Reading Mosques: Meaning and Architecture in Islam

Author(s): JALE NEJDET ERZEN

Source: The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism , WINTER 2011, Vol. 69, No. 1,
SPECIAL ISSUE: The Aesthetics of Architecture: Philosophical Investigations into the
Art of Building (WINTER 2011), pp. 125-131
Published by: Wiley on behalf of The American Society for Aesthetics

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/42635843

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 JALE NEJDET ERZEN

Reading Mosques: Meaning and Architecture in

tects andnot
The expression 'reading architecture' should architectural critics have couched their
seem too odd, as one of the best known exam-of the meanings of buildings in terms
analyses
of "metaphors."
ples of architecture, the church, has often been For example, Denis Hollier has
likened to a book, and in entering, fordemonstrated
example, how George Bataille uses the no-
the little Scrovegni Chapel in Padua, one feels
tion as
of metaphor to show the political nature of
if one were leafing through the pages ofarchitecture.2
a minia- Hugh Pearman, in his book Con-
ture novel that narrates a story one should not World Architecture , has stressed the
temporary
metaphoric
forget. This article applies the notion of reading qualities of religious architecture in
architecture to mosques by offering a reading of
various cultures.3 Christian Norberg-Schulz, who
treats the
this type of architecture that pays particular at-history of architecture as a search for
tention to the symbols and metaphors embodied
meaning, has also highlighted the use of symbols
in Western
in most mosques. Although users of mosques may architecture, noting that Le Corbus-
not be conscious of these architectural ier's use of mechanical metaphors in his archi-
symbols,
I believe that the buildings they experience have
tectural and urban designs and the cosmic impli-
cations
significance and unique aesthetic value for themof Claude-Nicolas Ledoux's projects are
largely because of these elements. The well
mosqueknown.4
is Postmodern architects have used
one of the most common types of building, symbolsand
and metaphors to render architecture so-
its presence in the diversity of cultures cially
that and
par-historically significant, and discussion of
ticipated in the complex historical developments
these elements has constituted the main subject
of the Islamic world makes it difficult toofproduce
postmodern architectural discourse and criti-
a general account. Nevertheless, this article will Jencks's writings, for example, have
cism. Charles
try to analyze certain symbolic features focused mainly on such issues.5 Charles Moore's
that have
been- and still continue to be- common in most
Piazza d'Italia, Aldo Rossi's architecture employ-
kinds of mosques. ing the concept of the "analogical city," and Hans
Hollein's projects that try to create "architectural
landscapes" can be cited as examples of projects
I. ARCHITECTURE AND MEANING
that make use of symbols and metaphors. Even a
more structurally oriented architect like Norman
The use of metaphors and other symbols Foster hasin used metaphors to describe his work, as
architectural design and interpretation is case
in the notof the Millau Viaduct, which he likens
peculiar to Islam. Western architecture to
and archi-
a butterfly.6 Interestingly, contemporary West-
tectural discourse are full of examplesernofarchitects
build- who have built mosques have made
ings whose meaning is partially determined by
use of common Islamic metaphors. The postmod-
symbols. In relation to architecture, ernthearchitect
terms Paolo Portoghesi's mosque in Rome
'representation' or 'symbol' have been more com-
is a well-known example.
monly used by philosophers, as in the case Symbols
of Nel-and metaphors have been particu-
son Goodman's provocatively titled essay "How
larly attractive to Muslim scholars and writers,
who have
Buildings Mean."1 On the other hand, many traditionally avoided precise literal
archi-

© 2011 The American Society for Aesthetics

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 126 The Aesthetics of Architecture

expressions in any important,realm, believing

since Islam claims to be a religion of th
man mind could not equality and communality. Moreover,
fathom the in Arabic,
infinit
of the world.7 This the word forideabeauty has was based
the same root with the on
understanding of words the world
'wholeness' or 'community.' that
Thus, large in-held
cannot be defined. tensivelyThis "medieval"
decorated mosques were built in all Is- d
seeing constant changes lamic lands. The firstand mosques are in the form
multidim
in what is observed, had
of multicolumned a strong
(hypostyle) structures whereaesth
because it kept Islamic the space in frontthinkers
of the Mihrab (a kind ofattent
altar
ceptual qualities.pointing Moreover,
toward Mecca) was covered the Islam
with a dome
the world, within whose which the
interior surface would usually architect
be decorated
mosque developed, isstalactites
with plaster influenced by a
that created a play of light,
adoration for the creations of God. Such adora- symbolizing the heavens.11
tion renders everything with the emotion of love,The mosque was not only a place for prayer,
leading to empathy and giving rise to an aestheticbut, in its early phase, it also served as the com-
relation to the world. Consequently, all Is- munal meeting place and as a place for judiciary
lamic artworks, including Islamic architecture andcourt meetings under the supervision of the imam.
specifically the architecture of mosques, needThe to hypostyle hall, which was usually a rectangle
be understood and appraised in terms of the sym- with the short axis toward the mihrab, was entered
bols that are embodied therein. This has long beenfrom an open courtyard surrounded by arcades.
understood in the Muslim world. Indeed, someThis of courtyard would also be used for prayer when
the ideas I employ to explain the architecturethe of congregation was large. This type of mosque
mosques were drawn from the dictated architec- is called "Great Mosque," from which different
varieties were to evolve in the sundry lands where
tural records of the greatest of Ottoman architects,
Sinan, who was active in the Ottoman court dur- Islam spread.
ing the sixteenth century. In these records, writtenI discuss four types of symbols in my analy-
mostly in poetic form, Sinan describes mosques sis of mosques. The most common, found in all
using numerous metaphors and similes: "In every types of mosques throughout history, refers to
corner is a rose garden of Paradise "paradise." The second, what I refer to as "the
its marbles see would think heavenly (themselves) in a to
theater," is related sea
the unique func-
of elegance tion of the mosque as the place for communal
resembles a rainbow."8 prayer. Except for the imam who performs the
prayer with the community, there are no actors
or rituals for the faithful to watch. Thus, the in-
II. HISTORY, USE, MEANING terior of a mosque is an empty space, a stage for
prayer which is performed through bodily move-
Islam, which appeared in the seventh century, tookments of prostration. This turns the interior into
its initial artistic forms from existing Christiana space of performance. Third, mosques are often
architecture and decorations.9 The first Islamicunderstood as "urban sculptures" that guide visi-
religious monument, The Dome of the Rock in tors through cities. "The cosmic spiral" is the final
symbol that is common to many structures, forms,
Jerusalem, in spite of its original form, is neverthe-
less decorated with mosaics inspired by Byzantineand decorations in the Islamic world and relates
patterns.10 However, within a short period, sev- to a medieval understanding of time and space.
eral factors, such as social norms, structural ex-
igencies, religious practices, and climate, created
the possibility for various original mosque config-
III. PARADISE REGAINED

urations around the Mediterranean, where Islam

had spread with great speed. The image for the ideal place has usually be
Islamic prayer does not require a specific edi-"paradise." Although the notion of paradise
fice, as prayer can be observed anywhere as longcommon to most religions, the sacred book of
as one faces Mecca. Although the Prophet had lam, the Koran, and popular Muslim culture str
warned against the futile show of riches and ma-the idea of paradise almost beyond any othe
teriality in this world, prayer in communion is All mosques have tried to create an atmosph

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Erzen Reading Mosques 127

extremely
that refers by analogy to a importan
conceptio
Moreover, the Islamic
ence toworld is Alth
heaven. cons
faithful to be the landmosque
ferent of peace, "D
desig
as opposed to lands where
because of anarchy an
the restric
"Dar-el-Harp." Consequently,
has always- and
the
inm
be an ideal place cred
where allspiritual
and tensions fo
a
equilibrium and that
harmonized.
the mostAn att
perfe
to reference this mosques
quality belong to
in mosque
teenth
apparent equilibrium of century,
structuralwhf
in a mosque, all not
tensile
have forces are i
load-bearin
create an atmosphere ture of of harmony
sixteenth-c
Romano Burelli lows states for in windows relation to t
of Sinan, "the purposeelevations. of This decorati is b
making-explicit on ofcolumns and arches. There are constructi
chosen also windows
rather [by] maskingaround the drum and of theblurring
dome, allowing light to of
tive procedure followed,
enter the interior from all sides . and. levels.
. decoraIn spite
function as a reconciler
of this profusion of light coming of from opposite
all direc-
understand this tions,
better any directionality by comparing
of light is avoided. At all
of a mosque with times ofthat day the quality of of light ais such Christi
that one
or church, where never the knows where the sun is. The overall light
dynamism and
effect is provided byforces
movement of contrary double windows, by are grates sin
aesthetic quality. on theIn outside, and by stained
the Western glass. As Burelli w
create their own states, "the destiny
internal space givenby oppos
over to prayers
forces with will mustand be perfectly power.
visible in all its points, In the
unsecret
however, it is believed
and revealed . . . [while] that concealing] humans
from the wor-
a perfect world shipers
and that
the position of thethe sun in the mosque
heavens."14
sent this perfect Other world, features that are whilerelated to paradisealso are re
afterlife that isthepromised
decorations on the mihrab and on tothe exterior
the fait
ment from Burelli wall of perfectly
the portico (the arcaded entrance section
illustrate
mosques of Sinan: also used by latecomers for prayer). As the faith-
ful look toward the mihrab niche, they often face
The space of the decorations
mosques that symbolizeof the opening
Sinan to the par- is [a
adisethe
Islamic paradise. In garden. In97 the portico
verses of the Rüstern of Pa§a the
Mosque in Istanbul
paradise is described, there (c. 1560), tiles
is that one depict awhic
enchantment of the garden of paradisiacal
flowers symbolize paradise. The space Green m
Mosque in Bursa
than the others. "But for has a mihrab
those that is decorated
who fo
with blue tiles on
to their God, for them which yellow are
there and gold flowers
lofty r
have
halls above them . . . been painted. We can extend
beneath which these examples
rivers
indefinitely, in
they rest,] sojourning from the early mosques in northern
gardens where t
XXXIX, 20-73-74)13 Africa all the way to those in Andalusia in south-
ern Spain.
According to Islam, Two other typeshumanity
of symbols found in mosques has d
that refer to paradise are the
perfect world initially presence of water by Go
given
an attempt is made toIn the
and images of forests. recreate
Seljukid medreses, this
which also served for religious
make people remember it rituals and meet-
primarily
ings, there used to besuch
bols and expressions a small pool under as the callig
ration, and the oculusstructure
of the dome, collecting rainwaterof and re- mosqu
through certainflectingother the sky; often aaesthetic
spiral incision into the desig
to the promised paradise.
pavement near the pool would symbolize the uni-
Besides the structural
verse. In the early Ottoman mosques harmony
in Bursa, the a
first hall under the dome would
solving and concealing also contain a little
tensions to cr
fountain with running water.
sphere of peacefulness, the The Greatuse Mosque of lig

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 128 The Aesthetics of Architecture

in Bursa dating from worshipped, and 1300 has

the main purpose in isits v
of prayer
a large pool withto represent sprinkling this direct relation with water,
God, to offer us
ablution. The famous mosque
oneself to the gaze of God as a worshipperof Sinan
of God.
(Adrianopolis) also has
In this a small
performance, fountai
the bodily relationship
the middle of the interior. Ablution fountains of with architecture becomes vital and physically
the Siileymaniye Mosque in Istanbul (1557), builtreal. Before entering the mosque, a cleaning rit-
by Sinan for Suleiman the Magnificent, are lo- ual is observed at the ablution fountains: The feet,
cated in the exterior walls of the building, creat-the face, and the ears are washed and, before en-
ing a physical bond with the building and refer- tering the mosque, the shoes are removed. Before
ring to the rivers of paradise. It has often beenthe prayer, the body is prepared and cleansed.
suggested that the Great Mosque type, with a hy-This practice readies the body for both active par-
postyle hall boasting many columns, such as the ticipation and heightened perception. One feels
wooden mosques built in Anatolia by the Seljuks the floor under one's feet, and during the prayer
(c. 1100-1300) or the Great Mosque of Cordobatouches one's forehead to the floor several times.
(786-788) with its hundreds of columns and super- In this bare interior the voice of the imam and the
imposed horseshoe arches, represents or symbol- sounds of water (if there are fountains) are made
izes the forest. For a culture that first developed to be heard and appreciated in the best way. In
in the desert lands of Arabia, both water and flora many of the mosques of Sinan, water jugs have
have special value. This is the reason why green isbeen placed in the domes to absorb echoes so that
almost a sacred color for Islam and why the pres-the call to prayer and the sounds of the prayers
ence of water in the mosques is of special value. themselves are heard in the clearest and most aes-
Thus, by the inclusion of many visual and sensory thetically pleasing way possible. When the prayer
references to paradise, the mosque is experienced is observed in congregation, the bodily presence
as a metaphor for it in every sense. and perception become even more acute. In addi-
tion, being close to the floor accentuates the per-
IV. HEAVENLY THEATER
ception of movements of the body and intensifies
the perception of sounds.
The ritual of prayer observed in congregation Great architects
is a throughout the world have
performance of adoration and prostration been especially
to God, sensitive to the fact that architec-
the "all-seeing." The sight of prayer ture in acanmosque,
impose certain physical and psychological
either of a single individual or of aattitudes group, onwill
the user. For example, ascending and
make it obvious that the whole interior descending
space, ceremonial
de- staircases, as in the case of
signed to be clearly visible and homogeneous opera houses in or palaces, demand a certain bodily
all of its parts, is conceived as a stage for position to adapt to this ceremonial atmosphere,
the obser-
vance of a performance. The interiorswhile period furniture requires not only certain
of mosques
have no furnishings, except for carpets covering
ways of sitting and standing but appropriately har-
the floor and the minbar, a high platform monious or clothes
stair- to go with it. Louis XVI inte-
case upon which the imam faces the congregation. riors are striking examples of this phenomenon.
In this bare space, the proportions of Similarly, changes in the disposition of the body
architectural
elements such as columns and arches and the dif- often occur when entering an interior from an
ferent scales of verticality are often calculated toopen space. This change can be accentuated ar-
complement the human body, which is picked outchitecturally. The very sensitive architect Alvar
as an actor to be watched. Aalto made users conscious of this change by
In comparison to the conception of space con-creating special light conditions at the entrances
figured through linear perspective, which creates of his buildings. More generally, this shift in the
a scene as if through a window, in a mosque thechange of location from exterior to interior and
congregation is placed at the center of the struc-the many different implications it can have often
ture so as to sense its space as if it revolves aroundhave been emphasized through specific designs
them.15 The congregation is thus made part of theapplied on gates and doors. In mosques, entrances
performance, both watching and being watched.are designed, decorated, and even covered with
This reflects the idea that God is everywhere and special inscriptions to prepare people for the spe-
is always watching. The whole world is there forcial experience of the heavenly theater that lies
the enjoyment of God, who is to be adored and inside.

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 Erzen Reading Mosques 129

V. URBAN SCULPTURE space and time and the related arts are based i
Islam.16 In contrast to the Vitruvian principle
The Ottomans, who ruled over the Islamic world
symmetry and the spatial understanding relat
for about 700 years, created an architecture which
to linear perspective, which are influential in th
was open to the exterior and developed a type
West, in Islam, both auditory and visual forms ta
of mosque that stood out in the urban space as
their organizing principle from the spiral.17 If
a sculptural form. Mogul mausoleums were simi-
listen to oriental Islamic music, we shall hear u
lar to Ottoman mosques in that the form was to
ending repetitions and circular progressions. Lik
be seen from all four directions. The most famous
wise, analyses of space in mosques and in religiou
of these mausoleums are the Taj Mahal, the mau-architectural sites show that structural elements as
soleum of Haydar in Delhi, and that of Akbar near
well as spatial units are arranged in circular form,
Agra. These last two can be understood as urban
enveloping and circumscribing each other like wa-
sculptures. On the other hand, sixteenth-century
ter rings around a falling stone.
Ottoman mosques were designed with a specific
This spiraling formation of the structure and
urban development project in mind. They were
the placement of architectural units in a group
positioned in the city to be viewed from specific
of buildings, such as architectural complexes, are
distances and venues and visually related to each
most apparent in sixteenth-century Ottoman ar-
other in the urban landscape. For example, the
chitecture. As mentioned previously, this becomes
great mosque of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent
obvious when we are trying to reach an Ottoman
(1557), placed right above the Golden Horn in Is-
mosque in the city. A comparison between the
tanbul, acts as a welcoming façade to the city just
approach to the great mosque of Suleymaniye in
above the harbor. Entering the Golden Horn, one
Istanbul and the approach to a Christian basilica,
is confronted with the view of the Suleymaniye
such as St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, is revealing
Mosque, which hovers above the port. It is be-
in this respect. In the former, although we see the
lieved that the monument was illuminated at night
building in all its monumentality from a distance,
and would act as a beacon to the night traffic on
as we come near, we are led through labyrinth
the sea. The religious monument seeming from
streets, and access to the entrance of the mosque
the distance as a composite sculptural form that
becomes possible only after spiraling toward it. In
could almost be held in one's palm is a perfect sym-
Rome, after a certain point, a straight path, creat-
bol, a perfect object, which creates the visual fo-
ing a linear perspective, will lead us directly to the
cus for the city. Many sixteenth-century Ottoman front of St. Peter's.
mosques have a pyramidal form that accentuates
The above example of circular paths around a
their sculptural aspect. Thus, architecture of this
mosque is similar to the circularly arranged struc-
sort, understood as urban sculpture, directly ad-
tural elements that support many monuments. Es-
dresses itself to our bodily and mobile sense in
pecially in structures where the dome spans a
the city, as it connects to our sense of erectness
wide opening, there are several enveloping lay-
and guides our orientation in the city. With spiri-
ers of structural elements, concentrically placed,
tual and mnemonic implications, the mosque that
that make it possible to enlarge the interior space
is perceived and experienced as an urban sculp-as well as to stabilize the structure. In an architec-
ture becomes an important asset to the city, offer-
tural complex containing different public build-
ing guidance and creating cultural and social ref-
ings, such as the mosque, the medreses (colleges),
erences. As the Ottoman mosque is transformed
the hamam (bath), the hospital, the hospice, the
into an urban sculpture, it contributes to the ob-
soup house, the stables, the latrines, and several
server's sense of familiarity with the city and cre-
courtyards in between, these elements are ar-
ates a sense of human scale, giving the observer
ranged in enveloping concentric circular form. A
the feeling of belonging.
perfect example of this is again the Suleymaniye
Mosque in Istanbul.18
VI. THE COSMIC SPIRAL This spiral configuration, used both in architec-
ture and the placement of buildings in an architec-
The spiral, as a form that is both three-dimensionaltural complex, has several functions that relate to
and that has no beginning and no end, perception is the basic
and to the aesthetic appraisal. The first
formal principle on which the understanding would be that ofsacred or religious spaces are not

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 130 The Aesthetics of Architecture

properly entered directly, but of

formance, each new execution only after
this "maqam"
fully circling around them.
would be varied Another
in adaptation to the actual con- mo
meaning in relation tomuch
ditions, very thelike jazzuse
music.22 of spira
Similarly,
would be how thein movement Islamic architecture, no matterofhow themuch a bod
experience could refer to both
building conforms cosmic
to a set, preexisting plan, itsand
movements. As one finalturns
form will varyin circles
according to the actual in
con- spa
lar to the movements of
ditions of site, the whirling
topography, dervi
patron, and local tra-
the revolutions of the ditions. planets,
Moreover, buildings onewill be designed
has a to ver
ent sense of space, and as
be appreciated the body
they undergo become
constantly chang-
with the environment. Barbara Montero claims ing conditions which daily and annually produce
that the perception of movement in the body, in changes of mood and atmosphere. According to
Cafer Efendi, the author of the book on Mehmet
joints and muscles, which is referred to as "propri-
oception," can have an aesthetic meaning.19 Thus, Efendi, the architect of the Blue Mosque, the value
circulation patterns forced by the architecture ofof this mosque lay in the way it offered unlimit-
mosques, perceived as the body moves around in edly changing views to the eye, as its elements
them, constitute one of the important aesthetic as-
could be seen differently from each different van-
pects of Islamic architecture and urban planning, tage point.23 Explaining the aesthetics of mosques
aspects which literally embody metaphor. through symbols reinforces this characteristic, as
Besides the spiral, which is understood and val-each symbol can be read differently according to
ued as a cosmic and spiritual form, the relations the changing experience and imagination of each
between the circle, the square, and the triangleobserver. Thus, because of their embedded sym-
also constitute a basic forms metaphor in the struc-bols, the meaning of a mosque is to a degree open-
ture and decoration in Islamic religious buildings. ended and constructed anew by each observer ac-
The circle symbolizes the perfect form and relates cording to her knowledge of these symbols.
to the heavens and to God, while the square, with The use of metaphors and other symbols to
its four directions, relates to human existence and interpret Islamic architecture has been common
to the world. Most Islamic geometric decoration of throughout the Muslim world. In Islam, as in many
polygons and stars is derived from the rotation of premodern cultures, certain ideas take the form
the square within the circle.20 This relationship can
of historically persistent symbols. This article has
also be observed in the basic forms of the mosque, tried to show that many valued experiences of Is-
especially in the mosques where the structures lamic architecture are grounded in meanings of
have developed through several centuries, such as which an observer may not be fully conscious,
Ottoman mosques. In these, the spherical shape ofand that to be fully appreciated mosques must
the dome and the prismatic shape of the buildingbe "read." Sometimes architectural metaphors are
are symbolic representations of the square mov- universal, and other times they are culturally spe-
ing within the circle. The Ottoman mosque and cific. Thus, while for all cultures certain types of
its decorations are thus perfect expressions of the buildings, such as temples or houses, may have
synthesis of the world of man and the realm of a similar meaning, other buildings, because they
God. However, this polarity can also be under-contain specific symbols associated with specific
stood as practicality and spirituality, as mind andcultural traditions, can be understood only within
body, or as earth and world, similar to the way that context. For example, as opposed to the idea
these oppositions had been interpreted by Martin of paradise for mosques, the use of the body of
Heidegger.21 Christ can be shown as the basis for church plans.
To read a mosque and understand how it differs
from a church, it is necessary to understand the
VII. CONCLUSION culturally specific metaphors found in its architec-
ture.

The use of symbols in mosques is relatedAs tostated in the beginning of this article, ex-
a more
fundamental feature of both Islamic architecturecept for a few symbols, such as those referencing
and other Islamic artworks. In certain forms of paradise and the heavenly theater that are intrin-
Oriental music, although a certain rhythmic style
sic to the idea of the mosque, not every mosque
called "maqam" would be chosen for each per-
makes use of the same set of symbols. However,

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 Erzen Reading Mosques 131

I have tried to show how mosque a

6. See www.greatbuildings.com/buildings/Millau_
Viaduct.html
essentially connected to symbols an
7. Jale Nejdet Erzen, "Islamic Aesthetics: An Alterna-
indeed to some specific symbols) an
tive Way to Knowledge," The Journal of Aesthetics and Art
fore, to properly
Criticism appreciate
65 (2007): 69-75. a mosq
read with them in 8. Sinan 'smind. In any
Autobiographies: Five Sixteenth-Century Texts , case
ed. Giilru underlying
to understand the Necipoglu, trans. Howard Crane and EsraIslamiAkin
(Leiden: Brill, 2006) p. 132.
the world and how that approach g
9. Oleg Grabar, The Formation of Islamic Art (Yale Uni-
of ideas and images that should sha
versity Press, 1973).
ence of mosques.24 10. Oleg Grabar, The Shape of the Holy: Early Islamic
Jerusalem (Princeton University Press, 1996).
JALE NEJDET ERZEN 11. Doģan Kuban, Muslim Religious Architecture (Lei-
den, the Netherlands: Brill, 1974).
Department of Architecture 1 z. Augusto Romano laureili, La Moschea di òinan (Mi-
Middle East Technical University lano: Cluva Editori, 1988), p. 35.
Balgat, 06531 Ankara, Turkey 13. Burelli, La Moschea di Sinan, p. 19.
14. Burelli, La Moschea di Sinan , p. 43.
internet: erzen@metu.edu.tr 15. Emel Ardaman, Perspective and Istanbul, the Capital
of the Ottoman Empire (Oxford University Press, 2007).
16. Alexandre Popodopoulo, L'Islam et l'art musulman
(Paris: Mazenod, 1976).
1. Nelson Goodman, "How Buildings Mean," Critical 17. Vitruvius, The Ten Books of Architecture , trans.
Inquiry 11 (1985): 642-653. Hicky Morgan Morris (New York: Dover, 1960). Vitruvius
2. Denis Hollier, Against Architecture: The Writings discusses
of the symmetry of the human body as a model for
George Bataille , trans. Betsy Wing (MIT Press, 1992). the Hol-beauty of architecture on pp. 72-75.
lier also points out that architectural terms constitute the ba-18. For the Suleymamye Mosque in Istanbul, see Giilru
sis of many metaphors found in philosophy and other fields, Necipoglu Kafadar, "The Suleymaniye Complex in Istanbul:
arguing that "architecture . . . always represents something An Interpretation," in Muqarnas, vol. 3, ed. Oleg Grabar
(Leiden, the Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1985), pp. 93-117.
other than itself from the moment it becomes distinguished
19. Barbara Montero, "Proprioception as an Aesthetic
from mere building. . . . [T]his encroachment by an irre-
ducibly metaphorical situation, with architecture defined Sense,"
as The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 64 (2006):
the representation of something else, extends to language, 231-242.

where architectural metaphors are very common. There is20. Keith Critchlow, Islamic Patterns (Rochester, VT: In-
the façade, generally concealing some sordid reality; there ner Traditions, 1976).
is the secret, hidden architecture itself that one discovers . . .21. Martin Heidegger, "Origin of the Work of Art," in
in the universe itself where one acknowledges the creator's Philosophies of Art and Beauty , ed. and trans. Albert Hof-
stadter and Richard Kuhns (University of Chicago Press,
unified plan; pillars are not all literally pillars of the church;
keystones prevent systems (whether political, philosophical, 1964), pp. 650-708.
or scientific) from collapsing; to say nothing of foundations" 22. Charles Fon ton, Yüzyilda Türk Miiziģi, trans.
(pp. 31-32). Cem Behar (Istanbul: Pan, 1987); see also Cem Behar,
3. Hugh Pearman, Contemporary World Architecture Klasik Türk Musikisi Üzerine Denemeler (Istanbul: Baģlam
(London: Phaidon, 1998). Yayincilik, 1987).
23. Howard Crane, An Early Seventeenth Century Ot-
4. Christian Norberg-Schulz, Meaning in Western Archi-
tecture (London: Studio Vista, 1975), pp. 334, 362. toman Treatise on Architecture (Leiden, the Netherlands: E.
J. Brill, 1987), p. 34.
5. Charles Jencks, The Language of Postmodern Archi-
tecture (London: Rizolli, 1977). 24. I thank Fred Stark for his help in revising the English.

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