Operators (Text 5.

6)

In quantum mechanics, different from classical mechanics, we do not

know exactly how momentum (p) depends on position (x) because of
uncertainty principle. In other words, the function p(x) does not exist and
we cannot use the expectation value equation to calculate <p>.
∞
< p > = ∫ |ψ (x) |2 p(x) dx
-∞

But what is p(x)?

Hint to solve this problem comes from the observation:
For plane wave, Ψ(x,t)= Aei(kx-ωt) = Aei(px-Et)/h
∂
- ih Ψ = pΨ ∴One way to introduce p
∂x
(or E) in the calculation of
∂
and ih Ψ = EΨ expectation value is to do
∂t partial derivative!
 Operators (Text 5.6)

Here is how it should be done:

∞
⎛ ∂ ⎞
<p>= ∫ Ψ * ⎜ - ih ⎟ Ψdx
-∞ ⎝ ∂x ⎠
∞
⎛ ∂⎞
< E >= ∫
-∞
Ψ * ⎜ ih ⎟ Ψdx
⎝ ∂t ⎠
∂
- ih is called the momentumoperator
∂x
∂
and ih is the total energy operator
∂t
 Operators (Text 5.6)

Example. Find <p> for wave function ψ ( x) = Ae-x / a 2 + ik 0 x

2

∞ ∞
⎛ ∂ ⎞ ⎛ ∂ ⎞
< p > = ∫ ψ * ⎜ - ih ⎟ψ dx = ∫ ψ * ⎜ - ih ⎟ (Ae- x 2 / a 2 +ik 0 x
)dx
-∞ ⎝ ∂x ⎠ -∞ ⎝ ∂x ⎠
∞
2x
= ∫ ψ * (-ih) (Ae - x 2 / a 2 +ik 0 x
)(- 2
+ ik 0 )dx
-∞
a
∞
2x
= ∫ ψ *ψ (ih 2 + hk 0 )dx
-∞
a
∞ ∞
2ih
= 2
a ∫ ψ *ψ xdx
-∞
+ hk 0 ∫ ψ *ψ dx
-∞
142
4 43
4 14243
=0 becauseψ *ψ x is odd =1 becauseψ is normalized

= hk 0
 Operators (Text 5.6)

1. An operator is formed by functions and derivatives of x. It acts on a wave

function to produce another function.
2. All physical quantities (like position, momentum, kinetic energy,
angular momentum etc.) have their corresponding operators. If G is
the operator of a physical quantity G, <G> can be calculated as
∞
< G > = ∫ Ψ * Ĝ Ψdx
-∞

3. For any observable physical quantity G, expectation value <G> has to

be real for all admissible wave functions.
4. Operators do not commute:
ÂB̂ ≠ B̂Â
 Operators (Text 5.6)
More operators.
Kinetic energy operator:
In classicalmechanics:
p2
KE =
2m
In quantum mechanics:
∂ ⎞
2
⎛
⎜ - ih ⎟
p̂ 2 ⎝ ∂x ⎠ h2 ∂2
KE = = =-
2m 2m 2m ∂x 2

Position operator: x̂ = x (just the function)

)
Potential energy operator: U = U(x) (just the function)
 Operators (Text 5.6)
Example.

For wave function ψ (x)

⎛ ∂ ⎞ ∂ψ
x̂ p̂ ψ (x) = x ⎜ - ih ⎟ψ (x) = - ih x
⎝ ∂x ⎠ ∂x

⎛ ∂ ⎞
p̂ x̂ ψ (x) = ⎜ - ih ⎟ xψ (x)
⎝ ∂x ⎠
∂ ∂
= - ihψ (x) x - ih x ψ (x)
∂x 14 ∂x44
42 3
= x̂ p̂ ψ (x)

= - ihψ (x) + x̂ p̂ ψ (x)

∴ p̂ x̂ = - ih + x̂ p̂ ⇒ x̂ p̂ - p̂ x̂ = ih (i.e. x̂ p̂ ≠ p̂ x̂ )
 Schrödinger equation (Text 5.3)
In classical mechanics, conservation of energy :
p2
E = KE + PE = + U( x)
2m
In quantum mechanics, in operator form :
p̂ 2
Ĥ = + U(x, t)
2m
∂ h2 ∂2
⇒ ih =- + U(x, t)
∂t 2m ∂x 2

Apply these operators to the wave function, we get the Schrödinger equation:

∂ h2 ∂2
ih Ψ(x, t) = - Ψ(x, t) + U(x, t)Ψ(x, t)
∂t 2m ∂x 2
 Schrödinger equation (Text 5.3)
Example. In free space, U(x,t)=0 and the Schrödinger equation becomes

∂ h2 ∂2
ih Ψ (x, t) = - Ψ (x, t)
∂t 2m ∂x 2

Plane wave Ψ(x,t) = Aei(kx-ωt) is a solution of this equation:

Ψ (x, t) = Aei(kx -ωt)
∂ ∂
ih Ψ (x, t) = ih Aei(kx -ωt) = hωAei(kx -ωt)
∂t ∂t
h2 ∂2 h2 ∂2
- Ψ (x, t) = - Aei(kx -ωt)
2m ∂x 2
2m ∂x 2

ikh 2 ∂
=- Aei(kx -ωt)
2m ∂x
h 2 k 2 i(kx -ωt)
= Ae
2m
i(kx -ωt) h 2k 2 Dispersion relation for
∴ Ae is a solution if = hω
2m “free particle”