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Engineering Structures: Giuseppe Campione, Maria Letizia Mangiavillano
Engineering Structures: Giuseppe Campione, Maria Letizia Mangiavillano
Engineering Structures
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/engstruct
article info a b s t r a c t
Article history: The flexural behavior of plain and fibrous reinforced concrete (FRC) beams under monotonic and cyclic
Received 19 May 2006 actions was analysed. Twelve beams were reinforced with top and bottom longitudinal deformed steel
Received in revised form bars and transverse steel stirrups. Concrete, having 30 MPa cylindrical strength, was reinforced with
22 November 2007
hooked steel fibres at a volume percentage of 1%. Beams, 600 mm in length and with a square side cross-
Accepted 9 April 2008
Available online 20 May 2008
section of 150 mm, were tested in flexure using a three point bending test, adopting three different
cover thicknesses of 5, 15 and 25 mm, respectively. The results obtained show that the addition of
Keywords:
fibers increases the bearing capacity of the beams and ensures more ductile behaviour, at the same
Short beams time reducing degradation effects under cyclic reversal loads. Moreover, the presence of fibers reduces
Fiber reinforced concrete the cover spalling process, also in the presence of high cover thicknesses. Shear strength of the beams
Steel fibers was calculated using an analytical expression given in literature for plain concrete beams and here
Cyclic loads extended to the case of fibrous concrete beams of hooked steel fibers on the subject, while the analytical
Shear-moment interaction results in terms of load–deflection curves, under monotonic actions, were generated using a non-
linear finite element program (DRAIN-2DX). This program was calibrated on the basis of constitutive
laws in compression and in tension capable of taking FRC properties into account, and verified against
experimental data. Finally, practical considerations regarding the choice of the optimum geometrical
ratio of longitudinal and transverse steel bars for the ductile behaviour of single reinforced cross-sections.
Moreover shear strength are given and compared with European and International code prescriptions.
© 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction the worst case shear brittle failure occurs, while in the best case
ductile flexural failure occurs. Recent studies based on extensive
Ductile design of reinforced concrete beams is generally related experimental investigations highlight the fact that the strength
to flexural failure in bending, but very often the presence of and the ductility of reinforced concrete beams, both in the presence
high shear forces, especially in deep members, reduces their and in the absence of secondary steel reinforcements, are enhanced
flexural capacity. In the presence of cyclic actions, or when by using FRC instead of ordinary concrete [1–4]. Moreover, it has
high strength concrete is utilised, further penalisation occurs in been shown (e.g. [5]) that it is possible to partially substitute
complete flexural capacity and ductility. Several experimental the secondary shear steel reinforcements (generally constituted
and theoretical studies highlight the fact that the principal by vertical stirrups and/or horizontal steel bars) by using FRC,
parameters influencing the structural response of reinforced obtaining analogous performance in terms of both strength and
concrete beams are: type (monotonic or cyclic) and direction ductility. In the case of fiber reinforced concrete, several studies
(vertical or horizontal) of external loads; shear span to depth focus on the choice of type and on the optimum volume percentage
ratio; strength of concrete; shape and dimensions of members; of fibers to ensure overstrength in shear in reinforced concrete
type, grade and arrangements of longitudinal and transverse steel beams and to avoid brittle failure. The most common fibers utilised
reinforcements. are hooked steel ones, and the best percentage for structural
Depending on the combination of the mentioned above application is between 0.5% and 1.5% by volume of concrete.
parameters, the ultimate loads and failure mode can change; in Fibers bridge the cracks, increasing the ductility of the member.
The bridging action of the fibers is related to pull-out resistance,
resulting in diffused cracks in the members. Moreover, because of
∗ Corresponding address: Dipartimento di Ingegneria Strutturale e Geotecnica, the high tensile strength and high strain capacity of the composite,
Università degli Studi di Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, 90128 Palermo, Italy.
high tensile deformations in longitudinal steel reinforcements
Tel.: +39 091 6568437; fax: +39 091 6568407. are involved and consequently high ductility of the members is
E-mail address: campione@stru.diseg.unipa.it (G. Campione). achieved.
0141-0296/$ – see front matter © 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.engstruct.2008.04.019
G. Campione, M. Letizia Mangiavillano / Engineering Structures 30 (2008) 2970–2980 2971
Notations
As Area of longitudinal steel in tension
As0 Area of longitudinal steel in compression
Ast Area of transverse steel in stirrups
b Section base
d Depth of section
H Overall depth of section
c Cover
ρ Reinforcement ratio of longitudinal bars
ρsw Reinforcement ratio of transverse stirrups
fy Yielding stress
fu Ultimate stress
P Load Fig. 1. Geometry of the beams and steel arrangements.
δ Deflection
fc0 Peak compressive strength of concrete in reference to the analytical models taking the shear to moment
εo Peak compressive strain of concrete interaction into account, an adequate review of the fiber models
Ec Initial modulus of elasticity needs to be considered, or, in a more general way, it is necessary
ft0 Splitting tensile strength to adopt two (or three) dimensional finite element models.
In this paper the focus is on the experimental flexural behaviour
Pc Cracking load
of plain and fibrous reinforced concrete beams under monotonic
Pmax Peak load
and cyclic actions. Beams were reinforced with top and bottom
Pu Load corresponding to the stirrups failure in tension
longitudinal steel deformed bars and transverse steel stirrups and
δmax Peak deflection
different cover thicknesses were considered. Flexural and shear
δu Deflection corresponding to the stirrups failure in failure was observed under monotonic loading, while shear failure
tension was attained under cyclic loads.
Lf Fiber length In this context only the analytical prediction of load–deflection
φ Fiber equivalent diameter curves under monotonic actions will be considered. A nonlinear fi-
vf Fiber volume percentage nite element method, consisting of the discretization of the mem-
F Fiber factor ber in the longitudinal direction into segments and the transverse
xc Neutral axis depth cross-sections into strips, was utilised (DRAIN-2DX program [7]) to
Mf l Ultimate moment in flexure compare the analytical results with the experimental ones. Also,
Mus Ultimate moment for shear failure design considerations regarding the choice of the optimum geo-
Ect Elastic modulus of fibrous concrete in tension metrical ratio of main steel and transverse stirrups to ensure duc-
fr Residual strength of fibrous concrete tile behaviour and avoid shear failure are given.
Vu Ultimate shear More studies will be addressed to further include the interac-
Eh Reduced modulus in the strain-hardening phase tion between shear and bending moments under cyclic actions.
fcf Peak stress in compression of fibrous concrete
fctf Peak stress in tension of fibrous concrete 2. Experimental program
εof Maximum compressive strain of fibrous concrete
εctf Peak strain in tension of fibrous concrete The focus of the experimental research was the flexural
εo85 Compressive strain measured at 0.85 fc after peak behaviour of reinforced concrete beams. In the following sections
εy Yielding strain of main bars the experimental procedures, the test set-up arrangement, the
mechanical characterisation of constituent materials and the tests
Puf Load referring to shear failure
on beams will be described. Moreover, the experimental results
Puexp Experimental load
will be presented and discussed.
Pus Load referring to flexural failure
ς Size effect factor
2.1. Specimen details
γ Safety factor in shear
Twelve small beams, having the geometry and reinforcement
arrangements shown in Fig. 1, were cast and tested in flexure in
With reference to the analytical response under monotonic or three-point bending tests. The beams had square cross-sections of
cyclic actions of plain or fibrous concrete beams under flexure side b = 150 mm and length L = 600 mm and were reinforced with
and shear, several existing models were developed with the main four φ = 12 mm longitudinal deformed bars (two in the top portion
aim of determining the moment–curvature diagrams (such as the and two in the bottom portion). Closely placed stirrups steps of
model proposed by [6]) in which the interaction between shear p = 50 mm were also adopted. Additional closed stirrups were
and moment is neglected. These models give accurate predictions if placed to the support at a step of 25 mm.
complete flexural capacity is attained and they are generally based Three different values of effective cover of c = 5, 15 and
on the use of the finite elements method under the hypothesis of 25 mm were adopted. The beams were cast using normal strength
plane section theory (fibers models) or of approximate hysteretic ordinary and fibrous concrete with hooked steel fibers. Two
models capable of including the compressive and the tensile identical specimens were prepared for each type. The ends of
behaviour of fibrous concrete. It should be observed that in longitudinal bars were bent to ensure good anchorage. The three
members with low shear span ratio, shear deformations are almost different values of cover adopted thicknesses corresponding to the
ratios of 0.034, 0.12 and 0.22 between the cover c and the effective
as important as flexural ones. Therefore, even for members in
depth d. The geometrical ratios of longitudinal steel, having the
which the response to monotonic loading is governed by flexure,
area As , were ρ = bA·sd = 1.13%, 1.22% and 1.33%. The geometrical
shear deformations may exceed the flexural ones after a few load
ratio of the stirrups having area Ast , was ρsw = 2b·A·pst = 0.75%.
cycles, eventually leading to a shear failure. In these cases, and
2972 G. Campione, M. Letizia Mangiavillano / Engineering Structures 30 (2008) 2970–2980
Table 1
Mix design of the utilized concrete
Ingredient Quantity
Table 2
Mechanical properties of steel bars
φ fy (MPa) fu (MPa) εu (%) Ef
(MPa)
Table 3
Mechanical properties of plain and fibrous concrete
vf fc0 (MPa) ε0 ε085 ft0 (MPa)
3. Experimental results
2.2. Characteristics of materials and tests set-up
3.1. Material characterization
Plain concrete, with 30 MPa compressive cylindrical strength at
28 days, was utilised to cast the concrete beams. Table 1 shows the Fig. 3 shows stress–strain curves referring to compressive tests.
concrete’s adopted composition. Hooked steel fibers in a volume For compressive tests axial shortenings were recorded in the
percentage of 1% (corresponding to a dosage of 80 kg/m3 ) had a middle portion of the specimens as suggested in [8]. In the same
length and diameter of 30 and 0.5 mm respectively and were added figure, cases of ordinary and fibrous concrete (vf = 0 and 1%) are
into the fresh concrete and mixed to complete dispersion. presented. It is clear that in compression the presence of fibers
The effect of using 10 mm gravel in 150 × 150 × 600 mm beams does not increase the peak stress in compression (up to 10%)
compared with the more typical 20 mm maximum size and larger significantly, but it significantly improves the post-peak resistance
beams was considered acceptable since the scale ratio was not and the ductility of the material. By indirect tensile tests an
large. increase up to 30% of the splitting tensile strength determined on
Cylinders having dimensions of 100 × 200 mm were also cast for the cylinders was also observed and significant residual strength
each series to perform compressive and cylindrical splitting tests. values (very closed to the maximum value) were measured.
Table 2 shows the mechanical properties of the steel for Table 3 shows the mechanical properties of plain and fibrous
longitudinal reinforcements bars. concrete in compression and in tension. fc0 and ε0 indicate the peak
All the tests were carried out using a universal testing machine compressive strength and the corresponding strain; ε085 shows the
operating in a controlled displacement mode. The load was strain measured at 0.85 of the peak stress in the softening branch;
recorded by means of a 60 kN load cell and a slow rate of and ft0 is the splitting tensile strength measured on cylindrical
0.5 mm/min was imposed during the tests. The flexure tests were specimens.
carried out using a rigid frame with cylindrical supports (see Fig. 2)
adopting a three-point bending scheme with a span of 550 mm 3.2. Monotonic flexural tests
(25 mm for each side for supports and shear span a = 275 mm).
Because of largest a/d parameter chosen was 2.25 the shear to Fig. 4 shows load–deflection curves (P − δ) referring to
moment interaction was always very important. reinforced beams in the case of plain and fibrous concrete for the
The net deflections of the beams were recorded by three LVDTs, different values of the cover c (5, 15 and 25 mm, respectively).
one placed in the middle of the bottom portion of the beams and In the same figures cases of plain concrete beams (no steel
the other two in the support and on the upper portion of the reinforcement) are also given.
beams. Special steel clamps with cylindrical supports were utilised From the figures it emerges that brittle flexural failure occurs
in the loaded sections. Two of them, placed at the supported without steel reinforcements bars, on the contrary in the presence
sections, were fixed to the bottom part of the testing machine, of steel reinforcements flexural rupture, characterized by yielding
while another, placed in the middle loaded section, was connected of longitudinal steel, occurs. Because of the ratio between the shear
to the movable part of the universal testing machine. An electronic span and depth of the beams, interaction occurs between shear
G. Campione, M. Letizia Mangiavillano / Engineering Structures 30 (2008) 2970–2980 2973
Table 4
Test results in flexure
c (mm) vf Pc (kN) Py (kN) δy (mm) Pu (kN) δu (mm) Pu /Pmax µ = δu /δmax
5 0 50.0 118.20 2.94 127.40 13.74 1.08 4.67
5 0 56.0 119.30 2.80 130.80 17.84 1.10 6.37
5 1 78.00 125.05 2.56 132.60 19.30 1.06 7.54
5 1 95.00 136.00 2.62 130.30 20.50 0.96 7.82
15 0 53.6 103.40 3.05 113.00 13.18 1.09 4.32
15 0 56.6 108.80 3.09 117.70 21.05 1.08 6.81
15 1 71.00 122.30 3.05 129.80 20.85 1.06 6.84
15 1 67.00 123.00 3.20 128.70 13.06 1.05 4.08
25 0 52.00 100.50 2.30 108.30 7.67 1.08 3.33
25 0 50.00 103.00 2.25 108.40 7.60 1.05 3.38
25 1 68.00 106.10 2.23 112.20 28.50 1.06 12.78
25 1 64.00 106.50 2.20 111.00 28.60 1.04 13.00
Fig. 5. Crack patterns at failure in monotonic tests of beams with c = 5 mm: (a)
without fibers ; (b) with fibers.
cracks occurs and shear failure is observed (an inclined shear plane
forms) at the end of the test. The rupture of stirrups is observed at
the end of the test for a load measured when a sudden drop of the
applied load is verified.
In the presence of fibers, due to their bridging capacity across
the cracks, the shear strength of the beams increases and failure is
ductile and in flexure. In this case it appears reasonable to suppose
that stirrups are less stressed for the presence of fibers and the
failure in the tension of stirrups is delayed. Moreover, due to the
strength contribution of fibers in the tensile zone of the beams,
flexural failures observed, unlike the case of reinforced beams with
ordinary concrete. When the cover thickness increases due to the
presence of fibers, the spalling process is delayed and reduced.
Table 4 gives the mechanical properties of plain and fibrous
concrete beams under monotonic loading. The following symbols,
Pc , Pmax and δmax indicate the cracking strength (up to 10%), the
peak load and the corresponding deflection, respectively. Pu and
δu correspond to the stirrups failure in tension. Also Pu /Pmax and
ductility factor µ are given; the latter is conventionally defined as
the ratio between δu and δmax . Results given in Table 4 show the
higher ductility of fibrous concrete beams, except for the beams
with a cover c = 25 mm because the arm of internal forces is
probably limited, and also the higher cracking load with respect
to the case of beams in ordinary concrete.
Fig. 5 shows the condition of the beams at the end of the
tests in the case of ordinary and fibrous concrete. Few well open
Fig. 4. Monotonic load–deflection curves in flexure.
shear cracks are found in the case of ordinary concrete and few
fine flexural cracks in the case of fibrous concrete are found, thus
force and bending moment, but because of the step utilised for highlighting the higher ductility of this kind of beams. Fig. 5 refers
the stirrups (or volume percentage of fibers), no shear failure is to the conditions of beams under monotonic loading and in the case
obtained. After the peak load in flexure is reached and the concrete of c = 5 mm, similar conditions are recorded in the other cases, but
cover spalling process is in progress, the propagation of diagonal for brevity the illustrations are not shown here.
2974 G. Campione, M. Letizia Mangiavillano / Engineering Structures 30 (2008) 2970–2980
Fig. 6. Developed crack patterns of beams: (a) without fibers; (b) with fibers.
Fig. 6 shows the developed crack patterns and corresponding After a few cycles more degradation is observed, with decay
loads expressed in kN, referring to beams with different cover in strength and ductility, as is evident from the pinching effects
thicknesses examined. observed. The causes of this degradation can also be linked
to: strength mechanisms involved in shear–moment interaction;
3.3. Cyclic flexural tests softening effects in the strength of compressed regions after cyclic
actions; bond decay with increasing slippages with crack opening,
Fig. 7 shows the cyclic load–deflection curves of reinforced etc.
beams in the cases of both ordinary and fibrous concrete with The transfer of the shear forces across the cracks is also due to
variation in the cover thickness. All the curves are characterized by interlocking actions producing loss of stiffness and influenced by
the first unloading carried out after the yielding of the longitudinal the cover spalling process and by dowel actions.
bars. The successive unloading processes were performed when When fiber reinforced concrete is used, more ductile behaviour
severe loss of bearing capacity was observed. In all the cases and reduced cover spalling process are observed (except for c =
examined, similar phases of behaviour can be observed: in the 25 mm, as mentioned before) with favourable effects on shear
first branch up to yielding, the behaviour observed cyclically resistance, also for very high deformations, generally characteristic
corresponds to the monotonic response previously determined of flexural failure, as also observed in [6].
(see Fig. 4). In this phase, after the formation of cracks in flexure, When fibers are used, even after a few cycles the containment
the propagation of shear cracks produces further loss of initial of the cover spalling increases the dowel action, producing
stiffness and nonlinear behaviour is observed up to the yielding of higher shear strength, principally due to the bridging action of
longitudinal steel and the local crushing of concrete, as confirmed fibers across the principal cracks. Moreover, this beneficial effect
in [9]. influences the shape of the cycles, which are characterized by
In the unloading branch of the first cycle the initial stiffness fewer pinching effects.
is almost equal to that of the elastic branch, while in the first Fig. 8 clearly shows the better conditions at the end of tests
reloading branch a significant decay in the stiffness is observed. of beams made of fibrous concrete with respect to those made
The curvature, however, increases with the closing of the initial of ordinary concrete, even after several cycles. For FRC more fine
cracks and the compression of cracked concrete produces an cracks are observed, well controlled in width by the presence of
increase in the stiffness of the beams, with significant yielding of fibers.
the longitudinal steel in tension and the propagation of diagonal Fig. 9 shows the evolution of developed crack patterns during
cracks. the first, the second, the third and fourth cycle of loading, in both
G. Campione, M. Letizia Mangiavillano / Engineering Structures 30 (2008) 2970–2980 2975
Fig. 8. Crack patterns at failure in cyclic tests of beams with c = 5 mm: (a) without
fibers ; (b) with fibers.
Fig. 9. Developed crack patterns of beams with c = 15 mm: (a) without fibers; (b) with fibers.
in which A = EEc , with E0 the secant modulus at peak stress Fig. 11. Assumed stress–strain curves for FRC in tension.
0
defined as E0 = fcf /ε0f . The D parameter governs the slope of
the descending branch and for this a constant value was assumed Therefore in the following section it will be assumed the peak
when characteristics of matrices and fibers are specified. strain ε0 given by Eq. (3) and ε085 as ultimate strain given by
In the present paper, in Eq. (4), the D parameter was chosen Eq. (6). It has to be observed that these values in the absence
variable with F , according to the expression: of fibers results 0.002 and 0.003, values well know in the most
D = 0.3136 + 0.175 · F. (5) common codes on ultimate states.
Eq. (5) was calibrated on the basis of experimental data As far as the tensile response of fibrous concrete is concerned,
available in literature (see. [14]) and of that generated here. the stress–strain curve adopted is that proposed in [15]. It
If the actual stress is settled to 0.85 fcf , by using Eq. (4) it results: considers a stress–strain curve constituted by three linear
branches, as shown in Fig. 11. The curve adopted is characterized
ε20.85 · (1 − 0.15 · D) − ε0.85 · (1.7 + 0.15 · β) · εof
by an initial ascending branch up to the maximum tensile strength
+ 0.85 · ε2of = 0. (6) fctf , a second one connecting the peak stress with the point, having
G. Campione, M. Letizia Mangiavillano / Engineering Structures 30 (2008) 2970–2980 2977
Fig. 12. Design assumptions for analysis of single reinforced concrete beams.
1 ρt
εctu = 2 · fy · + (8)
Es E0
with Es and fy modulus of elasticity and yield strength of transverse
steel, ρt reinforcing steel ratio in the transverse direction (if
horizontal distributed bars are present in the beam), and finally a
third branch characterized by residual strength fr .
Moreover fctf and fr indicate the maximum and residual
strength, respectively, of fibrous concrete and Ect its elastic
modulus in tension (it can be estimated using the mixture rules, Fig. 13. Variation of ρ with F .
but in practice it can be assumed to be that of plain concrete).
With reference to the residual strength of FRC, it was shown in and the depth of the tensile zone H − e being expressed by:
[16] that for hooked steel fibers it can be assumed as:
+ ε085
q fctf
e
= 0.2 · fc0 · F.
fr ∼ (9) = Ect
. (12)
xc ε085
As regards the ft value, it was observed by [16] that with the
volume percentage of fibers up to 1 % and the aspect of ratio (length To apply Eqs. (10)–(12) it is necessary to verify that the
to diameter ratio of fiber) up to 100, its values do not increases, but geometrical ratio of main steel is between maximum and
not significantly and in a conservative way it can be assumed equal minimum values corresponding as follows: the minimum to ε0f of
to that of plain concrete. crushing in concrete and to the ultimate strain in main steel (see
point A of Fig. 12), and the maximum to the first yielding of main
4.2. Flexural and shear strength of fibrous reinforced concrete beams steel and the maximum crushing of concrete at ε085 of strain (see
point B of Fig. 12), resulting in:
Referring to flexural failure and considering that the loaded
εc fcf fr c εc + εf
section is subjected to the maximum bending moment by ρ = 0.8 · · − · 1+ − . (13)
using the translation and rotational equilibrium conditions, it is εc + εs fy fy d εc + εs
possible to determine the position of the neutral axis xc , and Therefore, it results in the minimum ρmin (point A of Fig. 12),
the ultimate moment Mf l . Detailed analytical expressions, valid critical ρcr (point C of Fig. 12) and maximum ratio ρmax of main
for fibrous concrete beams with a T cross-section with top and steel (point B of Fig. 12) expressed by Eq. (13) particularized for
bottom steel reinforcements, can be found in [17] while in [6],
the different cases assuming for: ρ = ρmin εc = ε0f and εs = εu ;
analogous expressions were found for rectangular cross-sections.
ρ = ρcr εc = ε085 and εs = εu ; ρ = ρmax εc = ε085 and εs = fy /Es .
In the following simplified procedure proposed in [14] for fibrous
It has to be observed that the maximum strain capacity of
concrete, it is assumed that the contribution due to compressed
main steel εu is assumed according to the most common codes as
bars is neglected.
According to [14], by using the stress-block for the compression 0.01, while for FRC higher values e.g. 0.025 can be utilized. In the
and tension zones of fibrous concrete and by supposing the main following section it twill be assumed as 0.01 to give a comparison
steel in tension to be yielded (see Fig. 12) and the maximum with the case of ordinary concrete.
concrete strain assumed εof , it is possible to obtain: Fig. 13 shows the variation of minimum, maximum and critical
the position of neutral axis: ratio (ρmin, ρmax and ρcr ) with F for steel having yielding stress
460 MPa, and fc0 = 30 MPa. In the same graph, maximum
xc 1 ρ · fy + fr · h
d values given by [10,11] and the assumed experimental values are
= · (10)
d α fcf + fr · ft /Ec t +ε0.85 reported. From the graphs it emerges that ρ increases with F
0.80·ε085
in agreement with the concept that the strain at peak load also
the ultimate moment: increases with F . Moreover, in the absence of fibers, if ρ is lower
Mf l 0.80 · xc h e
= ρ · f · 1 − 0. 5 · + f · − than the minimum ratio (point A), the required addition of fibers to
2 y r
b·d d d d produce first crushing does not change significantly. On the other
h h−e 0.80 · xc
hand, if ρ is higher than the maximum value, to avoid complete
× − − 0.5 · (11) crushing of concrete with main steel bar has to be yielded (point
d 2·d d
2978 G. Campione, M. Letizia Mangiavillano / Engineering Structures 30 (2008) 2970–2980
Table 5
Geometrical ratio of longitudinal and transverse steel according to EC8 and ACI 318-02
Code ρ p ρsw (φst = 8 mm; b = 250 mm)
min max max Assumed
q
fc0
ACI 318-95 0.25 · fy
0.025 h/4; 8 φ 24 φ; 305 mm 0.0014 (p = 305 mm)
· ρρ
fctm fct 0
EC8 0.5 · fy
0.015 + 0.35 · fy
h/4; 5 φ 24 φ; 150 mm 0.0028 (p = 150 mm)
Fig. 16. Variation of (a/d)b with F . Fig. 18. Assumed stress–strain curves for FRC in compression.
References