277, 1998. Modes,” Int. J. Numerical Methods in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, May 29, 1987.
Liu, C.H., Choudhry, S., and Wertheimer, T. B. Engineering, Vol. 29, pp. 1595-1638, 1990. Menderes, H. “Simulation of the Joining Processes
"Simulation of Embedded Reinforcements in Simo, J.C. and R.L. Taylor. “Quasi-Incompressible for Structures Made of Elastomers,” Proc. 1988
Concrete," Engineering Mechanics: A Force for the Finite Elasticity in Principal Stretches, MARC Users Conference, Monterey, CA, pp. 47-
21st Century , Proc. of 12th Engineering Continuum Basis and Numerical Algorithms,” 80, April 7-8, 1988.
Mechanics Conference, pp. 126-129, 1998. Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Morman, K.N. and T.Y. Pan. “Applying FEA to
Malkus, D.S. and T.J.R. Hughes. “Mixed Finite Element Engineering, Vol. 85, pp. 273-310, 1991. Elastomer Design,” Machine Design, Penton
Methods—Reduced and Selective Integration Sussman, T. and K.J. Bathe. “A Finite Element Publishing, Cleveland, OH, pp. 107-112,
Techniques: A Unification of Concepts,” Computer Formulation for Nonlinear Incompressible October 20, 1988.
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Vol. 15, pp. 63-81, 1978. Structures, Vol. 26, pp. 357-409, 1987. of Bulky Rubber Goods Under Unsteady Curing
Nagtegaal, J.C., D.M. Parks, and J.R. Rice. “On Taylor, R.L., K.S. Pister, and L.R. Herrmann. “On A Conditions,” (in Japanese), Proc. 11th Nippon
Numerically Accurate Finite Element Solutions Variational Theorem for Incompressible and MARC Users Meeting, Tokyo, Japan, pp. 105-
in the Fully Plastic Range,” Computer Methods Nearly Incompressible Elasticity,” Int. J. Solids 111, June 3, 1991.
in Applied Mechanics and Engineering, Vol. & Structures, Vol. 4, pp. 875-883, 1968. Swanson, D.J. “Design and Analysis of an
4, pp. 153-178, 1974. Elastomeric Constant Velocity Joint Seal,” Proc.
Wriggers, P. and R.L. Taylor. “A Fully Non-Linear
Needleman, A. “Inflation of Spherical Rubber Axisymmetrical Membrane Element for Rubber- 1990 MARC Users Conference, Monterey, CA,
Balloons,” Int. J. Solids & Structures, Vol. 13, Like Materials,” Engineering Computations, pp. 3-1 to 3-25, Sept. 20-21, 1990.
pp. 409-421, 1977. Vol. 7, pp. 303-310, December 1990. Tada, H., M. Takayama, and T. Nishimura. “Finite
Oden, J.T. and J.E. Key. “On the Effect of the Form Element Analysis of Laminated Rubber
of the Strain Energy Function on the Solution NONLINEAR FEA OF RUBBER Bearing,” (in Japanese), Proc. 11th Nippon
of a Boundary-Value Problem in Finite COMPONENTS—ENGINEERING MARC Users Meeting, Tokyo, Japan, pp. 85-92,
Elasticity,” Computers and Structures, Vol. 2, APPLICATIONS June 3, 1991.
pp. 585-592, 1972.
Billings, L.J. and R. Shepherd. “The Modeling of
Padovan, J.F., M. Schrader, and J. Parris. “Buckling NUMERICAL METHODS
Layered Steel/Elastomer Seismic Base Isolation
and Postbuckling of Elastomeric Components,”
Bearings,” Proc. 1992 MARC Users Conference, Daubisse, J., “Some Results About Approximation
Rubber Chemistry and Technology, Vol. 63, p.
Monterey, CA, September 3-4, 1992. Functions of One or Two Variables by Sums of
135, 1990.
Bretl, J.L. “Implementation of the Elastomer Tearing Exponentials,” Int. J. Numerical Methods in
Padovan, J., F. Tabaddor, and A. Gent. “Surface Engineering, V. 23, pp. 1959-1967, 1986.
Energy Approach in Finite Element Analysis,”
Wrinkles and Local Bifurcations in Elastomeric
Proc. 1988 MARC Users Conference, Monterey, Press, W.H., S.A. Tenkolsky, W.T. Vetterling, and B.P.
Components: Seals and Gaskets. Part I.
CA, pp. 17-34, April 7-8, 1988. Flannery. Numerical Recipes in FORTRAN,
Theory,” Finite Elements in Analysis and
The Art of Scientific Computing, (2nd ed.)
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RUBBER BEHAVIOR AND Cheng, J.H. and E.B. Becker. “Finite Element Narayanaswamy, O.S. “A Model of Structural
CHARACTERIZATION Calculation of Energy Release Rate for 2-D Relaxation in Glass,” Proc. of Fall Meeting of
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Bauer, R.F. and A.H. Crossland. “The Resolution of
Conservative Crack Surface Tractions,” Int. J. of Society, Bedford, PA, pp. 491-497, March 1971.
Elastomer Blend Properties by Stress-Strain
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61
A B O U T M S C . S O F T W A R E
62
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