CHAPTER 5

Introduction to: Foundation of Individual Behaviour

Topics Covered
5.1 Introduction
5.2 The Individual and Individual Differences
5.3 Human Behaviour and Its Causation

5.1 Introduction
It is often said that no two individuals are exact duplicates; they differ from each other in
some way or the other. Hence the job of the psychologist is to identify and understand this
uniqueness in individuals. Such a similarity or difference between persons reveals individual
differences. It happens in our day-to-day life when we see people around us. A question
comes to mind; how and why people appear similar or different to each other? For example
when we think about their physical appearance, we often ask ourselves why some people
have dark or fair complexion, why some people are tall and some are short, why some are
thin and why some are very fat. When we think about their psychological characteristics we
often come across people who are very talkative or less talkative, some laugh too much
whereas others take much time even to smile, some are very friendly whereas some prefer to
be alone. The present lesson tries to answer all such queries which can bother us in our
everyday life. In psychology, these are called individual differences referring to the extent
and kind of variations or similarities among people on some of the important psychological
aspects such as intelligence, personality, interest, and aptitude. This lesson will also help us
understand how to assess such similarities or variations among individuals.
 5.1.1 Definitions of Individual Differences
1. Drever James:
“Variations or deviations from the average of the group, with respect to the mental or
physical characters, occurring in the individual member of the group are individual
differences.”
2. Skinner, C.E.:
“Today we think of individual differences as including any measurable aspect of the total
personality.”
3. Woodworth, R.S. and Marquis, D.G
“Individual differences are found in all psychological characteristics physical mental abilities,
knowledge, habit, personality and character traits.”

5.2 Types of Individual Differences:

1. Physical differences:
Shortness or tallness of stature, darkness or fairness of complexion, fatness, thinness, or
weakness are various physical individual differences.
2. Differences in intelligence: There are differences in intelligence level among different
individuals. We can classify the individuals from super-normal (above 120 I.Q.) to idiots
(from 0 to 50 I.Q.) on the basis of their intelligence level.
3. Differences in attitudes: Individuals differ in their attitudes towards different people,
objects,binstitutions and authority.
4. Differences in achievement:
It has been found through achievement tests that individuals differ in their achievement
abilities. These differences are very much visible in reading, writing and in learning
mathematics.
5. Differences in motor ability:
There are differences in motor ability. These differences are visible at different ages. Some
people can perform
mechanical tasks easily, while others, even though they are at the same level, feel much
difficulty in performing these tasks.

6. Differences on account of gender:

McNemar and Terman discovered the following differences between men and women, on the
basis of some studies:
(i) Women have greater skill in memory while men have greater motor ability.
(ii) Handwriting of women is superior while men excel in mathematics and logic.
(iii) Women show greater skill in making sensory distinctions of taste, touch and smell etc.,
while men show greater reaction and conscious of size- weight illusion.
(iv) Women are superior to men in languages, while men are superior in physics and
chemistry.
(v) Women are better than men in mirror drawing. Faults of speech etc. in men were found to
be three times of such faults in women.
(vi) Women are more susceptible to suggestion while there are three times as many colour
blind men as there are women.

7. Racial differences:

There are different kinds of racial differences. Differences of environment is a normal factor
in causing these differences. Karl Brigham has composed a list on the basis of differences in
levels of intelligence among people who have migrated to United States from other countries.

On the basis of these average differences between the races, the mental age of a particular
individual cannot be calculated since this difference is based on environment.

8. Differences due to economic status:

Differences in children’s interests, tendencies and character are caused by economic

differences.

9. Differences in interests:

Factors such as sex, family background level of development, differences of race and
nationality
etc., cause differences in interests.

10. Emotional differences:

Individuals differ in their emotional reactions to a particular situation. Some are irritable and
aggressive and they get angry very soon. There are others who are of peaceful nature and do
not get angry easily. At a particular thing an individual may be so much enraged that he may
be prepared for the worst crime like murder, while another person may only laugh at it.

11. Personality differences:

There are differences in respect of personality. On the basis of differences in personality,
individuals have been
classified into many groups. Spranger, for example, has classified personalities into six types:
(a) Theoretical,
(b) Economic
(c) Aesthetic,
(d) Social,
(e) Political, and
(f) Religious.
Jung classified people into three groups:
(a) Introverts,
(b) Extroverts, and
(c) Ambiverts.

12. Differences due to nationality:

Individuals of different nations differ in respect of physical and mental differences, interests
and personality etc. ‘Russians are tall and stout’; ‘Ceylonese are short and slim’; ‘Germans
have no sense of humour’; ‘Yellow races are cruel and revengeful’; ‘Americans are hearty
and frank’; Indians are timid and peace-loving’ and the like observations enter into our
common talk.
 5.3 Human Behaviour and its Causation

Before we proceed to understand the causation of human behaviour, it seems pertinent to

know first what the term behaviour actually means. Though different behavioural scientists
have defined 'behaviour' differently, it simply means as a response to certain stimuli which is
observable directly and indirectly. Behaviour is observed directly by studying the responses
of people to their work environment. Indirect observation refers to how people describe
decision making processes and attitudes verbally. The human behaviour is caused by certain
reasons. Behaviour is the result of interaction between individual characteristics and the
characteristics of the environment in which the behaviour occurs. In other words, behaviour
is a function of both the person and the environment. As stated earlier, each person with a
unique combination of characteristics is different from all others. Some of these
characteristics are inherited from birth while others are learned over time. Personal
characteristics remain inside the person whereas environmental ones outside the person.
These personal and environmental characteristics serve as the foundations of individual
behaviour. What includes in the person and the environment in the context of human
behaviour is shown in Table No 5.1 .

Table 5.1. Causes of Individual Differences:

The Person The Environment

I. Personal Biographical Factors Environmental Factors

1. Sex 1. Economical Conditions

2. Age 2. Political Situations
3. Education 3. Cultural Values
4. Abilities 4. Social Norms
5. Marital Status

II. Psychological Factors Organisational Factors

1. Personality 1. Physical Facilities

2. Perception 2. Organisational Structure
3. Attitude 3. Organisational Design
4. Values 4. Leadership Style
5. Learning 5. Reward System
The person and the environment can also be termed as the internal perspective and external
perspective respectively of human behaviour at work. Sometimes the person and the
environment are so closely related to behaviour that it becomes difficult to clearly state
whether the behaviour is caused by the person or by the environment. They Offer alternative
explanations for human behaviour. For example, the personal perspective might say Mr.
Kotteny' is an outstanding Professor because he has a high need for achievement, whereas
environmental perspective might say that Mr. Kotler is an outstanding Professor because he is
paid extremely well for his work. Given such situation, Kurt Lewin2 captured both
perspectives and opined that behaviour is a function of both the person and the environment.
Now, let us understand how the characteristics of the person and the environment affect
his/her behaviour at work.

I. Personal Biographical Factors:

1. Sex: Sex has a profound impact on behaviour at work. It affects one's turnover and
absenteeism. Research has proved beyond doubt that the tendency to change job and abstain
from work is higher among female employees than their male counterparts. The reason is not
difficult to seek. Historically, our society has placed home and family responsibility on the
females. When a child is ill or some one needs to await the electrician or plumber, it is often
woman who has to abstain from work. Added to these is our so far less appreciated and
encouraged women as employees in organisations.

2. Age: Age also has an important impact on performance, turnover, absenteeism and job
satisfaction. With advances in age, employee's performance tends to decline. The older one
grows, less likely he/she becomes to quit the job due to decreasing and job satisfaction are
found positively associated as propensity to change job and place tends to reduce with one's
becoming older and older.

3. Education: Both the level and type of education also affect individual behaviour. Higher
the educational level, higher will be one's expectation for reward and, in turn, increased will
be job satisfaction. The opposite is true when level of education is lower. However, job-
dissatisfaction may occur when rewards do not match expectation. The type of education an
individual has received also affects his/her behaviour. Education can be either 'general
including areas like arts, humanities and social sciences or 'special' covering disciplines such
as engineering, medicine, management, computer science and the like. The individuals
having these two types of education are likely to exhibit distinct behaviour at their work
places as evince the graduates in arts and management in a University Campus, for example:

4. Abilities: Simply stating, ability means an individual's skill and capacity to performa job.
Ability is made up of two types of skills—intellectual and physical. Abilities needed to
perform mental activities are called intellectual abilities. Nowadays, the popular management
admission tests like MAT, GMAT and CAT are designed to ascertain candidate's intellectual
abilities to pursue management course are examples of intellectual abilities.

Physical abilities refer to one's stamina, manual dexterity, leg strength and the like. Physical
abilities gain importance for successfully doing less skilled jobs. One researcher' has
identified nine basic abilities involved in successful performance of physical jobs or tasks.
5. Marital Status: Though there are not enough studies to establish any concrete relationship
between an employee's marital status and his/her behaviour at work, it is believed that
married employees have fewer absences, undergo less turnover and are more satisfied with
their jobs than their unmarried co-workers. Very possibly, the need for a steady job and
regular income experienced by the married employees to meet their increased responsibilities
explains the case.

II. Psychological Factors

Psychological factors refer to an individual's mental characteristics and attributes that are not
always observable. But these too affect human behaviour in a considerable way. Among the
several psychological factors, the important ones having their profound impact on behaviour
are perception, personality, attitudes, values and learning. These have been discussed in detail
in the subsequent chapters later in the book.

I. Environmental Factors

1. Economic Conditions: Though economic factors include several ones, the prominent
among them are employment level, wage rates, economic outlook, and technological change.
These greatly affect human behaviour at work. Level of employment opportunities available
in the country bear strong influence on the behaviour of individuals. For example, fewer job
opportunities reduce turnover and absenteeism of employees due to the fear of losing the
present job. On the contrary, when job opportunities are available in plenty, tendency on the
part of employees for job-hopping increases and, in turn, employees' turnover and
absenteeism do also increase. As such, one's loyalty to an organisation also gets adversely
affected.
Employees work to earn wages that satisfy their needs. It is widely accepted that higher the
wages, more attraction for employees to be attracted to join an organisation and vice versa.
Accordingly, higher wages offer greater job satisfaction and more stability and regularity in
an employee's job. Reverse is also true in case of lower rates of wages.

The general economic outlook prevalent in an economy also affects employees' expectations
and, in turn, their behaviour at work. For example, the employees who experience frequent
lay-offs due to economic cycles are more likely to be motivated by such factors that provide
job security. But, the employees who attach less importance to job security are likely to be
affected or motivated by other factors.

Technological change in the form of automation, robotics, computerisation, and sophisticated

production, technologies affects job opportunities and, in turn, employees' behaviour as well.
Technological change reduces skill required for employees to perform a job and pushes
wage-rates down-ward. Thus, requirements for employees with reduced skill, on the one
hand, and perceived lack of advancement opportunities, on the other, adversely affect the
employees' job satisfaction.

2. Political Situations: The political climate hovering in a country in which an individual

lives affects the individual behaviour in one way or other. Enough evidence is available from
our own homeland to argue that the stability or otherwise of the Government affects the
employment opportunities, both in quantity and quality. For example, in a politically unstable
country like ours during the nineties, neither the new entrepreneurs were attracted to establish
their industries, nor they were interested in making huge investments in the expansion and
diversification of their industrial units. As such, employment opportunities got adversely
affected, both in quantity and quality.

3. Cultural Values: People living in different regions imbibe different cultural values.
Culture is made up of the factors like basic beliefs, values, work-ethic, need for achievement
that have behavioural implications. Let us briefly see how these factors affect behaviour.
Culture is made up of the factors like basic beliefs, values, work-ethic, need for achievement
that have behavioural implications. Let us briefly see how these factors affect behaviour.

Value is tinged with one's moral that guides an individual to judge what is right and what is
wrong. Such value-based judgement influences one's perception, attitude etc. These, in turn,
affect one's behaviour. The work ethic is also tinged with moral. An employee's hard work
commitment to his/her work is called work ethic. While strong work ethics motivate
employees to behave positively, the weak one does just opposite. Need for achievement
motivates an individual to work more and hard. This improves employees' stability on jobs
and, in turn, have less turnovers and absenteeism In fact, both the work ethic and the need for
achievement affect the employee' behaviour at work in a similar way.

II. Organisational Factors

Besides individual characteristics, the characteristics of an organisation, also called

organisational factors, affect human behaviour at work. The prominent among organisational
factors are physical facilities, organisational structure and design leadership styles and reward
system.

5.3.2 Causation of Human Behaviour

We stated earlier that the human behaviour is caused. Here, we shall explain how it is
actually caused. The best way to understand causation of human behaviour is the systems
concept. A system consists of the four definite parts, viz., input, thru-put, output and
feedback. How the human behaviour is caused following this system concept is
diagrammatically presented below in Figure 1.
Figure 1

INPUT THRUPUT OUTPUT

(ENIVIORONMENT) (EVALUATION) (BEHAVIOUR)

FEEDBACK
Whatever enters in the system from the environment in the form of information serves as raw
material or 'input'. Thru-put is the evaluation or transformation of input received. Finally,
employee's overt behaviour based on input and thru-put is the 'output'. Feedback serves the
system with alternatives for changes in the sequence or time period of the systems operations.
Even a change in one small factor can bring about relatively large changes in behaviour.