Module 3

Over voltages and Insulation Requirements

3.1 Generation of Over Voltages: Lightning and Switching surges

3.2 Protection against Over voltages , Insulation Coordination
3.3 Propagation of surges
3.4 Voltages produced by traveling surges
3.5 Bewley Diagrams

3.1 Generation of Over Voltages

Increase in voltage for very short time in power system is called as the over voltage. it is also
known as the voltage surge or voltage transients.

The voltage stress caused by over voltage can damage the lines and equipment’s connected to
the system.

There are two types of causes of over voltage in power system.

1. Over voltage due to external causes

2. Over voltage due to internal causes

Transient over voltages can be generated at high frequency (load switching and lightning),
medium frequency (capacitor energizing), or low frequency.

Over voltage due to external causes: This cause of over voltage in power system is the
lightning strokes in the cloud. When electric charges get accumulated in clouds due to
thunder Strom caused due to some bad atmosphere process. This type of over voltages
originates from atmospheric disturbances, mainly due to lightning. This takes the form of a
surge and has no direct relationship with the operating voltage of the line.

Lighting and Switching surges

Switching means the sudden interruption in any circuit and surges means the overcurrent
spikes that are caused in the circuit.
Combined together, switching surges are the overcurrent/overvoltage spikes that are
experienced in the highly inductive circuits at the time of sudden interruption that is witching
period.
As the magnetic field about the inductive conductor collapses, a brief very high voltage can
be generated at that point.
These switching surges can be highly dangerous for the electrical system and thus require
proper control and protection devices.
Lightning surge:
When electric charges are built up in thunderclouds to such level that could break
atmospheric insulation, an electric discharge eventually occurs between these clouds or
between the clouds and the ground.

Electric current reaches 20-150 kA. An abnormally high voltage generated by direct lightning
discharge applied to electric power cables or communication cables at that instance is called
‘direct lightning surge’.

Correspondingly, such voltage induced by electrostatic or electromagnetic induction on those

cables located close to the point where a direct lightning hits, is called ‘induced lightning
surge’.

Also, when lightning strikes a lightning rod and the ground potential rises, instruments’
grounding potential becomes also high. This causes an abnormally great potential difference
between the cables and the ground, which is called ‘lightning surge caused by increased
ground potential’.

3.2 Protection against Over Voltage:

Overvoltage may be of transient or persistent nature. There are two categories, internal and
external. This overvoltage can source destruction to insulators and substation gear. Thus, it is
required to provide facilities to protect insulators and other gear from the damaging of
overvoltage. The process of protecting the electrical system from the destruction that may be
triggered by overvoltage. The use of devices such as bent sirens close to the transmission line
and Zener diodes for electronic circuits. There are dissimilar methods can be used for
overvoltage protection, with its specific characteristics. Performance, cost, difficulty and
functioning mode all need to be considered when defining the method to use.

SCR Crowbar

Figure shows the crowbar circuit that seats a short circuit across the output if an overvoltage
situation is practiced. Characteristically thyristors for example SCRs are used for as they can
switch great currents and continue pending any charge has isolated. Often the thyristor is
related back to a fuse that isolates the regulator from needing any more voltage located upon
it

Insulation Coordination

Insulation Coordination in Power System was introduced to arrange the electrical

insulation levels of different components in the electrical power system including
transmission network, in such a manner, that if the failure of insulator occurs, it confides to
the place where it would result in the least damage of the system, easy to repair and replace,
and results least disturbance to the power supply.
When any over voltage appears in the electrical power system, there may be a chance of
failure of its insulation system. Probability of failure of insulation, is high at the weakest
insulation point nearest to the source of over voltage. In power system and transmission
networks, insulation is provided to all equipment and components.
Insulator in some points are easily replaceable and repairable compared to other. Insulation in
some points are not so easily replaceable and repairable and the replacement and repairing
may be highly expensive and require long interruption of power.
Moreover, failure of insulator at these points may causes bigger part of electrical network to
be out of service. So, it is desirable that in situation of insulator failure, only the easily
replaceable and repairable insulator fails. The overall aim of insulation coordination is to
reduce to an economically and operationally acceptable level the cost and disturbance caused
by insulation failure. In insulation coordination method, the insulation of the various parts of
the system must be graded that flash over if occurs it must be at intended points.

3.3 Propagation of surges

Voltage surges maybe caused by a lightning strike at a conductor, flashover from an air
terminal, or switching operation such as opening and closing of a circuit breaker. The surge
propagates from the point of disturbance and travels along a transmission line. As the surge
propagates past a junction between two components such as transmission lines with different
impedances, some part of the surge will refract or pass through the junction called the
transmitted wave and the rest will reflect as shown in Figure.

The reflection and refraction of the surge propagation at the junction between two different
transmission lines.
Where e,i is the voltage and current of the surge propagation. e' ,i' is the voltage and current
of the reflected wave. e" ,i" is the voltage and current of the transmitted wave. Zl is the
impedance of the transmission line 1. Zk is the impedance of the transmission line 2.

From the Thevenin equivalent circuit in Figure, the surge voltage e" travelling past the
junction, and the reflected voltage e’ can be obtained in (1) and (2) respectively.

e “ = 2Zk/ Z1 + Zk .e …………………………………..(1)

e’ = e” – e …………………………………………….(2)

If a junction comprises several different transmission lines as shown in Figure , the refracted
voltage surge e" is given by

e “ = 2Zt/ Z1 + Zt e ………………………………………………………………….(3)

Zt = Z2 Z3 Z4 / Z2 Z3 + Z2 Z4 + Z3 Z4

Analysis of a surge propagation moving past a surge arrester installation point uses the same
principle as the case of several different conductors connected to the junction. When no surge
is presented, the impedance of an arrester is ideally infinite as shown in Figure (b). The
voltage across the surge arrester is surge voltage ( e"  e ) and the reflected voltage is zero ( e'
 0 ). When a surge arrives at the arrester, and the arrester starts conducting, its impedance is
ideally zero as shown in Figure (c). The voltage across the surge arrester is zero ( e"  0 ) and
the reflected voltage is the opposite of the of surge voltage ( e'  e ). In practice however,
there exist some voltage across the surge arrester during its operation because the resistance
of the surge arrester is non-linear. Accordingly, the voltage across the surge arrester will be
tested and provided by the manufacturer.

3.4 Voltages produced by traveling surges

These are classified as “internal” sources as they derive from changes within the system itself
or “external” causes which come from outside the system currently being affected by the
surge.
Internal Sources – Voltage Surges
Many electrical systems operate by either turning on and off power or by increasing and
decreasing the flow of power.
External Sources – Voltage Surges
The different external sources of voltage surges can differ by region. In developing countries
a common source of power surges arises from differences in how power in the national grid is
used.

3.5 Bewley Diagrams

In a Lattice diagram, the horizontal axes represent the distance travelled along the system and
vertical axes represent the time taken to travel. At each instant of change in impedance, the
reflected and transmitted values (current or voltages) can be calculated by multiplying
incident wave values with reflected and transmitted coefficients.

Case-1: Receiving End is Open-circuited

Consider a line connected to a source of constant voltage v at one end and open circuited at
the other, as shown in Fig. . Let αs and αL be the reflection coefficients at the sending end
and the load end respectively, and t, the time taken by the wave to travel from one end to the
other end.

When time t= 0 s, the voltage v is connected to the source end (s) and starts travelling along
the line reaching the load end in time t s with the same magnitude.

Since the load end is an open circuit, the wave reflected back with a magnitude of αLv =v
(because αL= 1 for an open-ended line) at time t + s, reaches source end in time 2t with a
magnitude of v.

The reflected wave is reflected back once again with a magnitude of sv from the source end
after reaching the source end at time 2t + and this process is continued indefinitely.
The same procedure can be implemented for current waves also. This procedure is illustrated
in the Lattice diagram shown in Fig.(b)

Case-2: Receiving End is Connected with Resistance R

Consider a line connected to a source of constant V at one end and the other end is connected
by a resistance R as shown in Fig. (a). Let αs and αL be the reflection coefficients at the
sending-end and the load-end respectively, and the time taken by the wave to travel from one
end to the other in it.

When time t 0 s, the voltage V is connected to the source end (s) and starts travelling along
the line, and reaching the load end in time t s with the same magnitude.

After reaching the junction, the wave is split into two parts, one part of the wave is
transmitted and the other is reflected back with a magnitude of αL=V at time t + it travels
towards source and reaches the source end in time 2t with a magnitude of αLV. The wave,
which has reached the source end, splits into two parts once again.
One part is transmitted and the other is reflected back with a magnitude of αsαLV from
source end at time 2t +. This process is continued indefinitely.

The same procedure can be implemented for current waves also. This procedure is illustrated
in the Lattice diagram shown in Fig

References:

 Power System Analysis by P.S.R Murthy

 Modern Power Systems Analysis (Power Electronics and Power Systems)

 Electrical Power Systems Quality Book by Roger C. Dugan

 Power System Analysis and Design Book by J. Duncan Glover and Mulukutla S
Sarma