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Educational games (EG) design framework: Combination of game design,

pedagogy and content modeling

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DOI: 10.1109/ICEEI.2009.5254771

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 2009 International Conference on Electrical Engineering and Informatics
Educational Games (EG) Design Framework:
Combination of Game Design, Pedagogy and
Content Modeling
Roslina Ibrahim, Azizah Jaafar
Fakulti Teknologi dan Sains Maklumat, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor
lina@ic.utm.my, aj@ftsm.ukm.my
Abstract — Previous studies have found that educational games
(EG) provide immersion, motivation, fun and high level of
engagement. Studies also found that EG are able to teach 21st
century skills. Thus, it is worth studying how this form of
entertainment can be adapted into our teaching and learning
strategies in order to develop our students’ motivation and
engagement, which is crucial in successful learning. However,
designing and development of educational games with authentic
learning content while maintaining the fun criteria can be
challenging. Hence, a good design methodology and guideline is
needed in assisting games development team to design an
effective learning game. Our main attention is to produce a
framework in educational games design for higher education.
This paper analyses and compares a few frameworks available,
then suggests a few criteria needed both from game design and
pedagogy points of view. Hopefully it will shed some light in
educational games design issues for higher education students.
Keywords — Educational games, framework, EG Design,
Pedagogy, content modelling
I. INTRODUCTION
Researches in educational games have captured many
people’s attention, particularly in this new millennium. This is
due to the huge popularity of video and computer games,
especially among the younger generations [1], [2] [3], [4].
People from around the globe regardless of age, background
and culture just love to play games. A survey by
Entertainment Software Association found that about 67% of
American head of households play computer or video games.
Krotoski in 2004 [5] reported that the games industry is one of
the fastest growing sectors of the late 20th and early 21st
centuries. Computer Entertainment Software Association [6]
reported that in Japan, almost 80% of the general public and
almost 70% of women have at least one games machine in
their homes. Similarly in Korea, Korean Game Development
and Promotion Institute [7] stated that more than 50% of their
population play online games. Some games titles even boast
of millions of players - larger than the number of television
viewers.
Previous studies done on preschool children, primary
and secondary school children, and college and university
students have shown that there is a lot of interest among
students in using the games for learning purposes [8], [9] and
[10]. Those studies indicate that students showed a high
978-1-4244-4913-2/09/$25.00 ©2009 IEEE
ME-07
5-7 August 2009, Selangor, Malaysia
interest in gaming activities. Rubijesmin’s research on
Malaysian primary and secondary students reported that about
96% of male students are playing computer games either at
school or outside school, while about 90% of female students
claimed to do so. Roslina et al reported that about 90% of
university students agree with the idea of using games as a
learning approach.
Computer and video games are said to have many
benefits to offer to our younger generation learning styles and
behaviour. Gee [11] has indicated that games can offer as
much as 16 learning principles, a few are mentioned below:
i. Interaction: Games talk back, in fact nothing happens
until the player acts and makes decisions. Feedback given
by games are good in providing learners with a sense of
what they are doing (learning).
ii. Well-ordered problems: Research has shown that when
learners are left free to roam, they tend to hit on creative
solutions to complex problems. Games have well-ordered
problems so that the earlier ones are well built to lead
players to form hypotheses for later problems.
iii. Challenge and Consolidation: Good games offer players
a set of challenging problems and let players solve these
problems until they virtually reutilise their solutions.
iv. Pleasantly frustrating: Games offer doable but
challenging problems. This is highly motivating for
learners. School can be too easy for some but too hard for
others, even for those in the same classroom.
v. System Thinking: Games encouraged players to think
about relationships, not isolated events, facts and skills.
Sometimes, in multi-player games they have to think about
other people as well, not only themselves.
vi. Explore, Think Laterally, and Rethink Goals: Games
encourage players to explore thoroughly instead of moving
on too fast, to think laterally not linearly, and use such
exploration to re-conceive their goals.
vii. Cross-functional Teams: Games such as multi-player
games require the players to play in a team and understand
each other’s function for the team to win the game. Such
team workings are commonly demanded in modern-day
work.
Based on the huge interest among students and the
benefits that games can offer to learning, it is worth studying
how to implement games in our education systems [12], [13].
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This can be implemented inside or outside school during Designing educational games is never an easy task [1]
student leisure time. Internet and broadband facilities growth [21]. It involves many considerations from various
also provide a practical access to web-based games for perspectives such the game design, learning theories as well as
learning. learning content modelling, to mention a few. This is yet to
However, many questions arise on how to design such mention the man power involved from various backgrounds
games; games that are fully entertaining as games while such as computer programmers, subject matter expertise,
maintaining good pedagogy to ensure learning success. learning theorist, game designers as well as instructional
Oblinger [14] has argued that although games can be effective designers [22]. Previous studies indicate that educational
learning environments, not all games are effective, nor all games should include game design and good pedagogy in
games are educational. Similarly, not all games are good for order to ensure learning effectiveness [15],[23],[24], [25]. A
all learners or for all learning outcomes. She believes that few frameworks have been proposed from a few researches;
educational games are in the early stages of evolution, the next section will review and compare these frameworks
therefore much needs to be done and explored of this medium accordingly.
before successful learning through games can take place. Hirumi and Stapleton [18] believe that educational
Many researchers believe games should properly games should combine both expertise in game design as well
combine good game design and pedagogy in optimising its as content experts to ensure the development of successful
benefits and effectiveness in education [15],[16],[17]. Hence, games. If the development is left to educators, the resulting
more established and comprehensive guidelines are needed in games may be neither fun, nor engaging; in contrast, if
this field. Hirumi [18] stated that the advancement in entertaining games designers dominate the design process, the
educational video game production, however, are far games may fail to apply key pedagogical principles that are
outpacing research in its design and effectiveness. He also vital for effective learning. There is quite an extensive
suggests that relatively little is known of methods for elaboration on process in designing serious games that
optimising game design process. integrate common instructional systems design tasks with a
game development process to optimise games-based learning.
II. PEDAGOGICAL ISSUES IN EDUCATIONAL GAMES Hirumi and Stapleton further elaborated on the relation
Since EG is generally a combination of games and between instructional design process and game development
education, it seems appropriate to explore both dimensions for process. They believe that the development may follow
a proper integration. Furthermore, it is the nature of the games waterfall or spiral approach during design process, but the
themselves which are purposely designed for learning [19]. phases remain basically the same. Table 1 shows key tasks
Researchers believe that good games always incorporate good associated with each phase of instructional design (ID)
pedagogy. Becker [16] thoroughly explored the relations process and game development process.
between a few well-known games (Animal Crossing Space: TABLE I
Wild World from Nintendo, Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney by RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ID TASKS AND GAME DEVELOPMENT
Capcom Co.Ltd, and The New Super Mario Bros) with
ID Process and Tasks Game Design and Products
various learning theories embedded into the games. Those
Analysis Phase Concept Development Phase
learning theories are Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction and
• Assess needs and identify • Prepare pitch document
Problem-Based Learning in Phoenix Wright, Reigluth’s goal(s) • Prepare game concept
Elaboration Theory in Animal Crossing Space, Merrill’s First • Analyse goal(s), learner and document
Principle of Instruction and Constructivist Theory in Super context
Mario Bros. She argued that learning games are highly Design Phase Pre-production Phase
experiential and situated, they are little different from the • Generate, cluster & • Create game design
kinds of real-life contexts that are currently favoured among sequence objectives documents
scholars of instructional design and methodology. • Determine learner • Prepare art bible and
Ang et al [20] argued that it is beneficial to study assessment method production plan
theory underpinning computer games; how players learn and • Generate instructional • Create technical design
respond in the game environment. They also believe that strategy document
understanding the player’s psychology offers framework to • Select medium
developing educational games that promote learning while Development Phase Prototype and Production
maintaining the high motivation of the player. They found Phase
relations between behaviour learning theories, cognitive • Acquire materials or • Develop analogue or low
outsource developments fidelity prototypes
learning theories, constructivism theories and motivation
• Create flowcharts and • Develop tangible prototypes
theory that are offered by games. One game usually can offer storyboards • Produce Alpha Version
more than one learning theories, some games even • Generate prototypes • Produce Beta Version
incorporated multiple learning theories depending on the • Formatively evaluate and • Produce Gold Version
game genres and game content. revise materials
Implementation and Post-Production Phase
III. EG DESIGN FRAMEWORK AND METHODOLOGY Evaluation Phase

294
 • Deliver and manage • Generate and release
instruction subsequent versions
• Plan and conduct • Generate and release
summative evaluation upgrades/expansions
They have also advocated activities and task that game
developers, instructional designers and educators can do to
facilitate optimum EG development which are i) The Concept
Development Phase, ii) Pre-Production Phase and iii)
Production Phase. In each phase, the role of the educator as
well as the game designers is suggested.
Tan et al [26] proposed Adaptive Digital Game-Based
Learning Framework (ADGL). They have discussed and
proposed components that provide leverage to the pedagogical
aspects in designing game-based learning environment. Their
work has compared and analyzed four available frameworks
based on two major components: i) pedagogical aspect and ii)
game design aspect, both components have several criteria
(Figure 1). Derived upon analysis, they have anticipated that
learner required i) psychological needs – this is because
learners act and behave according to what they have in their
minds and do them to satisfy their psychological needs, if
learners’ needs are achieved, they might develop interest to
continue playing the games. ii) Cognitive Development –
human cognitive development differs according to factors
such as age, culture etc., so it is appropriate to design the
games according to their level of knowledge, for example
based on their age, achievement and so on. iii) Learning
behaviour – identifying a learner’s needs can be a troublesome
task, however, it is important because it will affect the game
effectiveness and learning outcome.
On the game design aspect, they proposed i)
multimodal, ii) task and iii) feedback. Multimodal consists of
modality and interaction factors; modality manages the
interaction between the learner and the game, including
multimedia elements, interface design and narrative. Task will
help learners to absorb learning content. Thus, it should be
designed with different levels in order to help learners learn
without being discouraged – each level with its different
degree of difficulty. Feedback is vital; it provides clues and
hints to learners. This should be given directly or indirectly to
learners. They further conclude that a well-designed game-
based learning should consist of elements such as story,
challenge, goals and objectives.
ADGBL Framework
Pedagogical Game design
Psychological Needs
Multimodal
Cognitive
Task
Development
Feedback
Learning Behaviour
Figure 1: Adaptive Digital Game Based Learning (ADGL) Framework Tan
et al (2007)
The second model is the Three Layered Thinking
Model for designing web-based educational games [27]. They
have proposed a model that integrates game goals within the
curriculum and game design, a three-layered matrix model to
analyse the stages of design process (Figure 2). Game Design
Task includes determining game style, game task and game
interface. Design Task is based on curriculum goal, thus the
curriculum goal will determine the game goal. Pedagogic
level also required learner’s previous skills and knowledge
enhancement. Game style selection is based on whether it will
match the game goals. Game tasks are supposed to enhance
players knowledge and skills through challenge provision.
Figure 2: Three Layered Thinking Model of Web-based Educational
Game Design (Fong & Sheng, 2008)
The model emphasises the importance of decreasing
the design task complexity and increasing the four flow
factors: skills, challenge, concentration and pleasure. The
models have been tested on three empirically designed games
to test its practical usefulness. Their study found that
curriculum goals can be reached using different game styles,
game tasks and interfaces. Test results also indicated that
games do encourage learners’ engagement.
The third model is the Experiential Gaming Model
from Kiili [28]. Based upon the field of educational
technology lacking in research on how to design game
environments that foster knowledge construction, deep
understanding and problem solving while being engaging and
entertaining, Kiili proposed an Experiential Gaming Model
that supposedly is to help designers understand the learning
mechanisms in games by integrating pedagogical aspects into
game design process. The model emphasises the importance
of considering the flow theory by Csikszentmihalyi in 1975 in
order to generate optimal learning experiences for players.
Kiili further argued that game development requires
huge resources that most educational institutions cannot afford.
Thus, she applied the formative development method that
promotes cost and time efficiency in her model. The model
295
also has three main goals namely: describe learning process Established procedures – to provide learning procedure
through games. Secondly, support design of flow inducing through the setting up of scenes and rules, iii) Appropriate
educational games and lastly, describe the educational game tools – to provide help tools through props, iv) Avoiding
design process in abstract level. She proposed fast prototyping distractions – to avoid distractions through transparent control
because it provides designers with a fast turnaround to refine of game, v) A sense of direct engagement and vi) High density
game features and also provide opportunities for end users to of interaction and feedback.
incorporate in the design process.
The model, however only provides general design
strategy with emphasis on crucial theory and practice that
should be considered when designing an educational games.
She added that the model provides no simple recipe for
designing effective educational games, but it provides certain
guidelines to design a good educational game. The main
benefit of the model is to develop fast such low budget
educational games that are educative but still engaging and
rewarding. Refer to Figure 3.

Figure 4: EFM: Model for Educational Game Design (Song and Zhang, 2008)
Based on the above models, it can be observed that all
of them examined the game design and pedagogical factors,
crucial elements in game design. Empirical studies of the
second and the third models show consistent results with the
models objectives, whereas the first and the last models are
still work in progress, thus provide no elaboration or relations
towards their usage on the games and users/learners.

Figure 3: Experiential Gaming Model (Kiili, 2005) IV. PROPOSED EDUCATIONAL GAMES DESIGN FRAMEWORKS
Based on methodologies and frameworks mentioned,
researchers are still exploring multiple perspectives in
Song and Zhang [29] have proposed a model that designing games ranging from psychological theories,
combined effective learning environment, flow experience learning theories to game design theories basis. An interview
and motivation. They suggested 7 basic requirements for an with several educational games developer in Malaysia
effective learning environment, 9 dimensions of flow indicated that the field of education is still relatively new
experience and 4 essential strategy components for motivation. especially in local scenarios; hence, many localised studies are
He believes that an effective learning environment will help needed in order to generate more knowledge in educational
learners acquire flow experience and flow will certainly games in the areas of educational game design, development
stimulate experience. Thus, it will eventually promote as well as its effectiveness among our students. Educational
learning. games research domain needs more empirical studies on its
The model suggests that designers can embark on the effectiveness towards education [23], [30],[31], [32]. Even
EG design by fulfilling the basic requirements of effective though many researches on educational games have emerged
learning environment. They suggested that the designers lately, many directions are still lacking such as authentic
explore how to construct the learning environment based on learning outcomes, games usability, and multimodal
the following aspects; i) Specific goals – set up the goals of perspectives as well as effectiveness of games for long-term
educational game according to educational objectives, ii)

296
usage. Furthermore, not many studies were done to acquire
21st century skills such as problem solving, communication
skills, team working, ethics and leadership. Therefore, in this
model we proposed a model that combined problem solving as
well others factors identified, refer to Figure 5. Our main
intention is to develop an educational games design model
that combines three factors; game design, pedagogy and
learning content modelling, with emphasis on usability,
multimodality, fun, problem solving and syllabus matching.
EDUCATIONAL
GAMES DESIGN
MODEL
Learning
Game Content
Pedagogy
Design Modelling
Usability (ISO9241)
- satisfaction, Learning
efficiency, Outcomes Syllabus
Matching
effectiveness
Multimodal – Motivation
multimedia and Theory Scaffolding
interaction
Fun - Challenge: Self-learning
clear goals,
uncertain outcome, Problem
self esteem, Solving
Figure 5: Proposed Educational Games Design Model
As mentioned above, the three main factors are games
design, pedagogy and learning content modelling. Under the
games design factor, usability and multimodality will be the
focus since not many researchers have done usability studies
for educational games. Usability test items will be based on
ISO 9241[33] and [34] . Items in this usability testing would
be effectiveness, efficiency and satisfaction. Multimodality is
important in games as it is a combination of multiple media
such as text, graphic, audio, video and animation together with
interactivity which learners can interact with and get
immediate feedback. Fun is the main distinctive characteristic
of a game compared to other learning approaches. According
to Prensky in 2001, games is fun, thus it provides motivation
and engagement to the players; in this case, students. Malone
[35] thoroughly elaborated fun element and heuristics in
instructional games; challenge, fantasy and curiosity with each
of it enclosing several criteria.
On the pedagogical factor, the focus is on how much
the game will meet learning outcomes. For this objective, the
game will be design based on selected subjects according to
Bloom Taxonomy learning outcomes. As for this research, the
concentration will be selected based on the first three levels
which are knowledge, comprehension and application. This
model is designed specifically for student self-learning with
integrated self-assessment modules, thus it will be a web-
based game that students can use during their off-lecture time.
Motivation theory will be used to evaluate how the game
affects students’ motivation compared to traditional lecture-
based lessons. In order to promote high order thinking skills,
problem solving will be explored and adapted accordingly in
content and game design.
Learning content modelling is important for the reason
that the game is specifically developed to help students to self-
learn specific subjects or materials. Therefore, learning
content of the game should be as appropriate as possible with
intended learning outcomes in order to achieve learning goals.
This somehow will offer more motivation to the student
because of the different learning approach and it is fun
because it is in a form of a game.
V. CONCLUSION
The attractiveness of computer and video games
among the younger generation has sparked many interests
among scholars in studying on how games can be used in
educational setting. Many empirical researches have proven
that games increase student motivation and provide learning
benefits to students. However, since the field is relatively new,
not many educational games design model and guidelines are
well-established. Therefore, this study intends to add more
knowledge and evidence in this field by proposing design
guidelines and model specifically for educational games
design. Our model consist of game design, pedagogy and
learning content modelling with emphasis on usability,
multimodality, fun, motivation, problem solving and syllabus
matching. Then, an educational web-based computer game
will be developed based on the proposed model and its
effectiveness will be evaluated accordingly. Hopefully, this
on-going research will provide some insight into educational
games design and effectiveness especially for the local
education setting.
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