Individual & Group Behavior - Introduction

Organizational behavior is the study of both group and individual performance and action within
an enterprise. This field of study scans human behavior in the working atmosphere.

It determines its effect on job structure, performance, communication, motivation, leadership,

decision making abilities etc. The way an individual behaves and behavior as a group have two
perspectives − internal and external.

Behavior Analysis at Different Levels

Behavior as an individual or in a group is always analyzed by everyone in the organization. It is
analyzed at three different levels −

 Individual level of analysis

 Group level of analysis
 Organizational level of analysis

Individual Level of Analysis

Organizational behavior, at this level of analysis massively draws upon psychology, engineering,
and medicine. At the individual level of analysis, organizational behavior includes the study of
learning, perception, creativity, motivation, and personality.

In addition, it also includes the study of turnover, task performance and evaluation, coordinated
behavior, deviant work behavior, ethics, and cognition.

For example − Ram joins a company as an intern and is very open to learning new things but as
time passes and he gets promoted his attitude towards his interns becomes rude. This is a fine
example of individual level of analysis.

Group Level of Analysis

Organizational behavior, at this level of analysis, draws upon the sociological and socio-
psychological discipline. At the group level of analysis, organizational behavior includes the
study of group gesture, intra-group and intergroup dispute and attachment.

It is further extended to the study of leadership, power, norms, interpersonal communication,

networks, and roles.

An example of this level of analysis − Board of directors of company X decide to give bonus to
their workers as they have really worked hard on a certain project.

Organizational Level of Analysis

Organizational behavior, at this level of analysis draws upon sociology and political science. At
this level of analysis, organizational behavior includes the study of organizational culture,
structure, cultural diversity, inter-organizational cooperation and coordination.

It further includes the study of dispute, change, technology, and external environmental forces.
Some other fields of study that adds to the interest of organizational behavior are ergonomics,
statistics, and psychometrics.

To have a clear understanding on the topic and avoid any kind of confusion let’s look at an
example at different levels and try to analyze it.

Rohit is interested in becoming a singer as he is interested in music and feels he can do better in
this field. While his parents force him to pursue his job as a software engineer, as according to
his father’s perception a software job pays well and is far better than struggling to become a
singer.

In this case, we see Rohit and his father have a clash of opinions, hence this is a case of
individual level of analysis.

Extending this example further, if Rohit seeks help from his friends on this matter his friends
will support him as they have the same mindset support the idea of following their own dreams,
struggling and achieving their goal. Meanwhile Rohit’s father’s friend circle might find the idea
of pursuing singing as a career insane and support his father’s decision of opting for a software.

Here we see two different groups of people with contradicting ideologies, this becomes a case of
group level of analysis.

Individual Behavior
Individual behavior can be defined as a mix of responses to external and internal stimuli. It is the
way a person reacts in different situations and the way someone expresses different emotions like
anger, happiness, love, etc.

To get a brief idea about the individual behavior let us learn about the individual behavior
framework and other key elements related to it.

Individual Behavior Framework

On the basis of these elements, psychologist Kurt Lewin stated the Field theory and outlined the
behavior framework. This psychological theory studies the patterns of interaction between an
individual and the environment. The theory is expressed using the formula

B = F(P,E)

where, B – Behavior, F - Behavior Function, P – Person, and E - Environment around the person.
Say for example, a well payed person who loses his job in recession may behave differently
when unemployed.

Causes of Individual Behavior

Certain individual characteristics are responsible for the way a person behaves in daily life
situations as well as reacts to any emergency situations. These characteristics are categorized as
−

 Inherited characteristics
 Learned characteristics

Inherited Characteristics

The features individuals acquire from their parents or from our forefathers are the inherited
characteristics. In other words, the gifted features an individual possesses by birth is considered
as inherited characteristics.

Following features are considered as inherited characteristics −

 Color of a person’s eye

 Religion/Race of a person
 Shape of the nose
  Shape of earlobes

Learned Characteristics

Nobody learns everything by birth. First our school is our home, then our society followed by
our educational institutions. The characteristics an individual acquires by observing, practicing
and learning from others and the surroundings is known as learned characteristics.

It consists of the following features −

 Perception − Result of different senses like feeling, hearing etc.

 Values − Influences perception of a situation, decision making process.
 Personality − Patterns of thinking, feeling, understanding and behaving.
 Attitude − Positive or negative attitude like expressing one’s thought.

Factors Influencing Individual Behavior

The way an individual addresses a situation single-handedly or say in a group is influenced by
many factors. The key factors influencing an individual’s attitude in personal as well as social
life are −

 Abilities
 Gender
 Race and culture
 Attribution
 Perception
 Attitude

Let’s take a quick look over these major elements that imprints a person’s behavior inside and
outside of the organization.

Abilities
Abilities are the traits a person learns from the environment around as well as the traits a person
is gifted with by birth. These traits are broadly classified as −

 Intellectual abilities
 Physical abilities
 Self-awareness abilities

In order to understand how these affect a person’s behavior, we need to know what these abilities
are.
  Intellectual abilities − It personifies a person’s intelligence, verbal and analytical
reasoning abilities, memory as well as verbal comprehension.
 Physical abilities − It personifies a person’s physical strength, stamina, body
coordination as well as motor skills.
 Self-awareness abilities − It symbolizes how a person feels about the task, while a
manager’s perception of his abilities decides the kind of work that needs to be allotted to
an individual.

Thus the psychological, physical, self-assurance traits owned by a person defines the behavior of
a person in social and personal life. For ex: Ram has a high IQ level, whereas Rahul can lift a
bike and is a strong guy.

Gender
Research proves that men and women both stand equal in terms of job performance and mental
abilities; however, society still emphasizes differences between the two genders. Absenteeism is
one area in an organization where differences are found as women are considered to be the
primary caregiver for children. A factor that might influence work allocation and evaluation in
an organization is the manager’s perception and personal values.

For example − An organization encourages both genders to work efficiently towards the
company’s goal and no special promotion or demotion is given or tolerated for any specific
gender.

Race & Culture

Race is a group of people sharing similar physical features. It is used to define types of persons
according to perceived traits. For example − Indian, African. On the other hand, culture can be
defined as the traits, ideas, customs and traditions one follows either as a person or in a group.
For example − Celebrating a festival.

Race & culture have always exerted an important influence both at the workplace as well as in
the society. The common mistakes such as attributing behavior and stereotyping according to
individual’s race & culture basically influences an individual’s behavior.

In today’s diverse work culture, the management as well as staff should learn and accept
different cultures, values, and common protocols to create more comfortable corporate culture.

For example − A company invites candidates for a job post and hires one on the basis of
eligibility criteria and not on the basis of the country a person belongs to or the customs one
follows.

Perception
Perception is an intellectual process of transforming sensory stimuli into meaningful information.
It is the process of interpreting something that we see or hear in our mind and use it later to judge
and give a verdict on a situation, person, group, etc.

It can be divided into six types namely −

 Of sound − The ability to receive sound by identifying vibrations.

 Of speech − The competence of interpreting and understanding the sounds of language
heard.
 Touch − Identifying objects through patterns of its surface by touching it.
 Taste − The ability to detect flavor of substances by tasting it through sensory organs
known as taste buds.
 Other senses − Other senses include balance, acceleration, pain, time, sensation felt in
throat and lungs etc.
 Of the social world − It permits people to understand other individuals and groups of
their social world.

For example − Priya goes to a restaurant and likes their customer service, so she will perceive
that it is a good place to hang out and will recommend it to her friends, who may or may not like
it. However, Priya’s perception about the restaurant remains good.

Attribution
Attribution is the course of observing behavior followed by determining its cause based on
individual’s personality or situation.

Attribution framework uses the following three criteria −

 Consensus − The extent to which people in the same situation might react similarly.
 Distinctiveness − The extent to which a person’s behavior can be associated to situations
or personality.
 Consistency − The frequency measurement of the observed behavior, that is, how often
does this behavior occur.

The framework mentioned says it is all about how an individual behaves in different situations.

For example − Rohit invites Anisha and two more friends for a movie and they agree to bunk and
watch the movie, this is consensus. Bunking of class says that they are not interested in their
lectures, this is distinctiveness. A little change in the situation, like if Rohit frequently starts
bunking the class then his friends may or may not support him. The frequency of their support
and their rejection decides consistency.

Attitude
Attitude is the abstract learnt reaction or say response of a person’s entire cognitive process over
a time span.

For example − A person who has worked with different companies might develop an attitude of
indifference towards organizational citizenship.

Now we have a clear idea about what are the factors responsible for the way we behave. We
never think about these elements and how they affect our daily life but we can’t ignore the fact
that they are responsible for the way we walk, talk, eat, socialize, etc.

Occupational Personality Types

The traits we use to find out the careers and college majors we should opt for, and will fit us the
best is known as occupational personality traits. Personality can be further classified on the basis
of an individual’s occupation and vocational options. John Holland grouped these features into
six personality types −

 Realistic Personality − These types of individuals have a realistic personality. They are
shy in nature, stable, and practical. They belong to professions like agriculture,
engineering, fashion designing, etc.

 Investigative Personality − These types of individuals are analytical, curious, and have
an independent mindset. They belong to professions like writing, teaching, medicine, etc.

 Artistic Personality − These types of individuals have great imagination and are
idealistic. They belong to professions like fine arts, music, photography, etc.
  Social Personality − These types of individuals are sociable, helpful and cooperative in
nature. They belong to professions like teaching, social work, counseling, etc.

 Enterprising Personality − These types of individuals are ambitious, adventurous and

energetic. They belong to professions like business, journalism, consultancy, etc.

 Conventional Personality − These types of individuals are practical, organized, and

logical. They belong to professions like training, nursing, finance, etc.

Most people fall into anyone of these six personality types.

People sharing the same personality type and working together create a work environment that
fits their type. For example, when enterprising persons are together on a job, they create a work
environment that rewards enthusiastic and innovative thinking and behavior -- an enterprising
environment.

People opt for such environments where they can use their skills and abilities, and freely express
their values and attitudes. For example, Realistic types search for stable work environment;
Artistic types look for Artistic environment, and so forth.

People who work in an environment similar to their personality type are more likely to be
successful and satisfied with their job. For example, artistic persons are more likely to be
successful and satisfied if they choose a job that has an artistic environment, like choosing to be
a music teacher in a music school -- an environment "dominated" by artistic people where
innovative abilities and expression are highly valued.

Understanding the theory and using it efficiently, aligns our core personality traits to fields that
nurture who we are, who we want to be, by offering a rewarding path towards professional and
personal growth.

Myers-Briggs Types of Indicator

The Myers–Briggs Type Indicator is a set of psychometric questionnaire designed to weigh
psychological preferences in how people perceive the world and make decisions. The Myers
Briggs model of personality developed by Katherine Briggs and Isabel Briggs Myers, is
established on four preferences namely −

 Types of social interaction

 Preference for gathering data
 Preference for decision making
 Style of decision making

With respect to the prescribed Myers Briggs type of indicator, preferences include eight
leadership styles −

 E or I (Extraversion or Introversion)
 S or N (Sensing or iNtuition)
 T or F (Thinking or Feeling)
 J or P (Judgment or Perception)

We combine the bias to give our Myers Briggs personality type. Say for example, our
preferences is for E and S and T and J, so it leads to personality type of ESTJ. In the same way,
there are sixteen Myers Briggs personality types that can be generated by combining these four
letters together.

When we put these four letters together, we get our personality type code, and there are sixteen
combinations. For example, INTJ implies that we prefer Introversion, Intuition, Thinking and
Judging (remember, this implies preferences only - an INTJ also uses Extraversion, Sensing,
Feeling and Perception).

Types of Social Interaction

The way a person communicates with people around and links with others socially is called
social interaction. Who are we, how do we communicate with people? In order to answer these
question we classify individuals and their preferences to direct their energy into two types
Extraversion & Extrovert, Introversion & Introvert.

Extraversion or Extrovert

If people prefer to direct their energy to cope with others, things, situations, or "the outer world",
then their preference is for Extraversion.

An extrovert is an outgoing, socially confident person. This is denoted by the letter "E".

Introversion or Introvert

If people prefer to direct their energy to deal with ideas, information, explanations, beliefs, or
"the inner world", then their preference is for Introversion.

An introvert is a shy and reticent person. This is denoted by the letter "I".

For example − Archana is a nerdy girl and takes time to mingle up with others and is considered
as an introvert while Alka is a very outgoing person and gels easily with everyone, so she is
considered as an extrovert.

Preference for Gathering Data

Everything we see, we hear we process them in our brains. Now how do we prefer to process
information? On what basis? To answer this question, we need to understand how to we choose
to transform our information.

We can collect information in two different ways, using two different information gathering
functions − Sensing and Intuition.

Sensing

If we choose to deal with facts, what we know, to have clarity or to describe what we see, then
our preference is for Sensing.

This is denoted by the letter "S".

Intuition
If we choose to deal with ideas, look into the unknown, to generate new possibilities or to engage
what isn't obvious, then our preference is for Intuition.

This is denoted by the letter "N" (the letter I has already been used for Introversion).

For example − If I say that I believe something good is going to happen then it is just an intuition
as I am basing my statement without any evidence rather on just a feeling. However, when I say
that according to today’s weather forecast it is going to rain, then this is sensing as I have an
evidence to support my statement.

Preference for Decision Making

There are two main types of functions through which we prefer to make our decisions.

Thinking

If we choose to decide on the basis of objective logic, using an analytic and detached path, then
our preference is for Thinking. This is denoted by the letter "T".

Feeling

If we prefer to decide using values or our personal beliefs, on the basis of what we believe is
important or what we or others care about, then our preference is for Feeling. This is denoted by
the letter "F".

For example − If I get Rs. 500 lying on the road and I think as I got it, it’s mine then it is my
thinking. However, if I think it’s not right to keep others money and decide to donate it then it is
considered as a feeling.

Style of Decision Making

Style of decision making is nothing but the way we prefer to organize our life. It is done by
either Perceiving or by Judging.

Perceiving

If we prefer to go with the flow, to maintain flexibility and respond to things as they arise in the
first place, then our preference is for Perception. This is denoted by the letter "P".

Judging

If we prefer our life to be planned, stable and organized then our preference is for Judging (here
it is not to be confused with being 'Judgmental', which is quite different). This is denoted by the
letter "J".
For example − Mona gets a job and decides since she has got a job she need not worry about
anything else. This attitude is perceiving. On the other hand, Tina aims for bank PO exam and
plans her life where all her actions will help her achieve her dream job. This attitude is judging.

Myers-Briggs Personality Test

After getting a brief about the personality types, let us take a look at the 16 types of personality.

ISTJ (Introversion-
Sensing-Thinking-Judging)

Individuals with this type of personality are quiet, serious, earn success by honesty and are
dependable. They are logical, matter-of-fact, realistic, and responsible. They decide practically
what should be done and work towards it steadily, regardless of distractions. They like to keep
everything synchronized and organized - their work, their home, their life. They prioritize
traditions and loyalty.

ISFJ (Introversion-Sensing-Feeling-Judging)

Individuals with this type of personality are quiet, friendly, responsible, and careful. They are
committed and steady in meeting their demands. Thorough, painstaking, precise and accurate.
They are loyal, considerate, notice and remember specifics about other individuals who are
important to them, and are concerned with how others feel. They strive to create an orderly and
harmonious surrounding at work and at home.

INFJ (Introversion-iNtuition-Feeling-Judging)

Individuals with this type of personality always explore meaning and connection in ideas,
relationships, and material possessions. They want to understand what encourages people and are
insightful about others. Being careful in nature, they are committed to their firm values. They
have a clear vision about how best to work for the common good. These type of individuals are
organized and decisive in executing their vision.

INTJ (Introversion-iNtuition-Thinking-Judging)

Individuals with this type of personality have a unique mindset and great drive for executing
their ideas and achieving their goals. They quickly see patterns in external events and develop
long-range elaborative perspectives. Being committed, they start something to do and carry it
through. Doubtful and independent, they have high standards of competence and performance -
for themselves and others.

ISTP (Introversion-Sensing-Thinking-Perceiving)

Individuals with this type of personality are tolerant and flexible, quiet observers until a problem
arises, then act quickly to find workable solutions. The examine what makes things work and
readily get through large amounts of data to isolate the core of practical issues. They are
interested in cause and effect, organize facts using practical principles, and value efficiency.

ISFP (Introversion-Sensing-Feeling-Perceiving)

Individuals with this type of personality are quiet, friendly, adaptable, sensitive, and kind. They
enjoy the present moment, and are not bothered with what is going on around them. They like to
have their own space and to work within their chosen time frame. They are loyal and committed
to their principles and to people who are important to them. These individuals dislike
disagreements and disputes, and also do not force their opinions or values on others.

INFP (Introversion-iNtuition-Feeling-Perceiving)

Individuals with this type of personality are idealistic, loyal, honest to their values and to people
who are important to them. They want an external life that is compatible with their values.
Anxious, quick to see possibilities, they can be catalysts for implementing ideas. They
understand people and help them fulfill their potential. These individuals are adaptable, flexible,
and accepting in nature until a value is threatened.

INTP (Introversion-iNtuition-Thinking-Perceiving)
Individuals with this type of personality develop logical explanations for everything that interests
them. They are theoretical and abstract in nature, interested more in ideas than in social
communication. They are silent, contained, flexible, and adaptable. These individuals have
unusual ability to focus in depth to solve issues in their area of interest. They are skeptical,
sometimes can be critical, and are always analytical.

ESTP (Extroversion-Sensing-Thinking-Perceiving)

Individuals with this type of personality are flexible and tolerant; they take a pragmatic approach
determined on getting immediate results. Theories and conceptual elaborations bore them - they
want to act energetically to solve the problem. They focus on the here-and-now, are active,
spontaneous, and enjoy each moment. These type of individuals enjoy materialistic comfort and
style. They learn only through doing.

ESFP (Extroversion-Sensing-Feeling-Perceiving)

Individuals with this type of personality are outgoing, friendly, free and accepting in nature.
Enthusiastic lovers of life, people, and material comforts. They love working with others to make
things happen. Bring shared sense and a realistic approach to their work, and make work fun.
They are flexible and spontaneous, adapt readily to new people and surroundings. They learn
best by trying new skills with other people.

ENFP (Extroversion-iNtuition-Feeling-Perceiving)

Individuals with this type of personality are warmly active and imaginative. They perceive life as
full of happenings. Make links between events and information very quickly, and confidently
proceed based on the patterns they see. They want a lot of confirmation from others, and readily
give appreciation and support. These individuals are spontaneous and flexible, often depend on
their ability to improvise and their verbal fluency.

ENTP (Extroversion-iNtuition-Thinking-Perceiving)

Individuals with this type of personality are quick, smart, ingenious, stimulating, alert, and
outspoken. Resourceful in solving new and challenging issues. They are adept at generating
conceptual possibilities and then testing them strategically. They are also good at reading people.
Bored by daily routine, these individuals will seldom do the same thing the same way, and apt to
turn to one new interest after another.

ESTJ (Extroversion-Sensing-Thinking-Judging)

Individuals with this type of personality are practical, realistic, logical, and matter-of-fact. They
are decisive in nature and quickly move to execute decisions. They organize projects and people
to get things done, target on getting results in the most efficient way possible. They like to
maintain routine details, have a clear set of logical standards, systematically follow them and
expect others to do so too. They are forceful in executing their plans.
ESFJ (Extroversion-Sensing-Feeling-Judging)

Individuals with this type of personality are warmhearted, careful, and cooperative. They want
harmony in their surrounding and work with determination to establish it. They like to work with
others to complete work accurately and on time. They are loyal and tend to follow thoroughly
even in small matters. They want to be appreciated for who they are and for their contribution.

ENFJ (Extroversion-iNtuition-Feeling-Judging)

Individuals with this type of personality are warm, empathetic, responsive, active and
responsible. They are highly sensitive to the emotions, needs, and motivations of others. They
find potential in everyone and want to help others act according to their potential. Often these
type of individuals act as catalysts for a person’s or group’s growth. They are loyal, active to
praise and criticism. They are sociable and provide inspiring leadership.

ENTJ (Extroversion-iNtuition-Thinking-Judging)

Individuals with this type of personality are frank, decisive, smart, and assume leadership
readily. They quickly see illogical and inefficient steps and policies, and efficiently develop and
implement comprehensive systems to solve organizational problems. They enjoy long-term
planning, are usually well informed, updated, well read, enjoy expanding their knowledge and
passing it on to others. They are forceful in presenting their ideas and views.

These are the 16 different personality types in which an individual can be grouped into and we
can learn about a person.

Big-Five Personality Model

The big five personality model identifies five types of personalities and every individual falls
into at least one of these types.
Openness to Experience
Openness flashes the level of intellectual curiosity, creativity and a preference for novelty and
variety within a person. It can also be elaborated as the scope to which an individual is
imaginative or independent, and portrays a personal preference for a variety of activities over a
scheduled routine.

Some debate may occur regarding how to interpret the openness factor, which is also known as
"intellect" rather than openness to experience.

It includes inventiveness or curiousness in contrast to consistency or cautiousness. Appreciation

for positive arts, emotions, inventions, adventure, unusual ideas, curiosity, and variety of
experience is invited.

It is basically the extent to which an individual is original, has immense interests, and willingly
takes risk.

Conscientiousness
It is the tendency of being standardized, steady, self-disciplined, acting dutifully, focusing on
achieving goals, and prioritizing planned instead of spontaneous behavior. It contrasts efficient
or organized behavior with easy-going or careless behavior.
It is the level to which a person is careful, cautious, and honest.

Extraversion
Positive energy, positive emotions, confidence, sociability and the tendency to explore
stimulation in the organization with others, and talkativeness is extraversion. It contradicts
outgoing or energetic behavior with solitary or reserved behavior.

Experiencing positive emotional states and feeling good about oneself and the world around one
is extraversion.

Agreeableness
Agreeableness is the tendency of being compassionate and cooperative instead of suspicious and
antagonistic towards each other. It is a method of measuring one's trusting and helpful nature,
and whether a person has a bad temper or not.

It distinguishes friendliness or compassionate with analytical or detached nature. In simple

words, it is the tendency to get along well with others.

Emotional Stability
It contradicts sensitive or nervous nature with secure or confident one. Being bias towards
experiencing unpleasant emotions easily, like anger, anxiety, depression, negativity and
vulnerability. Neuroticism credits the degree of emotional stability and impulse control, and is
frequently known by its low pole, emotional stability.

The tendency to sense negative emotional states and see oneself and the world around one
negatively.

Mars Model of Individual Behavior

MARS model of individual behavior is a model that seeks to elaborate individual behavior as a
result of internal and external factors or influences combined together. The name itself is an
acronym for individual Motivation, Abilities, Role Perception and Situational Factors.

These are marked as the four major factors in determining individual behavior and results. The
model can be implemented to a variety of situations, but is usually applied in Management,
Industrial Psychology or Organizational Behavior studies. This model represents that these four
factors have a mixed effect on individual performance. If any factor weakens, performance will
decrease.

Say for example, passionate salespeople who understand their duties and have enough resources
will not perform their jobs well if they lack sufficient knowledge and sales skill. Therefore, the
Container Store and other enterprises that excel in customer service pay attention to all four
factors in the MARS model.

Motivation
Motivation can be described as internal forces that impact the direction, intensity, and endurance
of a person’s voluntary choice of behavior. It consists of −

 Direction − focused by goals.

 Intensity − bulk of effort allocated.
 Persistence − amount of time taken for the effort to be exerted.

For example − A team leader encourages team members to work efficiently.

Ability
Ability is the natural tendency and learned capabilities needed to complete a task successfully. It
has four different parts namely −

 Aptitudes − natural talent that helps people learn more efficiently and perform
effectively.
 Learned capabilities − accomplished skills and knowledge.
  Competencies − abilities, individual values, personality traits and other features of
people that result in superior performance.
 Person-job fit − there are three ways to match people with jobs
o selecting qualified people
o developing employee abilities through training
o redesigning job to fit person's existing abilities

For example − Rohan completes a task in 4 days while the time allotted was 6 days. He has the
ability to complete it before the required time frame.

Role Perceptions
They are the beliefs about what behavior is necessary to achieve the desired results, and have a
check that everyone is clear regarding their part. It is of four types −

 Understanding the tasks to be performed.

 Understanding associated importance of tasks allotted.
 Understanding preferred behaviors to complete respective tasks.
 Clarifying role perceptions

For example − Every member in a group is clear regarding the part allotted to them. For instance,
the programmer writes the code and the tester checks it.

Situational Factors
They are the environmental conditions like given time bound, team members, budget, and work
facilities that limits or facilitates behavior. Factors that are beyond the individual’s control in the
short run.

Integrated Individual Behavior Model

Integrated individual behavior model helps in taking a decision in order to perform a task
efficiently. It analyzes a person’s intention to act by studying three parameters− Attitudes,
Perceived Norms, and Personal Agency.
Attitudes
Attitude invokes an individual's overall promising or unpromising perception towards a behavior
consisting of affective and cognitive dimensions. Attitude is again of two types −

 Experiential attitude
 Instrumental attitude

Experiential attitude (affective attitude) is the emotional reaction of an individual towards the
idea of performing the behavior.

Instrumental attitude (cognitive attitude) is determined by the beliefs regarding the results of
behavior.
Perceived Norm
Perceived norm directs towards the social pressure one feels to achieve or abstain from a
particular behavior.

Perceived norms are grouped into two categories −

 Injunctive norm
 Descriptive norm

Injunctive norm (like the subjective norm) hints to normative beliefs regarding what others think
one should do and encouragement to comply.

Descriptive norm indicates to perceptions about what others in one's social or personal
connections are up to. They are meant to capture situations where there is strong social identity.

Personal Agency
Personal agency hints to individual's ability to originate and direct actions for given purposes. It
is divided into two parts −

 Self-efficacy
 Perceived control

Self-efficacy is an individual's belief in his/her effectiveness in performing the tasks assigned as

well presenting their actual skill.

Perceived control is an individual's perceived amount of control over behavioral conduct. It is

resolved by control beliefs. Say for example, an individual's perception of the degree to which
various environmental factors make it easy or difficult to perform a behavior.
This is the final model we design by combining all the parts seen earlier. This model concludes
that behavior is based upon the decision one makes along with the current information about the
situation, behavior, habit and environmental constraints. These are further dependent on attitude,
norms and personal agency, and a result of other factors like our beliefs.

Theory X & Theory Y

Our management style is firmly influenced by our beliefs and assumptions about what
encourages members of our team, like: If we believe that our team members dislike work, then
we tend towards an authoritarian style of management. However, if we assume that employees
take pride in doing a good job, we tend to adopt a more participative style.

Douglas McGregor, the eminent social psychologist, divides management style into two
contrasting theories −

 Theory X
 Theory Y

Theory X
This theory believes that employees are naturally unmotivated and dislike working, and this
encourages an authoritarian style of management. According to this theory, management must
firmly intervene to get things done. This style of management concludes that workers −

 Disfavor working.
 Abstain from responsibility and the need to be directed.
 Need to be controlled, forced, and warned to deliver what's needed.
 Demand to be supervised at each and every step, with controls put in place.
 Require to be attracted to produce results, else they have no ambition or incentive to
work.
McGregor observed that X-type workers are in fact mostly in minority, and yet in mass
organizations, such as large scale production environment, X Theory management may be
needed and can be unavoidable.

Theory Y
This theory explains a participative style of management that is distributive in nature. It
concludes that employees are happy to work, are self-motivated and creative, and enjoy working
with greater responsibility. It estimates that workers −

 Take responsibility willingly and are encouraged to fulfill the goals they are given.
 Explore and accept responsibility and do not need much guidance.
 Assume work as a natural part of life and solve work issues imaginatively.

In Y-type organizations, people at lower levels are engaged in decision making and have more
responsibility.

Comparing Theory X & Theory Y

Motivation

Theory X considers that people dislike work, they want to avoid it and do not take
responsibilities willingly.

In contrast, Theory Y considers that people are self-motivated, and sportingly take
responsibilities.
Management Style and Control

In a Theory X-type organization, the management is authoritarian, and centralized control is

maintained.

While in Theory Y-type organization, the management style is participative, employees are
involved decision making, but the power retains to implement decisions.

Work Organization

Theory X employees are specialized and the same work cycle continues.

In Theory Y, the work tends to be coordinated around wider areas of skill or knowledge.
Employees are also motivated to develop expertise and make suggestions and improvements.

Rewards and Appraisals

Theory X organizations work on a ‘carrot and stick’ basis, and performance assessment is part of
the overall mechanisms of control and compensation.

Coming to Theory Y organizations, appraisal is regular and crucial, but is usually a separate
mechanism from organizational controls. Theory Y organizations provide employees frequent
opportunities for promotion.

Application
Theory X management style is widely accepted as inferior to others, however it has its place in
large scale production procedure and unskilled production-line work.

Many of the principles of Theory Y are widely accepted by different types of organization that
value and motivate active participation.

Theory Y-style management is appropriate to knowledge work and licensed services. Licensed
service organizations naturally develop Theory Y-type practices by the nature of their work, even
high structure knowledge framework, like call center operations, benefits from its principles to
motivate knowledge sharing and continuous improvement.

Personality Traits
A personality trait is a unique feature in an individual. Psychologists resolved that there are five
major personality traits and every individual can be categorized into at least one of them. These
five personality traits are −

 Extrovert
  Neurotic
 Open
 Agreeable
 Conscientious

Locus of Control
Locus of control is the center of control of an individual’s code of conduct. People can be
grouped into two categories i.e. internal and externals respectively.

People who consider themselves as the masters of their own fate are known as internals, while
those who affirm that their lives are controlled by outside forces are known as externals.

Before making any decision, internals actively search for information, they are achievement
driven, and want to command their environment. So, internals do well on jobs that craves
complex information processing, demands taking initiative and independent action.

Externals, on the other hand, are more compliant, more willing to follow instructions, so, they do
well in structured, routine jobs.

Machiavellianism
Machiavellianism is being practical, emotionally distant, and believing that ends justify means.
Machiavellians are always wanting to win and are great persuaders. Here are the significant
features of a high-mach individuals −

 High-Machs prefer precise interactions rather than beating about the bush.
 High-Machs tend to improvise; they do not necessarily abide by rules and regulations all
the time.
 High-machs get distracted by emotional details that are irrelevant to the outcome of a
project.

Self-Esteem
It is the extent up to which people either like or dislike themselves. Self-esteem is directly related
to the expectations of success and on-the-job satisfaction.

Individuals with high self-esteem think that they have what it takes to succeed. So, they take
more challenges while selecting a job.

While individuals with low self-esteem are more susceptible to external distractions. So, they are
more likely to seek the approval of others and to adapt the beliefs and behaviors of those they
respect.
Self-Monitoring
Self-monitoring is the capability of regulating one’s behavior according to social situations.

Individuals with high self-monitoring skills easily adjust their behavior according to external,
situational factors. Their impulsive talents allow them to present public personae which is
completely different from their private personalities.

However, people with low self-monitoring skills cannot cover themselves. Regardless of any
situation, they are always themselves. They have an attitude of, “what you see is what you get.”

Risk Taking
Generally, managers are reluctant on taking risks. However, individual risk-taking inclination
affects the bulk of information required by the managers and how long it takes them to make
decisions.

Thus, it is very important to recognize these differences and align risk-taking propensity with
precise job demands that can make sense.

Learning & Individual Behavior

Learning can be defined as the activity or process of acquiring knowledge or skill by studying,
practicing, being taught, or experiencing something.

Individual behavior can be defined as how an individual behaves at work. A person’s behavior is
influenced by the following factors −

 Attitude
 Perception
 Personality
 Stress
 Belief
 Norms or other psychological matters

The factors influencing individual behavior are −

 Perception − It is the result of various senses like feeling, seeing, hearing etc.
 Attitude − We can either have a positive attitude or negative attitude, like i like my job is
expressing a positive attitude towards my work.
 Personality − For example, some people seem to be very friendly, while there are some
who take time to open up.
 Values − It influences perception of problem and marks individual’s decision making
process.
  Emotions − There are happy moments we cherish and the sad moments like anger,
frustration, etc. that we try to forget.

Change through Learning

The more we learn the more we change, as learning is a continuous process. Now let us see that
how learning affects individual behavior. There is a change in the attitude of a person due to
learning which can take place due to the following factors −

 Role of parenting − As we all know that parents are the first tutors of a child. They teach
a child how to walk, talk, eat, etc. A child tries to imitate the behavior of parents. So, it
plays a vital role in grooming an individual’s personality.
 Education − The very second place of learning is the school and college where an
individual chooses to pursue his/her education. It is the place where an individual’s
personality is further polished with respect to the parenting values.
 Job training − An individual is prepared to be presentable in the company and learns
organizational traits.
 Manipulation of rewards

The above seen points are the key elements that are responsible for the change in a person’s
behavior.

Learning Theories
Individual and group behavior can be studied by different learning theories. Some of the
remarkable theories are −

 Classical Conditioning Theory

 Operant Learning Theory
 Social Learning Theory

Classical Conditioning Theory

The Classical conditioning occurs when a conditioned stimulus is coupled with an unconditioned
stimulus.

Usually, the conditioned stimulus (CS) is an impartial stimulus like the sound of a tuning fork,
the unconditioned stimulus (US) is biologically effective like the taste of food and the
unconditioned response (UR) to the unconditioned stimulus is an unlearned reflex response like
salivation or sweating.

After this coupling process is repeated (for example, some learning may already occur after a
single coupling), an individual shows a conditioned response (CR) to the conditioned stimulus
when the conditioned stimulus is presented alone.
The conditioned response is mostly similar to the unconditioned response, but unlike the
unconditioned response, it must be acquired through experience and is nearly impermanent.

Operant Conditioning Theory

Operant conditioning theory is also known as instrumental conditioning. This theory is a learning
process in which behavior is sensitive to, or controlled by its outcomes.

Let’s take an example of a child. A child may learn to open a box to get the candy inside, or
learn to avoid touching a hot stove. In comparison, the classical conditioning develops a
relationship between a stimulus and a behavior. The example can be further elaborated as the
child may learn to salivate at the sight of candy, or to tremble at the sight of an angry parent.

In the 20th century, the study of animal learning was commanded by the analysis of these two
sorts of learning, and they are still at the core of behavior analysis.
Social Learning Theory
The key assumptions of social learning theory are as follows −

 Learning is not exactly behavioral, instead it is a cognitive process that takes place in a
social context.

 Learning can occur by observing a behavior and by observing the outcomes of the
behavior (known as vicarious reinforcement).

 Learning includes observation, extraction of information from those observations, and

making decisions regarding the performance of the behavior (known as observational
learning or modeling). Thus, learning can occur beyond an observable change in
behavior.

 Reinforcement plays an important role in learning but is not completely responsible for
learning.

 The learner is not a passive receiver of information. Understanding, environment, and

behavior all mutually influence each other
This theory hugely relies on the concept of modeling, or learning by observing a behavior. Three
types of modeling stimuli can be outlined based on this theory −

 Live Model − In this model, an actual person is demonstrating the expected behavior. A
single person leads the group towards the goal and demonstrates them the correct way to
achieve it efficiently. This is done usually by giving the group live examples or by
introducing them to the current working scenario as the situation demands.
 Verbal Instruction − In this model, an individual briefs the desired behavior in detail
and directs the group in how to behave, but the person demonstrating is not involved in
the process.
 Symbolic − This occurs by means of the media, It includes movies, television, internet,
literature, and radio. Stimuli is optional; it can be either real or fictional characters.

Methods of Shaping Individual Behavior

Till now we discussed about the causes of behavior and factors affecting them. But in this
chapter, we are going to study how to shape a person’s behavior. We have five ways of shaping
individual behavior with respect to their original conduct −

 Positive reinforcement
 Negative reinforcement
 Punishment
 Extinction
 Schedules of reinforcement
Let us try to understand all these unique methods one at a time.

Positive Reinforcement
It occurs when a desirable event or stimulus is given as an outcome of a behavior and the
behavior improves. A positive reinforcer is a stimulus event for which an individual will work
in order to achieve it.

For example − A company announces a rewards program in which employees earn prizes
depending on the number of items they sold.

Negative Reinforcement
It occurs when an aversive event or when a stimulus is removed or prevented from happening
and the rate of a behavior improves. A negative reinforcer is a stimulus event for which an
individual will work in order to terminate, to escape from, to postpone its occurrence.

For example − A company has a policy that an employee can have a Saturday off only if he
completes the assigned work by Friday.

Punishment
The creation of some unpleasant conditions to remove an undesirable behavior.

For example − A teenager comes home late and the parents take away the privilege of using the
cell phone.

Extinction
The process of eradicating any type of reinforcement causing any undesirable behavior.

For example − A child who crawls under the table to hide and seek attention, gradually stops
doing so when the attention is withdrawn.

Schedules of Reinforcement
The schedules of reinforcement can be of five types − continuous, fixed interval, variable
interval, fixed ratio, and variable ratio.

Continuous

A schedule of reinforcement in which every occurrence of the desired outcome is followed by

the one who reinforces. For example − Each time a child puts Rs. 1 in a candy machine and
presses the buttons he receives a candy bar.
Fixed interval

Conduct of reinforcement with intervals but sufficient enough to make the expected behavior
worth repeating. For example − Working of washing machine.

Variable interval

Conduct of reinforcement with an average of n amount of time. For example − Checking e-mail
or popping quizzes. Going fishing—we might catch a fish after 20 minutes

Fixed ratio

Oversight of reinforcement when rewards are spaced at uniform time intervals. For example −
Salary.

Variable ratio

Oversight of reinforcement when rewards are spaced at unpredictable time intervals. For
example − Commission in sales.

Group Behavior
A group can be defined as two or more interacting and interdependent individuals who come
together to achieve particular objectives. A group behavior can be stated as a course of action a
group takes as a family. For example − Strike.

Types of Groups
There are two types of groups individuals form. They are formal groups and informal groups. Let
us know about these groups.

Formal Groups

These are the type of work groups created by the organization and have designated work
assignments and rooted tasks. The behavior of such groups is directed toward achieving
organizational goals.

Formal groups can be further classified into two sub-groups −

 Command Group − It is a group consisting of individuals who report directly to the

manager.

 Interest Group − It is a group formed by individuals working together to achieve a

specific objective.
Informal Groups

These groups are formed with friendships and common interests.

These can be further classified into two sub-groups −

 Task group − Those working together to finish a job or task is known as a task group.
 Friendship group − Those brought together because of their shared interests or common
characteristics is known as friendship group.

For example − A group of workers working on a project and reporting to the same manager is
considered as command group, while a group of friends chilling out together is considered as an
interest group or say members of a club.

Why Do People Join Groups

There is no particular reason answering why individuals join groups. Group helps individuals to
feel stronger, have fewer self-doubts, and be more contrary to threats. The following points helps
us understand the need of joining a group by individuals.

 Security mirrors strength in numbers.

 Status pinpoints a prestige that comes from belonging to a specific group.
o Inclusion in a group is considered as important as it provides recognition and
status.
 Self-esteem transmits people's feeling of self-worth.
o Membership can sometimes raise feelings of self-esteem like being accepted into
a highly valued group.
 Affiliation with groups can meet one's social needs.
o Work groups significantly contribute to meet the need for friendships and social
relations.
 One of the appealing attitudes of groups is that they represent power.
o What mostly cannot be achieved individually becomes possible with group effort.
 Power might be aimed to protect themselves from unreasonable demands.
 Informal groups additionally provide options for individuals to practice power.
 Finally, people may join a group for goal achievement.
o Sometimes it takes more than one person to accomplish a particular task.

Group Roles
The concept of roles is applicable to all employees within an organization as well as to their life
outside the organization. A role is a set of expected behavior patterns attributed to the one who
occupies the position demanded by the social unit.
Individuals play multiple roles at the same time. Employees attempt to understand what kind of
behavior is expected from them. An individual when presented by divergent role expectations
experiences role conflict.

Group roles are divided into three types −

Task-oriented Roles

Roles allotted to individuals according to their work and eligibility is known as task-oriented
roles. Task-oriented roles can broadly divide individuals into six categories initiator, informer,
clarifier, summarizer, reality tester and information seekers or providers respectively.

 Initiator − The one who proposes, suggests, defines.

 Informer − The one who offers facts, expresses feelings, gives opinions.
 Clarifier − The one who interprets, defines, clarifies everything.
 Summarizer − The one who links, restates, concludes, summarizes.
 Reality Tester − The one who provides critical analysis.
 Information seekers or providers − The one who gives information and data.

These roles present the work performed by different individual according to their marked
designation.

Relationship-oriented Roles

Roles that group individuals according to their efforts made to maintain healthy relationship in
the group and achieve the goals are known as relationship-oriented roles. There are five
categories of individuals in this category − harmonizer, gate keeper, consensus tester,
encourager, and compromiser.

 Harmonizer − The one who limits tension and reconciles disagreements.

 Gate Keeper − The one who ensures participation by all.
 Consensus Tester − The one who analyzes the decision-making process.
 Encourager − The one who is warm, responsive, active, shows acceptance.
 Compromiser − The one who admits error and limits conflict.

These roles depict the various roles an individual plays to maintain healthy self as well as group
relationships.

Individual Roles

Roles that classify a person according to the measure of individual effort put in the project aimed
is known as individual roles. Five types of individuals fall into these roles − aggressor, blocker,
dominator, cavalier, and avoidance.

 Aggressor − The one who devalues others, attacks ideas.

  Blocker − The one who disagrees and rebels beyond reason.
 Dominator − The one who insists superiority to manipulate.
 Cavalier − The one who takes part in a group non-productively.
 Avoidance − The one who shows special interest to avoid task.

These are the various roles a person plays in an organization.

Well-Functioning Groups
We know what a group is, why it is important to form a group, and what the group-oriented roles
are. Now we need to know how to mark a group as a well-functioning group, what features are
necessary for a group to mark it as an efficient one.

A group is considered effective when it has the following characteristics −

 Atmosphere is relaxed, comfortable, and friendly.

 Task to be executed are well understood and accepted.
 Members listen well and actively participate in given assignments.
 Assignments are made clear and are accepted.
 Group is acquainted of its operation and function.
 People express their feelings and ideas openly.
 Consensus decision-making process is followed.
 Conflict & disagreement center regarding ideas or method.

Group Behavior – Example

Let us understand group behavior with the help of an example.

To work on a specific project, we make a group of four members: Rohit, Raj, Sid, and Rahul. It
is not possible for anyone of them to complete the project individually, as it may be time-
consuming as well as not all the members as individuals have mastered the skills required to
complete the project. This indicates the need to come together as a group.

Moving ahead, now let us specify their roles. Rohit is the initiator as he proposes the idea of the
project. Raj collects all the information and resources required for the project and becomes the
informer. Sid is the clarifier as he interprets the data and saves refined information, while Rahul
is the summarizer as he concludes the result of project stating what is to be achieved by the end
of the project. These are the task-oriented roles.

When a group of people come together and present their ideas there is a fair chance of collision.
Rohit tries to resolve all the disagreements and disputes in the first place and acts as a
harmonizer, Sid makes sure that everybody is giving their full support and effort in the project
and acts as a gate keeper, Raj is the one encouraging everyone and motivating them when they
fail to try harder to complete the project and is the encourager, and Rahul tests the project at each
stage and examines the major decision to be made and is acts as the consensus tester. These are
the relationship-oriented roles of each member.

Individually each of them have different tasks to fulfill. Rohit tries to be the group leader and
impose his ideas on others and we consider him as the dominator, Rahul is always up with
excuses to avoid the task given to him and acts as avoider, Raj is the one who opposes
everything but is never up with some new idea and becomes the blocker and Sid takes part in
every group activity in a non-productive way and becomes the cavalier.

Five Stage Model of Group Development

A team cannot be expected to perform well right from the time it is formed. Forming a team is
just like maintaining a relationship. It takes time, patience, requires support, efforts and members
often go through recognizable stages as they change from being a collection of strangers to a
united group with common goals.

Bruce Tuckman presented a model of five stages Forming, Storming, Norming, and Performing
in order to develop as a group.

Orientation (Forming Stage)

The first stage of group development is the forming stage. This stage presents a time where the
group is just starting to come together and is described with anxiety and uncertainty.

Members are discreet with their behavior, which is driven by their desire to be accepted by all
members of the group. Conflict, controversy, misunderstanding and personal opinions are
avoided even though members are starting to form impressions of each other and gain an
understanding of what the group will do together.
Typical consequences of the forming stage include achieving an understanding of the group's
purpose, determining how the team is going to be organized and who will be responsible for
what, discussion of major milestones or phases of the group's goal that includes a rough project
schedule, outlining general group rules that includes when they will meet and discovery of what
resources will be available for the group to use.

At this stage, group members are learning what to do, how the group is going to operate, what is
expected, and what is acceptable.

Power Struggle (Storming Stage)

The second stage of group development is the storming stage. The storming stage is where
dispute and competition are at its greatest because now group members have an understanding of
the work and a general feel of belongingness towards the group as well as the group members.

This is the stage where the dominating group members emerge, while the less confrontational
members stay in their comfort zone.

Questions around leadership, authority, rules, policies, norms, responsibilities, structure,

evaluation criteria and reward systems tend to arise during the storming stage. Such questions
need to be answered so that the group can move further on to the next stage.

Cooperation and Integration (Norming Stage)

In this stage, the group becomes fun and enjoyable. Group interaction are lot more easier, more
cooperative, and productive, with weighed give and take, open communication, bonding, and
mutual respect.

If there is a dispute or disruption, it’s comparatively easy to be resolved and the group gets back
on track.

Group leadership is very important, but the facilitator can step back a little and let group
members take the initiative and move forward together.

Synergy (Performing Stage)

Once a group is clear about its needs, it can move forward to the third stage of group
development, the norming stage. This is the time where the group becomes really united.

At this stage, the morale is high as group members actively acknowledge the talents, skills and
experience that each member brings to the group. A sense of belongingness is established and the
group remains focused on the group's purpose and goal.

Members are flexible, interdependent, and trust each other. Leadership is distributive and
members are willing to adapt according to the needs of the group.
Closure (Adjourning Stage)
This stage of a group can be confusing and is usually reached when the task is successfully
completed. At this stage, the project is coming to an end and the team members are moving off in
different directions.

This stage looks at the team from the perspective of the well-being of the team instead of the
perspective of handling a team through the original four stages of team growth.

Group Structure
Group structure is defined as the layout of a group. It is a combination of group roles, norms,
conformity, workplace behavior, status, reference groups, status, social loafing, cohorts, group
demography and cohesiveness.

 Group Roles − The different roles a person plays as a part of the group.
 Norms − The typical standard set by the group collaboratively that every member has to
follow.
 Conformity − The decisions or stand taken by majority in the group.
 Workplace behavior − The ethics that one needs to follow while working with an
organization.
 Status − The designation of members in the group.
 Social Loafing − The phenomena where group members put less effort towards
achieving a goal than they would have while working alone.
 Cohorts − Sharing common behavior in the group.
 Reference Groups − Other groups to which a group is compared to.
 Group Demography − Extent of sharing same behavior.
 Cohesiveness − Extent of belongingness towards each other in the group.

Roles
Roles are a set of expected behavior patterns associated to someone occupying a given position
in a social unit. There are three broad types of roles people play in small groups −

 Task roles
 Building and maintenance roles
 Self-centered roles

Task Roles

Task roles are roles that focus on completing group’s goal. The different task roles of a group are
stated below −
  Coordinator − Links statements made by one group member to another.

Example − “Gita’s comment relate well to what Ram was saying.”

 Energizer − Provokes group to take action.

Example − “How many of you are willing to bring in a video on dispute for the next
session?”

 Elaborator − Extends upon another’s ideas.

Example − “I think what Niki and Anni are suggesting is that we first explain
nonverbally before we turn to verbal communication.”

 Evaluator-critic − Evaluates the group’s work against higher standards.

Example − “This is okay, but I think Shree needs to give more feedback.”

 Information-giver − Gives helpful information.

Example − “Rohit has some books about conflict we could use.”

 Information-seeker − Questions for clarification.

Example − “Richa or Trishala, could you please tell me what you said about
disconfirming responses?”

 Recorder − Keeps notes regarding the meeting.

Example − “Last session we did not get to A-P’s presentation. Rahul and Rohit had just
finished theirs.”

 Procedural Technician − Takes accountability for tasks.

Example − “I checked out the VCR for Nigaar and Neha’s presentations.”

Group-Building / Maintenance Roles

It focuses on building interpersonal relationships and maintaining harmony. The various

maintenance roles in a group are −

 Encourager − Gives positive feedback.

Example − “I think what Shyam was saying was totally right.”

  Follower − Obtains ideas of others in the group.

Example − “Let’s follow Adi’s plan—he had the right idea.”

 Compromiser − Attempts to reach a solution acceptable by everyone.

Example − “Pratik, Sid, and Nimmi have offered three great solutions. Why don’t we
integrate them?”

 Gatekeeper − Assists participation from everyone in the group.

Example − “I don’t think we’ve heard from Madhuri yet.”

 Harmonizer − Limits conflict and tension.

Example − “After that test, we deserve a free meal!”

 Observer − Examines group progress.

Example − “I think we’ve learned a lot so far. Monica and Mona gave us great
information.”

Self-centered Roles

These roles aim to impede or disrupt the group from reaching its goals. The various self-centered
roles in a group are as follows −

 Aggressor − Acts aggressively towards other group members and their ideas.

Example − “Playing desert survival is the greatest idea I’ve ever heard.”

 Dominator − Dominates group speaking time.

Example − Interrupting—“I’m going to tell you seven reasons why this is a great idea.”

 Blocker − Refuses to collaborate with other’s ideas.

Example − “I refuse to play Family Swap.”

 Help-Seeker − Acts helpless to neglect work.

Example − “I don’t think I can put together a summary. Why don’t you do it for me?”

 Loafer − Refrains from work.

 Example − “Why don’t we just go have coffee instead of finishing this project?”

 Special Interest Advocate − Presents own viewpoint and requirements.

Example − “I can’t meet today. I need to sleep early and call my mom.”

 Self-confessor − Talks about the topics important to self and not the group.

Example − “I really like tea. Yesterday I went to CCD. Their coffee is better than what
you get elsewhere . . .”

Norms
Norms are the acceptable standards of behavior within a group that are shared by the group
members. Every group develops its own customs, values, habits and expectations for how things
need to be done.

These patterns and expectations, or group norms as they're called sometimes, direct the ways
team members interact with each other.

Norms can help or block a group in achieving its goals.

Types of Norms

There are four different types of norms that exist in a group −

 Performance norms
 Appearance Norms
 Social arrangement norms
 Resource allocation norms

Performance Norms

These are centered on how hard a person should work in a given group. They are informal clues
that help a person understand how hard they should work and what type of output they should
give.

For example − Team leader puts various posters in the firm to motivate employees to work
efficiently and give their best performance.

Appearance Norms

Appearance norms updates or guides us as to how we should look or what our physical
appearance should be, like what fashion we should wear or how we should style our hair or any
number of areas related to how we should look.
For example − There is a formal dress code we need to follow while working in a organization,
we cannot wear a wedding gown to a board meeting.

Social Arrangement Norms

This norm is basically centered on how we should behave in social settings. Again here, there are
clues we need to pick up on when we are out with friends or at social events that help us fit in
and get a closer connection to the group.

For Example − We cannot take our official work to a friend’s birthday party just for the sake of
completing it.

Resource Allocation Norms

This norm focusses on the allocation of resources in a business surrounding. This may include
raw materials as well as working overtime or any other resource found or needed within an
organization.

For Example − If the client needs the project by tomorrow then anyhow it has to be completed by
using available resources or doing over time.

Conformity
Conformity can be stated as “accommodating to group pressures”. It is also called as the majority
influence or we can say the group pressure.

It is widely used to indicate an agreement to the majority position, brought about either by a
desire to fit-in or be liked or because of a desire to be correct, or simply to conform to a social
role.

Types of Social Conformity

Three types of conformity can be identified −

 Normative Conformity
 Informational Conformity
 Ingratiational Conformity

Normative Conformity

Yielding to group pressure because an individual wants to fit in with the group. Conforming
usually takes place because the individual is scared of being rejected or neglected by the group.

This type of conformity usually includes compliance like where a person publicly accepts the
views of a group but privately rejects them.
Informational Conformity

This usually happens when a person lacks knowledge and looks to the group for guidance. Or
when a person is not clear about a situation and socially compares one’s behavior with the group.

This type of conformity includes internalization like where a person accepts the views of the
groups and adopts them as an individual.

Ingratiational Conformity

Where a person conforms to gain a favor or acceptance from other people. It is relative to
normative influence but is encouraged by the need for social rewards rather than the threat of
being rejected.

In other words, group pressure is not always the reason to conform.

Harvard psychologist, Herbert Kelman, identified three different types of conformity −

 Compliance − Socially changing behavior in order to fit in with the group while
disagreeing privately. In simple words, conforming to the mass, in spite of not really
agreeing with them.
 Internalization − Socially changing behavior to fit in with the group and also agreeing
with them privately.
 Identification − Agreeing to the expectations of a social role. It is similar to compliance,
but there is no change in private opinion.

Reference Groups
It is a group to which a person or another group is compared. Reference groups are used in order
to examine and determine the nature of a person or other group's features and sociological
attributes.

It is the group to which a person relates or aspires to link himself or herself psychologically. It
becomes the individual's frame of reference and source to derive his or her experiences,
perceptions, needs, and ideas of self.

These groups act as a benchmark and contrast needed for comparison and evaluation of group
and personal characteristics.

Status
Status is a socially defined position or rank given to groups or group members by others. A
group structure status includes group norms, culture, status equity. All these factors when
combined presents the status of members of the group.
Social Loafing
It is the phenomenon of people exerting less effort to achieve a goal when they work as a group
than when they work alone.

This is one of the main reasons why groups are sometimes less productive than the combined
performance of their members working as individuals, but should be recognized from the
accidental coordination problems that groups sometimes experience.

Many of the causes of social loafing arise from an individual feeling that his or her effort will not
matter to the group.

Cohorts & Group Demography

Individuals who, as a part of a group, share a common attribute are known as cohorts. Group
demography is the level to which a member of a group can share a common demographic
attribute with his fellow team members. Group demography is a successful ploy in increasing the
efficiency of a team in the long run.

For Example − Age, sex, religion, region, length of the service in the organization and the impact
of this attribute on turnover.

Cohesiveness
Extent to which group members are attracted towards each other, and are encouraged to stay in
the group. Group cohesion is the aggregate of all the factors causing members of a group to stay
in the group or be attracted to the group. Group cohesion acts as the social glue that binds a
group together. Some people think that work teams illustrating strong group cohesion will
function and perform better in achieving work goals.

Group cohesion is not attributed to one single factor, but is the interaction of more than one
factor. While group cohesion may have an impact on group performance, group performance
may create or increase group cohesion. Thus, group cohesion can actually have a negative impact
on group task performance.

The most influential factor that creates a positive relationship between group cohesion and group
performance is the group members' commitment towards the organization's performance goals
and norms.

Deviant Workplace Behavior

Workplace deviance can take the form of bitterness towards co-workers. Organizations usually
strive to create an atmosphere of conformity and teamwork to achieve maximum productivity
and create a healthy corporate culture.
In organizations of any size, deviant behavior can occur, which can sabotage the work. There are
usually two types of deviant behavior −

Aggressive Behavior
Workplace deviance can sometimes take the form of aggressive behavior. In diverse work
environments, deviance may occur when workers display intolerance of co-workers of different
nationalities or cultures.

Some common examples include: sexual harassment, bullying and showing open hostility
towards co-workers.

Unproductive Behavior
Actions that disrupt or minimize productivity are also a form of workplace deviance. Common
examples of this type of deviant behavior include: Workers who waste their time by standing
around the water cooler, taking the "scenic route" while making sales calls or extending the time
it takes to complete a task that slows down productivity.

Some other examples include showing up late for work, calling in sick when in perfect health,
sneaking out early or taking long lunch or coffee breaks.

Some other types of deviant behavior include the following −

Abuse of Property

It includes using company vehicles for personal errands, damaging company equipment or
defacing work areas, taking home office supplies or failing to return items borrowed from the
company and many more.

Company Politics

This occurs in many workplaces and is considered as a part of workplace deviance. A worker
may spread false rumors or gossip about another in an effort to gain promotion or more favorable
work assignment.

Supervisors who are partial towards one employee over another or prevent deserving employees
from career advancement are also guilty of committing a deviant act.

Employees who are actively engaged in gossip sessions can have a negative impact on employee
morale.

Group Decision-Making
Group decision-making commonly known as collaborative decision-making is a situation faced
when individuals collectively make a choice from the alternatives before them.

The decision is then no longer attributable to any individual group member as all the individuals
and social group processes like social influence contribute to the decision outcome.

The decisions made by groups are mostly different from those made by individuals. For example
− groups tend to make decisions that are more extreme than those made by individual members,
as individual’s tend to be biased.

Advantages of Group Decision-Making

Group decision-making has two advantages over individual decision-making.

Synergy

It is the idea that the whole is greater than the aggregate of its parts. When a group makes a
decision collectively, its judgment can be powerful than that of any of its members. Through
discussing, questioning, and collaborative approach, group members can identify more complete
and robust solutions and recommendations.

Sharing of Information

Group decisions take into account a wider scope of information as each group member may
contribute distinct information and expertise. Sharing information increases understanding,
clarifies issues, and facilitates movement towards a collective decision.

Disadvantages of Group Decision-Making

The major disadvantages of group decision-making are as follows −

Diffusion of Responsibility

Group decision making results in distribution of responsibility that results in lack of

accountability for outcomes. In this way, everyone is responsible for a decision, and no one
really is.

Moreover, group decisions can make it easier for members to refuse personal responsibilities and
blame others for bad decisions.

Lower Efficiency

Group decisions can sometimes be less efficient than individual decisions. It takes additional
time because there is a need of active participation, discussion, and coordination among group
members.
Without good facilitation and structure, meetings can get eliminated in trivial details that may
matter a lot to one person but not to the others.

Groupthink

One of the biggest disadvantage of effective group decision making is groupthink. It is a

psychological phenomenon that occurs within a group of people in which the wish for harmony
or conformity results in an illogical or dysfunctional decision-making outcome.

By refraining themselves from outside influences and actively suppressing opposing viewpoints
in the interest of minimizing conflict, group members reach a consensus decision without critical
evaluation of substitute viewpoints.

Groupthink sometimes produces dehumanizing actions against the out-group.

GroupThink & GroupShift

There is a major difference between group discussion, group decision making, groupthink and
groupshift. In order to maintain a well-functioning group, one should encourage group
discussions and collaborative decision making but in the same place should try to eliminate
groupthink and groupshift.

It sounds a bit confusing now but by the end of this chapter we will get a clear idea about these
two topics.

Groupthink
Sometimes we feel like speaking up in a meeting, classroom, or informal group, but decide
against it. Why?

Mainly due to shyness, or we may have been victim of groupthink. The phenomenon that arises
when group members become so enamored of seeking concurrence that the norm for consensus
alters the realistic appraisal of substitute courses of action and the full expression of deviant,
minority or unpopular views.

It worsens an individual’s mental efficiency, reality, testing, and moral judgment due to group
pressure.

The symptoms of the groupthink phenomena are −

 Group members justify any resistance to the assumptions they have made. No matter how
firmly the evidence contradicts their basic assumptions, members behave in way so as to
reinforce those assumptions continually.
  Members apply direct pressure on those who briefly present their doubts about any of the
views shared by the group or the one who question’s the validity of arguments supporting
the substitute favored by the majority.
 Members reserving doubt or holding contradicting viewpoints seek to avoid deviation
from what appears to be group consensus, by maintaining silence about misgivings and
minimizing the importance of their doubts to themselves.
 An illusion of unanimity appears in the picture. If someone doesn’t speak, it is assumed
that he or she is in favor. In other words, silence becomes viewed as a ‘Yes’ vote.

Groupshift
In balancing group decisions with the individual decisions of members within the group,
evidence hints that there are differences. In some cases, the group decisions are more timid than
the individual decisions. More often, the shift is close to greater risk.

What appears to happen in groups is that the discussion results in a significant shift in a position
of members towards a more extreme position in the direction in which they were already leaning
before the discussion.

So conservative types become more cautious and the more intrusive types take on more risk. The
group discussion tends to fabricate the initial position of the group.

Group shift is the phenomena in which individual decisions make way for exaggerated group
decisions. Group shift can be seen as a special case of groupthink.

The decision of the group shows the dominant decision-making norm that is developed during
the group’s discussion. Whether the shift in the group’s decision is towards greater deliberation
or more risk depends on the dominant pre-discussion norm.

The greater episode of the shift towards risk has generated several explanations for the
phenomenon. It has been argued, for instance, that the discussion creates familiarization between
members. As they become more comfortable with each other, they also become more bold,
confident and daring.

Group decisions free any single individual from accountability for the group’s final choice.
Greater risk can be taken as even if the decision fails, no single individual can be held wholly
responsible.

Techniques to Eliminate Groupthink & Groupshift

In order to eliminate group think and group shift from a group, we can use four different
techniques that will help us make a collaborative decision that is best for the group. These
techniques are −

 Brainstorming
  Nominal group thinking
 Didactic technique
 Delphi technique

Brainstorming

This technique includes a group of people, mostly between five and ten in number, sitting around
a table, producing ideas in the form of free association. The main focus is on generation of ideas
and not on evaluation of these ideas.

If more ideas can be originated, then it is likely that there will be a unique and creative idea
among them. All these ideas are written on the blackboard with a piece of chalk so that all the
team members can see every idea and try to improvise these ideas.

Brainstorming technique is very effective when the problem is comparatively precise and can be
simply defined. A complex problem can be divided into parts and each part can be dealt with
separately at a time.

Nominal Group Thinking

This technique is similar to brainstorming except that this approach is more structured. It
motivates individual creativity.

Members form the group for namesake and operate independently, originate ideas for solving the
problem on their own, in silence and in writing. Members do not communicate well with each
other so that strong personality domination is evaded.

The group coordinator either collects the written ideas or writes them on a large blackboard so
that each member of the group can see what the ideas are.

These ideas are further discussed one by one in turn and each participant is motivated to
comment on these ideas in order to clarify and improve them. After all these ideas have been
discussed, they are evaluated for their merits and drawbacks and each actively participating
member is needed to vote on each idea and allot it a rank on the basis of priority of each
alternative solution.

The idea with the highest cumulative ranking is selected as the final solution to the problem.

Didactic Interaction

This technique is applicable only in certain situations, but is an excellent method when a
situation actually demands it.

The type of problem should be such that it generates output in the form of yes or no. Say for
example, a decision is to be made whether to buy or not to buy a product, to merge or not to
merge, to expand or not to expand and so on. These types of decision requires an extensive and
exhaustive discussion and investigation since a wrong decision can have serious consequences.

There are many advantages as well as disadvantages of this type of situation. The group that
makes the decision is divided into two sub-groups, one in favor of the “go” decision and the
opposing in favor of the “no go” decision.

The first group enlists all the “pros” of the problem solution and the second group lists all the
“cons”. These groups meet and discuss their discoveries and their reasons.

After tiring discussions, the groups switch sides and try to find weaknesses in their own original
standpoints. This interchange of ideas and understanding of various viewpoints results in mutual
acceptance of the facts as they exist so that a solution can be put together around these facts and
ultimately a final decision is reached.

Delphi Technique

This technique is the improvised version of the nominal group technique, except that it involves
obtaining the opinions of experts physically distant from each other and unknown to each other.

This isolates group members from the undue influence of others. Basically, the types of problems
sorted by this technique are not specific in nature or related to a particular situation at a given
time.

Say for example, the technique could be used to explain the problems that could be created in the
event of a war. The Delphi technique includes the following steps −

 The problem is first identified and a panel of experts are selected. These experts are asked
to provide potential solutions through a series of thoughtfully designed questionnaires.
 Each expert concludes and returns the initial questionnaire.
 The results of the questionnaire are composed at a central location and the central
coordinator prepares a second set of questionnaire based on the previous answers.
 Each member receives a copy of the results accompanied by the second questionnaire.
 Members are required to review the results and respond to the second questionnaire. The
results typically trigger new solutions or motivate changes in the original ideas.
 The process is repeated until a general agreement is obtained.

Importance, Challenges and Opportunities

of OB
Theintactfront 18 Jun 2019 3 Comments
Importance of Organizational Behavior

1. It builds better relationship by achieving people’s, organizational, and social objectives.

2. It covers a wide array of human resource like behavior, training and development, change
management, leadership, teams etc.
3. It brings coordination which is the essence of management.
4. It improves goodwill of the organization.
5. It helps to achieve objectives quickly.
6. It makes optimum utilization of resources.
7. It facilitates motivation.
8. It leads to higher efficiency.
9. It improves relations in the organization.
10. It is multidisciplinary, in the sense that applies different techniques, methods, and theories to
evaluate the performances.

Challenges and Opportunities of Organizational Behavior

Challenges and opportunities of organizational behavior are massive and rapidly changing for
improving productivity and meeting business goals.

Although the problems with organizations and the solutions over the ages have not really
changed, the emphasis and surrounding environmental context certainly have changed.

Although the resulting lean and mean organizations offered some short-run benefits in terms of
lowered costs and improved productivity, if they continued to do business, as usual, they would
not be able to meet current or future challenges.

Main challenges and opportunities of organizational behavior are;

1. Improving Peoples’ Skills

Technological changes, structural changes, environmental changes are accelerated at a faster rate
in the business field.

Unless employees and executives are equipped to possess the required skills to adapt those
changes, the targeted goals cannot be achieved in time. These two different categories of skills –
managerial skills and technical skills.

Some of the managerial skills include listening skills, motivating skills, planning and organizing
skills, leading skills, problem-solving skill, decision-making skills etc.

These skills can be enhanced by organizing a series of training and development programs,
career development programs, induction, and socialization etc.

2. Improving Quality and Productivity

Organizational Behavior Opportunities for Improving Quality and Productivity

Quality is the extent to which the customers or users believe the product or service surpasses
their needs and expectations.

For example, a customer who purchases an automobile has a certain expectation, one of which is
that the automobile engine will start when it is turned on.

3. Total Quality Management (TQM)

It is a philosophy of management that is driven by the constant attainment of customer

satisfaction through the continuous improvement of all organizational process.

The components of TQM are;

(a) An intense focus on the customer,

(b) Concern for continual improvement,

(c) Improvement in the quality of everything the organization does,

(d) Accurate measurement and,

(e) Empowerment of employees.

4. Managing Workforce Diversity

This refers to employing different categories of employees who are heterogeneous in terms of
gender, race, ethnicity, relation, community, physically disadvantaged, elderly people etc.

The primary reason to employ heterogeneous category of employees is to tap the talents and
potentialities, harnessing the innovativeness, obtaining synergetic effect among the divorce
workforce.

In general, employees wanted to retain their individual and cultural identity, values and life
styles even though they are working in the same organization with common rules and
regulations.

The major challenge for organizations is to become more accommodating to diverse groups of
people by addressing their different life styles, family needs, and work styles.

5. Responding to Globalization

Today’s business is mostly market driven; wherever the demands exist irrespective of distance,
locations, climatic Conditions, the business
Operations are expanded to gain their market share and to remain in the top rank etc. Business
operations are no longer restricted to a particular locality or region.

Company’s products or services are spreading across the nations using mass communication, the
internet, faster transportation etc. More than 95% of Nokia (Now Microsoft) hand phones are
being sold outside of their home country Finland.

Japanese cars are being sold in different parts of the globe. Sri Lankan tea is exported to many
cities around the globe

Garment products of Bangladesh are exporting in USA and EU countries. Executives of

Multinational Corporation are very mobile and move from one subsidiary to another more
frequently.

6. Empowering People

The main issue is delegating more power and responsibility to the lower level cadre of
employees and assigning more freedom to make choices about their schedules, operations,
procedures and the method of solving their work-related problems.

Encouraging the employees to participate in work related decision will sizable enhance their
commitment to work.

Empowerment is defined as putting employees in charge of what they do by eliciting some sort
of ownership in them.

Managers are doing considerably further by allowing employees full control of their work.

Due to the implementation of empowerment concepts across all the levels, the relationship
between managers and the employees is reshaped.

Managers will act as coaches, advisors, sponsors, facilitators and help their subordinates to do
their task with minimal guidance.

7. Coping with Temporariness

In recent times, the product life cycles are slimming, the methods of operations are improving,
and fashions are changing very fast. In those days, the managers needed to introduce major
change programs once or twice a decade.

Today, change is an ongoing activity for most managers.

The concept of continuous improvement implies constant change.

In yesteryears, there used to be a long period of stability and occasionally interrupted by a short
period of change, but at present, the change process is an ongoing activity due to competitiveness
in developing new products and services with better features.

Everyone in the organization faces today is one of permanent temporariness. The actual jobs that
workers perform are in a permanent state of flux.

So, workers need to continually update their knowledge and skills to perform new job
requirements.

8. Stimulating Innovation and Change

Today’s successful organizations must foster innovation and be proficient in the art of change;
otherwise, they will become candidates for extinction in due course of time and vanished from
their field of business.

Victory will go to those organizations that maintain flexibility, continually improve their quality,
and beat the competition to the market place with a constant stream of innovative products and
services.

For example, Compaq succeeded by creating more powerful personal computers for the same or
less money than EBNM or Apple, and by putting their products to market quicker than the bigger
competitors.

Amazon.com is putting a lot of independent bookstores out of business as it proves you can
successfully sell books from an Internet website.

9. Emergence of E-Organization & E-Commerce

It refers to the business operations involving the electronic mode of transactions. It encompasses
presenting products on websites and filling the order.

The vast majority of articles and media attention given to using the Internet in business are
directed at online shopping.

In this process, the marketing and selling of goods and services are being carried out over the
Internet.

In e- commerce, the following activities are being taken place quite often – the tremendous
numbers of people who are shopping on the Internet, business houses are setting up websites
where they can sell goods, conducting the following transactions such as getting paid and
fulfilling orders.

It is a dramatic change in the way a company relates to its customers. At present e-commerce is
exploding. Globally, e-commerce spending was increasing at a tremendous rate.
10. Improving Ethical Behavior

The complexity in business operations is forcing the workforce to face ethical dilemmas, where
they are required to define right and wrong conduct in order to complete their assigned activities.

For example,

 Should the employees of chemical company blow the whistle if they uncover the discharging its
untreated effluents into the river are polluting its water resources?
 Do managers give an inflated performance evaluation to an employee they like, knowing that
such an evaluation could save that employee’s job?

11. Improving Customer Service

OB can contribute to improving an organizational performance by showing drat how employees’

attitude and behavior are associated with customer satisfaction.

In that case, service should be the first production oriented by using technological opportunities
like a computer, the internet etc.

To improve the customer service need to provide sales service and also the after sales service.

What are the best ways to motivate employees and increase productivity? This is a crucial
question for just about anyone in a workplace leadership role.

And, while leadership experts may agree with Aubrey Daniels that “positive reinforcement is the
most powerful leadership tool” (Daniels, 1982), managers often find themselves overwhelmed
by the multitude of factors involved in just how, when, and where to administer it.

By sharing this wealth of information, readers are provided with the essential ingredients for
creating a reward rich environment in which employees do not merely survive but actually
flourish (Lewis, 2011).

If you wish to learn more, our Positive Relationships Masterclass© is a complete, science-
based training template for practitioners, coaches and workplaces that contains all the materials
you’ll need to help those around you improve their personal and professional relationships.

This article contains:

 What is Positive Reinforcement in the Workplace?

 33 Examples of Positive Reinforcement at Work
 Its Effectiveness Compared to Negative Reinforcement
 Research and Studies
 11 Interesting Statistics
 How to Give Positive Reinforcement to Employees
 Techniques and Strategies for Using Positive Reinforcement with Adults
  9 Ideas for Implementing Positive Reinforcement
 25 Reward Ideas for Adults
 A Take Home Message
 References

In this article, we will disentangle these relationships by delving deeper into the concept of
positive reinforcement in the workplace. In doing so, relevant definitions are provided; and
optimal strategies and leadership styles for administering positive reinforcement are described.
And of course, numerous examples of positive reinforcement techniques for the workplace are
offered.

What is Positive Reinforcement in the Workplace?

The concept of positive reinforcement is actually pretty simple: If you reward a behavior, it is
more likely to be repeated. And whether you’re talking about potty training, dog training or
learning a new job skill; the same principles introduced by Skinner in the early 20th century still
apply.

Skinner was clearly a strong advocate of positive reinforcement strategies, rhetorically asking

“What is love except another name for the use of positive reinforcement? Or vice versa” (B.F.
Skinner, 1974),

According to Skinner’s operant learning theory (1938), by adding a rewarding stimulus (e.g.,
an operant) after a desired behavior, that behavior becomes reinforced and is thus more likely to
occur again. There is a lot more to Skinner’s theory (i.e., negative reinforcement, response types,
schedules of reinforcement, etc.), but the basic concept of positive reinforcement is this:

Reward the behaviors you want to see repeated. As such, the term ‘positive reinforcement’ is
often used synonymously with ‘reward.’

Why It Matters At Work

So, let’s now consider the importance of positive reinforcement in the workplace. First of all, we
spend a significant portion of our lives at our jobs. For example, if you imagine working full-
time (e.g., 40 hours per week) for 30 years, this actually adds-up to one-third of your life spent at
work – a number that has only increased over time due to higher life expectancies and a later
average age of retirement.

Given this lifetime investment of time and talent, it makes sense that one’s work environment
should be pleasant with many positive opportunities for growth and advancement. Moreover,
from an employer standpoint; employee turnover, or churn, is really expensive to an
organization. For example, economic turnover costs have been estimated as high as 213% of a
year’s salary for a highly skilled job (Boushey & Glynn, 2012).

Consequently, it is in an employer’s best interest to provide a rewarding atmosphere that

encourages productivity and motivation; and that discourages turnover – especially undesirable
turnover (i.e., the loss of valued employees; Mayhew, 2019).

After all, going as far back as 1946, there is ample evidence supporting the motivating impact of
simply feeling appreciated for a job well done (Wiley, 1997).

Effective Leadership

The two underlying purposes of workplace positive reinforcement are:

1. To acknowledge a desired behavior; and

2. To encourage a desired behavior.

Of course, such acts of intentional acknowledgement and encouragement require effective

leadership that is both motivating and inspiring. Researchers have described a particular
management style termed transformational leadership that promotes motivation by inspiring
employees to do their best (Cleavenger & Munyon, 2013).

Pulitzer Prize winner James MacGregor Burns describes the underlying agenda of
transformational leadership as:

“… the protection and nourishing of happiness, for extending the opportunity to pursue
happiness to all people” (Burns, 2003, p. 3).

Transformational leadership is highly pertinent to positive reinforcement because it is concerned

with enhancing the perceived meaningfulness of work. This objective is achieved by
reinforcing various types of positive behaviors, such as autonomy (which is supported by
providing employees credit for contributions and celebrating team successes); and task
significance (which is supported by acknowledging individual contributions).

In other words, effective

“managers help people see themselves as they are; Leaders help people to see themselves better
than they are” (Rohn, 2014).
Whatever the type of feedback might be, it is generally of higher quality when delivered in a
warm and safe environment (Cleavenger & Munyon, 2013).

It is these and other qualities of transformational leadership that promote effective employee-
manager relationships; which, in turn, enhance an employee’s ability to make rewarding and
meaningful career contributions.

Effective leaders possess a meaningful repertoire of reinforcement techniques, and they know
how to use them.

Whether the type of reinforcement is monetary compensation, verbal feedback, advancement

opportunities, or something else; it is important to recognize that the potency of a reward is
contingent upon the particular employee and what he/she finds rewarding.

The following list provides a comprehensive collection of workplace reinforcement examples

which are categorized based on the nature of the reward and the qualities it supports.

33 Examples of Positive Reinforcement at Work

Category: Approval, Empowerment/Voice, Growth & Self-efficacy

Never assume that an employee knows he/she is doing a good job. Support self-efficacy by
‘catching them doing well’ and praising their efforts.

Here are 6 examples:

1. Provide regular positive feedback for quality work

2. Provide opportunities to present work to colleagues
3. Provide opportunities to voice opinions
4. Provide opportunities for advancement
5. Provide flexible work assignments
6. Provide inspiring guest speakers
 

Category: Monetary/Benefits, Time-Off, Educational Support, Advancement

Whether in the form of salary, benefits, or paid time-off; the most powerful form of positive
reinforcement in the workplace is money. This being said, monetary compensation is only
reinforcing if delivered in proportion with performance.

Here are 10 examples:

1. Competitive salary
2. Monetary bonus or raise
3. Performance bonuses
4. Education reimbursement
5. Employee discounts
6. Added vacation days
7. Quality health insurance/benefits
8. Paid sick leave
9. Paid parental leave
10. Mental health allowance

Category: Work/life Balance, Emotional Well-being, Health, Socialization,

Family Needs, Office Environment

As employees spend a substantial number of hours at the workplace, creating a comfortable and
motivating space is more important than ever. This category is perhaps the most individualized,
requiring employers to really understand what motivates their staff.

Here are 17 examples:

1. Flexibility to work at home

 2. After work socials or happy hour
3. Onsite daycare services
4. Onsite gym
5. Increased lunch break
6. Travel opportunities
7. Staff celebrations/parties
8. Retreats
9. Free Parking
10. Desirable office space (i.e., private, window, etc.)
11. Desirable building space (i.e., kitchen, recreation area, windows, etc.)
12. Desirable work equipment (i.e., good computer, chair & desk options)
13. Gift cards
14. Pets allowed at the office
15. Free coffee
16. Free meals
17. Flexible dress code

How to Give Positive Reinforcement to Employees

While there is an inexhaustible list of potential workplace reinforcers; however, the effectiveness
of such reinforcers is contingent upon exactly how they are administered. Interested in achieving
performance-enhancing outcomes, clinical psychologist Aubrey C. Daniels, applied Skinner’s
behavioral theory toward the development of tools aimed at improving workplace motivation
and performance.

With his focus on employee behavior, Daniels created a company that applies positive
reinforcement techniques toward the development of tools aimed at improving work
performance. These tools that have achieved worldwide success in meeting Daniels’ objective.

Daniels’ philosophy and techniques are described in his comprehensive and oft cited book:
Bringing Out the Best in People—How to Apply the Astonishing Power of Positive
Reinforcement (Daniels, 1992). Drawing from Daniels’ work, Weatherly (2015) describes the
following approaches as important reinforcement tips for the workplace:

Abstract: The aim of this paper is to compare and contrast the theories of motivation and how
they are used to inspire employees to develop the drive to achieve. The importance of motivation
in organizations and job satisfaction is vital for the achievement of organizational goals and
objectives. The consequences of organizations operating without any purpose of motivation
towards its employees are far catastrophic, such as depression, turnover, burnout which can
derail the success of organizations. For organizations to make employees their biggest asset and
retention purposes, motivation should be a priority. The study tries to help organizations with
suggestions to cultivate conducive atmospheres and relationships for employees to work under,
to foster positive attitudes towards their work. A qualitative approach and theory based
application were considered for this study. theories of motivation
Keywords: Motivation, Job Satisfaction, Intrinsic, Extrinsic

Theories of Motivation and Their Application in Organizations: A Risk Analysis

1. Introduction
In all enterprises whether private or state owned, motivation plays a key role in driving
employees towards achieving their goals, organizational goals and to a certain extent the dreams
of their nations. There are many theories of motivation, and they mostly give a relation or
influence the outcomes of employee job satisfaction. There are three main theory categories,
namely content theories, process theories and contemporary theories (Saif, Nawaz, Jan & Khan,
2012). Generally speaking, these theories include Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, Herzberg’s
motivator-hygiene (or two-factor) theory, Alderfer’s Existence, Relatedness and Growth theory,
and McClelland’s needs theory. How motivation comes about and how it leads to satisfaction is
explained by process theories; theories that fall into this category include Porter-Lawler’s model
and expectancy theory by Vroom. Contemporary theories of motivation incorporate equity,
control and agency theory, as well as goal setting, reinforcement, and job design theory. The
theories of motivation maybe categorized according to their definitions and purpose but critical
analysis reveal that they are all linked, they lead to serving satisfaction in employees. The use of
both content and process theories must be put into practice to motivate employees effectively. In
extrinsic motivation, the factors (hygiene’s) that satisfy lower-level needs are different from
those (motivators) that satisfy or partially satisfy higher–level needs. If hygiene factors (factors
outside the job itself, such as working conditions, salary and incentive pay) are inadequate,
employees become dissatisfied. Instead of relying on hygiene’s, the manager interested in
creating a self-motivated workforce should emphasize job content or motivation factors.
Managers do this by enriching worker’s jobs so that the jobs are more challenging and by
providing feedback and recognition (Dessler, Barkhuizen, Bezuidenhout, Braine and Plessis,
2011, p433). Rewards as the main factor of motivation can also encourage retention within the
organization, and the broader employment relationship and social exchange are significant.
Motivation’s whole idea is to provide employees with sureties of job security, nice working
condition, loyalty and belonging to the enterprise, as well as the workforce given some
challenges. theories of motivation

2. Motivation
Locke (as cited by Saari and Judge, 2004, p396) defined motivation as “a pleasurable or positive
emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job experiences”. This definition draws
attention to two aspects, in particular, namely the emotional attachment an employee has to their
job, and the deliberate review of an employee’s work by the employer. According to David and
Anderzej (2010), motivation can be understood as cognitive decision making in which the
intension is to make the behavior that is aimed at achieving a certain goal through initiation and
monitoring. At work places, reviews are done using appraisals and appraisals at work have
predetermined standards, and their outcome may provoke an emotional reaction in the employee,
and this reaction will determine how satisfied or dissatisfied an employee is. Good marks in
reviews may reflect that an employee is satisfied and bad marks may reflect the opposite. In
every employee, motivation maybe because outside factors (extrinsic) such as rewards or within
an individual (intrinsic), desire to do better.

2.1 Job Satisfaction

For us to help understand underpinnings to motivation, we must first explore what job
satisfaction means because motivated employees will have a job satisfaction. According to
Kumar and Singh (2011, p.12), job satisfaction (or the lack thereof) depended on the employee’s
perception of the degree to which his work delivers those things that he desires – how well
outcomes are met or expectations perhaps even exceeded. Regardless of the actual circumstances
and situation, job satisfaction is an emotional response that cannot be seen, only inferred.
Jehanzeb, Rasheed, Rasheed and Aamir (2012, p.274) held a similar view, defined job
satisfaction as “a sensation employees have about their work environment and their expectations
toward work”. Depending on the rewards and incentives employees receive and management’s
motives for giving them, employees will respond to their work environment by being productive.
Organisations must be seen to support employees in their daily work in order to bring about
loyalty and improve retention by removing elements that may create dissatisfaction, while
bearing in mind that in a heterogeneous environment, with male and female employees from
different age groups, generations, and (to a certain extent) backgrounds, and with varying
qualifications or experience, no single element will produce either universal approbation or
collective disapproval. theories of motivation

3. Theories of Motivation
3.1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
According to Smith & Cronje (1992), the way Maslow’s theory is explained relies on the fact
that people want to increase what they want to achieve in life and their needs are prioritized
according to their importance. Deriving from the hierarchy of needs by Maslow, content theories
of job satisfaction revolve around employees’ needs and the factors that bring them a reasonable
degree of satisfaction (Saif et al., 2012). Based on the basic physical, biological, social and
psychological needs of human beings, Maslow came up with a five-stage theory that places the
needs of the individual in different categories and prioritizes their attainment. These categories,
in order of decreasing priority, are:
• physiological needs (food, shelter, clothing);
• safety and security needs (physical protection);
• social needs (association with others);
• esteem needs (receiving acknowledgement from others); and
• self-actualisation needs (the desire for accomplishment or to leave behind a legacy).
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs forms the basis of theories that try to explain job satisfaction.
Teachers, like all people, have needs that have to be satisfied. Besides the basic needs for food,
shelter and clothing, safety from physical, harm, and social interaction, they also need the
recognition and appreciation of students, colleagues, and parents.theories of motivation
3.2. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory/Motivator-Hygiene
Herzberg’s Two-factor theory, also known as Motivator-Hygiene, emanated from a study
conducted among accounts and engineers to determine what makes an individual feel good or
bad about their job (Saif et al., 2012). Regarding ‘satisfiers’, Herzberg noted that there were five
features of work that bring about satisfaction, namely achievement, recognition, the job itself,
responsibility and advancement. At the other end of the spectrum, Herzberg identified
institutional politics, the management approach, supervision, pay, relationships at work and
working conditions as factors that may demoralize employees. Golshan, Kaswuri, Agashahi and
Ismail (2011:12) assert that organizations are increasingly applying Herzberg’s theory to create
opportunities for “personal growth, enrichment and recognition” among their employees.
Employees should be promoted after completing certain stages of their career and should receive
recognition for special achievements – for example, when they produce exceptional results in
their subject areas; on a more basic level, they should also be given responsibility to determine
how to handle tasks that relate to their jobs. The Two-factor theory has however drawn its share
of criticism. Golshan et al. (2011) point out that it fails to distinguish between physical and
psychological aspects and to precisely explain what motivators are and how they differ from
hygiene factors; it also fails to express the degrees of satisfaction and dissatisfaction as a
measure instead of using numbers. Another criticism leveled against it is that it makes
assumptions that every individual will react in the same way in the similar situation.

3.3. McGregor’s X and Y Theories

McGregor’s (1960) Theory X and Y models categorize employees as belonging to one of two
groups based on two sets of assumptions. Theory X assumptions take a negative perspective of
people: People can have “an inherent dislike for work and avoid it if possible; because of this,
they must be coerced, controlled, directed and threatened with punishment to make them work.
They prefer to be directed, avoid responsibility, have little ambition, and want security” (Saif et
al. 2012, p.138). Theory Y assumptions take the opposite view: the mental and physical inputs
expended at the workplace are equated and par with those rest or play. External factors or any
threats from outside may not be the sole influence for exerting effort. Workers or people can
exercise caution and discipline to have objectives achieved, but the hunger in their desire to
commit to objectives is dependent on how big are the rewards as assigned to that kind of
achievement. Under normal circumstances, people can adapt to seek responsibility and not only
accept it (Saif et al., 2012, p.1357). Applying these assumptions to a school environment, one
could argue that two of the main causes of dissatisfaction among teachers are having to deal with
problem students and a strict and inconsiderate management, for example a principal who is
coercive and does not appreciate the efforts of teachers, or an overly directive principal who
never delegates or allows teachers to make independent decisions. Conversely, a supportive
principal may be a source of job satisfaction to teachers (Alavi & Askaripur, 2003, p.312).

3.4. McClelland’s Need Achievement Theory

McClelland’s need achievement theory postulates that some people are driven to success through
seeking “personal achievement rather than rewards themselves” (Saif et al., 2012, p.1387). This
theory is readily applicable to academic environments and explains why some teachers are high
achievers, despite the difficulties they face: they set themselves high goals and achieving these
goals is what drives them. Alderfer’s ERG theory is related to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs but
reduces Maslow’s five categories of a need to three; namely, relatedness being (esteem/social
needs), then growth being (self-actualization) and existence which is (security/physiological
needs).

3.5. The Equity Theory

Process theories explain ‘how’ satisfaction comes about, as opposed to ‘what’ causes motivation.
The equity theory postulates that employees will weigh their input into a job against the output
they receive from it – the more the rewards, the greater their satisfaction. This resonates with
Naveed et al. (2011, p.302) definition of job satisfaction as the difference between employee
input and job output. Regarding this theory, employees who perceive that they receive more
output from their jobs than what they put into them will experience job satisfaction. Certain
aspects of the job itself also shape how an employee perceives it. Tasks that are clarified bring a
better job satisfaction since a clear role breeds a work force that is happy, committed and shows
much involvement in work that is done. Authors identified five major job characteristics that
impact on the psychological state of an employee and influence their motivation and job
satisfaction, as well as their levels of absenteeism, namely the variety of skills involved in a task,
the identity and significance of the task, autonomy, and feedback. Employees compare their
input-outcome ratio with that of other employees and if they perceive it to be fair, employees
will experience satisfaction (Robbins, 2007). If employees perceive an inequity in their input-
outcome ratio compared to other employees, they become dissatisfied and less motivated.
theories of motivation

3.6. Value – Percept Theory

Individual’s values determine their satisfaction on their job because employees in organizations
hold different value systems, therefore based on this theory, their satisfaction levels will also
differ. Having a look at Value – Percept theory, the assumption is that the difference between
expectations and what is received can bring dissatisfaction depending on how important the job
is to the individual (Anderson, Ones, Sinangil & Viswesvaran, 2001, p.32). The potential
problem with this theory is that there is a possibility of a relationship between what people desire
and what they consider important. These concepts can be separable theoretically but practically
hard to differentiate.

3.7. Vroom’s Expectancy Theory

Vrooms’s expectancy theory stipulates that behavior is a product of choices that are available for
to be prioritized. The idea is to derive satisfaction and minimize dissatisfaction in employees.
Individual factors such as personality and skills determine performance (Wagner and
Hollenburg, 2007). This theory also explains that performance, motivation, and effort are within
an individual’s motivation and variables such as valence, instrumentality, and expectancy
verifies this. The higher the effort in work relates to the higher the performance.
3.8. Porter-Lawler Model
This is a comprehensive and more complete theory of motivation which is inclusive of diverse
aspects. This model can give details of the fiber relation that exists between job performance and
attitudes which perfectly defines managers. The model also touches on the assumptions of
human behavior. The deductions of the model assume that individual behavior is influenced by
both internal and external factors, rational and make own choices about their behavior, have
different goals, desires and needs. Finally, individuals decide between alternative behaviors
(Wagner and Hollenburg, 2007). theories of motivation

4. Risk Analysis of De-Motivated Employees

in Organizations
Employees who lack motivation in the work places are a risk factor when it comes to executing
day to day operations of the business. Some employees are engaged in company equipment and
tools on a daily basis, some of which need maximum attention and safety when using. So it is the
responsibility of the organization to have a well-balanced workforce of employees and their
emotions as far as work issues are concerned. theories of motivation

4.1. Operational Risks

Absenteeism: Van der Merwe and Miller (1988,) cite a definition used by the United States
Department of Labour which defines absenteeism as the failure of workers to report on the job
when they are scheduled to work. Regarding this definition, non-attendance such as vacation
leave, military service, block release leave and suspension do not qualify as absenteeism and
should be completely excluded from the ensuing absenteeism analysis process. Levy (2006,
p.412) provides a more comprehensive definition in describing absenteeism as the chronic or
continued failure of the employees to attend for duty, especially when the pattern of absenteeism
suggests that either the absence is avoidable, or that the employees failed in their duty to the
employer in accordance with their contract of employment or common law duty to attend the
place of work regularly and reliably. theories of motivation
• Poor quality work: In terms of quality outputs and results, disgruntled employees will not
perform at their best hence produce shoddy products or services that will not be competitive in
the market thereby costing an organization.
• Toxic Work environment: Cordial and mutual relationship among employees will be disrupted.
Employee’s behaviour and attitudes will be affected since their moral is down.

4.2. Personnel Risks

It is the desire of organization to keep their staff for longer periods of time. Organisations spend
a lot of money and time in training their employees. High staff turnover due to unhappy
employees will cost the organization of all the spent resources. This will result in disruptions of
organization’s operations as replacement of staff will be needed as well as more costs of another
training for new employees. Strategic leadership is the critical point in achieving companies
objectives. The negative side of leaders can jeopardize the firm’s operations (Hogan and Hogan
2001).

4.3. Reputational Risks

Dissatisfaction: The morale of the entire office can be brought down when one employee lacks
motivation. Employees who are not satisfied with their job might resort to quitting; therefore,
this scenario should be avoided. The employees are to perform to their abilities in order to satisfy
their customers and to retain them all the time. It is very easy for customers to spread word of
mouth about a company that they are not satisfied with its performance, and the information can
be spread very rapidly which can ruin the company’s reputation. Leadership is very vital because
according to Stankiewicz-Mroz (2015), change in human resources will be expected, as well as
re-evaluating the paradigms. A managerial skill will be needed to pull people together for the
reputation of the company.

4.4. Environmental Risks

Employees who are not happy with the organization will manifest their dissatisfaction to the
outside world. Customers are bound to experience unwelcoming acts of aggression and bitterness
emanating from unhappy employees. Poor customer service will be the order of the day among
employees which will end up tarnishing the name of the business. A company is bound to even
follow international regulations not only it domestic laws (Darroux & Xixiang, 2013), even those
that impact on the environment. theories of motivation

4.5. Health Risks

Employees who are not entirely happy at work can have health problems including stress. Stress
related illnesses will jeopardize wellness efforts in the work place of keeping healthy employees.
Stressed and de-motivated employees may cause accidents at work when using machineries and
other dangerous tools. Work stress and other psychosocial factors are recognized worldwide as a
major challenge to workers’ health and the health of organizations. All levels in the organization
are be responsible for the safety of risks in the company and help with avoidance of such risks
(Tasmin and Salehudin, 2016). theories of motivation

4.6. Financial Risks

Employees who are highly motivated will always put their best efforts in their work and help the
company to be productive. Production at work will bear more output in which it will be able to
generate much needed income. If employees are happy absenteeism’s will be reduced thereby
saving costs for their organisations. Taylor (2009 & 2012) agree that financial crisis can be
because of economic circumstances, making it extremely difficult for business to operate. This
then will extend to difficulties in acquisitions. Again according to Peter and Daniel (2013),
Political influence, outside the context of deficit accommodation, can also provide
accommodation for specific fiscal policy initiatives.theories of motivation

5. Importance of Motivation in the

Workplace
Motivation can emanate from with an employee with a passion and desire to work and produce
results. This kind of motivation is self-driven by an employee in order to elevate his feelings to
accomplish. However, in extrinsic motivation, an external factor such as a reward is used to
boost the employee’s moral and desire to work. As is a normal case, employees work in
exchange for compensation for their hard labour but how far they go depends on how motivated
they are. According to Perry and Hondeghem (1999), the individuals desire to perform, and
provide services to customers, with the mandate to do good is enough factor to motivate.
Performance at work is related to the employees pay of which the employee may not have
control of that reward as it is external. Apart from rewards, there are other factors that are
external such as promotion at work, security of the job, salary increment that may give meaning
to employees motivation. Therefore, for organizations to continue existing and retaining its
workforce, they must keep on working on strategies that can help in motivating its employees.
Motivated employees have a sense of belonging and loyalty to the organization and always work
hard to be associated with the results of their labour. Motivation have effect on employees as
individuals to achieve and as well as ability to be innovative because they believe in themselves
which will benefit the organization to succeed (Yang Jie, 2010). A motivated worker is easy to
be retained hence saving the organization finances of replacing workers, also it encourages
workers to always achieve more on daily productions as they are having a sense of security of
their work. Management will have time to attend to other important issues because their
motivated workforce can build teams that can help with the supervision and production of work.

6. Conclusion
Motivation is very much needed for employees in an organisation to be productive, and
management or leadership style has an important role to play. Motivation is not always based on
financial rewards, but non-financial rewards methods can also be used to derive the best out of
employees. Although individuals have their expectations, it is the leadership’s responsibility to
develop and align with theories that are suitable to bring job satisfaction to their employees.
However, there is no single reliable theory to be used, a mixture of them can be utilized. In terms
of empowering workforce, employees should be encouraged and given a platform to voice out
their concerns on how they can be motivated. Rewards and promotions following performance
appraisals maybe used to boost employee’s moral as well as feedback. All employees should
understand the company’s vision and goals and work together towards those. In some
organizations, workers perform their duties in an assembly whereby if a certain section of
employees is affected it will affect the whole plant. Employees perform their duties diligently if
they are inspired and motivated as the results will always be positive with efficient production.
Organizations which are results oriented will go all the way to motivate their employees for them
to reach their goals. A further qualitative research on motivation strategies and theories is
recommended. theories of motivation

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Definitions
Conflict is rarely seen as constructive; however, in certain contexts (such as competition in
sports), moderate levels of conflict can be seen as being mutually beneficial, facilitating
understanding, tolerance, learning, and effectiveness.[1]

M. Afzalur, a professor at Western Kentucky University,[2] notes there is no single universally

accepted definition of conflict.[3] He notes that one issue of contention is whether the conflict is a
situation or a type of behaviour.[4]

Citing a review of definitions of organizational conflicts in 1990 by Robert A. Baron,[5] Afzalur

notes that all definitions of conflict include known opposing interests and the process of trying to
stop the opposing view or views. Building on that, the proposed definition of conflict by Afzalur
is "an interactive process manifested in incompatibility, disagreement or dissonance within or
between social entities." Afzalur also notes that a conflict may be limited to one individual, who
is conflicted within himself (the intrapersonal conflict). Afzalur lists some manifestations of
conflict behavior, starting with disagreement followed by verbal abuse and interference.[2]

Another definition of conflict is proposed by Michael Nicholson, professor of Internal Relation

ath the University of Sussex,[6] defines it as an activity which takes place when conscious beings
(individuals or groups) wish to carry out mutually inconsistent acts concerning their wants, needs
or obligations.[7] Conflict is an escalation of a disagreement, which is its common prerequisite,
and is characterized by the existence of conflict behavior, in which the beings are actively trying
to damage one another.[7]

Role of emotion in inter-group relations

A key player in inter-group relations and conflict is the collective sentiment a person's own
group (in-group) feels toward another group (out-group). These inter-group emotions are usually
negative, and range in intensity from feelings of discomfort when interacting with a member of a
certain other group to full on hatred for another group and its members. For example, in Fischer's
organizational research at the University of Oxford, inter-group conflict was so 'heated' that it
became mutually destructive and intractable, resulting in organizational collapse.[8][9]

Out-group-directed emotions can be expressed both verbally and non-verbally, and according to
the stereotype content model, are dictated by two dimensions: the perceived warmth (How
friendly and sincere is the other group?) and competence of the other group (How skillful is the
other group?). Depending on the perceived degree of warmth and competence, the stereotype
content model predicts four basic emotions that could be directed toward the out-group (Forsyth,
2010).

Envy

Envy results when the out-group is perceived to have high competence, but low warmth (Cuddy,
Fiske & Glick, 2007). Envious groups are usually jealous of another group's symbolic and
tangible achievements and view that group as competition (Forsyth, 2010).

Contempt

Contempt results when the out-group is taken to be low in both competence and warmth (Cuddy,
Fiske & Glick, 2007). According to Forsyth, contempt is one of the most frequent intergroup
emotions. In this situation, the out-group is held responsible for its own failures. In-group
members also believe that their conflict with the out-group can never be resolved (Forsyth,
2010).

Pity

Out-groups that are believed by the in-group to be high in warmth but low in competence are
pitied (Cuddy, Fiske & Glick, 2007). Usually pitied groups are lower in status than the in-group,
and are not believed to be responsible for their failures (Forsyth, 2010).

Admiration

Admiration occurs when an out-group is taken to be high in both warmth and competence,
however admiration is very rare because these two conditions are seldom met (Cuddy, Fiske &
Glick, 2007). An admired out-group is thought to be completely deserving of its
accomplishments. Admiration is thought to be most likely to arise when a member of the in-
group can take pride in the accomplishments of the out-group, and when the out-group achieving
does not interfere with the in-group (Forsyth, 2010).

Types of conflict
These are cases of intragroup conflict, a conflict between one person and the group they are a
part of.[10] They may also be examples of interpersonal conflict, a conflict between two or more
people.[11] More specific types of conflict include the following.

 Content conflict occurs when individuals disagree about how to deal with a certain issue.
This can be a good thing as it has the potential to stimulate discuss and increase
motivation.[12]
 Relationship conflict occurs when individuals disagree about one another. This relational
conflicts decreases performance, loyalty, satisfaction and commitment, and causes
individuals to be irritable, negative and suspicious.[12] This stems from interpersonal
incompatibilities. It is an awareness of frictions caused by frustrations, annoyance, and
irritations. Relationship conflict is comparable to affective and cognitive conflict as
defined by Amason and Pinkley, respectively.[13]
 Process conflict refers to disagreement over the group's approach to the task, its methods,
and its group process.[13] They note that although relationship conflict and process conflict
are harmful, task conflict is found to be beneficial since it encourages diversity of
opinions, although care should be taken so it does not develop into process or relationship
conflict.[13]
 Task conflict is related to disagreements in viewpoints and opinion about a particular task
in group settings. It is associated with two interrelated and beneficial effects. The first is
group decision quality. Task conflict encourages greater cognitive understanding of the
issue being discussed. This leads to better decision making for the groups that use task
conflict.[13] The second is affective acceptance of group decisions. Task conflict can lead
to increased satisfaction with the group decision and a desire to stay in the group.[14]
 Affective conflict is an emotional conflict developed from interpersonal incompatibilities
and disputes. It often produces suspicion, distrust, and hostility. Therefore, it is seen as a
negative kind of conflict and an obstacle to those who experience it and is described as
"dysfunctional."[15]
 Cognitive conflict occurs during tasks and comes from a difference in perspective and
judgement. It improves decision making and allows for the freer exchange of information
between group members. Cognitive conflict is seen as a positive tension that promotes
good group work.[15]

The following are examples of conflict that could be either intragroup or intergroup conflict.

 Conflict of interest is involvement in multiple interests which could possibly corrupt the
motivation or decision-making.[16]
 Cultural conflict is a type of conflict that occurs when different cultural values and beliefs
clash.[17]
 Ethnic conflict is conflict between two or more contending ethnic groups.[17]
 Intergroup conflict is conflict between two or more groups.[11]
 Organizational conflict is discord caused by opposition of needs, values, and interests
between people working together.[18]
 Role conflict involves incompatible demands placed upon a person in a manner that
makes accomplishing both troublesome.[19]
 Social conflict is the struggle for supremacy or autonomy between social classes.
  Work–family conflict involves incompatible demands between the work and family roles
of an individual.[20]

Five beliefs that propel groups toward conflict

Roy and Judy Eidelson (2003) investigated some of the important roles that beliefs may play in
triggering or constraining conflict between groups. On the basis of a review of relevant literature,
five belief domains stand out as especially noteworthy: Superiority, injustice, vulnerability,
distrust and helplessness.[21]

Superiority

Individual-level core belief: This is a belief that an individual is better than anyone else and
therefore many of the social constructs because the individual sees their own thoughts as
"privileged" and therefore do not get along well with others. People with this belief often have
attitudes of "specialness, deservingness, and entitlement."[21]

Group-level worldview: When moving from the individual-level core belief to the Group-level
worldview most of the concepts stay the same. The major difference is that these attitudes apply
to large groups instead of individuals. One example of this is "ethnocentric monoculturalism," a
term meaning that one sees their own cultural heritage as better than another's.[21]

Injustice

Individual-level core belief: This belief is that an individual has been mistreated in a way that
affects them in a major way. This mistreatment is most often an interpretation of
"disappointment and betrayal".[21]

Group-level worldview: This is the receiving end of the superiority group-level. This group takes
grievance at another group for the same reasons an individual takes grievance at another. For
perceived injustices from disappointment, betrayal, and mistreatment.[21]

Vulnerability

Individual-level core belief: This is a constant anxiety. It is when a person feels that he/she is not
in control and feel as though they are living "perpetually in harm's way".[21]

Group-level worldview: A group that feels vulnerability due to an imagined threat in the future.
This strengthens the group's ties and allows them to "focus group behavior in specific directions
that include hostility."[21]

Distrust
Individual-level core belief: This is based on a "presumed hostility and malignant intent seen in
others".[21] It drives one to act in hostile ways and prevents the creation of healthy relationships.
[21]

Group-level worldview: This separates the in-group from the out-group in a way that is not easily
rectified, as the in-group forms a lasting stereotype that is applied to the out-group and must be
disproven by the out-group.[21]

Helplessness

Individual-level core belief: A deep set belief that no matter what an individual does the outcome
will be unfavorable. As though the individual is "lacking the necessary ability" or a belief the
individual did not have sufficient help or the environment is against them.[21]

Group-level worldview: When a group has those same beliefs of dependency and powerlessness.
This also reflects how much growth the environment has to offer.[21]

Conflict escalation
Although the involved parties may hope to reach a solution to their dispute quickly,
psychological and interpersonal factors can frustrate their attempts to control the conflict, and in
this case, conflict escalation occurs. Conflict escalation "can be understood as an intensification
of a conflict with regard to the observed extent and the means used".[22] A number of factors
including increased commitment to one's position, use of harder influence tactics, and formation
of coalitions propel the escalation of the conflict.[23]

Uncertainty and commitment

As conflicts escalate, group members' doubts and uncertainties are replaced with a firm
commitment to their position. People rationalize their choices once they have made them: they
seek out information that supports their views, reject information that disconfirms their views,
and become more entrenched in their original position (also see confirmatory bias).[24]
Additionally, people believe that once they commit to a position publicly, they should stick with
it. Sometimes, they may realize the shortcomings of their views, but they continue defending
those views and arguing against their opponents just to save face.[25] Finally, if the opponents
argue too strongly, reactance may set in and group members become even more committed to the
position.[26][27]

Perception and misperception

Individuals' reactions to the conflict are shaped by their perception of the situation and people in
the situation. During the conflict, opponents' inferences about each other's strengths, attitudes,
values, and personal qualities tend to be largely distorted.[28]

Misattribution
During the conflict, people explain their opponents' actions in ways that make the problem
worse. Fundamental attribution error occurs when one assumes that opponents' behavior was
caused by personal (dispositional) rather than situational (environmental) factors.[29] When
conflict continues for a while, opponents might decide that this conflict is intractable. People
usually expect intractable conflicts to be prolonged, intense, and very hard to resolve.[30]

Misperceiving motivations

During the conflict, opponents often become mistrustful of one another wondering if their
cooperative motivations were replaced by competitive ones. This loss of trust makes it difficult
to return to the cooperative relationship. People with competitive social value orientations
(SVOs) are the most inaccurate in their perception of opponents' motivation. They often think
that others compete with them when in fact, there is no competition going on.[31] Competitors are
also more biased in their search for information that confirms their suspicions that others
compete with them.[32] They also tend to deliberately misrepresent their intentions, sometimes
claiming to be more cooperatively oriented than they actually are.[33]

Soft tactics and hard tactics

People use soft tactics at the outset of the conflict, but as it escalates, tactics become stronger and
harder. To demonstrate this phenomenon, Mikolic, Parker, and Pruitt (1997)[34] simulated a
conflict situation by creating a "birthday card factory" with study participants who were paid a
small amount for each card they manufactured using paper, colored markers, and ribbons. The
work went well until researchers' confederate who posed as another participant started hoarding
production materials. Initially, group members tried to solve the problem with statements and
requests. When these methods failed they shifted to demands and complaints, and then to threats,
abuse, and anger.

Although hard tactics can overwhelm the opponent, they often intensify conflicts. Morton
Deutsch and Robert Krauss (1960)[35] used trucking game experiment to demonstrate that
capacity to threaten others intensifies conflict. They also showed that establishing a
communication link does not always help to solve the dispute.[36] If one party threatens the other,
the threatened party will fare best if it cannot respond with a counterthreat.[37][38] Equally
powerful opponents, however, learn to avoid the use of power if the fear of retaliation is high.[39]

Reciprocity and upward conflict spiral

In many cases, upward conflict spirals are sustained by the norms of reciprocity: if one group or
person criticizes the other, the criticized person or group feels justified in doing the same. In
conflict situations, opponents often follow the norm of rough reciprocity, i.e. they give too much
(overmatching) or too little (undermatching) in return. At low levels of conflict, opponents
overmatch their threats, while at high levels of conflict they undermatch their threats.
Overmatching may serve as a strong warning, while undermatching may be used to send
conciliatory messages.[40]

Few and many

When conflicts erupt, group members use coalitions to shift the balance of power in their favor,
and it is typical for multiparty conflicts to reduce to two-party blocks over time. Coalitions
contribute to the conflict because they draw more members of the group into the affray.
Individuals in coalitions work not only to ensure their own outcomes but also to worsen
outcomes of non-coalition members. Those who are excluded from the coalition react with
hostility and try to regain power by forming their own coalition. Thus, coalitions need to be
constantly maintained through strategic bargaining and negotiation.[41]

Irritation and anger

It is generally difficult for most people to remain calm and collected in a conflict situation.
However, an increase in negative emotions (i.e. anger) only exacerbates the initial conflict. Even
when group members want to discuss their positions calmly and dispassionately, once they
become committed to their positions, an emotional expression often replaces logical discussion.
[42]
Anger is also contagious: when group member negotiates with someone who is angry, they
become angry themselves.[43]

Conflict resolution
Main article: Conflict resolution

Nicholson notes that a conflict is resolved when the inconsistency between wishes and actions of
parties is resolved.[44] Negotiation is an important part of conflict resolution, and any design of a
process which tries to incorporate positive conflict from the start needs to be cautious not to let it
degenerate into the negative types of conflict.[1]

Conflict mediation

Conflict is a social process that is exacerbated when individual members of a group take sides in
the debate. Among the methods to resolve conflict is mediation of the dispute by a group
member not currently involved in the dispute. More specifically, a mediator is defined as a
person who attempts to resolve a conflict between two group members by intervening in this
conflict. Put simply, the mediator can be thought of as a disinterested guide directs the disputants
through the process of developing a solution to a disagreement (Forsyth, 2010).

Although the tendency will be for group members who are uninvolved in the dispute to remain
uninvolved, in some cases, the sheer intensity of the conflict may escalate to the point where
mediation is unavoidable. Third party mediation of the conflict opens avenues for
communication between group members in conflict. It allows members to express their opinions
and request clarification of other member's standpoints while the mediator acts as a form of
protection against any shame or "loss of face" that either disputant may experience. This can be
done by shedding a positive light on the reconciliation that was made during the mediation
process. For instance, if it was negotiated that two cashiers will rotate the weekends they work,
the mediator might point out that now each worker gets a weekend off every two weeks (Forsyth,
2010).
The mediator can also offer assistance in refining solutions and making counter-offers between
members, adjusting the time and location of meetings so that they are mutually satisfying for
both parties (Forsyth, 2010).

According to Forsyth (2010), there are three major mediation approaches:

1. Inquisitorial procedure: Using this procedure, the mediator asks each of the disputants a
series of questions, considers the two sets of responses, and then selects and imposes a
mandatory solution on the members. The inquisitorial procedure is the least popular
approach to mediation.
2. Arbitration: Here, mediation involves the two disputants explaining their arguments to
the mediator, who creates a solution based on the arguments presented. Arbitration is best
for low intensity conflict, but is the most favored mediation style overall.
3. Moot: The moot approach involves an open discussion between disputants and the
mediator about the problems and potential solutions. In the moot approach, the mediator
cannot impose a mandatory solution. After arbitration, a moot is the most preferred
mediation style.

In practice, conflict resolution is often interwoven with daily activities, as in organizations,

workplaces and institutions. Staff and residents in a youth care setting, for instance, interweave
everyday concerns (meals, lessons, breaks, meetings, or other mundane but concerted projects)
with interpersonal disputes.[45]