EOOW Self Study Guide GES B Version 1.0

General Engineering Science B
Study Guide
1. Thermal Expansion and Heat Transfer

2. Combustion
3. Engine Performance
Warsash Maritime School

Introduction
This study guide has been developed to support Experienced seafarer undertaking
their academic studies with Warsash Maritime School prior to their arrival at Saint
Mary’s Campus at Southampton.
Initially the concept of Standard International units and unit conversion are
introduced before providing the material required to studies for the topics that
will be examined as part of the General Engineering Science B paper.
1. Thermal Expansion and Heat Transfer

2. Combustion
3. Engine Performance
With the remaining topics being taught once you are Southampton.
You should read through each of the subject materials, working careful through
the worked examples before attempting the tutorial questions and consulting the
solutions for guidance where necessary.
System International (SI) Units, Engineering Prefixes and Notations
Before you can start any of your studies, you need to be aware of the need to work
in System International units and Engineering Prefixes and Notations.
System International Units
There are three standard units that all other units are developed from. These are
• Length measured in metres
• Mass measured in kilogrammes
• Time measure in seconds
Engineering Prefixes and Notations
In engineering many quantities are used. Several of these are very large and some
are very small and so Engineers use a common language. In 1960 the International
System of Units (SI) was adopted, and this is based on the metric system.
The following table provides this information.
Prefix Notation Number
µ micro 10-6 0.000 001
m mili 10-3 0.001
k kilo 103 1000
M mega 106 1000 000
G giga 109 1000 000 000
Table 1: Engineering Prefix and Notation

Unit Conversion
It is important that you can convert from one unit to another as you will need to
carry out your calculation using SI units. What follows in a method that enable you
to do this.
Methodology
Step 1:
Starting with the unit that you have been given, list all intermediate units that
lead to the final unit that you need.
km m
Step 2:
State the relationship between the two quantities.
Step 3
Do the conversion.
Worked Examples
Example 1: Convert 12 kilometres to metres
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

km m 1km = 1000m 1000 m
20km = 20km × 1 km
20km = 20,000m
Example 2: Convert 50 MJ to Joules
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

MJ J 1 MJ = 106 J 106 𝐽𝐽
50MJ = 50MJ × 1𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
50MJ = 50×106J
Notice that in the fractions used, the numerator and denominator represent an
equal quantity, but measured in different units, i.e. the fraction is equal to 1 and
doesn’t actually change the overall answer, just its unit.
Mathematics Revision
There are many on-line resources for mathematics. Below is a list of several
websites that you may find helpful:
• www.khanacademy.org/math
• www.mathcentre.ac.uk
• www.mathisfun.com
THERMAL EXPANSION AND HEAT TRANSFER
Expansion
Nearly all materials will expand by a certain amount when they undergo an increase in
temperature. The structure of most materials is some form of ordered arrangement of
atoms, where atoms are held at a certain distance apart by several inter-atomic forces.
The individual atoms will not be at rest but will vibrate about a mid point. As the
temperature of a material is increased we must add energy which is stored as the kinetic
energy of the vibrating atoms. As the material gets hotter the amplitude of the atomic
vibration grows, which causes each inter-atomic bond to increase in length and hence the
whole substance grows too in every direction.
When a material is heated any linear distance will increase, and hence both surface areas
and enclosed volumes will also increase. The linear distance increase will also apply to
things such as the diameter of a hole in a material or of a sphere.
The volume change will apply not only to volumes of material, but also to spaces enclosed
within materials e.g. glass beakers.
The change in size of a component will depend only upon:
 The original size.

 The material type.
 The change in temperature.
We can thus write an equation, using a coefficient of expansion to represent the material
type:
L = LT A = AT V = VT
Where:  = coefficient of linear expansion
 = coefficient of superficial (surface area) expansion
 = coefficient of volumetric or bulk expansion
where (approximately)  = 2 and  = 3

Any of the expansion equations can be re-arranged to give the units of the coefficient of
expansion:
ΔL m 1
ΔL  LΔT α α 
LT mK K
such that: ,  and  all have the unit 1/K or 1/oC
i.e. it is the fractional change in size per unit change in temperature.
MAE405/MEN404 General Engineering Science – self-study notes v1, October 2019, TB

1
Example
Given that an iron bar is exactly 12 m long at 70oC, what will be its length at 10oC. The
coefficient of linear expansion for iron is 14 x 10-6/K.
L = LT L = 12 x 14 x 10-6 x (10 – 70) = -0.01008 m
New length = Original length + L = 12 + -0.01008 = 11.98992 m.
Example
Find the variation in the area of a concrete road 50 km long and 15 m wide, if the
temperature varies from -15oC (lowest winter temperature) to 35oC (highest summer
temperature). Take the coefficient of linear expansion for concrete to be 12 x 10-6/K.
A = AT = A x 2 x  x T = 50 x 103 x 15 x 2 x 12 x 10-6 x (35 -–15) = 900 m2.
Example
A block of cast iron measures 24 mm by 15 mm by 10 mm when placed in melting ice.

What is the new volume when the block is placed in steam at atmospheric pressure, if the
coefficient of linear expansion for cast iron is 10 x l0-6/K.
V = VT = V x 3 x  x T = 24 x 15 x 10 x 3 x 10 x 10-6 x (100 – 0) = 10.8 mm3
New volume = Original Volume + V = 24 x 15 x 10 + 10.8 = 3610.8 mm3.

2
Heat Transfer
Heat energy can be transferred by conduction, convection and/or radiation
Different materials will absorb energy at different rates.
Definitions of Heat Energy Transfer Mechanisms:
Conduction is heat energy transferred by the vibration of atoms; “HOT” atoms hit and
pass on energy to “COLD” atoms by touching or contact. Most metals are good
conductors, most liquids and gases are poor conductors.
Convection is heat energy transferred by the movement of hot parts of a liquid or a

gas, to the colder parts. It is only possible in liquid/gases (convection currents) and
occurs as natural convection and/or forced convection.
Radiation is heat energy transferred by electromagnetic waves that can pass through
gases or a vacuum.
Conduction, convection and radiation are routes by which energy losses occur which give
rise to inefficiencies in plant and machinery. Anything that will reduce losses will improve
the overall efficiency.
Temperature and Heat Energy Transfer
Whenever an object receives or loses heat energy, its temperature will change and as such
temperature is really just a simple way of saying how much thermal energy a body contains
within itself.
Calculating the amount of heat energy a body will absorb or release as its temperature
changes requires knowledge of:
 the mass of the body (m)

 the specific heat capacity of the material concerned (c)
 the temperature change involved (T)
Heat energy transferred = mass x specific heat capacity x temperature change in K
Quantity of heat energy (Q) = m x c x T (Joules)
The specific heat capacity (c) of a material is defined as:
The quantity of energy required to raise the

temperature of 1kg of a substance by 1K (or 1oC)
Units for c: Q J
Q  mcT c  
mT kgK
A body will transfer the same quantity of heat energy for a certain temperature change
regardless of whether it is heating up or cooling down. However, it receives heat
energy when its temperature rises and loses heat energy when its temperature falls.

3
Example
A tank containing 800 kg of water is to be heated from 20oC to 80oC. Assuming there are
no losses of energy to the surroundings, calculate the heat energy required to heat the
water. cWATER = 4.20 kJ/kgK.
Q = mcT
Q = 800 x 4.2 x 103 x (80 – 20)
Q = 201600 kJ = 201.6 MJ
Example
A copper soldering iron has a mass of 2 kg. During soldering, its temperature falls from
200C to 180oC. Calculate the heat energy lost during soldering, assuming there are no
losses. (cCOPPER = 0.39 kJ/kgK).
Heat energy transferred = Q = mcT
Q = 2 x 0.39 x 103 x (200 – 180)K
Q = 15.6 kJ
This energy quantity leaves the soldering iron because it is cooling down.
Now consider a hot metal bar being immersed in cold water:
Assuming that there are no losses to the surroundings and using 1st law (energy cannot be
created or destroyed but can only be converted from one form to another):
Under ideal conditions:
Heat lost by hot metal cooling = Heat gained by cold water warming up
Or
m x c x T (metal bar) = m x c x T (water)

4
Example
A bar of aluminium has a mass of 20 kg and is heated to 220oC. It is then dropped into a
tank of water at 15oC and the resultant temperature is found to be 23oC. Assuming there
are no losses, cWATER = 4.2 kJ/kgK and cALUMINIUM = 0.89 kJ/kgK, calculate the mass of water
in the tank.
Heat lost by bar = Heat gained by water

m x c x T (lost) = m x c x T (gained)
20 x 0.89 x (220 – 23) = m x 4.2 x (23 – 15)
m = 20 x 0.89 x 197
4.2 x 8
m = 104.36 kg
Example
A bar of copper of mass 2 kg is heated to 300oC. It is then quenched in a tank containing

20 kg of water at 15oC. Calculate the final resultant temperature of the copper and water.
Assume there are no losses, cWATER = 4.2 kJ/kgK and cCOPPER = 0.4 kJ/kgK.
Let the resultant temperature of the copper and water = t in oC
Heat lost by copper = Heat gained by water

mcT (lost) = mcT (gained.)
2 x 0.4 x (300 – t) = 20 x 4.2 x (t-15)
0.8 (300 – t) = 84 (t – 15)
240 – 0.8t = 84t – 1260
240 + 1260 = 84t + 0.8t
1500
1500 = 84.8t =t 17.688 = t t = 17.7oC
84.8
Notice in this type of question we need each bracket term to be:
(the high temperature – the low temperature)

5
Example
Calculate the mass of fuel required to raise the temperature of 600 kg of water from 25oC
to 85oC, given that the combustion of each kg of fuel releases 35 MJ of heat energy and
cWATER = 4.2 kJ/kgoC. Assume there are no losses of heat energy to the surroundings.
Heat energy released by fuel = Heat gained by water
mass of fuel burned x heat released in combustion of 1 kg = mcT
m x 35 x 106 = 600 x 4.2 x (85 – 25)
 Mass of fuel (m) = 600 x 4.2 x 103 x (85 – 25)

35 x 106
m = 4.32 kg of fuel

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Conduction
Conduction is the flow of heat energy through a body or from one body to another in
contact with each other.
Rate of heat conducted depends upon:
 Thermal conductivity of the material.
 The cross sectional area of the heat path involved.
 Temperature gradient.
 Distance or thickness, through which the heat is conducted.
All materials have different rates of heat transfer and have a constant ‘λ’ called the
“Coefficient of Thermal Conductivity”. Units W/mK.
Defined as:
The quantity of heat conducted through unit distance in unit time for unit temperature
difference between two opposite faces of a material.
Typical Values of ‘λ’
Copper 380 W/mK

Aluminium 206 “
Brass 104 “
Steel 60 “
Concrete 0.85 “ (Eastop and McConkey page 564)
Banana 0.481 “
Wood 0.15 “
Glass Fibre 0.04 “
Air at 20oC 0.022 “

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Conduction through a Flat Plate or Wall.
Consider a flat plate or wall of thickness ‘ x ’ and transfer area ‘A’.
Direction of Heat
Transfer Q
T1 Line of Temperature gradient
Transfer Surface Area T2

‘A’
Thickness x
The Rate of Transfer of Heat (Q (Q dot)) can be calculated as follows:
AT1  T2  Where:  is coefficient of thermal conductivity (W/mK)

Q  A is area (m2)
x
Fourier’s Equation T1 is entry face temperature (C)
T2 is exit face temperature (C)
x is the material thickness (m)

Q is the rate of heat flow (W)
Example
One side of a steel plate is exposed to a stream of hot gases and the other side to an air
stream. The plate is 13 mm thick and the surface temperatures of the plate are 230º and
150o C. If  for the steel is 44 W/mK, calculate the heat transferred per square metre of
plate area per minute.
x  0.013 m T1  230 C T2  150 C

  44 W/mK A  1 m2 t  60 s
 AT 44  1  230  150 
Q    270769 W
x 0.013
Q  Q  t  270769  60  16.25 M J/min

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Additional Practice Questions:
Heat Transfer
1 Calculate the heat transfer required to raise the temperature of 24 kg of water

from 10oC to 85oC. (cWATER = 4.2 kJ/kgK)
(7.56 MJ)
m = 24 kg, T = 75 K, c = 4.2 kJ/kgK
Q = mcT = 24 x 4.2 x 103 x 75 = 7560000 J or 7.56 MJ
2 Calculate the heat transfer required to raise the temperature of a 100 kg mass of
specific heat capacity 0.1kJ/kgK from 20oC to 100oC.
(800 kJ)
m = 100 kg, T = 80 K, c = 0.1 kJ/kgK
Q = mcT = 100 x 0.1 x 103 x 80 = 800000 J or 800 kJ
3 Two kg of oil at 180oC is thoroughly mixed with 6 kg of water at 20oC. Assuming

there are no losses and given cOIL is 2.1 kJ/kgK, calculate the resulting temperature
of the mixture. (42.86C)
mOIL = 2 kg, TOIL = 180C, cOIL = 2.1 kJ/kgK, mWATER = 6 kg, TWATER = 20C, cWATER = 4.2 kJ/kgK
mOILcOILTOIL = mWATERcWATERTWATER
2 x 2.1 x 103 x (180 – TF) = 6 x 4.2 x 103 x (TF – 20)

4200  180  TF   25200  TF  20 
756000  4200 TF  25200 TF  504000
756000  504000  25200 TF  4200 TF
1260000  29400 TF
1260000
TF   42 .86 C
29400
4 Water at 80oC enters a radiator and leaves it a temperature of 40oC. If the flow
rate is 25 kg/hr, how much heat is given off per second at the water cools?
Take cWATER as 4.2 kJ/kgK (1.17 kW)
25
 
m  6.94  10 3 kg/s T = 40 K
3600
Q  m
 cT Q  6.94  10 3  4.2  10 3  40 = 1166 W

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5 The temperature of 4.5 kg of water is raised from 15C to 100C at constant
atmospheric pressure. Determine the heat transfer required. Take the specific heat
capacity of water to be 4.18 kJ/kgK. (1.6 MJ)
 = 4.5 kg, T = 85 K,
m c = 4.18 kJ/kgK
Q = mcT Q = 4.5 x 4.18 x 103 x 85 = 1598850 J
Conduction
1. Walls of a meat room are made up of metal plate 15 mm thick. The meat room is
maintained at -20o C and ambient temperature is 30o C. If  for the steel is 44 W/mK,
calculate the heat transferred per square metre of plate area per hour.
(528 MJ/hour)
x  0.015 m T1  20C T2  30C

  44 W/mK A  1 m 2 t  60 s
 AT 44 1  30  (20) 
Q   146666.7 W
x 0.015
Q  Q  t  146666.7  60  60  528 MJ/hour
Combined
1. A stainless steel cube when at a temperature of 450C has dimensions of 15 cm by

15 cm by 15 cm. The cube is to be tempered in 40 kg of oil at 20C. Calculate the
final dimensions of the cube. (14.92 cm by 14.92 cm by 14.92 cm)
Note: Density of steel 7780 kg/m3

Coefficient of linear expansion for steel 14.4 x 10-6/K
Specific Heat capacity for steel 0.42 kJ/kgK
Specific Heat capacity for oil 1.67 kJ/kgK
Heat lost by steel = Heat gained by oil.
Initial VS = 15 x 10-2 x 15 x 10-2 x 15 x 10-2 = 3.375 x 10-3 m3.
mS = SVS = 7780 x 3.375 x 10-3 = 26.26 kg. TFS = TFO = TF mScSTS = mOcOTO
26.26 x 0.42 x 103 x (450 - TF) = 40 x 1.67 x 103 x (TF – 20)
4962667.5 – 11028.15TF = 66800TF – 1336000
6298667 .5
6298667.5 = 77828.15TF TF   80.93C
77828 .15

10
V = V x 3 x T = 3.375 x 10-3 x 3 x 14.4 x 10-6 x (450 – 80.93) = 5.381 x 10-5 m3
New volume = 3.375 x 10-3 – 5.381 x 10-5 = 3.321 x 10-3 m3.
3
Length of one side = 3.321  10 3 = 0.1492 cm.
New dimensions = 14.92 cm by 14.92 cm by 14.92 cm.
Or simply do L for one side and all sides are identical – much quicker. This works for any
linear dimension.

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MAE405/MEN404 General Engineering Science
Tutorial Sheet 10: Specific Heat Capacity
For all questions assume that the specific heat capacity of water is 4.2 kJ/kgK unless told
otherwise.
1. Calculate the heat energy transfer required to raise the temperature of 200 kg of
water from 15°C to 90°C.
2. 90 MJ of heat energy is absorbed by a body having a mass of 1000 kg, raising its
temperature from 20°C to 200°C. Assuming no heat loss, determine the specific
heat capacity of the body.
3. Determine the final temperature when 60 kg of water at 38°C is mixed with 20 kg

of water at 20°C.
4. When 0.5 kg of hot water is mixed with 2.4 kg of cold water at 5°C, the final
temperature is 16°C. Calculate the initial temperature of the hot water,
neglecting any heat transfer losses.
5. 2 kg of iron at 100°C is immersed in 4 kg of oil at 15°C. What is the final

temperature of the combination? The specific heat capacity of oil is 210 J/kgK and
of iron is 525 J/kgK.
6. What mass of water (mHOT) at 85°C must be added to a calorimeter containing

0.5 kg of water at 5°C to raise the temperature of the calorimeter and its contents
to 35°C? The calorimeter has a mass of 1 kg and a specific heat capacity of
210 J/kgK.
7. An oil cooler consists of an array of tubes through which the hot oil passes. Water
circulates around the outside of the tubes. The oil is cooled from an inlet
temperature of 60°C to an outlet temperature of 37°C at a mass flow rate of 410 kg
of oil per hour. If the oil has a specific heat capacity of 2.05 kJ/kgK, what is the
mass flow rate of the water in kg/hr if the inlet temperature of the water is 9°C
and the outlet temperature is 52ºC?
8. An electric kettle contains 1 kg of water initially at 15°C; the power supplied to the
kettle is 2 kW. The heat transfer from the kettle to the surroundings during a two
minute period is 60 kJ. Determine the temperature of the water at the end of the
two minute period.
MAE405/MEN404 General Engineering Science – Tutorial Sheet 10

1
9. A block of metal having a mass of 400 g was heated to a temperature of 1000C and
then immersed in 840 g of water at 15°C. The final temperature of the water and
the metal block was found to be 25°C. Calculate the specific heat capacity of the
metal.
10. A copper vessel of mass 2 kg contains 6 kg of water. If the initial temperature of

the vessel and the water is 20°C and the final temperature is 90oC, calculate the
total heat energy required to cause this temperature rise. Take the specific heat
capacity of copper as 394 J/kgK
11. Which takes the most energy: heating 0.35 kg of copper from 18ºC to 625°C or
heating 0.5 kg water from 15ºC to 55°C? (Take the specific heat capacity of copper
as 0.394kJ/kgK)
12. A block of hot metal at 750°C is placed in an aluminium container of water at 17°C.
The mass of water is 1.75 kg and the mass of the container is 0.5 kg. If the
common temperature rise of the water and container is 23° and the mass of the hot
metal is 0.5 kg and there is no heat gain or loss to the surroundings, calculate the
specific heat capacity of the metal. (Note: aluminium has a specific heat capacity
of 0.915 kJ/kgK.)
Numerical Answers:
1. 63 MJ 7. 107.04 kg/hr
2. 500 J/kgK 8. 57.86ºC
3. 33.5ºC 9. 1176 J/kgK
4. 68.8ºC 10. 1.82 MJ
5. 62.2ºC 11. water
6. 0.33 kg 12. 0.506 kJ/kgK

2
Tutorial Sheet 10: Thermal Expansion
1. Calculate the increase in diameter of a copper sphere when the temperature of the
sphere is increased by 180oC, if the initial diameter of the sphere is 40 mm. The
coefficient of linear expansion of copper is 17 x 10-6/oC.
2. The length of an aluminium conductor forming one span between the towers of an
electric transmission line is 120 m. What is the variation in length of the conductor
when the temperature varies between -20oC and 55oC? Assume the coefficient of
linear expansion for aluminium to be 23 x 10-6/oC.
3. Given that the length of an iron bar is exactly 12 m at 70oC, what will be its length
at 10oC? The coefficient of linear expansion for iron is 14 x 10-6/oC.
4. A metal rod is 500 mm long at 30oC and 500.5 mm long at 130oC. Calculate the
coefficient of linear expansion for the metal.
5. Find the variation in the area of a concrete road 50 km long and 15 m wide, if the
temperature varies from -15oC (lowest winter temperature) to 35oC (highest
summer temperature). Take the coefficient of linear expansion for concrete to be
12 x 10-6/oC.
6. A block of cast iron measures 24 mm by 15 mm by 10 mm when placed in melting

ice. What is the new volume when the block is placed in steam at atmospheric
pressure, if the coefficient of linear expansion for cast iron is 10 x l0-6/oC?
7. The internal diameter of a brass ring is 15.94 cm and the diameter of a disc is
16.00 cm, both measured at the same temperature. Find the smallest rise in
temperature through which the brass ring must be heated in order that it may just
slip on to the rim of the disc. Take BRASS to be 20 x10-6/oC
8. A volume of 500 cm3 of mercury is contained in a glass tube graduated in cubic

centimetres. What increase in volume of mercury will be registered on the
graduations when the temperature is increased from 20oC to 200oC? Take the
coefficient of volumetric expansion for mercury and the coefficient of linear
expansion for glass to be 182 x 10-6 /oC and 8.3 x 10-6/oC respectively.

3
9. A steel rod is 4 cm in diameter at 10oC. A brass ring has an internal diameter of
3.99 cm at 10oC. Find the common temperature at which the ring will slide on to
the rod with 0.001 cm all round clearance, given  for steel = 12 x 10-6/oC and  for
brass = 20 x 10-6/oC.
10. A shaft of diameter 100 mm is to be fitted into a 0.1 mm undersized hole bored in
mild steel. Given that  for mild steel is 11 x 10-6/oC, calculate the minimum
temperature difference between the two components for fitting, without forcing,
by heating the metal surrounding the hole.
Numerical Answers:
1. 0.1224 mm 6. 3610.8 mm3

2. 207 mm 7. 188.2 oC
3
3. 11.98992 m 8. increase of 14.14 cm
4. 1  105 
C 9. 387.36ºC
5. 900 m2 10. 91oC

4
Tutorial Sheet 10: Thermal Conductivity
1. Calculate the rate of heat conduction through a sheet of steel with a surface area
of 3 m2 if the sheet is 10 mm thick and the surface temperatures are 400 OC and
20OC. Which way will the heat flow? Take Steel as 60 W/mK
2. Find the power rating required for a soldering iron heater if the bit is copper and
has a tip temperature of 250 OC. The bit is 40 mm long, 10 mm diameter and the
heater maintains a temperature of 350 OC. Take the coefficient of thermal
conductivity of copper as 380 W/mK.
3. A concrete wall has a thermal conductivity of 0.85 W/mK. Find the thickness of
wall required to maintain a 30 OC temperature difference between the inside and
outside surfaces of the wall for a heat flow rate of 100 W/m2.
4. A furnace powered by a 3 kW electric heating element consists of a cube with all

internal sides 200 mm long and with all walls 50 mm thick. Ignoring any effects at
the corners, find the coefficient of thermal conductivity required of the insulation
material to allow the furnace to reach a temperature of 800OC if the outer surface
temperature is not allowed to rise above 50OC for safety reasons.
5. A steel boiler casing is wrapped on the outside with glass fibre lagging. The steel is
20 mm thick and has inner and outer surface temperatures of 450OC and 449.7OC
respectively. Calculate the thickness of lagging required to ensure that the outer
surface temperature of the lagging is no higher than 40OC.
Note: take Steel as 60 W/mK and Lagging as 0.04 W/mK
Numerical Answers:
1. 6.84 MW
2. 74.6 W
3. 0.255 m
4. 0.833 W/mK
5. 18.2 mm

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Tutorial Sheet 10: Specific Heat Capacity - Solutions
For all questions assume that the specific heat capacity of water is 4.2 kJ/kgK unless told
otherwise.
1. Calculate the heat energy transfer required to raise the temperature of 200 kg of
water from 15°C to 90°C.
Q  mcT  200  4200  90  15  63MJ
2. 90 MJ of heat energy is absorbed by a body having a mass of 1000 kg, raising its
temperature from 20°C to 200°C. Assuming no heat loss, determine the specific
heat capacity of the body.
Q  mcT
Q 90  106
c   500 J / kgK
mT 1000  200  20
3. Determine the final temperature when 60 kg of water at 38°C is mixed with 20 kg

of water at 20°C.
Assuming no losses then Heat lost by hot water = Heat gained by cool water
Let Tf be the final common temperature of the mixture.
mcΔT = mcΔT
60 x 4.2 x (38 – Tf) = 20 x 4.2 x (Tf - 20)
9576 – 252Tf = 84Tf – 1680 9576 + 1680 = 84Tf + 252Tf
11256 = 336Tf Tf = 11256 ÷ 336 = 33.5ºC
In this question the c is common to both sides as we are mixing water with water.
The c could thus have been cancelled out, simplifying the arithmetic. This is not
the norm and in most calculations the c values must be used.

1
4. When 0.5 kg of hot water is mixed with 2.4 kg of cold water at 5°C, the final
temperature is 16°C. Calculate the initial temperature of the hot water,
neglecting any heat transfer losses.
Assuming no losses then Heat lost = Heat gained
mcΔT = mcΔT 0.5 x 4.2 x (Ti – 16) = 2.4 x 4.2 x (16 - 5)
Ti – 16 = 110.88 ÷ 2.1 = 52.8 Ti = 52.8 + 16 = 68.8ºC
5. 2 kg of iron at 100°C is immersed in 4 kg of oil at 15°C. What is the final

temperature of the combination? The specific heat capacity of oil is 210 J/kgK and
of iron is 525 J/kgK.
mcΔT = mcΔT 2 x 525 x (100 – Tf) = 4 x 210 x (Tf - 15)
105000 – 1050Tf = 840Tf – 12600 105000 + 12600 = 840Tf + 1050Tf
117600 = 1890Tf Tf = 117600 ÷ 1890 = 62.2ºC
6. What mass of water (mHOT) at 85°C must be added to a calorimeter containing

0.5 kg of water at 5°C to raise the temperature of the calorimeter and its contents
to 35°C? The calorimeter has a mass of 1 kg and a specific heat capacity of
210 J/kgK.
A calorimeter is a thin walled container (often made of copper) used to contain

liquids during experiments to measure energy transfers and SHCs etc. As copper is
very good at conducting heat, the calorimeter will almost instantaneously follow
any change in temperature of the liquids it contains. We can therefore assume that
the calorimeter is always at the same temperature as the contents.
mHOTcHOTΔTHOT = mCOLDcCOLDΔTCOLD + mCALORIMETERcCALORIMETERΔTCALORIMETER
mHOT x 4.2 x 103 x (85 – 35) = 0.5 x 4.2 x 103 x (35 - 5) + 1 x 210 x (35 – 5)
210000mHOT = 63000 + 6300 210000m = 69300
mHOT = 69300 ÷ 210000 = 0.33 kg

2
7. An oil cooler consists of an array of tubes through which the hot oil passes. Water
circulates around the outside of the tubes. The oil is cooled from an inlet temperature of
60°C to an outlet temperature of 37°C at a rate of 410 kg of oil per hour. If the oil has a
specific heat capacity of 2.05 kJ/kgK, what is the mass flow rate of the water in kg/hr if
the inlet temperature of the water is 9°C and the outlet temperature is 52ºC?
mOILcOILΔTOIL = mWATERcWATERΔTWATER
410 x 2.05 x (60 – 37) = mWATER x 4.2 x (52 - 9)
19331.5 = 180.6mWATER
mWATER = 19331.5 ÷ 180.6 = 107.04 kg/hr
8. An electric kettle contains 1 kg of water initially at 15°C; the power supplied to the
kettle is 2 kW. The heat transfer from the kettle to the surroundings during a two
minute period is 60 kJ. Determine the temperature of the water at the end of the
two minute period.
QSupplied = Power x time = 2 x 103 x 2 x 60 = 240000 J
QWater = QSupplied – QLost
QWater = 240000 – 60000 = 180000 J
But QWater = mcΔT = 180000 = 1 x 4.2 x 103 x ΔT
ΔT = 180000 ÷ ( 1 x 4.2 x 103) = 42.86
ΔT = final temperature - initial temperature
 final temperature = initial temperature + ΔT = 15 + 42.86 = 57.86ºC
9. A block of metal having a mass of 400 g was heated to a temperature of 100 0C and
then immersed in 840 g of water at 15°C. The final temperature of the water and
the metal block was found to be 25°C. Calculate the specific heat capacity of the
metal.
mcΔT = mcΔT 0.4 x c x (100 – 25) = 0.84 x 4.2 x 103 x (25 - 15)
30c = 35280 c = 35280 ÷ 30 = 1176 J/kgK

3
10. A copper vessel of mass 2 kg contains 6 kg of water. If the initial temperature of
the vessel and the water is 20°C and the final temperature is 90oC, calculate the
total heat energy required to cause this temperature rise. Take the specific heat
capacity of copper as 394 J/kgK
Q = mcΔT for water + mcΔT for copper
Q = 6 x 4.2 x 103 x (90 – 20) + 2 x 394 x (90 – 20) = 1.82 MJ
11. Which takes the most energy: heating 0.35 kg of copper from 18ºC to 625°C or
heating 0.5 kg water from 15ºC to 55°C? (Take the specific heat capacity of copper
as 0.394kJ/kgK)
QWater = mcΔT = 0.5 x 4.2 x (55 – 15) = 84 kJ
QCopper = mcΔT = 0.35 x 0.394 x (625 – 18) = 83.7 kJ
Heating the water requires the most energy.
12. A block of hot metal at 750°C is placed in an aluminium container of water at 17°C.
The mass of water is 1.75 kg and the mass of the container is 0.5 kg. If the
common temperature rise of the water and container is 23° and the mass of the hot
metal is 0.5 kg and there is no heat gain or loss to the surroundings, calculate the
specific heat capacity of the metal. (Note: aluminium has a specific heat capacity
of 0.915 kJ/kgK.)
mcΔT = mcΔT + mcΔT
0.5 x c x (750 – 40) = 1.75 x 4.2 x 23 + 0.5 x 0.915 x 23
355c = 169.05 + 10.52 355c = 179.57
c = 179.57 ÷ 355 = 0.506 kJ/kgK

4
Tutorial Sheet 10: Thermal Expansion - Solutions
1. Calculate the increase in diameter of a copper sphere when the temperature of the
sphere is increased by 180oC, if the initial diameter of the sphere is 40 mm. The
coefficient of linear expansion of copper is 17 x 10-6/oC.
As thermal expansion is uniform in all directions for an object heated uniformly we

can simply work on the diameter, using a liner expansion coefficient:
ΔL = LΔT = 40 x 17 x 10-6 x 180 = 0.1224 mm
2. The length of an aluminium conductor forming one span between the towers of an
electric transmission line is 120 m. What is the variation in length of the conductor
when the temperature varies between -20oC and 55oC? Assume the coefficient of
linear expansion for aluminium to be 23 x 10-6/oC.
ΔL = LΔT = 120 x 23 x 10-6 x (55 - -20) = 0.207 m or 207 mm
3. Given that the length of an iron bar is exactly 12 m at 70oC, what will be its length
at 10oC? The coefficient of linear expansion for iron is 14 x 10-6/oC.
We need to be careful to ensure we obtain a result which reflects the drop in

temperature which should produce a reduction in length: i.e. we need a negative
value for T:
ΔL = LΔT = 12 x 14 x 10-6 x (10 – 70) = -0.01008 m
New length = L +ΔL = 12 + -0.1008 = 11.98992 m
4. A metal rod is 500 mm long at 30oC and 500.5 mm long at 130oC. Calculate the
coefficient of linear expansion for the metal.
ΔL = 500.5 – 500 = 0.5 mm
L 0.5
ΔL = LΔT     1  10 5 
C
LT 500  130  30
5. Find the variation in the area of a concrete road 50 km long and 15 m wide, if the
temperature varies from -15oC (lowest winter temperature) to 35oC (highest
summer temperature). Take the coefficient of linear expansion for concrete to be
12 x 10-6/oC.
ΔA = AΔT = A x (2 x ) x ΔT = 50 x 103 x 15 x 2 x 12 x 10-6 x (35 - -15) = 900 m2

5
6. A block of cast iron measures 24 mm by 15 mm by 10 mm when placed in melting
ice. What is the new volume when the block is placed in steam at atmospheric
pressure, if the coefficient of linear expansion for cast iron is 10 x l0-6/oC?
Melting ice is at 0OC and steam at atmospheric pressure is at 100 OC:
V = 24 x 15 x 10 = 3600 mm3
ΔV = VΔT = V x (3 x ) x ΔT = 3600 x 3 x 10 x 10-6 x (100 -0) = 10.8 mm3
New volume = V + ΔV = 3600 + 10.8 = 3610.8mm3
7. The internal diameter of a brass ring is 15.94 cm and the diameter of a disc is
16.00 cm, both measured at the same temperature. Find the smallest rise in
temperature through which the brass ring must be heated in order that it may just
slip on to the rim of the disc. Take BRASS to be 20 x10-6/oC
Use  and work with diameters as expansion is uniform in all directions
Required ΔL = 16.00 – 15.94 = 0.06 cm
L 0.06
ΔL = LΔT  T    188.2C
L 15.94  20  10 6
8. A volume of 500 cm3 of mercury is contained in a glass tube graduated in cubic

centimetres. What increase in volume of mercury will be registered on the
graduations when the temperature is increased from 20oC to 200oC? Take the
coefficient of volumetric expansion for mercury and the coefficient of linear
expansion for glass to be 182 x 10-6 /oC and 8.3 x 10-6/oC respectively.
When the system is heated both the mercury and the glass tube will have the same
T and both will expand: the mercury expansion causes the registered level to rise
but the glass expansion causes the level to fall as the volume enclosed within the
tube is now bigger:
Registered volume change = mercury volume change – glass volume change
Mercury volume change = VΔT = 500 x 182 x 10-6 x (200 – 20) = 16.38 cm3
Glass volume change = V x (3 x ) x ΔT = 500 x 3 x 8.3 x 10-6 x (200 – 20) = 2.24 cm3
3
Registered volume change = 16.38 – 2.24 = 14.14 cm

6
9. A steel rod is 4 cm in diameter at 10oC. A brass ring has an internal diameter of
3.99 cm at 10oC. Find the common temperature at which the ring will slide on to
the rod with 0.001 cm all round clearance, given  for steel = 12 x 10-6/oC and  for
brass = 20 x 10-6/oC.
Use  as expansion of a diameter is uniform in all directions:
A drawing of the assembled system helps us to see what is happening:
Clearance gap all round
Steel Rod
Brass ring
When assembled hot: Brass ring dia = Steel rod dia + 2 x Clearance gap
LFinal Brass = LFinal Steel + 2 x Clearance gap
Both components have the same temperature change i.e. ΔTbrass = ΔTsteel = ΔT
For an object being heated:
final size = original size + expansion i.e. LFinal = L + L
So from: LFinal Brass = LFinal Steel + 2 x Clearance gap and LFinal = L + L we get:
L Brass + L Brass = L Steel + L Steel + 2 x Clearance gap
3.99 + 3.99 x 20 x 10-6 x ΔT = 4 + 4 x 12 x 10-6 x ΔT + 2 x 0.001
3.99 + 7.98 x 10-5 x ΔT = 4.002 + 48 x 10-6 x ΔT
7.98 x 10-5 x ΔT - 48 x 10-6 x ΔT = 4.002 – 3.99
0.012
T   377.36º C
7.98  105  48  10 6
Final temp = ΔT + 10 = 377.36 + 10 = 387.36ºC

7
10. A shaft of diameter 100 mm is to be fitted into a 0.1 mm undersized hole bored in
mild steel. Given that  for mild steel is 11 x 10-6/oC, calculate the minimum
temperature difference between the two components for fitting, without forcing,
by heating the metal surrounding the hole.
Use  as expansion of a diameter is uniform in all directions
ΔL = 0.1 mm Hole diameter = 99.9 mm
L 0.1
ΔL = LΔT T    91C
L 99.9  11  10 6

8
Tutorial Sheet 10: Thermal Conductivity - Solutions
1. Calculate the rate of heat conduction through a sheet of steel with a surface area
of 3 m2 if the sheet is 10 mm thick and the surface temperatures are 400 OC and
20OC. Which way will the heat flow? Take Steel as 60 W/mK
AT 60  3  400  20

Q    6.84 MW
x 0.01
Heat will always flow from the hot side to the cold side: 2 nd law of thermodynamics
2. Find the power rating required for a soldering iron heater if the bit is copper and
has a tip temperature of 250 OC. The bit is 40 mm long, 10 mm diameter and the
heater maintains a temperature of 350 OC. Take the coefficient of thermal
conductivity of copper as 380 W/mK.
AT 380    0.012  350  250

Q    74.6W
x 4  0.04
3. A concrete wall has a thermal conductivity of 0.85 W/mK. Find the thickness of
wall required to maintain a 30 OC temperature difference between the inside and
outside surfaces of the wall for a heat flow rate of 100 W/m2.
AT AT 0.85  1  30

Q  x   0.255m
x Q 100
4. A furnace powered by a 3 kW electric heating element consists of a cube with all

internal sides 200 mm long and with all walls 50 mm thick. Ignoring any effects at
the corners, find the coefficient of thermal conductivity required of the insulation
material to allow the furnace to reach a temperature of 800OC if the outer surface
temperature is not allowed to rise above 50OC for safety reasons.
Total surface area for heat conduction = 6 x area of one side
ATotal = 6 x 0.2 x 0.2 = 0.24 m2
AT Q x 3  103  0.05

Q     0.833W / mK
x AT 0.24  800  50

9
5. A steel boiler casing is wrapped on the outside with glass fibre lagging. The steel is
20 mm thick and has inner and outer surface temperatures of 450OC and 449.7OC
respectively. Calculate the thickness of lagging required to ensure that the outer
surface temperature of the lagging is no higher than 40OC.
Note: take Steel as 60 W/mK and Lagging as 0.04 W/mK
Any heat that is conducted through the steel must also be conducted through the
lagging: if we think of the rate of heat conduction as being like an electric current
(rate of conduction of electric charge) through a resistor, then we can see that just
as the current is identical in two resistors in series, then the two materials (steel
and lagging) are also in series as far as heat conduction is concerned:
We will work with an area of 1 m2:
AT 60  1  450  449.7

Q Steel  Q Lagging Q Steel    900W / m2
x 0.02
Then for the lagging thickness:
AT AT 0.04  1  449.7  40

Q  x   0.0182m 18.2mm
x Q 900
The steel has a tiny temperature difference across its thickness because it is much
better at conducting the heat than the lagging. For the same rate of heat flow, the
lagging requires a huge temperature difference to drive the heat flow even though
it is about the same thickness. Temperature difference driving heat flow is like
voltage driving current through a resistor.
If we ignore the steel’s resistance to heat flow and just calculate based on the
lagging only we get:
AT 0.04  1  450  40

Q Laggingonly    901.1W / m2
x 0.0182
This shows that the steel is doing virtually nothing to prevent the flow of heat and
the lagging is doing all the insulating.

10
COMBUSTION
Combustion is a very rapid chemical reaction involving oxidation, in which a chemical
(the fuel) is oxidised by an oxidising agent (usually oxygen in air) to produce the products
of combustion along with the release of significant quantities of energy in the form of
heat.
Fuel + Oxygen = Products of Combustion + Heat Energy
The speed of the reaction and the quantity of heat released are such that the combustion
products and surroundings can often reach temperatures of several thousand Kelvin.
To study the chemistry of combustion it is necessary to revise some basic chemistry.

All substances consist of a large number of molecules or atoms.
Molecules are themselves combinations of atoms.
Different arrangements of atoms give substances a variety of physical properties but

chemically there are three kinds of substance.
Elements: An element is a substance containing only one kind of atom.
In a gaseous phase element atoms will combine to form molecules.
In a solid or liquid phase the atoms can be considered to exist as separate entities.
The elements of interest to us as we study combustion are:
Element Atom Molecule

Carbon C --
Hydrogen H H2
Nitrogen N N2
Oxygen O O2
Sulphur S --
At room temperature, the elements carbon and sulphur are solid whereas hydrogen,
nitrogen and oxygen are gases.
Compounds
Compounds are formed when two or more elements chemically combine. In any
particular compound all molecules have the same composition.
Mixtures
Physical combinations of elements (or compounds). They do not have a definite

proportional composition and retain the properties of the parent substances.

1
Elements Compound Mixtures
Consists of one substance Chemically combined Physically combined
Smallest whole part is an Different properties from Retain parent properties

atom the component substances
Chemically exists as atoms Constant ratio of Component ratios can

(solids and liquids) or composition vary.
molecules (gases) H2O, CO2, SO2 Air + fuel
C, H2, N2, O2,S
Reading Chemical Symbols:
H2O
This is pronounced “H two O” and the small 2 (a subscript) after the H means that there
are two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom in the molecule.
3H2O
This is pronounced “three H two O” and the large three before the H2O means that there
are three molecules of water.
Atomic weights: Numbers representing the relative masses of the atoms.
For example: hydrogen (H) is 1, oxygen (O) is 16.
Therefore the mass of one atom of oxygen is 16 x the mass of one atom of yydrogen.
The numbers are purely relative and are not the actual mass or weight of the atoms.
Molecular weight: Atomic Weights in a molecule = Molecular Weight
A selection of atomic and molecular weights are listed on page 22 of the steam tables.
Element Atom Molecule Relative Atomic mass Relative Molecular mass

Carbon C -- 12 --
Hydrogen H H2 1 2
Nitrogen N N2 14 28
Oxygen O O2 16 32
Sulphur S -- 32 --

2
Chemical Equations.
Reactants on one side of the equation and the products on the other.
Atoms LHS = Atoms RHS
For example: hydrogen combining with oxygen
H2 + O2  H2O Unbalanced
Need to balance
2H2 + O2  2H2O Balanced
Starting components (LHS) will be the fuel and oxygen
End products (RHS) will be the oxides commonly H2O, CO2, SO2.
Example:
Try balancing the combustion reaction equations yourself for these substances:
Carbon (C), Sulphur (S), Methane (CH4), Octane (C8H18), Terpineol (C10H17OH)
Solutions:
Fuel LHS  RHS
Carbon C + O2  CO2
Sulphur S + O2  SO2
Methane CH4 + 2O2  CO2 + 2H2O
C8H18 + 12.5O2  8CO2 + 9H2O

Octane
2C8H18 + 25O2  16CO2 + 18H2O
Terpineol C10H17OH + 14O2  10CO2 + 9H2O

3
From the chemical reaction equations a balance of atomic (or molecular weights) can be
observed. This can be applied to the fuel components to create a ratio:
Carbon C + O2  CO2
MW 12 + 32  44
Substituting for atomic weights gives:
12 kg C + 32 kg O2  44 kg CO2
Dividing every term by 12 to work with 1 kg of carbon:
12 32 44
kg C  kg O 2  kg CO 2
12 12 12
1 kg C + 22/3 kg O2  32/3 kg CO2
So for 1 kg of carbon 22/3 kg of oxygen are required and 32/3 kg of carbon dioxide are
produced.
It can be simpler to write 8/3 instead of 22/3 and 11

/3 instead of 32/3.
Hydrogen: 2H2 + O2  2H2O

4 + 32  36
4 kg H2 + 32 kg O2  36 kg H2O
Dividing every term by 4 to work with 1 kg Hydrogen:
4 32 36
kg H 2  kg O2  kg H 2O
4 4 4
1 kg H2 + 8 kg O2  9 kg H2O
So for 1 kg of hydrogen 8 kg of oxygen are required and 9 kg of water are produced.
Sulphur: S + O2  SO2
32 + 32  64
32 kg S + 32 kg O2  64 kg SO2
Dividing every term by 32 to work with 1 kg Sulphur
32 32 64
kg S  kg O2  kg SO2
32 32 32
1 kg S + 1 kg O2  2 kg SO2
So for 1 kg of sulphur 1 kg of oxygen is required and 2 kg of sulphur dioxide are

produced.

4
If the % mass composition of fuel is known a basic generic formula can be generated:
kg of O2 required per kg fuel = 8/3C + 8H + 1S
Where C is % of carbon, H is % of hydrogen and S is % of sulphur in the fuel, each

expressed as decimals (e.g. 10% is 0.1).
Example:
A fuel consists of 82% carbon, 16% hydrogen and 2% sulphur.
a. Determine the quantity of oxygen required to completely burn 1 kg of the fuel.
b. Identify and determine the quantity of each of the gases contained in the flue
gases if 1 tonne of fuel is burnt in pure oxygen.
a. kg O2/kg of fuel = 8/3C + 8H + 1S
thus C = 0.82, H = 0.16 and S = 0.02 for our equation:
kg O2/kg of fuel = 8/3 x 0.82 + 8 x 0.16 + 1 x 0.02
kg O2/kg of fuel = 2.187 +1.28 + 0.02 = 3.487 kg O2/kg of fuel.
b. Carbon Dioxide, Water Vapour and Sulphur dioxide.
1 kg of carbon produces 11/3 kg of carbon dioxide (CO2).
1 kg of hydrogen produces 9 kg of water vapour (H2O).
1kg of Sulphur produces 2 kg of sulphur dioxide (SO2).
Quantity of CO2 = 0.82 x 1000 x 11/3 = 3006.7 kg or 3.0067 tonnes.
Quantity of H2O = 0.16 x 1000 x 9 = 1440 kg or 1.44 tonnes.
Quantity of SO2 = 0.02 x 1000 x 2 = 40 kg or 0.04 tonnes.

5
Stoichiometric Reactions
A STOICHIOMETRIC reaction is one in which all the fuel is burnt using all the oxygen.
Stoichiometric Mixture
A stoichiometric mixture is a mixture of reactants (typically air and fuel) containing

just sufficient oxygen for the complete combustion of all of the fuel present.
If the mixture of air and fuel contains an excess of fuel it is termed a rich mixture.
If however, the mixture of air and fuel contains a deficiency of fuel it is termed a lean
(weak) mixture.
Mixture strength refers to the ratio of air to fuel by mass.
Combustion processes in different types of plant will have different mixtures depending
upon their operation. For example, gas turbines can run with a mixture at 300% weak (i.e.
3 times more air than required for stoichiometric), whilst diesel engines have to meet a
variety of conditions of load and speed and hence operate over a wide range of mixture
strengths, but petrol engines use carefully designed carburation systems (carburettor or
computer controlled fuel injection) to maintain the mixture strength close to the
optimum.
A rich mixture will create a cooler, more expensive combustion, whilst a lean mixture
will create a hotter, more efficient combustion.
Composition of Air
The combustion of fuel with air is the most likely reaction analysis and as air contains
23% oxygen and 77% nitrogen by mass this needs to be accounted for:
Oxygen 23 100
 so air  oxygen 
Air 100 23
i.e. to provide 1 kg oxygen requires 100 kg of air

23
A combustion processes with insufficient air for complete combustion:
When a fuel is burned in excess or stoichiometric air, the process is as follows:
(1) The fuel hydrogen burns to H2O. Any oxygen in the fuel also combines with the
hydrogen.
(2) All the carbon in the fuel then burns to carbon monoxide (CO).
(3) The carbon monoxide then burns to carbon dioxide (CO2).

6
Process (1) will always happen first as it is by far the fastest of the reaction processes.
Processes (2) and (3) will happen almost instantaneously if sufficient air for complete
combustion has been provided.
If there is insufficient air then only part of the carbon monoxide will burn to carbon
dioxide. Hence there will be both carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide in the exhaust
gases. This can be seen in a gas fire as a yellow flame and should be avoided as the CO is
poisonous to life. A gas flame with excess air is a strong, light blue flame which produces
maximum heat.
Fuel Oxygen
The analysis of some fuels show that a small quantity of oxygen is already contained in the
fuel itself, particularly alcohols.
This oxygen has effectively already reacted with the hydrogen and therefore a proportion
of the hydrogen in the fuel is unavailable for combustion. This needs to be accounted for:
This proportion can be derived from hydrogen’s reaction with oxygen:
Hydrogen 2H2 + O2  2H2O

4 + 32  36
4 kg H2 + 32 kg O2  36 kg H2O
Dividing every term by 32 to work with 1 kg Oxygen:
4 32 36
kg H2  kg O 2  kg H2O
32 32 32
⅛ kg H2 + 1 kg O2  1⅛ kg H2O
So for 1 kg of oxygen ⅛ kg of hydrogen has already reacted so the oxygen required is:
Oxygen required = 8 H   

O
remembering that here O = oxygen in fuel as a decimal
  8 
This H    is the available hydrogen equation on the formula sheet.

O
8
The generic combustion formula can now be finalised as;
100  8  O 
kg of Air required per kg Fuel   C  8 H    1S 
23  3  8 
Remember that the letters C, H, O and S in this equation are the proportions of these
elements in 1 kg of fuel expressed as decimals from the percentages: Carbon at 10% means
C= 0.1 etc.

7
Example:
A fuel consists of 72 per cent carbon, 20 per cent hydrogen and 8 per cent oxygen by
mass. Determine the stoichiometric mass of air required to completely burn 1 kg of this
fuel.
C = 0.72 H = 0.2 O = 0.08
100  8  O 
kg of Air required per kg Fuel   C  8 H    1S 
23  3  8 
100  8  0.08   100

Air/Fuel     0.72  8   0.2     1.92  8  0.19 
23  3  8   23
Air/Fuel = 14.95 kg air/kg fuel.
Hydro-Carbon Fuels.
The group of fuels collectively known as the Hydro-Carbons are amongst the most
commonly used fuels; they get their name from the fact that they consist in the main of a
combination of hydrogen and carbon in the form CxHy.
Examples of this type of fuels are:
Methane CH4 Propane C3H8 Butane C4H10
Considering 1 kg of a Hydrocarbon fuel CxHy it is necessary to identify the masses of both

Carbon and Hydrogen contained within the fuel to enable determination of the quantity of
air required for complete combustion.
Example:
Determine the stoichiometric mass of air required to completely burn 1 kg of heptane

C7H16.
% mass composition:
Molecular Weight (C7H16) = 12 x 7 + 1 x 16 = 100
12  7 84
Of which   0.84 is carbon
100 100
1  16 16
And   0.16 is hydrogen
100 100
Therefore C = 0.84 and H = 0.16
100  8 
Air/Fuel    0.84  8  0.16  = 15.30 kg air/kg fuel.
23  3 

8
Example:
Propene C3H6 is used as the fuel in a furnace, determine the quantity of air required
for the complete combustion per kg of fuel supplied.
Mass of 1 molecule of the fuel = 12 x 3 + 1 x 6 = 42
Fraction of Carbon by mass = 12 x 3  42 = 0.857
The fraction of Hydrogen by mass = 1 x 6  42 = 0.143
100  8 
Stoichiometric air required =    0.857  8  0.143   14.9 kg air/kg fuel.
23  3 
Hence 1 kg of Propene C3H6 requires 14.875 kg of air for complete combustion.
Excess Air
The combustion process is rarely stoichiometric but rather either a rich mixture or
lean mixture.
Generally for diesel engines during normal operation the mixture is lean.
Lean mixtures require an excess of air to be supplied.
Working per kg of fuel:
Excess air = Actual air supplied - Stoichiometric air required
The amount of excess air supplied is usually expressed as a percentage of the

stoichiometric quantity of air required for complete combustion i.e.
50% excess means that one and half times the stoichiometric quantity of air is supplied.
Excess quantity of air = percentage excess x stoichiometric quantity
Note: this also works with quantities of oxygen instead of air.
Example:
Determine the actual quantity of air required to burn 5 kg of fuel when the
stoichiometric air required per kg of fuel is 13.5 kg and 75% excess air is supplied.
We work per kg of fuel to start with and multiply by the 5 kg of fuel at the end:
Actual quantity of air = stoichiometric quantity + excess quantity of air

9
Excess quantity of air = percentage excess x stoichiometric quantity = (13.5 x 0.75)
Actual air/kg fuel = 13.5 + (0.75 x 13.5) = 13.5 x 1.75 = 23.625 kg of air per kg of fuel
Therefore for 5 kg of fuel, actual air required = 5 x 23.625 = 118.125 kg.
Example:
A gaseous fuel consists of 50% methane (CH4), 25% hydrogen, 12% carbon monoxide, 6%
carbon dioxide, 4% nitrogen and 3% oxygen. Determine the stoichiometric air-fuel
ratio by mass and the actual mass of air required to burn 5 tonnes of fuel when 120%
excess air is supplied.
i. Air/Fuel Ratio
12 4 16
CH4 composition   so CH4 is 75% carbon, 25% hydrogen
16 16 16
12 16 28
CO composition   so CO is 42.86% carbon, 57.14% oxygen
28 28 28
12 32 44
CO2 composition   so CO2 is27.27% carbon, 72.73% oxygen
44 44 44
Composition of 1 kg of fuel.
Carbon = (0.5 x 0.75) + (0.12 x 0.4286) + (0.06 x 0.2727) = 0.4428 kg

Hydrogen = 0.25 + (0.5 x 0.25) = 0.375 kg
Oxygen = 0.03 + (0.12 x 0.5714) + (0.06 x 0.7273) = 0.1422 kg
Nitrogen = 0.04 kg
Total composition of fuel = 0.4428 C + 0.375 H2 + 0.1422 O2 + 0.04 N2 = 1 kg
100  8  0.1422  
Air/Fuel     0.4428  8  0.375   = 17.56 kg air/kg fuel
23  3  8  
Air/Fuel ratio is 17.56 : 1.
ii. Actual Air = Stoichiometric Air + Excess Air
Excess air = 1.2 x stoichiometric air
 Actual air = 17.56 + 1.2 x 17.56 = 2.2 x 17.56 = 38.632 kg of air/kg of fuel.
Actual air to burn 5 tonnes of fuel = 5000 x 38.632 = 193160 kg or 193.16 tonnes.

10
Calorific Value For Hydro-Carbon Fuels
Calorific value (CV or Cal Val) is the term used to describe the quantity of heat energy
released when 1 kg of fuel is fully burnt.
Heat energy released = mass of fuel burnt x calorific value of the fuel
Q = mfuel x Cal Val
The generic combustion formula can also be used to calculate the calorific value of a fuel
based on known values of its components;
Element Atomic mass Calorific value

Nitrogen 14
Oxygen 16
Carbon 12 33.7 MJ/kg
Hydrogen 1 144 MJ/kg
Sulphur 32 9.3 MJ/kg
If the composition is known then CV = 33.7C + 144(H – ⅛O)) + 9.3S (MJ/kg)
Note: If there is oxygen in the fuel then it is assumed that some hydrogen has already
combined with the oxygen and therefore the available hydrogen must be used.
Example
Light fuel oil has the following composition; 85.6% carbon, 11.7% hydrogen, 2.5%
sulphur and 0.2% oxygen. Determine the calorific value of the fuel.
C = 0.856 H = 0.117 S = 0.025 O = 0.002
CV = 33.7 x 0.856 + 144 x (0.117 – ⅛ x 0.002) + 9.3 x 0.025
CV = 28.8472 + 16.812 + 0.2325 = 45.8917 MJ/kg
Higher and Lower Calorific Values. (HCV and LCV)
During combustion the high resulting temperatures mean that the H2O produced cannot
exist as liquid (water), but it must exist as steam. Steam requires heat to evaporate it
from liquid water so any steam formed during combustion will carry away the heat of its
evaporation, thus reducing the available heat energy released during the combustion
process. The only way we could get back this energy would be to condense out the water
vapour by cooling the exhaust gases down to below 100oC but this would lead to corrosion
in exhaust systems which is strenuously avoided for obvious reasons. The only exception is
in modern domestic “condensing boilers” for heating and hot water supply: these have to
use plastic components to handle the condensate liquid to avoid corrosion issues.
The theoretical calorific value of a fuel containing hydrogen is the Higher Calorific
Value (HCV) and the Lower Calorific Value (LCV) is the value obtained when the energy
used to maintain the H2O as steam is subtracted from the theoretical value.

11
Lower Calorific Value = Higher Calorific Value – energy used to maintain steam as vapour
LCV = HCV – energy used to maintain steam as vapour
Enthalpy of Evaporation (old name = Latent Heat of Vapourisation) is the quantity of

energy required to fully evaporate 1 kg of liquid water at its boiling temperature to steam
at the same temperature. This is the energy we do not gain from the combustion process
because the products of combustion are not cooled down enough to condense out the
water vapour to liquid water.
The value of enthalpy of evaporation varies with different operating pressures, thus a
recommended value is used: this is taken as 2.442 MJ/kg. From the reaction equation of
hydrogen with oxygen we have seen that the quantity of steam produced in combustion is
nine times the mass of hydrogen in the fuel:
2H2 + O2  2H2O
4 + 32  36
4 32 36
 
4 4 4
1 kg H2 + 8 kg O2  9 kg H2O
So for each kg of hydrogen in the fuel, 8 kg of oxygen are required and 9 kg of water
are produced.
Thus the energy lost (unavailable) due to maintaining steam as a vapour is:
9 x 2.442 x mass of hydrogen in the fuel (MJ/kg)
Relating this to the example above, the mass of hydrogen in each kilogram of fuel is
0.117 kg, therefore there the unavailable energy will be:
9 x 2.442 x 0.117 = 2.57 MJ/kg
The lower calorific value of the fuel is the HCV minus this value so;
LCV = 45.8917 – 2.57 = 43.32 MJ/kg
Example:
The composition of a fuel is as follows; 86% Carbon, 11% Hydrogen, 2% Oxygen and 1%
impurities. Taking the calorific values of Carbon and Hydrogen as 33.7 and 144 MJ/kg
respectively, determine the higher and lower calorific values and the stoichiometric
mass of air required to burn 1 kg of the fuel.
C = 0.86 H = 0.11 O = 0.02
 0.02 
HCV  33.7  0.86  144   0.11   = 28.982 + 15.48 = 44.462 MJ/kg
 8 

12
LCV = 44.462 – 9 x 2.442 x 0.11 = 44.462 – 2.416 = 42.046 MJ/kg
100  8  0.02  
Air/Fuel     0.86  8   0.11     13.71 kg air/kg fuel
23  3  8 
Determining the Energy of Combustion
When a solid or liquid fuel is combusted, the energy release is measured in an isothermal,
constant volume reaction performed in a specially designed combustion chamber called a
Bomb Calorimeter.
The fuel in capsule or gel form (depending on whether the fuel is a solid or a liquid) is
placed in the bomb and allowed to burn in pure oxygen at an elevated pressure. The
entire bomb (combustion chamber) is immersed enclosed in a water filled calorimeter
which captures the heat released and allows it to be measured via a measured
temperature rise.
The temperature rise of the water during the combustion process is monitored very
accurately and adjusted for losses; this allows the calculation of energy released per
kilogram of fuel burnt i.e. the calorific value.
For a solid or liquid fuel:
heat energy released by the fuel = heat energy gained by the water and equipment
i.e.
the mass of fuel burnt x its calorific value = (mass of water + water equivalent of the
bomb) x corrected temperature rise x the specific heat capacity of the cooling water
Or m f CV  mw  me cw ΔT
where me is the water equivalent of the equipment which is used to avoid needing to
know the shc of all the components used in the experiment. The value of me is
provided by the equipment manufacturer.
For a gaseous fuel:
a steady flow combustion process is used where a stream of water is heated through a
small temperature rise. Assuming that the water and fuel flows are constant:
 f CV  m
m  w c w ΔT where m
 w is the cooling water mass flow rate.

13
Example:
A fuel sample of 0.9 grammes was burnt in a bomb calorimeter. The bomb had a water
equivalent mass of 0.9 kg and was immersed in a calorimeter containing 2.5 kg of
water. The corrected temperature rise measured was 2.8oC. Find the calorific value
of the fuel.
heat released by fuel = heat gained by bomb and water
m f CV  mw  me cw ΔT
CV 
mw  me cw ΔT 
2.5  0.9  4200  2.8  44.43MJ / kg
mf 0.9  10 - 3
This will automatically be the HCV of the fuel because the products of combustion
(exhaust gases) will be cooled to only 3.9oC above room temperature. Thus all the water
vapour formed will condense and will release its enthalpy of evaporation to heat the water
bath: no heat is lost to water trapped as steam.
To find the lower calorific value, we need to know how much water vapour was formed
and then condensed to liquid water. This can be done by opening the bomb and measuring
the quantity of liquid water found inside, often by weighing and then drying and
reweighing the bomb.
Example:
In the test above, the bomb was opened and 0.67 g of liquid water was found inside.
What is the LCV of the fuel tested?
mass of water  enthalpy of evaporation

LCV  HCV - energy in steam per kg fuel  HCV -
mass of fuel sample
As calorific value is in energy per kg of fuel, we must ensure that the energy trapped in the
water vapour is also considered per kg of fuel.
0.67  10 -3  2.442
LCV  44.43 -  42.61MJ / kg
0.9  10 - 3

14
Combustion Efficiency
Any efficiency is defined by the system output divided by the input.

This can be expressed in terms of energy or energy flow rates ‘power’.
Expressed as an equation this gives;
Output Energy Output Power

Efficiency  or
Input Energy Input Power
A combustion process will not be 100% efficient as a result of:
 incomplete combustion due to less than perfect mixing of the air and fuel, where
unburnt fuel leaves with the exhaust gases
 heat energy leaving with the exhaust gases due to their high temperature
Combustion Efficiency can be defined as the actual energy released by the fuel during the
combustion process divided by the theoretical energy released.
Actual Energy Release

i.e. Combustion Efficiency 
Theoretica l Energy Release
Values of combustion efficiency will vary both between different types of plant and
different makes of the same type of plant. They will also vary as the plant is operated at
different power levels.
e.g. a gas turbine can have a combustion efficiency as high as 98%, whereas a diesel engine
can be as low as 65% or on average about 82%, and a modern condensing domestic water
heater (central heating boiler) will be between 85% and 93% efficient.
For a steam producing boiler we can apply similar logic except that some of the
combustion energy is not transferred to the water or steam, but leaves as thermal energy
in the hot exhaust gases. Hence the efficiency of the combustion process is referred to as
boiler efficiency rather than combustion efficiency. The energy transferred to the water
and steam is measured as a change in the specific enthalpy of the substance in the boiler;
hSTEAM.BOILER. This is multiplied by the mass flow rate of the substance to give the energy
rate.
From this relationship the formula for boiler efficiency is derived as;
Energy Input Rate To Water and Steam in Boiler

BOILER 
Energy Release Rate From Fuel
m STEAM  hBOILER
i.e. BOILER 
m FUEL  LCV

15
Thermal Efficiency
We have already seen that thermal efficiency is an indicator of the quantity of heat energy
actually converted into useful work. It is defined as the ratio of the net work done (useful
work) in a cycle to the (actual) heat supplied in the cycle and can be expressed as an
equation of the form;
WNET W
Thermal Efficiency  THERMAL   100%
QGROSS Q
The actual heat supplied will be dependent on the combustion efficiency.
Example:
A steam plant uses 3.045 tonne of coal per hour. The steam is fed to a turbine whose
output is 4.1 MW. The calorific value of the coal used to fire the boiler is 28 MJ/kg.
Determine the thermal efficiency of the plant.
3.045  103
m fuel   0.846 kg/s CV = 28 MJ/kg   4.1 M W
W
3600
Q  m
 fuelCV  0.846  28  106  23.688  106 W
W 4.1  106
THERMAL  NET   0.173  17.3%
QIN 23.688  106
Example;
A boiler with an efficiency of 72% consumes 3 tonnes of fuel of LCV of 42.25 MJ/kg
each hour in supplying steam to a turbine. If the power output at the turbine shaft is
12 MW calculate the thermal efficiency of the system.
 STEAM hBOILER
m Q IN
BOILER    Q IN  m
 f LCV BOILER
m f LCV  f LCV
m
W W
THERMAL  NET  NET
QIN m f LCV  BOILER
12  106
THERMAL   0.473  47.3%
3000
 42.25  106  0.72
3600

16
Composition Of Exhaust Gases:
From the combustion reaction equations we know that:
burning 1kg of carbon produces 11/3 kg of CO2
burning 1kg of hydrogen produces 9 kg of H2O
burning 1kg of sulphur produces 2 kg of SO2
Identification of the quantities of each product of a combustion process contained in the

flue (exhaust) gases can be calculated from these ratios and the composition of the fuel
and mass of air supplied as shown below:
Example:
A fuel is composed of 85% carbon, 12% hydrogen, 2% oxygen and 1% incombustible

solid material. If a 50% excess of the stoichiometric air required for complete
combustion is supplied, determine the mass of each of the flue gases per kg of fuel
burnt and the percentage mass analysis of the flue gases.
C = 0.85, H = 0.12, O = 0.02
100  8  O 
Stoichiometric air/kg of fuel =   C  8 H   
23  3  8 
100  8  0.02  
    0.85  8   0.12     13.94kg air / kg fuel
23  3  8 
Excess air = 0.5 x 13.94 = 6.97 kg of air
Total air supplied = Stoichiometric air required + excess air supplied
= 13.94 + 6.97 = 20.91 kg of air/kg of fuel.
Mass of each combustion product:
Mass of carbon-dioxide (CO2) = 11/3 x 0.85 = 3.117 kg/kg of fuel
Mass of water as steam (H2O) = 9 x 0.12 = 1.08 kg/kg of fuel
Mass of oxygen (O2) = excess oxygen contained in the excess air

= 0.23 x 6.97 = 1.603 kg/kg of fuel.
Mass of nitrogen (N2) = mass of nitrogen contained in the total air supplied.
= 0.77 x 20.91 = 16.1 kg/kg of fuel.
Total mass of combustion products = 3.117 + 1.08 + 1.603 + 16.1

= 21.9 kg/kg of fuel.

17
This 21.9 kg of exhaust products is the 0.99kg of combustable fuel + 20.91 kg of air
supplied, remembering that the fuel has 1% incombustible solids (i.e. ash) listed within it.
Percentage composition of the flue gases:
3.117 1.08
CO2  100%  14.23% H2O  100%  4.93%
21.9 21.9
1.603 16.1
O2  100%  7.32% N2  100%  73.52%
21.9 21.9
Dry Exhaust Gas Analysis:
A dry analysis can be found from a full (wet) analysis. An exhaust flow can be considered
dry if the temperature falls sufficiently to condense out all the water vapour or if the flow
is passed through a water solution in an exhaust gas analysis kit (Orsat etc.)
The dry analysis is the same as the wet analysis but the water vapour mass is left out of
the calculation.
Example:
A batch of coal burnt in a furnace is 80% Carbon, 5% Hydrogen, 4% Oxygen and the
remainder is incombustible material. Determine the following:
i) Total mass of air supplied if the furnace is supplied with 70% excess air.
ii) The percentage analysis by mass of the flue gases per kg of coal.
iii) The percentage analysis by mass of the dry flue gases per kg of coal.
0.8 Carbon 0.05 Hydrogen 0.04 Oxygen 0.11 Ash.
kgair 100  8  0.04  

i.
kgfuel  23   3  0.8  8   0.05  8    10.84 kgair / kgfuel
Excess air = 10.84 x 0.7 = 7.588 kg air/kg fuel
Total air = 10.84 + 7.588 = 18.428 kg air/kg fuel
ii. Wet % mass analysis

11  0.8 = 2.933
CO2 2.933 kg/kg coal  100 %  15.18%
3 19 .32
0.45
H2O 9 x 0.05 = 0.45 kg/kg coal  100 %  2.33%
19.32
1.745
O2 0.23 x 7.588 = 1.745 kg/kg coal  100 %  9.03%
19.32
14.19
N2 0.77 x 18.428 = 14.19 kg/kg coal  100 %  73.45%
19.32
Total 19.32 kg/kg coal 100%

18
iii. Dry % mass analysis
11  0.8 = 2.933
CO2 2.933 kg/kg coal  100 %  15.54%
3 18.868
1.745
O2 0.23 x 7.588 = 1.745 kg/kg coal  100 %  9.25%
18.868
14.19
N2 0.77 x 18.428 = 14.19 kg/kg coal  100 %  75.21%
18.868
Total 18.868 kg/kg coal 100%

19
Tutorial Sheet 12: Combustion
Use the following data where necessary:
Element Relative Atomic mass Calorific value

Nitrogen 14
Oxygen 16
Assume air contains 23% oxygen (O2), 77% nitrogen (N2) by mass.
Where applicable take the enthalpy of evaporation (h fg) for water as 2.442 MJ/kg.
Where applicable take the specific heat capacity of water as 4.2 kJ/kgK.
1. Balance each of the following combustionequations:
a. H2 + O2  H2O
b. CH4 + O2  CO2 + H2O
c. C3H4 + O2  CO2 + H2O
d. C5H12 + O2  CO2 + H2O
e. C7H8 + O2  CO2 + H2O
f. C2H2 + O2  CO2 + H2O
g. C4H6 + O2  CO2 + H2O
2. Calculate the mass of oxygen required to burn 1 kg of carbon completely to carbon

dioxide.
(22/3 kg)
3. Calculate the mass of oxygen required to burn 1 kg of hydrogen completely to

water.
(8 kg)
4. Calculate the mass of oxygen required to burn 1 kg of sulphur completely to sulphur

dioxide.
(1 kg)

1
5. Calculate the mass of water produced when 0.5 kg of hydrogen is burnt completely.
(4.5 kg)
6. Three kg of carbon are burnt completely to carbon dioxide. Calculate the minimum
mass of air required to supply the necessary oxygen.
(34.783 kg)
7. When a certain fuel is burnt 11 kg of CO2 are produced. Calculate the mass of
carbon in the fuel.
(3 kg)
8. Calculate the mass of oxygen required to burn 1 kg of methane (CH4) completely to

carbon dioxide and water.
(4 kg)
9. Calculate the mass of oxygen required to burn 2 kg of ethylene (C 2H4) completely to

(6.86 kg)
10. A portable propane (C3H8) heater is used to heat a room. How much water is
produced for every kg of propane burnt?
(1.64 kg)
11. 7 kg of methane (CH4) is burnt completely to carbon dioxide and water. Calculate
the masses of carbon dioxide and water produced.
(19.25 kg, 15.75 kg kg)
12. 0.25 kg of Toluene (C7H8) is burnt. To ensure complete combustion, twice as much
air than is theoretically needed is supplied (100% excess air). Calculate the mass of
air supplied.
(6.8 kg)
13. The analysis of a fuel oil is 85.5% carbon, 11.9% hydrogen, 1.6% oxygen and 1%
impurities. Calculate the percentage CO2 in the exhaust gases when:
i. The quantity of air supplied is equal to the stoichiometric value.

ii. The quantity of air supplied is 25% above the stoichiometric value.
iii. The quantity of air supplied is 50% above the stoichiometric value.
iv. The quantity of air supplied is 75% above the stoichiometric value.
(20.93%, 16.97%, 14.27%, 12.31%)

2
14. The fuel oil supplied to a boiler has a mass analysis of 86% carbon, 12% hydrogen
and 2% Sslphur. The fuel is burnt with an air fuel ratio of 20:1.
Calculate the percentage mass analysis of the wet exhaust gases.

(15.01% CO2, 5.14% H2O, 0.19% SO2, 6.32% O2, 73.33% N2)
15. Benzene fuel (C6H6) is burnt in a boiler furnace under stoichiometric conditions.
Determine:
i. The mass of air required to burn 1 kg of benzene. (13.38 kg)

ii. The percentage mass analysis of the wet exhaust gases;
(23.54% CO2, 4.82% H2O, 71.64% N2)
iii. The percentage mass analysis of the dry exhaust gases.
(24.73% CO2, 75.27% N2)
16. A sample of fuel has the following composition by mass: carbon 88%, hydrogen 12%.
What is the Higher Calorific Value (HCV) of the fuel?
(46.936 MJ/kg)
17. A certain fuel consists of the following elements as a percentage of the mass:
carbon 85%, hydrogen 10%, sulphur3%, the remainder being incombustible.
Calculate the higher calorific value (HCV) of the fuel.
(43.324 MJ/kg)
18. One kilogram of a fuel is made up of 0.87 kg of carbon, 0.09 kg of hydrogen, and
the remainder being sulphur. How much energy is liberated when 10 kg of the fuel
is burnt?
(426.51 MJ)
19. A sample of coal has the following composition by mass: - carbon 84%, hydrogen 8%
sulphur 4% and the-remainder incombustible. Calculate the higher and lower
calorific values.
(40.2 MJ/kg, 38.442 MJ/kg)
20. Calculate the HCV and LCV of a fuel which is 92% carbon & 8% hydrogen by mass.
(42.524MJ/kg, 40.766 MJ/kg)
21. A sample of fuel is made up of 0.89 carbon, 0.09 hydrogen and 0.02 sulphur by
mass. Calculate the higher and lower calorific values of the fuel.
(43.139MJ/kg, 41.161 MJ/kg)

3
22. In an experiment to determine the calorific value of a fuel using a bomb
calorimeter the following results were obtained:
Mass of fuel burnt 0.7 g

Mass of water in calorimeter 1.9 kg
Water equivalent of bomb 0.4 kg
Corrected temp rise after firing 3.1 ºC
Calculate the Higher calorific value of the fuel.

(42.78 MJ/kg)


Volume of water in calorimeter 2.0 litres
Water equivalent of bomb 450 g
Corrected temp rise after firing 2.85°C

(42.502 MJ/kg)


After firing the bomb was opened up and found to contain 0.675g of water.
Calculate the Higher and Lower calorific values of the fuel.

(43.983 MJ/kg, 41.694 MJ/kg)



(44.25 MJ/kg, 42.0522 MJ/kg)

4
26. A fuel oil with a LCV of 36 MJ/kg is burnt in a boiler containing 5000 kg of water. If
the temperature of the water increases from 20°C to 65°C, and no heat is lost to
the atmosphere, calculate the quantity of fuel burnt.
(26.25 kg)
27. A boiler containing 3500 kg of water at 20°C is heated until it reaches 77°C. If 28 kg
of fuel are used and 18% of the heat energy is lost to the atmosphere calculate the
calorific value of the fuel.
(36.494 MJ/kg)
28. 25 kg of fuel with a lower calorific value of 36.5 MJ/kg is burnt in a boiler furnace.
15% of the heat energy is lost in the flue gas and 5% is lost through radiation. The
boiler contains 3750 kg of water at an initial temperature of 22°C. What is the final
temperature of the water?
(68.35ºC)
29. A fuel consisting of 86% carbon, 12% hydrogen, 2% oxygen is burnt in a furnace.
Determine:
1. The higher calorific value of the fuel.

2. The Stoichiometric air required per kg of fuel.
3. An estimate of the mass analysis of the flue gases if 20 kg of air are supplied
per kg of fuel burned.
(45.9 MJ/kg, 14.06kg/kg fuel, CO2 15.00%, H2O 5.00%, O2 6.51%, N2 73.33%)
30. A boiler 83% efficient burns 3.5 tonnes/hour of fuel of LCV = 37.8 MJ/kg in
supplying steam to drive a turbine. If the thermal efficiency of the plant is 63%,
calculate the output power of the turbine.
(19.2 MW)
31. A fuel consists of 84% carbon, 13% hydrogen, 2% oxygen and the remainder
incombustible solid matter. Determine:
i. The lower calorific value of the fuel.

ii. The stoichiometric air required per kg of fuel.
iii. The actual air required to burn 15 tonnes of fuel if 130% excess air is
supplied.
(43.808 MJ/kg, 14.17 kg/kg fuel, 489 tonnes)

5
32. The constituents of a fuel are 85% carbon, 13% hydrogen and 2% oxygen. When
burning this fuel the air supply is 50% in excess of the stoichiometric requirement.
The inlet temperature of the air is 31C and the exhaust gas temperature 280C.
Determine EACH of the following:
i. The calorific value of the fuel.

ii. Mass of air supplied per kg of fuel burnt.
iii. Heat energy carried away in the exhaust gases as a percentage of the heat
energy supplied. (c for exhaust gases as 1.005 kJ/kgK).
(44.148 MJ/kg, 21.435 kg air/kg fuel, 12.72%)
33. Butane C4H10 is used as the fuel in a boiler at a rate of 0.7 kg/s to produce steam to
drive a turbine of thermal efficiency 52% producing 15 MW of output power. The
combustion air supply is 65% in excess of the stoichiometric requirement.
Determine:
a. the mass flow rate of air required under the identified conditions.
b. the efficiency of the boiler.
(18 kg/s, 84.24%)
34. A fuel consists of the following quantities by mass 82% carbon, 13% hydrogen, 3%
oxygen, 1% sulphur and the rest incombustible material. If 25% excess air is
supplied during the combustion process determine the following:
a. i. Actual quantity of air required to burn 15kg of fuel. (261.4 kg)

ii. Percentage mass analysis of the dry products of combustion.
(CO2 17.44%, SO2 0.12%, O2 4.65%, N2 77.80%)
b. Define the following terms in respect of a combustion process.

i. Rich mixture.
ii. Stoichiometric mixture.
35. A fuel C8H17OH is burnt in a furnace with an air supply 75% in excess of the
stoichiometric quantity. Determine the following:
a. i. The stoichiometric quantity of air required per kilogram of fuel.

(12.844 kg)
ii. The stoichiometric air fuel ratio. (12.844:1)
iii. The wet analysis of the products of combustion by mass.
(CO2 11.53%, H2O 5.31%, O2 9.44%, N2 73.72%)
b. Define the following terms associated with the combustion process.

i. Calorific Value.
ii. Lean mixture.

6
36. The analysis by mass of a sample of a gaseous fuel is as follows: 25% nitrogen, 30%
hydrogen, 20% carbon monoxide, 15% methane (CH4) and 10% oxygen.
i. Determine the stoichiometric quantity of air required for complete combustion of

the fuel. (13.11 kg)
ii. Determine the percentage mass analysis of the products of combustion.

(CO2 5.17%, H2O 21.55%, N2 73.28%)
37. A furnace is supplied with fuel having the following mass analysis: 82% carbon; 14%
hydrogen; 2% oxygen and 2% sulphur. If a 40% excess of the stoichiometric air
required for combustion is supplied:
a. Determine EACH of the following:

i. Lower Calorific value of the fuel. (44.543 MJ/kg)
ii. Mass of air required to burn 10 kg of fuel. (201.32 kg)
b. Determine the wet flue gas analysis by percentage mass.

(CO2 14.24%, H2O 5.96%, SO2 0.19%, O2 6.26%, N2 73.35%)
c. Determine the dry flue gas analysis by mass.

(CO2 15.15%, SO2 0.20%, O2 6.64%, N2 78.00%)
38. The analysis of a sample of coal burned in the furnace of a boiler is 80% carbon, 5%
hydrogen, 4% oxygen, and the remainder ash etc. Calculate:
a) Mass of air required for complete combustion. (10.84 kg)
b) Mass of air supplied with 70% excess. (18.43 kg)
c) The percentage mass analysis of the products of combustion.

(15.17% CO2, 2.33% H2O, 9.03% O2, 73.47% N2)

7
Tutorial Sheet 12: Combustion - Solutions

Nitrogen 14
Oxygen 16
1. Balance the following equations:
a. H2 + O2  H2O 2H2 + O2  2H2O
b. CH4 + O2  CO2 + H2O CH4 + 2O2  CO2 + 2H2O
c. C3H4 + O2  CO2 + H2O C3H4 + 4O2  3CO2 + 2H2O
d. C5H12 + O2  CO2 + H2O C5H12 + 8O2  5CO2 + 6H2O
e. C7H8 + O2  CO2 + H2O C7H8 + 9O2  7CO2 + 4H2O
f. C2H2 + O2  CO2 + H2O 2C2H2 + 5O2  4CO2 + 2H2O or C2H2 + 2.5O2  2CO2 + H2O
g. C4H6 + O2  CO2 + H2O 2C4H6 + 11O2  8CO2 + 6H2O or C4H6 + 5.5O2  4CO2 + H2O

dioxide.
C + O2  CO2 True balanced.

12 x 1 + 16 x 2  44
12/12 + 32/12  44/12
1 + 22/3  32/3
Therefore 22/3 kg of oxygen are required to completely burn 1 kg of carbon.

1
water.
H2 + O2  H2O Not True unbalanced.
2H2 + O2  2H2O True balanced.

4x1 + 16 x 2  36
4/4 + 32/4  36/4
1 + 8  9
Therefore 8 kg of oxygen are required to completely burn 1 kg of hydrogen.

dioxide.
S + O2  SO2 True balanced.

32 x 1 + 16 x 2  64
32/32 + 32/32  64/32
1 + 1  2
Therefore 1 kg of oxygen is required to completely burn 1 kg of sulphur.

4x1 + 16 x 2  36
4/4 + 32/4  36/4
1 + 8  9
Therefore 0.5 kg of hydrogen produces 9 x 0.5 = 4.5 kg of water.

12 x 1 + 16 x 2  44
12/12 + 32/12  44/12
1 + 223  323
Therefore 3 kg of carbon require 3 x 223 = 8 kg of oxygen.
Quantity of air required to supply 8 kg of oxygen = 8 x 100 ÷ 23 = 34.783 kg.

2
carbon in the fuel.
Mass of carbon = mass of carbon dioxide ÷ 32/3 = 11 ÷ 32/3 = 3 kg.

CH4 + 2O2  CO2 + 2H2O True balanced.

1 x 12 + 4 x 1 + 2 x 16 x 2  44 + 36
16 + 64  44 + 36
16/16 + 64/16  44/16 + 36/16
1 + 4  2¾ + 2¼
Therefore 4 kg of oxygen are required to burn 1 kg of methane.

C2H4 + 3O2  2CO2 + 2H2O True balanced.

2 x 12 + 4 x 1 + 3 x 16 x 2  88 + 36
28 + 96  88 + 36
28/28 + 96/28  88/28 + 36/28
1 + 3.43  3.14 + 1.29
Therefore 2 x 3.43 kg = 6.86 kg of oxygen are required to burn 2 kg of ethylene.

3 x 12 + 8 x 1 + 5 x 16 x 2  3 x 44 + 4 x 18
44 + 160  132 + 72
44/44 + 160/44  132/44 + 72/44
1 + 3.64  3 + 1.64
Therefore 1.64 kg of water is produced by each kg of propane burnt.

1 x 12 + 4 x 1 + 2 x 16 x 2  44 + 36
16 + 64  44 + 36
16/16 + 64/16  44/16 + 36/16
1 + 4  2¾ + 2¼
1 kg of methane produces 2¾ kg of carbon dioxide and 2¼ kg of water.

3
Therefore 7 kg of methane will produce 7 x 2¾ = 19.25 kg of carbon dioxide
and 7 x 2¼ = 15.75 kg of water.
air supplied.

7 x 12 + 8 x 1 + 9 x 16 x 2  7 x 44 + 4 x 18
92 + 288  308 + 72
92/92 + 288/92  308/92 + 72/92
1 + 3.13  3.36 + 0.78
1 kg of Toluene requires 3.13 kg of oxygen.
Therefore 0.25 kg of Toluene requires 0.25 x 3.13 = 0.783 kg of oxygen.
Mass of air required = mass of oxygen x 100 ÷ 23 = 0.783 x 100 ÷ 23 = 3.4 kg.
Actual quantity of air = 3.4 x 2 = 6.8 kg.

0.855 carbon 0.119 hydrogen 0.016 oxygen 0.01 Ash.
100  8  0.016  
23  3  8 
11
M ass of CO 2 /kg fuel   0.855  3.135 kg
3
i. For stoichiometric mixture exhaust mass = 13.98 + 1 = 14.98 kg/kg fuel
3.135
%CO2   100 %  20.93%
14.98
ii. For 25% excess air exhaust mass = 1.25 x 13.98 + 1 = 18.475 kg/kg fuel
3.135
%CO2   100 %  16.97%
18.475
iii. For 50% excess air exhaust mass = 1.5 x 13.98 + 1 = 21.97 kg/kg fuel
3.135
%CO2   100 %  14.27%
21.97

4
iv. For 75% excess air exhaust mass = 1.75 x 13.98 + 1 = 25.465 kg/kg fuel
3.135
%CO2   100 %  12.31%
25.465

(15.01% CO2, 5.14% H2O, 0.19% SO2, 6.32% O2, 73.33% N2)
0.86 carbon 0.12 hydrogen 0.02 sulphur
100  8 
i. Air/Fuel     0.86  8  0.12  1  0.02   14.23 kg air/kg fuel
23  3 
Total air = 20 kg/kg fuel. Excess air = 20 - 14.23 = 5.77 kg air/kg fuel
Gas Mass kg/kg fuel % wet mass analysis

CO2 323 x 0.86 = 3.153 (3.153  21) x 100% = 15.01%
H2O 9 x 0.12 = 1.08 (1.08  21) x 100% = 5.14%
SO2 2 x 0.02 = 0.04 (0.04  21) x 100% = 0.19%
O2 0.23 x 5.77 = 1.3271 (1.3271  21) x 100% = 6.32%
N2 0.77 x 20 = 15.4 (15.4  21) x 100% = 73.33%
Total 21.00 kg 100%
15. Benzene fuel C6H6 is burnt in a boiler furnace under stoichiometric conditions of
combustion. Determine:

(23.54% CO2, 4.82% H2O, 71.64% N2)
(24.73% CO2, 75.27% N2)
C6H6 Relative Molecular Weight = 6 x 12 + 6 x 1 = 78
6  12 6 1
%C   100 %  92.3% %H   7.7%
78 78
0.923 carbon 0.077 hydrogen
100  8 
i. Air/Fuel     0.923  8  0.077   13.38 kg air/kg fuel
23  3 

5
ii.
Gas Mass % mass analysis
CO2 32/3 x 0.923 = 3.384 (3.384  14.377) x 100% = 23.54%
H2O 9 x 0.077 = 0.693 (0.693  14.377) x 100% = 4.82%
N2 0.77 x 13.38 = 10.3 (10.3  14.377) x 100% = 71.64%
Total 14.377 kg/kg fuel 100%
iii.
CO2 32/3 x 0.923 = 3.384 (3.384  13.684) x 100% = 24.73%
N2 0.77 x 13.38 = 10.3 (10.3  13.684) x 100% = 75.27%
Total 13.684 kg / kg fuel 100%
From the carbon = 0.88 x 33.7 = 29.656 MJ/kg of fuel

From the hydrogen = 0.12 x 144 = 17.280 MJ/kg of fuel
Higher Calorific value of the fuel = 46.936 MJ/kg.

From the sulphur = 0.03 x 9.3 = 2.79 MJ/kg of fuel
is burnt?

From the hydrogen = 0.09 x 144 = 12.960 M/kg of fuel
Therefore 10 kg of fuel releases 10 x 42.651 = 426.51 MJ of heat energy.

6
calorific values.

Lower Calorific value = Higher Calorific value – energy to keep water as steam
Energy to keep water as steam = Quantity of Hydrogen in fuel x 9 x latent heat
Energy to keep water as steam = 0.08 x 9 x 2.442 = 1.758 MJ/kg
Lower Calorific value = 40.2 – 1.758 = 38.442 MJ/kg
HCV = 33.7C + 144(H – ⅛O)) + 9.3S MJ/kg
HCV = 33.7 x 0.92 + 144(0.08 – ⅛O)) + 9.3S = 42.524MJ/kg
HCV = 33.7C + 144(H – ⅛O)) + 9.3S MJ/kg
HCV = 33.7 x 0.89 + 144(0.08 – ⅛O)) + 9.3 x 0.02 = 43.139MJ/kg
Energy to keep water as steam = 0.09 x 9 x 2.442 = 1.978 kJ/kg

7

QWater = mcΔT where m = mass of water + water equivalent of bomb.
And QFuel = mfCV where mf = mass of fuel and CV is higher Calorific value of fuel.
But QWater = QFuel Therefore mcΔT = mfCV
HCV = mcΔT ÷ mf = (0.4 + 1.9) x 4.2 x 103 x 3.1 ÷ (0.7 x 10-3) = 42.78 MJ/kg


HCV = mcΔT ÷ mf = (2 + 0.45) x 4.2 x 103 x 2.85 ÷ (0.69 x 10-3) = 42.502 MJ/kg


Calculate the Higher and Lower calorific value of the fuel.

8
And QFuel = mfCV where mf = mass of fuel and CV is higher calorific value of fuel.
Energy to keep water as steam = Quantity of water x latent heat ÷ Quantity of fuel
Energy to keep water as steam = 0.675 x 10-3 x 2.442 ÷ 0.72 x 10-3 = 2.289 MJ/kg



9
QWater = QFuel mcΔT = mfCV
Hence mf = mcΔT ÷ HCV = 5000 x 4.2 x 103 x (65 – 20) ÷ 36 x 106 = 26.25 kg
If 18% is lost then only 82% of the heat released by the fuel is absorbed by the
water.
QWater = 0.82 x QFuel mwcΔT = 0.82 x mfCV
CV = mwcΔT / (0.82 x mf) = 3500 x 4200 x (77-20) / (0.82 x 28) = 36.494 MJ/kg
A total of 20% of the heat released by the fuel is lost, so only 80% is transferred to
the water.
ΔT = 0.8 x mf CV / (mwc) = 0.8 x 25 x 36.5 x 106 / (3750 x 4200) = 46.35ºC
Final water temperature = Initial water temperature + ΔT = 22 + 46.35 = 68.35ºC

10
Determine:

Calorific Value
HCV = 33.7C + 144(H – ⅛O)) + 9.3S MJ/kg
HCV = 33.7 x 0.86 + 144(0.12 - ⅛ x 0.02)) = 45.9 MJ/kg
100  8  O   100  8 
Stoichiome tric air   C  8 H 2  2      0.86  8  0.1175
23  3  8   23  3 

100
2.2933  0.94  14.06 kg of air/kg of fuel.
23
Exhaust gas mass analysis:
Per kg of fuel burnt mass of gases in the products of combustion from

20 kg of air + 1 kg of fuel = 21 kg
Mass of Oxygen in 20 kg of air = 0.23 x 20 = 4.6 kg

Surplus Oxygen = 4.6 – 3.233 = 1.367 kg
Mass of Nitrogen in 20 kg of air = 0.77 x 20 = 15.4 kg
CO2 produced by combustion = 32/3 x 0.86 = 3.153 kg
H2O produced by combustion = 9 x 0.12 = 1.08 kg
Total mass of exhaust gases per kg of fuel = 21 kg/kg of fuel
% composition of exhaust gases by mass
CO2 3.153  21 = 0.15 = 15.00%

H2O 1.08  21 = 0.05 = 5.00%
O2 1.367  21 = 0.0651 = 6.51%
N2 15.4  21 = 0.733 = 73.33%

11
supplying steam to drive a turbine. If the thermal efficiency of the plant is 63%
W NET
 TH  W NET  Q IN   TH Q IN  m
 f CV   BOILER
QIN
3.5  10 3  37.8  10 6  0.83

 W NET   0.63  19.2 M W
3600

supplied.
0.84 carbon 0.13 hydrogen 0.02 oxygen 0.01 Ash
i.
 O  0.02 
HCV  33.7C  144 H    9.3S  33.7  0.84  144   0.13  
 8  8 
HCV  28.308  144  0.1275  28.308  18.36  46.668 MJ/kg
enthalpy loss to vapour  9  2.442  0.13  2.86 MJ/kg

 LCV  46.668  2.86  43.808 MJ/kg
ii.
kgair 100  8  O 
kgfuel    C  8  H    S 
23  3  8 
kgair 100  8  0.02  
kgfuel     0. 84  8   0. 13     14.17 kg / kgfuel
23  3  8 
iii.
Actual air/kg fuel = 14.17 + 1.3 x 14.17 = 32.6 kg air/kg fuel
Air for 15 tonnes of fuel = 15000 x 32.6 = 489000 kg or 489 tonnes.


12
0.85 C 0.13 H 0.02 O 50% Excess air T1 = 31C T2 = 280C
i.
 O  0.02 
HCV  33.7C  144  H    9.3S  33.7  0.85  144  0.13    47.005 MJ/kg
 8  8 
LCV = 47.005 – 9 x 2.442 x 0.13 = 44.148 MJ/kg
ii.
100  8  0.02  
23  3  8 
Total air = 14.29 + 7.145 = 21.435 kg air/kg fuel.
iii. Heat in exhaust = mEXcEXT = (21.435 + 1) x 1005 x (280 – 31) = 5.614 x 106 J/kg fuel
Heat supplied = 44.148 x 106 J/kg fuel (mfCV)
5.614  10 6
% exhaust heat loss   0.1272  12.72%
44.148  10 6
Determine:
a.
100  8 
Stoichiometric air required =    0.8276  8  0.1724   15.59 kg/kg fuel
23  3 
Actual air required = 15.59 + 0.65 x 15.59 = 25.73 kg/kg fuel
Mass flow rate of air required = 0.7 x 25.73 = 18 kg/s

13
b.
Q IN W 15  10 6
 BOILER  Q IN  NET   28.85 MW  f  0.7kg / s
m
m
 f CV TH 0.52
HCV = 33.7 x 0.8276 + 144 x 0.1724 = 52.716 MJ/kg
Enthalpy loss = 9 x 2.442 x 0.1724 = 3.789 MJ/kg
LCV = 52.716 – 3.789 = 48.927 MJ/kg
28.85  10 6
 BOILER   0.8424 or 84.24%
0.7  48.927  10 6

(CO2 17.44%, SO2 0.12%, O2 4.65%, N2 77.80%)
i. Rich mixture.
100  8  O 
a.i. Stoichiometric Air/Fuel =   C  8 H    S 
23  3  8 
100  8  0.03  
Stoichiometric Air/Fuel =    0.82  8   0.13    1  0.01
23  3  8  
Stoichiometric Air/Fuel = 13.94 kg air/kg fuel.
Air supplied = 1.25 x 13.94 x 15 = 261.4 kg
a.ii.
Mass of CO2 = 0.82 x 11/3 = 3.007 kg
Mass of SO2 = 0.01 x 2 = 0.02 kg
Mass of O2 = 0.23 x 13.94 x 0.25 = 0.802 kg
Mass of N2 = 0.77 x 13.94 x 1.25 = 13.417 kg
Total mass of dry exhaust gases = 17.246 kg

14
% by mass:
Exhaust Gas mass % mass
CO2 3.007 (3.007  17.246) x 100% = 17.44
SO2 0.02 (0.02  17.246) x 100% = 0.12
O2 0.802 (0.802  17.246) x 100% = 4.65
N2 13.417 (13.417  17.246) x 100% = 77.80
Total = 17.246 kg per kg fuel 100%

(12.844 kg)
(CO2 11.53%, H2O 5.31%, O2 9.44%, N2 73.72%)

i. Calorific Value.
ii. Lean mixture.
C8H17OH Total RMM of fuel = 8 x 12 + 17 x 1 + 16 x 1 + 1 x 1 = 130
Fuel mass analysis:
96 18
Carbon  0.7385 Hydrogen  0.1385 Oxygen
130 130
16
 0.1231
130
100  8  0.1231  
i. Stoichiometric Air/kg fuel     0.7385  8 0.1385    = 12.844 kg/kg fuel
23  3  8 
ii. Stoichiometric air/fuel ratio = 12.844:1
iii. Mass analysis of exhaust:
CO2 = 11
3  0.7385 = 2.708 kg
H2O = 9 x 0.1385 = 1.247 kg
O2 = 12.844 x 0.75 x 0.23 = 2.216 kg
N2 = 12.844 x 1.75 x 0.77 = 17.307 kg
Total = 23.478 kg/kg fuel
% mass analysis:
CO2 = (2.708  23.478) x 100% = 11.53%

H2O = (1.247  23.478) x 100% = 5.31%

15
O2 = (2.216  23.478) x 100% = 9.44%
N2 = (17.307  23.478)x 100% = 73.72%


(CO2 5.17%, H2O 21.55%, N2 73.28%)
i. Mass analysis for methane CH4 Total RMM = 1 x 12 + 4 x 1 = 16

12 4
Carbon =  0.75 = 75% Hydrogen =  0.25 = 25%
16 16
Mass analysis for Carbon monoxide CO Total RMM = 1 x 12 + 1 x 16 = 28
12 16
Carbon =  0.4286 = 42.86% Oxygen =  0.5714 = 57.14%
28 28
Composition of the fuel:
Carbon = 0.15 x 0.75 + 0.2 x 0.4286 = 0.19822

Hydrogen = 0.15 x 0.25 + 0.3 = 0.3375
Oxygen = 0.2 x 0.5714 + 0.1 = 0.21428
Nitrogen = 0.25
100  8  0.21428  
Stoichiometric air =    0.19822  8   0.3375    = 13.11 kg/kg fuel
23  3  8 
ii. Mass analysis of exhaust gases.
11
CO2 =  0.19822 = 0.73 kg, H2O = 9 x 0.3375 = 3.04 kg,
3
N2 = 0.77 x 13.11 + 0.25 = 10.34 kg
mass % analysis of exhaust gases:
Exhaust Gas m % mass

CO2 0.73 (0.73  14.11) x 100% = 5.17%
H2O 3.04 (3.04  14.11) x 100% = 21.55%
N2 10.34 (10.34  14.11) x 100% = 73.28%
Total 14.11kg 100%

16

(CO2 14.24%, H2O 5.96%, SO2 0.19%, O2 6.26%, N2 73.35%)

(CO2 15.15%, SO2 0.20%, O2 6.64%, N2 78.00%)
 0.02 
a.i. HCV = 33.7 x 0.82 + 144 x  0.14   + 9.3 x 0.02 = 47.62 MJ/kg
 8 
LCV = 47.62 – (9 x 2.442 x 0.14) = 44.54 MJ/kg
a.ii.
100  8  0.02  
Stoichiometric air =    0.82  8   0.14    1  0.02  = 14.38 kg/kg fuel
23  3  8  
Actual air = 1.4 x 14.38 x 10 = 201.3 kg
b.
11
CO2 =  0.82 = 3.01 kg SO2 = 2 x 0.02 = 0.04 kg
3
H2O = 9 x 0.14 = 1.26 kg O2 = 0.23 x 0.4 x 14.38 = 1.32 kg
N2 = 0.77 x 1.4 x 14.38 = 15.50 kg
Total mass of exhaust gases = 3.01 + 0.04 + 1.26 + 1.32 + 15.5 = 21.13 kg
3.01 0.04
%CO2 =  100 % = 14.25% %SO2 =  100 % = 0.19%
21 .13 21.13
1.26 1.32
%H2O =  100 % = 5.96% %O2 =  100 % = 6.25%
21.13 21.13
15.5
%N2 =  100 % = 73.36%
21.13
c. mass analysis of dry gases:
Gas m % mass
CO2 3.01 (3.01  19.87) x 100% = 15.15%
SO2 0.04 (0.04  19.87) x 100% = 0.20%
O2 1.32 (1.32  19.87) x 100% = 6.64%
N2 15.5 (15.5  19.87) x 100% = 78.00%
Total 19.87 kg 100%

17

(15.17% CO2, 2.33% H2O, 9.03% O2, 73.47% N2)
100  8  0.04  
a. stoichiometric air =    0.8  8   0.05    = 10.84 kg
23  3  8 
b. Actual air = 1.7 x 10.84 = 18.43 kg
c. Mass analysis:
11
CO2 =  0.8 = 2.93 kg H2O = 9 x 0.05 = 0.45 kg
3
O2 = 0.23 x 0.7 x 10.84 = 1.745 kg N2 = 0.77 x 18.43 = 14.19 kg
Total mass of exhaust gases = 2.93 + 0.45 + 1.745 + 14.19 = 19.315 kg/kg fuel
2.93 0.45
%CO2 =  100 % = 15.17% %H2O =  100 % = 2.33%
19 .315 19.315
1.745 14.19
%O2 =  100 % = 9.03% %N2 =  100 % = 73.47%
19.315 19.315

18
Engine Performance
The word “performance” when used in relation to an engine describes the capabilities of
the engine: what it can deliver and what it uses to do so.
Therefore we could talk about the power output, the fuel used to produce this power, the
air flow required to burn the fuel, etc. We could also talk about other quantities which
the engine might produce that are perhaps of lesser importance on first thought, but are
actually just as important: e.g. heat energy released by the engine that must be carried
away by the cooling system, quantity if exhaust gas produced and hence size of exhaust
system required etc.
Many of these quantities will be determined by testing an engine in some way or another,
either on a dedicated test bed or in situ where it is actually in use - in doing so we will run
the engine as an open system operating under steady flow conditions. We will record the
quantities of air and fuel that enter the engine and also the quantities of work, heat,
exhaust gas etc. that leave the engine. We can only obtain reliable data once all readings
have settled and all temperatures have stabilised at their normal running values. If we
change the operating conditions of the engine under test then we should wait until the
readings settle again before recording them.
The results of the engine tests are often plotted graphically in the form of performance
curves which can be used to compare the performance of one engine with another. To do
this effectively we must first define the various performance criteria and terminology that
we wish to use.
Performance Definitions and Terminology:
On the input side of the test:
m fuel
 fuel 
Fuel mass flow rate: m i.e. rate at which fuel is supplied to the engine. The SI
time
unit for this will be kg/s but it is often more convenient to work in time units of minutes
or hours, e.g. kg/min.
We will also probably want to know the calorific value of the fuel, although this is not
easy to measure.
mair
 air 
Air mass flow rate: m i.e. rate at which air is supplied to the engine in kg/s etc.
time
The sum of these 2 values will equal the exhaust mass flow rate, which may be harder to
measure due to its high temperature.

1
On the output side of the test:
Brake Power (BP) in Watts:
The primary output quantity which we are interested in will be the power output i.e. rate
of doing work. This cannot be measured directly but can be found if we measure the
output torque and angular velocity of the engine:
Power   T  2 π N T
2
but with angular velocity often measured in rpm we can use   rpm 
60
Measuring the torque and speed often involve some form of braking mechanism which
allows us to load the engine and hold it at a particular speed whilst absorbing the power
developed. This mechanism, known as a dynamometer, involves a brake and so the
resulting measured power output is known as the brake power (BP).
BP = power measured at the output shaft or at the flywheel
Indicated Power (IP) in Watts:
Another power output we may wish to measure or determine is known as the indicated
power (IP) as it is derived from an “indicating” device which is connected to the engine
when required.
IP is the power developed by the expanding hot, high pressure gases in the cylinder, once
combustion is complete. These gases push on the piston crown, forcing it down the
cylinder and turning the crankshaft.
IP = power measured within the cylinder by measuring pressure and volume
IP is always greater than BP because of friction losses within the engine mechanism:
BP = IP – friction power losses
Mean Effective Pressure (Pmean or MEP) (in bar or Pa):
Once the continually varying pressure and volume have been measured with an indicator
device, an average pressure is calculated which, if it were to act for the whole piston
stroke, would produce the same amount of power as the varying pressure. This average
pressure is known as a mean effective pressure Pmean. The word effective is used because
this imaginary constant pressure has the same effect as the continually varying real
pressure.
We can have a value for the IP, i.e. the mean pressure that would yield the IP, and a value
for the BP, i.e. the mean pressure that would yield the BP.

2
Other quantities on the output side of the test:
We may wish to measure flow rates of cooling fluids (air, water, oil etc.) and also their
temperatures at input and output. These values will allow us to calculate the rate of heat
transport within the cooling system etc.
We will often also measure the temperature of the exhaust gas flow for the same reasons:
to allow us to calculate the rate of heat loss as the hot gases leave the engine.
Other terminology and definitions:
Mechanical efficiency describes how well the engine mechanism converts the power
developed by the expanding gas (IP) into output power at the shaft (BP):
BP
Mechanical efficiency: mech 
IP
This will always be less than 100% due to the friction in the engine mechanism and due to
power losses to drive engine ancillaries: lubricating, cooling and fuel pumps, electrical
alternator, cooling fans etc.
Thermal efficiency describes how well the engine thermodynamic cycle converts fuel
energy into output work, either IP or BP.
Wnet out
Thermal efficiency: thermal 
Qin
Running under steady flow conditions, all the energy supplied to an engine leaves it either
as heat or as work so Wnett out  Qin  Qout
Wnett out Qin  Qout Q

i.e. thermal    1  out
Qin Qin Qin
Alternatively, using the values of BP and IP and our knowledge of combustion we can say:
Wnett out BP IP
thermal  which gives Brake thermal  Indicated thermal 
Qin m f  LCV m f  LCV
Brake thermal efficiency is also the overall engine efficiency as it compares final output to
fuel energy input:
BP
 Brake thermal  engine overall 
m f  LCV

3
Swept Volume is the V that occurs as the piston travels from TDC to BDC:
Swept volume: Vswept = Vmax - Vmin = VBDC - VTDC
Volumetric Efficiency describes how well an engine takes in air. Under ideal conditions,
as the piston descends it will draw in air at full ambient pressure and temperature. This
mass of air should match the equivalent mass from Vswept.
In reality, various restrictions to the incoming air (inlet manifold air friction, inlet air
filter, throttle valve in a petrol engine, etc.), heating of the gas in the cylinder during
induction, leakage of gas during compression and re-expansion of trapped gas in the
clearance volume mean that the mass of air induced and active in the cylinder will be less
than the perfect cylinder-full mass.
The volumetric efficiency is however measured in volumes, not masses:
induced volume VE
Volumetric efficiency: Volumetric  
swept volume VS
so we will need to use our knowledge of the gas laws to convert masses to volumes etc. to
find volumetric efficiency.
Engines which have some form of forced air intake (turbo or super-charging systems, ram
air scoops on racing cars and aircraft etc.) will induce a greater mass of air than Vswept
would suggest and hence their volumetric efficiencies will be greater than 100%.
Specific Fuel Consumption (sfc) is defined as the fuel used per hour to produce each kW
of output power:
m f  3600 m f  3600
sfcBrake  sfc Indicated 
BP( in kW ) IP( in kW )
Its unit will be kg/kWh which is why there is a 3600 in the equation to convert mass flow
of fuel in kg/s to kg/hour.
This is an odd unit as it breaks several of the SI rules about units, but it is a very
convenient unit as it allows simple calculations of the fuel required for a task once power
required and time are known.
Engine manufacturers often quote sfc in g/kWh. Low values are good (less fuel used per
kW of power produced) so some of the best engines might have a sfc as low as 170 g/kWh
whereas poorer (less efficient) engines will have higher sfc values: 300-500 g/kWh.
We can see that sfc and thermal efficiency both share common quantities (fuel mass flow
rate and engine output power) and hence sfc and thermal efficiency are actually inversely
proportional to each other:

4
1 3600 3600
thermal   
sfc LCV sfc  LCV
Measuring BP and IP:

Brake Power   T  2 π N T
Brake power requires that we measure the engine angular velocity and output torque
whilst not allowing the power developed to cause the speed to increase. This requires
either a load that absorbs the power for some useful purpose (electrical generator, water
pump, hydraulic pump etc.) that also allows us to measure the power or torque, or we
need a dynamometer to deliberately load the engine just for the sake of measurement
(i.e. the power developed is wasted as heat somehow).
A dynamometer will often involve a friction brake:
Dynamometer brakes:
Rope brake: a rope (or leather belt etc.) is wrapped over the flywheel and placed in
tension such that the forces can be measured and the torque calculated:
Flywheel
rope
Load Spring Balance (F)

Load (W)
Friction will try to drag the rope around with the flywheel and hence force F will be less
than load W:
i.e. Friction force = W - F
Torque = Friction force x effective radius to axis of rope
T = Fr

5
Prony brake:
An alternative form of dynamometer brake might involve brake shoes clamped around the
flywheel or shaft with a torque arm to measure the torque:
Torque arm radius (r)
Brake torque = F x r
Flywheel
or shaft
Load Spring
Balance (F)
Brake shoes clamped around shaft by adjustable
tension springs to vary load on engine
Whatever form of friction brake is used, the heat produced will need to be removed by a
cooling system to avoid the brake overheating. The cooling system often involves large
quantities of water.
Other forms of dynamometer might use an electrical generator and bank of resistors to
dissipate the energy as heat, or a water pump forcing water through a partially closed
valve etc. Whatever is used will require cooling and appropriate instrumentation to allow
torque or power to be measured.
Indicated power requires that we measure the pressure and volume inside the cylinder at
all points during the engine cycle and then plot a pV diagram, known as an indicator
diagram.
This must be done one cylinder at a time and can yield useful diagnostic information about
the relative performance of each cylinder and also information about fuel injection timing
errors etc.
Modern equipment uses electronic systems to record and plot the pV diagram but
historically the process of generating an indicator diagram used a mechanical “engine
indicator” which was connected to the engine cylinder via a small valve known as an
“indicator cock”. This valve is opened to allow cylinder pressure to act on a small piston
inside the indicator mechanism which is resisted by a calibrated spring. The movement of
this piston then givse an indication of the pressure in the engine cylinder which is
recorded as vertical movement on a small indicator card.
The card is wrapped around a drum which oscillates about its axis in proportion to the
engine piston motion, i.e. the angular position of the drum gives an indication of cylinder
volume. The motion of the drum is driven by a cord that hooked onto a small drive wheel
purposely supplied on the engine.

6
The combined action of the pressure and volume motion produces a pV diagram known as
an indicator diagram.
http://www.machineryspaces.com/power-measurement.html
combustion
Indicator or pV diagram of 4 stroke engine cycle
(not to scale)
p (bar)
expansion
power loop pressure drop

as exhaust
valve opens
compression
exhaust
patmospheric pumping loop
Vmin induction Vmax V (m3)
Vswept

7
Following the diagram round we can see the various thermodynamic processes that make
up the 4 stroke cycle:
 Induction occurs just below atmospheric pressure due to the restrictions on the
flow through the inlet filter etc.
 Adiabatic compression
 Heating by combustion of fuel just before and/or after TDC
 Adiabatic expansion to generate output power
 Exhaust at slightly above atmospheric pressure to force gas through exhaust system
The power loop (clockwise arrows) generates output power whereas the pumping loop
(anticlockwise arrows) consumes power.
In this diagram both the power and pumping loops have been exaggerated in width to
make them more clearly visible.
The output power (IP) = power loop power produced – pumping loop power consumed
We know that the area of a pV diagram tells us about the work done during a process.
This is also true for a cycle of processes so to find the output power of the expanding gas
in the cylinder (IP) we need to find the nett area of the diagram per second.
IP = area of one cycle on the diagram x total cycles per second for the engine
Finding the area of one cycle can be done in various ways:
 drawing on graph paper and counting the squares

 using a “planimeter” which measures areas traced out by a stylus
 using the mid-ordinate, trapezium or Simpson’s rule etc.
Each of these techniques will require an appropriate scale factor to be applied from the
small indicator card area in mm2 to work done in Joules.
It is often simpler to find the average height of the indicator diagram and use this to find
an average effective pressure which we know as Indicated Mean Effective Pressure (IMEP)
or pmean.
Remember that pmean is the average effective pressure that would generate the same work
output as the varying pressure, if it acted for the whole piston stroke.
IMEP = pmean = ave height of diagram x spring calibration rate

8
p (bar)
Areas equal
pmean
patmospheric
V (m3)
Power produced by the expanding gas:
IP = pmean x stroke length x piston area x no of power producing strokes per second
IP  IMEP  LANn  IMEP  Vs
L = piston stroke length in m

A = piston area in m2
N = engine rev/second
n = number of power producing strokes per rev
The number of power producing strokes per rev depends upon the number of cylinders and
the type of engine cycle: a 2 stroke engine produces power from every cylinder every
revolution but a 4 stroke engine only produces power every other revolution from each
cylinder.
So n = no of cylinders x 1 for a 2 stroke engine
and n = no of cylinders x ½ for a 4 stroke engine
The product of LANn is actually the swept volume of the engine per second which we have
already seen used in volumetric efficiency.

9
Example:
The area of an indicator diagram taken off one cylinder of a four cylinder, four stroke
internal combustion engine is 385 mm2 and the length is 70 mm. The bore of the engine is
250 mm, the stroke is 300 mm and the speed is 300 rev/min.
Calculate each of the following:
a. The mean indicated pressure;

b. The indicated power of the engine assuming all of the cylinders develop
equal power.
Note: The spring constant is 1mm = 1 bar.
We have two types of information in the question:
Engine data: 4 cylinder, 4 stroke, bore = 250 mm, stroke 300 mm, speed 300 rpm
Graph data: Area = 385 mm2, Length 70 mm, Spring constant 1 bar/mm
a. we first need to find the average height of the diagram:
so as area = length x height then ave height = area / length
Ave height = 385/70 = 5.5 mm
Now IMEP = ave height x spring constant = 5.5 mm x 1 bar/mm = 5.5 bar
b. IP  IMEP  LANn
Four stroke n = 4 x ½
  0.252 300 1
IP  5.5  105  0.3    4   81kW
4 60 2
Example:
The crankshaft of a four-stroke, four cylinder internal combustion engine revolves at

25 rev/s. In each of the four cylinders a 76.2mm diameter piston has a stroke length of
165 mm. Calculate the power developed in the cylinders of this engine if the mean
effective pressure is 0.65 MPa.
n=4x½ 4 cylinders Stroke = 0.165 m

N = 25 rev/s Bore = 0.0762 m pmean = 0.55 x 106 N/m2
  0.0762 2 1
IP  pm LANn  0.65  10  0.165 
6
 25  4   24.45kW
4 2
10
Example:
A spring balance reading of 55.2 kg for a dead load of 120 kg was taken during a simple
rope brake test on an engine. The effective diameter of the brake drum was 1.27 m. If
the engine drive shaft revolved at 4 rev/s, calculate the power developed at the shaft.
F = 55.2 x 9.81 = 541.512 N
W = 120 x 9.81 = 1177.2 N
Flywheel r = 1.27  2 = 0.635 m
N = 4 rev/s
Net brake force = W – F

= 1177.2 – 541.512 = 635.688 N
120 kg 55.2 kg
Torque = Force x radius = 635.688 x 0.635= 403.66 Nm
BP = 2NT = 2 x  x 4 x 403.66 = 10145 W
BP = 10.145 kW.
Example:
The following is data from a small four-stroke four cylinder engine:
Bore of cylinder 57.1 mm Stroke length 82.6 mm

Mean effective pressure 0.585 N/mm2 Crankshaft rps 25 rev/s
Calculate:
a. The power developed in each cylinder of the engine.
b. The mechanical efficiency of the engine when the brake power is 5.02 kW.
a. Power Developed in Each Cylinder:
  0.05712 1
IP  IMEP  LANn  0.585  10  0.0826 
6
 25   1.547kW per cylinder
4 2
BP
b. mech 
IP
so we now need to know the total IP for the engine.
Assuming all cylinders produce the same IP, total IP = 4 x 1.547 = 6.188 kW.
BP 5.02
mech   81.14%
IP 6.188

11
Example :
The cylinder bore of a four-stroke, four cylinder engine is 65 mm, stroke length is 89 mm
and the engine works with a mean effective pressure of 0.138 N/mm2 when the drive shaft
revolves at 40 rev/s. The inlet conditions are 1.1 bar and 14C, the air fuel ratio is 14:1
and the engine consumes 2 g/s of fuel.
Calculate EACH of the following:
a. the power developed in the cylinders of the engine

b. the volumetric efficiency
  0.065 2 1
a. IP  IMEP  LANn  0.138  10 6  0.089   40   3.26kW
4 2
induced volume VE VE

b. Volumetric   
swept volume VS VS
We will find VE from the air:fuel ratio, the fuel flow rate and pV = mRT where R for
air is on page 26 of your steam tables book:
m AIR  m f  Air/fuel ratio  2  103  14  0.028kg / s
 m Air RTin 0.028  0.287  103  287

VE    0.021m 3 / s
pin 1.1  10 5
We have already seen that VS  LANn

  0.065 2 1
VS  0.089   40   0.0236 m 3 / s
4 2
V 0.021
VOLUMETRIC  E   0.8884 or 88.84%
VS 0.0236

12
Example:
An internal combustion engine produces 3.5 MW of shaft output power from fuel of
calorific value 42 MJ/kg supplied at a rate of 0.165 kg/s. If the mechanical efficiency of
the engine is 85% calculate:
a. the brake specific fuel consumption.

b. the indicated specific fuel consumption.
c. the brake thermal efficiency.
d. the indicated thermal efficiency.
m f  3600 0.165  3600

a. sfcBRAKE   = 0.17 kg/kWh
bp 3.5  103
bp bp 3.5  106
b.  MECHANICAL   IP   = 4.12 MW
IP  MECHANICAL 0.85
m f  3600 0.165  3600

sfcINDICATED   = 0.144 kg/kWh
Ip 4.2  103
BP 3.5  106
c.  BRAKE THERMAL   = 0.505 or 50.5%
m f CV 0.165  42  106
i.e. 50.5% of the fuel energy is converted into useful output work, i.e. BP
IP 4.12  106
d.  INDICATED THERMAL   = 0.595 or 59.5%
m f CV 0.165  42  106
i.e. 59.5% of the fuel energy is converted into gas expansion work IP, but
only 85% of this finally leaves the engine as BP.

13
Brake MEP:
We have seen that it is useful to define an indicated mean effective pressure IMEP which is
the average pressure which would give the same gas expansion power if it acted for the
whole piston stroke.
It is also useful to define a similar brake mean effective pressure BMEP which is the
average pressure which would give the same brake power if it acted for the whole piston
stroke.
i.e. BP  BMEP  LANn
But we also have BP  2NT , so equating these two equations for BP gives:
BP  2NT  BMEP  LANn
The engine speed N is common to both sides and can be cancelled:
2T  BMEP  LAn
The quantities 2, , L, A and n are all fixed for an engine in operation so:
LAn
T  BMEP  or T  BMEP
2
In words, torque is directly proportional to brake mean effective pressure and

independent of engine speed.
This is true for all piston engines and makes very good sense: it is the pressure in the
cylinder, acting on the piston crown, which generates the piston force and hence the
engine torque. A greater average pressure will mean more torque.
In a petrol engine we control this average pressure by opening or closing the throttle valve
in the inlet system and match the air flow with (virtually) the stoichiometric quantity of
fuel. In a diesel engine we do not throttle the air flow but control the average cylinder
pressure by injecting and burning more or less fuel as necessary.

14
Measuring Engine Performance and Friction Power Losses:
There are four main methods for measuring engine performance and friction loss as
follows:
1. measurement of the IP with an indicator and the BP by a dynamometer as already

described:
Friction power loss = IP - BP
2. Measurement of the BP at a given speed followed by 'motoring' of the engine with

the fuel supply cut off, i.e. driving the dead engine with an external drive motor.
This method can only be used on engines with an electrical dynamometer, with the
dynamometer being used as a drive motor instead of as a generator in order to
motor the engine at the firing speed. The torque can be measured under firing and
under motoring conditions and the mechanical efficiency evaluated.
IP = BP + friction power loss
3. The Morse test: this is only applicable to multi-cylinder engines. In this test the
engine is used as its own drive motor but individual cylinders are turned off in
sequence and the effects measured.
The engine is run at the required speed and the normal output torque is measured.
One cylinder is then cut out, the speed falls because of the loss of power from that
one cylinder, but the speed is restored by reducing the load. The torque is
measured again when the speed has settled at its original value. With one cylinder
cut out its power contribution is lost but the friction losses due to that cylinder
remain the same as when it is firing: by cutting out each cylinder in turn the
friction loss for each cylinder and hence the entire engine can be obtained.
i. Measure BP at chosen speed with all cylinders active

ii. Cut fuel or spark to one cylinder
iii. Restore chosen speed by reducing load
iv. Measure BP: BP = IP for cut cylinder
v. Restore cut cylinder and cut another one
vi. Repeat from iii.
IPtotal = IP = BP Friction power loss = IPtotal - BPtotal

15
4. Willan's line
This method is applicable to all heat engines. At a constant engine speed the load
is adjusted in increments and the corresponding BP and gross fuel consumption
readings are taken. A graph is then drawn of fuel consumption against BP, as
shown below. The graph shown is called the Willan's line and is extrapolated back
to cut the BP axis at the point A.
The reading OA is taken as the friction power loss of the engine at that speed. The
fuel consumption at zero BP is given at point B, i.e. the fuel flow with no load at
the chosen speed.
Fuel flow rate
on
Graph is linear at lower power

levels but begins to curve at very
high engine power outputs after
the engine exceeds its peak
mechanical efficiency.
B
A
O BP
Friction
loss
power Willan’s Line Graph
As before: IP = BP + friction power loss
We can use any of these methods to find IP, BP and friction power loss and hence mechanical
BP
where mech 
IP

16
Example:
In a Morse test on a four-stroke, four cylinder engine of 75 mm bore and 100 mm stroke
with a clearance volume of 0.04 litres per cylinder, the following results were obtained:
All cylinders working Brake power 15.5 kW

Cylinder number 1 cut out Brake Power 10.6 kW
Fuel consumption 4.9 kg/h Calorific Value 44 MJ/kg
Calculate EACH of the following:
a. the indicated power

b. the mechanical efficiency
c. the indicated thermal efficiency
d. the compression ratio
a. Indicated Power:
Cylinder cut out. Power loss

No 1 15.5 – 10.6 = 4.9 kW
No 2 15.5 – 10.5 = 5.0 kW
No 3 15.5 – 10.4 = 5.1 kW
No 4 15.5 – 10.6 = 4.9 kW
Indicated power = 4.9 + 5.0 + 5.1 + 4.9 = 19.9 kW.
b. Mechanical Efficiency:
Brake Power 15.5
Mechanical Efficiency   = 77.89%
IndicatedPower 19.9
c. Indicated Thermal Efficiency:

Indicated Power IP 19.9  103  3600
 INDICATEDTHERMAL    = 33.23%
Heat Supplied m f CV 4.9  44  106

17
d. Compression Ratio:
For a piston in cylinder engine we use the ratio of volumes as the

compression ratio rv = Max volume/Min volume
Total Volume Swept Volume  Clearance Volume

Compression Ratio (rV )  
Clearance Volume Clearance Volume
Swept Volume = Stroke x D2 ÷ 4 = 0.1 x  x 0.0752 ÷ 4 = 4.418 x 10-4 m3
Clearance Volume = 0.04 x 10-3 m3
4
 10 3
Compression Ratio (rV) = 4.418  10  0.04
3
= 12.045:1 = 12:1
0.04  10

18
Heat Energy Balance:
The energy balance is the application of the First Law of Thermodynamics to a running
engine. Of all the heat energy supplied to the engine (by the combustion of fuel), only a
fraction is converted into useful work. We should however be able to account for all the
other energy to satisfy the 1st law:
Energy supply rate: Q IN  m

 f CV which should match the energy output rates)
Energy output rates:
Work rate W  BP  2NT
Heat loss rate to cooling system Q cooling  m

 coolantccoolantTcoolant
Heat loss rate to exhaust flow Q exhaust  m exhaustc p exhaustTexhaust
here the T is from Texhaust back to Tinlet
Heat loss rate to oil cooling system Q oil  m

 oil coil Toil
Energy loss rate to : noise, vibration, unburnt fuel, radiation,

convection. These are very difficult to measure so we tend to
calculate them from the 1st law as the missing energy flow rate.
All the items are included in a heat energy balance and are usually expressed as a
percentage of the energy supplied in the fuel. These percentages can be shown on a pie
chart or on a Sankey diagram:
Exhaust heat
BP
Energy supplied
from fuel
Cooling system heat
Noise, vibration,
unburned fuel,
radiation,
conection, etc.
Oil heat

19
Sankey Diagram

20
Example:
A six cylinder two stroke diesel engine under test gave the following data:
Bore 760 mm Stroke 2180 mm
MEP 800 kPa R.P.M 105
Specific Fuel consumption 0.21 kg/kWh CV of fuel 40 MJ/kg
Brake Torque 600 kNm
Determine: (a) Indicated power

(b) Power developed at brake
(c) Brake thermal efficiency
(d) Heat rejected per min
a. IP  IMEP  LANn
  0.76 2 105
IP  800  10  2.18 
3
  6 = 8.31 MW
4 60
105
b. BP  2NT  2   600  103  6.6MW
60
c. Brake Thermal Efficiency:
3600 3600
 BRAKE THERMAL   = 42.86%
sfc  CV 0.21  10 3  40  106
Or
m f  3600 sfc  BP 0.21 10 3  6.6 106
sfc   m f   = 0.385 kg/s
BP 3600 3600
BP 6.6  106
 BRAKE THERMAL   = 42.86%
m f CV 0.385  40  106
d. From the 1st law, if the brake thermal efficiency is 42.86% then
the remaining 100% - 42.86% = 57.14% of the energy is lost as heat somewhere:
Heat lost per minute = 0.5714  Q in  60  0.5714  m

 f CV  60
Heat lost per minute = 0.5714  0.385  40 106  60  425.4MJ / min

21
Example:
A bed-plate test on a four stroke engine yielded the following results:
Fuel
Cooling water inlet temp 48°C 0.2 litres per min
consumption
Cooling water outlet temp 76°C Brake power 45 kW
Cooling water flow rate 12.8 kg/min Air / fuel ratio 19 kg air/kg of fuel
Ambient temperature 21°C R.P.M 3000
Exhaust temperature 460ºC Fuel density 720 kg/m3
CV of fuel 43MJ/kg s.h.c of water 4.182 kJ/kgK
s.h.c of exhaust 1.015 kJ/kgK
A Morse test on the same engine yielded the following results:
Cylinder cut out Brake power at 3000 rpm

No.1 32.5 kW
No.2 32.2 kW
No.3 32.4 kW
No.4 32.5 kW
(a) Determine the indicated power of the engine

(b) Determine the mechanical efficiency of the engine
(c) Work out the energy balance table in terms of percentage of total energy supplied
a. Indicated Power:
Cylinder cut out. Power
No 1 45 – 32.5 = 12.5 kW
No 2 45 – 32.2 = 12.8 kW
No 3 45 – 32.4 = 12.6 kW
No 4 45 – 32.5 = 12.5 kW
Indicated power = 12.5 + 12.8 + 12.6 + 12.5 = 50.4 kW.
b. Mechanical Efficiency:
Brake Power 45
Mechanical Efficiency   = 89.29%
IndicatedPower 50.4

22
C. Energy Balance Table:
Heat energy rate from fuel Q  m

 f CV
720  0.2  10 3
m f   f V f   2.4  10 3 kg / s
60
Q  m
 f CV  2.4  10 -3  43  10 6 = 103.2 kW
Heat energy rate to cooling water Q water  m

 watercwaterTwater
Q water  12.8  4182  76  48  24.98kW
Heat energy rate to exhaust Q exhaust  m

 exhaustcexhaustTexhaust
 exhaust  m
And m  fuel  19  2.4  10 3  2.4 10 3  0.048kg / s
 air  m
Q exhaust  0.048 1015  460  21  21.3881 kW
Accountable losses:
Brake Power = 45 kW
Cooling Water = 24.98 kW
Exhaust = 21.3881 kW
TOTAL = 91.37 kW
Unaccountable losses = Heat energy supplied – accountable losses
= 103.2 – 91.37 = 11.83 kW
Table of losses as a percentage:
Energy Source Quantity Percentage
Brake Power 45.00 45 x 100 ÷ 103.2 = 43.60%
Cooling Water 24.98 24.98 x 100 ÷ 103.2 = 24.21%
Exhaust 21.39 21.39 x 100 ÷ 103.2 = 20.73%
Others 11.83 11.83 x 100 ÷ 103.2 = 11.46%
TOTAL 103.20 = 100.00%

23
Tutorial Sheet 12: Combustion

Nitrogen 14
Oxygen 16
1. Balance each of the following combustionequations:
a. H2 + O2  H2O
b. CH4 + O2  CO2 + H2O
c. C3H4 + O2  CO2 + H2O
d. C5H12 + O2  CO2 + H2O
e. C7H8 + O2  CO2 + H2O
f. C2H2 + O2  CO2 + H2O
g. C4H6 + O2  CO2 + H2O

dioxide.
(22/3 kg)

water.
(8 kg)

dioxide.
(1 kg)

1
(4.5 kg)
(34.783 kg)
carbon in the fuel.
(3 kg)

(4 kg)

(6.86 kg)
(1.64 kg)
(19.25 kg, 15.75 kg kg)
air supplied.
(6.8 kg)

(20.93%, 16.97%, 14.27%, 12.31%)

2

(15.01% CO2, 5.14% H2O, 0.19% SO2, 6.32% O2, 73.33% N2)
15. Benzene fuel (C6H6) is burnt in a boiler furnace under stoichiometric conditions.
Determine:

(23.54% CO2, 4.82% H2O, 71.64% N2)
(24.73% CO2, 75.27% N2)
(46.936 MJ/kg)
(43.324 MJ/kg)
is burnt?
(426.51 MJ)
calorific values.
(40.2 MJ/kg, 38.442 MJ/kg)
(42.524MJ/kg, 40.766 MJ/kg)
(43.139MJ/kg, 41.161 MJ/kg)

3


(42.78 MJ/kg)



(42.502 MJ/kg)



(43.983 MJ/kg, 41.694 MJ/kg)



(44.25 MJ/kg, 42.0522 MJ/kg)

4
(26.25 kg)
(36.494 MJ/kg)
(68.35ºC)
Determine:

(45.9 MJ/kg, 14.06kg/kg fuel, CO2 15.00%, H2O 5.00%, O2 6.51%, N2 73.33%)
supplying steam to drive a turbine. If the thermal efficiency of the plant is 63%,
(19.2 MW)

supplied.
(43.808 MJ/kg, 14.17 kg/kg fuel, 489 tonnes)

5

(44.148 MJ/kg, 21.435 kg air/kg fuel, 12.72%)
Determine:
(18 kg/s, 84.24%)

(CO2 17.44%, SO2 0.12%, O2 4.65%, N2 77.80%)

i. Rich mixture.

(12.844 kg)
(CO2 11.53%, H2O 5.31%, O2 9.44%, N2 73.72%)

i. Calorific Value.
ii. Lean mixture.

6


(CO2 5.17%, H2O 21.55%, N2 73.28%)


(CO2 14.24%, H2O 5.96%, SO2 0.19%, O2 6.26%, N2 73.35%)

(CO2 15.15%, SO2 0.20%, O2 6.64%, N2 78.00%)

(15.17% CO2, 2.33% H2O, 9.03% O2, 73.47% N2)

7
Tutorial Sheet 12: Combustion - Solutions

Nitrogen 14
Oxygen 16
1. Balance the following equations:
a. H2 + O2  H2O 2H2 + O2  2H2O
b. CH4 + O2  CO2 + H2O CH4 + 2O2  CO2 + 2H2O
c. C3H4 + O2  CO2 + H2O C3H4 + 4O2  3CO2 + 2H2O
d. C5H12 + O2  CO2 + H2O C5H12 + 8O2  5CO2 + 6H2O
e. C7H8 + O2  CO2 + H2O C7H8 + 9O2  7CO2 + 4H2O
f. C2H2 + O2  CO2 + H2O 2C2H2 + 5O2  4CO2 + 2H2O or C2H2 + 2.5O2  2CO2 + H2O
g. C4H6 + O2  CO2 + H2O 2C4H6 + 11O2  8CO2 + 6H2O or C4H6 + 5.5O2  4CO2 + H2O

dioxide.

12 x 1 + 16 x 2  44
12/12 + 32/12  44/12
1 + 22/3  32/3
Therefore 22/3 kg of oxygen are required to completely burn 1 kg of carbon.

1
water.

4x1 + 16 x 2  36
4/4 + 32/4  36/4
1 + 8  9
Therefore 8 kg of oxygen are required to completely burn 1 kg of hydrogen.

dioxide.
S + O2  SO2 True balanced.

32 x 1 + 16 x 2  64
32/32 + 32/32  64/32
1 + 1  2
Therefore 1 kg of oxygen is required to completely burn 1 kg of sulphur.

4x1 + 16 x 2  36
4/4 + 32/4  36/4
1 + 8  9
Therefore 0.5 kg of hydrogen produces 9 x 0.5 = 4.5 kg of water.

12 x 1 + 16 x 2  44
12/12 + 32/12  44/12
1 + 223  323
Therefore 3 kg of carbon require 3 x 223 = 8 kg of oxygen.
Quantity of air required to supply 8 kg of oxygen = 8 x 100 ÷ 23 = 34.783 kg.

2
carbon in the fuel.
Mass of carbon = mass of carbon dioxide ÷ 32/3 = 11 ÷ 32/3 = 3 kg.


1 x 12 + 4 x 1 + 2 x 16 x 2  44 + 36
16 + 64  44 + 36
16/16 + 64/16  44/16 + 36/16
1 + 4  2¾ + 2¼
Therefore 4 kg of oxygen are required to burn 1 kg of methane.


2 x 12 + 4 x 1 + 3 x 16 x 2  88 + 36
28 + 96  88 + 36
28/28 + 96/28  88/28 + 36/28
1 + 3.43  3.14 + 1.29
Therefore 2 x 3.43 kg = 6.86 kg of oxygen are required to burn 2 kg of ethylene.

3 x 12 + 8 x 1 + 5 x 16 x 2  3 x 44 + 4 x 18
44 + 160  132 + 72
44/44 + 160/44  132/44 + 72/44
1 + 3.64  3 + 1.64
Therefore 1.64 kg of water is produced by each kg of propane burnt.

1 x 12 + 4 x 1 + 2 x 16 x 2  44 + 36
16 + 64  44 + 36
16/16 + 64/16  44/16 + 36/16
1 + 4  2¾ + 2¼
1 kg of methane produces 2¾ kg of carbon dioxide and 2¼ kg of water.

3
Therefore 7 kg of methane will produce 7 x 2¾ = 19.25 kg of carbon dioxide
and 7 x 2¼ = 15.75 kg of water.
air supplied.

7 x 12 + 8 x 1 + 9 x 16 x 2  7 x 44 + 4 x 18
92 + 288  308 + 72
92/92 + 288/92  308/92 + 72/92
1 + 3.13  3.36 + 0.78
1 kg of Toluene requires 3.13 kg of oxygen.
Therefore 0.25 kg of Toluene requires 0.25 x 3.13 = 0.783 kg of oxygen.
Mass of air required = mass of oxygen x 100 ÷ 23 = 0.783 x 100 ÷ 23 = 3.4 kg.
Actual quantity of air = 3.4 x 2 = 6.8 kg.

0.855 carbon 0.119 hydrogen 0.016 oxygen 0.01 Ash.
100  8  0.016  
23  3  8 
11
M ass of CO 2 /kg fuel   0.855  3.135 kg
3
i. For stoichiometric mixture exhaust mass = 13.98 + 1 = 14.98 kg/kg fuel
3.135
%CO2   100 %  20.93%
14.98
ii. For 25% excess air exhaust mass = 1.25 x 13.98 + 1 = 18.475 kg/kg fuel
3.135
%CO2   100 %  16.97%
18.475
iii. For 50% excess air exhaust mass = 1.5 x 13.98 + 1 = 21.97 kg/kg fuel
3.135
%CO2   100 %  14.27%
21.97

4
iv. For 75% excess air exhaust mass = 1.75 x 13.98 + 1 = 25.465 kg/kg fuel
3.135
%CO2   100 %  12.31%
25.465

(15.01% CO2, 5.14% H2O, 0.19% SO2, 6.32% O2, 73.33% N2)
0.86 carbon 0.12 hydrogen 0.02 sulphur
100  8 
i. Air/Fuel     0.86  8  0.12  1  0.02   14.23 kg air/kg fuel
23  3 
Total air = 20 kg/kg fuel. Excess air = 20 - 14.23 = 5.77 kg air/kg fuel
Gas Mass kg/kg fuel % wet mass analysis

CO2 323 x 0.86 = 3.153 (3.153  21) x 100% = 15.01%
H2O 9 x 0.12 = 1.08 (1.08  21) x 100% = 5.14%
SO2 2 x 0.02 = 0.04 (0.04  21) x 100% = 0.19%
O2 0.23 x 5.77 = 1.3271 (1.3271  21) x 100% = 6.32%
N2 0.77 x 20 = 15.4 (15.4  21) x 100% = 73.33%
Total 21.00 kg 100%
15. Benzene fuel C6H6 is burnt in a boiler furnace under stoichiometric conditions of
combustion. Determine:

(23.54% CO2, 4.82% H2O, 71.64% N2)
(24.73% CO2, 75.27% N2)
C6H6 Relative Molecular Weight = 6 x 12 + 6 x 1 = 78
6  12 6 1
%C   100 %  92.3% %H   7.7%
78 78
0.923 carbon 0.077 hydrogen
100  8 
i. Air/Fuel     0.923  8  0.077   13.38 kg air/kg fuel
23  3 

5
ii.
CO2 32/3 x 0.923 = 3.384 (3.384  14.377) x 100% = 23.54%
H2O 9 x 0.077 = 0.693 (0.693  14.377) x 100% = 4.82%
N2 0.77 x 13.38 = 10.3 (10.3  14.377) x 100% = 71.64%
Total 14.377 kg/kg fuel 100%
iii.
CO2 32/3 x 0.923 = 3.384 (3.384  13.684) x 100% = 24.73%
N2 0.77 x 13.38 = 10.3 (10.3  13.684) x 100% = 75.27%
Total 13.684 kg / kg fuel 100%


is burnt?

From the hydrogen = 0.09 x 144 = 12.960 M/kg of fuel
Therefore 10 kg of fuel releases 10 x 42.651 = 426.51 MJ of heat energy.

6
calorific values.

HCV = 33.7C + 144(H – ⅛O)) + 9.3S MJ/kg
HCV = 33.7 x 0.92 + 144(0.08 – ⅛O)) + 9.3S = 42.524MJ/kg
HCV = 33.7C + 144(H – ⅛O)) + 9.3S MJ/kg
HCV = 33.7 x 0.89 + 144(0.08 – ⅛O)) + 9.3 x 0.02 = 43.139MJ/kg
Energy to keep water as steam = 0.09 x 9 x 2.442 = 1.978 kJ/kg

7



HCV = mcΔT ÷ mf = (2 + 0.45) x 4.2 x 103 x 2.85 ÷ (0.69 x 10-3) = 42.502 MJ/kg


Calculate the Higher and Lower calorific value of the fuel.

8
And QFuel = mfCV where mf = mass of fuel and CV is higher calorific value of fuel.



9
QWater = QFuel mcΔT = mfCV
Hence mf = mcΔT ÷ HCV = 5000 x 4.2 x 103 x (65 – 20) ÷ 36 x 106 = 26.25 kg
If 18% is lost then only 82% of the heat released by the fuel is absorbed by the
water.
CV = mwcΔT / (0.82 x mf) = 3500 x 4200 x (77-20) / (0.82 x 28) = 36.494 MJ/kg
A total of 20% of the heat released by the fuel is lost, so only 80% is transferred to
the water.
ΔT = 0.8 x mf CV / (mwc) = 0.8 x 25 x 36.5 x 106 / (3750 x 4200) = 46.35ºC
Final water temperature = Initial water temperature + ΔT = 22 + 46.35 = 68.35ºC

10
Determine:

Calorific Value
HCV = 33.7C + 144(H – ⅛O)) + 9.3S MJ/kg
HCV = 33.7 x 0.86 + 144(0.12 - ⅛ x 0.02)) = 45.9 MJ/kg
100  8  O   100  8 
Stoichiome tric air   C  8 H 2  2      0.86  8  0.1175
23  3  8   23  3 

100
2.2933  0.94  14.06 kg of air/kg of fuel.
23
Exhaust gas mass analysis:
Per kg of fuel burnt mass of gases in the products of combustion from

20 kg of air + 1 kg of fuel = 21 kg
Mass of Oxygen in 20 kg of air = 0.23 x 20 = 4.6 kg

Surplus Oxygen = 4.6 – 3.233 = 1.367 kg
Mass of Nitrogen in 20 kg of air = 0.77 x 20 = 15.4 kg
CO2 produced by combustion = 32/3 x 0.86 = 3.153 kg
H2O produced by combustion = 9 x 0.12 = 1.08 kg
Total mass of exhaust gases per kg of fuel = 21 kg/kg of fuel
% composition of exhaust gases by mass
CO2 3.153  21 = 0.15 = 15.00%

H2O 1.08  21 = 0.05 = 5.00%
O2 1.367  21 = 0.0651 = 6.51%
N2 15.4  21 = 0.733 = 73.33%

11
supplying steam to drive a turbine. If the thermal efficiency of the plant is 63%
W NET
 TH  W NET  Q IN   TH Q IN  m
 f CV   BOILER
QIN
3.5  10 3  37.8  10 6  0.83

 W NET   0.63  19.2 M W
3600

supplied.
0.84 carbon 0.13 hydrogen 0.02 oxygen 0.01 Ash
i.
 O  0.02 
HCV  33.7C  144 H    9.3S  33.7  0.84  144   0.13  
 8  8 
HCV  28.308  144  0.1275  28.308  18.36  46.668 MJ/kg
enthalpy loss to vapour  9  2.442  0.13  2.86 MJ/kg

 LCV  46.668  2.86  43.808 MJ/kg
ii.
kgair 100  8  O 
kgfuel    C  8  H    S 
23  3  8 
kgair 100  8  0.02  
kgfuel     0. 84  8   0. 13     14.17 kg / kgfuel
23  3  8 
iii.
Actual air/kg fuel = 14.17 + 1.3 x 14.17 = 32.6 kg air/kg fuel
Air for 15 tonnes of fuel = 15000 x 32.6 = 489000 kg or 489 tonnes.


12
0.85 C 0.13 H 0.02 O 50% Excess air T1 = 31C T2 = 280C
i.
 O  0.02 
HCV  33.7C  144  H    9.3S  33.7  0.85  144  0.13    47.005 MJ/kg
 8  8 
LCV = 47.005 – 9 x 2.442 x 0.13 = 44.148 MJ/kg
ii.
100  8  0.02  
23  3  8 
Total air = 14.29 + 7.145 = 21.435 kg air/kg fuel.
iii. Heat in exhaust = mEXcEXT = (21.435 + 1) x 1005 x (280 – 31) = 5.614 x 106 J/kg fuel
Heat supplied = 44.148 x 106 J/kg fuel (mfCV)
5.614  10 6
% exhaust heat loss   0.1272  12.72%
44.148  10 6
Determine:
a.
100  8 
Stoichiometric air required =    0.8276  8  0.1724   15.59 kg/kg fuel
23  3 
Actual air required = 15.59 + 0.65 x 15.59 = 25.73 kg/kg fuel
Mass flow rate of air required = 0.7 x 25.73 = 18 kg/s

13
b.
Q IN W 15  10 6
 BOILER  Q IN  NET   28.85 MW  f  0.7kg / s
m
m
 f CV TH 0.52
HCV = 33.7 x 0.8276 + 144 x 0.1724 = 52.716 MJ/kg
Enthalpy loss = 9 x 2.442 x 0.1724 = 3.789 MJ/kg
LCV = 52.716 – 3.789 = 48.927 MJ/kg
28.85  10 6
 BOILER   0.8424 or 84.24%
0.7  48.927  10 6

(CO2 17.44%, SO2 0.12%, O2 4.65%, N2 77.80%)
i. Rich mixture.
100  8  O 
a.i. Stoichiometric Air/Fuel =   C  8 H    S 
23  3  8 
100  8  0.03  
Stoichiometric Air/Fuel =    0.82  8   0.13    1  0.01
23  3  8  
Stoichiometric Air/Fuel = 13.94 kg air/kg fuel.
Air supplied = 1.25 x 13.94 x 15 = 261.4 kg
a.ii.
Mass of CO2 = 0.82 x 11/3 = 3.007 kg
Mass of SO2 = 0.01 x 2 = 0.02 kg
Mass of O2 = 0.23 x 13.94 x 0.25 = 0.802 kg
Mass of N2 = 0.77 x 13.94 x 1.25 = 13.417 kg
Total mass of dry exhaust gases = 17.246 kg

14
% by mass:
Exhaust Gas mass % mass
CO2 3.007 (3.007  17.246) x 100% = 17.44
SO2 0.02 (0.02  17.246) x 100% = 0.12
O2 0.802 (0.802  17.246) x 100% = 4.65
N2 13.417 (13.417  17.246) x 100% = 77.80
Total = 17.246 kg per kg fuel 100%

(12.844 kg)
(CO2 11.53%, H2O 5.31%, O2 9.44%, N2 73.72%)

i. Calorific Value.
ii. Lean mixture.
C8H17OH Total RMM of fuel = 8 x 12 + 17 x 1 + 16 x 1 + 1 x 1 = 130
Fuel mass analysis:
96 18
Carbon  0.7385 Hydrogen  0.1385 Oxygen
130 130
16
 0.1231
130
100  8  0.1231  
i. Stoichiometric Air/kg fuel     0.7385  8 0.1385    = 12.844 kg/kg fuel
23  3  8 
ii. Stoichiometric air/fuel ratio = 12.844:1
iii. Mass analysis of exhaust:
CO2 = 11
3  0.7385 = 2.708 kg
H2O = 9 x 0.1385 = 1.247 kg
O2 = 12.844 x 0.75 x 0.23 = 2.216 kg
N2 = 12.844 x 1.75 x 0.77 = 17.307 kg
Total = 23.478 kg/kg fuel
% mass analysis:
CO2 = (2.708  23.478) x 100% = 11.53%

H2O = (1.247  23.478) x 100% = 5.31%

15
O2 = (2.216  23.478) x 100% = 9.44%
N2 = (17.307  23.478)x 100% = 73.72%


(CO2 5.17%, H2O 21.55%, N2 73.28%)
i. Mass analysis for methane CH4 Total RMM = 1 x 12 + 4 x 1 = 16

12 4
Carbon =  0.75 = 75% Hydrogen =  0.25 = 25%
16 16
Mass analysis for Carbon monoxide CO Total RMM = 1 x 12 + 1 x 16 = 28
12 16
Carbon =  0.4286 = 42.86% Oxygen =  0.5714 = 57.14%
28 28
Composition of the fuel:
Carbon = 0.15 x 0.75 + 0.2 x 0.4286 = 0.19822

Hydrogen = 0.15 x 0.25 + 0.3 = 0.3375
Oxygen = 0.2 x 0.5714 + 0.1 = 0.21428
Nitrogen = 0.25
100  8  0.21428  
Stoichiometric air =    0.19822  8   0.3375    = 13.11 kg/kg fuel
23  3  8 
ii. Mass analysis of exhaust gases.
11
CO2 =  0.19822 = 0.73 kg, H2O = 9 x 0.3375 = 3.04 kg,
3
N2 = 0.77 x 13.11 + 0.25 = 10.34 kg
mass % analysis of exhaust gases:
Exhaust Gas m % mass

CO2 0.73 (0.73  14.11) x 100% = 5.17%
H2O 3.04 (3.04  14.11) x 100% = 21.55%
N2 10.34 (10.34  14.11) x 100% = 73.28%
Total 14.11kg 100%

16

(CO2 14.24%, H2O 5.96%, SO2 0.19%, O2 6.26%, N2 73.35%)

(CO2 15.15%, SO2 0.20%, O2 6.64%, N2 78.00%)
 0.02 
a.i. HCV = 33.7 x 0.82 + 144 x  0.14   + 9.3 x 0.02 = 47.62 MJ/kg
 8 
LCV = 47.62 – (9 x 2.442 x 0.14) = 44.54 MJ/kg
a.ii.
100  8  0.02  
Stoichiometric air =    0.82  8   0.14    1  0.02  = 14.38 kg/kg fuel
23  3  8  
Actual air = 1.4 x 14.38 x 10 = 201.3 kg
b.
11
CO2 =  0.82 = 3.01 kg SO2 = 2 x 0.02 = 0.04 kg
3
H2O = 9 x 0.14 = 1.26 kg O2 = 0.23 x 0.4 x 14.38 = 1.32 kg
N2 = 0.77 x 1.4 x 14.38 = 15.50 kg
Total mass of exhaust gases = 3.01 + 0.04 + 1.26 + 1.32 + 15.5 = 21.13 kg
3.01 0.04
%CO2 =  100 % = 14.25% %SO2 =  100 % = 0.19%
21 .13 21.13
1.26 1.32
%H2O =  100 % = 5.96% %O2 =  100 % = 6.25%
21.13 21.13
15.5
%N2 =  100 % = 73.36%
21.13
c. mass analysis of dry gases:
Gas m % mass
CO2 3.01 (3.01  19.87) x 100% = 15.15%
SO2 0.04 (0.04  19.87) x 100% = 0.20%
O2 1.32 (1.32  19.87) x 100% = 6.64%
N2 15.5 (15.5  19.87) x 100% = 78.00%
Total 19.87 kg 100%

17

(15.17% CO2, 2.33% H2O, 9.03% O2, 73.47% N2)
100  8  0.04  
a. stoichiometric air =    0.8  8   0.05    = 10.84 kg
23  3  8 
b. Actual air = 1.7 x 10.84 = 18.43 kg
c. Mass analysis:
11
CO2 =  0.8 = 2.93 kg H2O = 9 x 0.05 = 0.45 kg
3
O2 = 0.23 x 0.7 x 10.84 = 1.745 kg N2 = 0.77 x 18.43 = 14.19 kg
Total mass of exhaust gases = 2.93 + 0.45 + 1.745 + 14.19 = 19.315 kg/kg fuel
2.93 0.45
%CO2 =  100 % = 15.17% %H2O =  100 % = 2.33%
19 .315 19.315
1.745 14.19
%O2 =  100 % = 9.03% %N2 =  100 % = 73.47%
19.315 19.315

18

EOOW Self Study Guide GES B Version 1.0

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General Engineering Science B

1. Thermal Expansion and Heat Transfer

Warsash Maritime School

1. Thermal Expansion and Heat Transfer

System International Units

Engineering Prefixes and Notations

The following table provides this information.

Prefix Notation Number

µ micro 10-6 0.000 001

m mili 10-3 0.001

k kilo 103 1000

M mega 106 1000 000

G giga 109 1000 000 000

Table 1: Engineering Prefix and Notation

Example 1: Convert 12 kilometres to metres

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

Example 2: Convert 50 MJ to Joules

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

The change in size of a component will depend only upon:

 The original size.

where (approximately)  = 2 and  = 3

such that: ,  and  all have the unit 1/K or 1/oC

i.e. it is the fractional change in size per unit change in temperature.

MAE405/MEN404 General Engineering Science – self-study notes v1, October 2019, TB

L = LT L = 12 x 14 x 10-6 x (10 – 70) = -0.01008 m

New length = Original length + L = 12 + -0.01008 = 11.98992 m.

A = AT = A x 2 x  x T = 50 x 103 x 15 x 2 x 12 x 10-6 x (35 -–15) = 900 m2.

A block of cast iron measures 24 mm by 15 mm by 10 mm when placed in melting ice.

V = VT = V x 3 x  x T = 24 x 15 x 10 x 3 x 10 x 10-6 x (100 – 0) = 10.8 mm3

New volume = Original Volume + V = 24 x 15 x 10 + 10.8 = 3610.8 mm3.

MAE405/MEN404 General Engineering Science – self-study notes v1, October 2019, TB

Heat energy can be transferred by conduction, convection and/or radiation

Different materials will absorb energy at different rates.

Definitions of Heat Energy Transfer Mechanisms:

Convection is heat energy transferred by the movement of hot parts of a liquid or a

Temperature and Heat Energy Transfer

 the mass of the body (m)

Heat energy transferred = mass x specific heat capacity x temperature change in K

Quantity of heat energy (Q) = m x c x T (Joules)

The specific heat capacity (c) of a material is defined as:

The quantity of energy required to raise the

MAE405/MEN404 General Engineering Science – self-study notes v1, October 2019, TB

Q = 800 x 4.2 x 103 x (80 – 20)

Heat energy transferred = Q = mcT

Q = 2 x 0.39 x 103 x (200 – 180)K

Now consider a hot metal bar being immersed in cold water:

Under ideal conditions:

MAE405/MEN404 General Engineering Science – self-study notes v1, October 2019, TB

Heat lost by bar = Heat gained by water

20 x 0.89 x (220 – 23) = m x 4.2 x (23 – 15)

A bar of copper of mass 2 kg is heated to 300oC. It is then quenched in a tank containing

Let the resultant temperature of the copper and water = t in oC

Heat lost by copper = Heat gained by water

2 x 0.4 x (300 – t) = 20 x 4.2 x (t-15)

0.8 (300 – t) = 84 (t – 15)

240 – 0.8t = 84t – 1260

240 + 1260 = 84t + 0.8t

Notice in this type of question we need each bracket term to be:

(the high temperature – the low temperature)

MAE405/MEN404 General Engineering Science – self-study notes v1, October 2019, TB

Heat energy released by fuel = Heat gained by water

mass of fuel burned x heat released in combustion of 1 kg = mcT