Biol 328 Fall 2018 Lab Manual Part 1 (Labs 1-9)

Human Anatomy
Laboratory Exercises
Vesalius 1543
Eleventh Edition
2015 – Revised by Gloria Nusse
with illustrations by students:

Joan Chen - Lab 1
Nhan Hein Dinh – Lab 2
Nadia Noelle Nguyen – Lab 5
Stanley C. Williams
Professor of Biology
San Francisco State University
Copyright © 2015 by Stanley C. Williams

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Contents
Introduction to the Laboratory ...... 5
Laboratory 1. Axial Skeleton: Vertebral column and rib cage ...... 7
Laboratory 2. Axial Skeleton: Skull ...... 23
Laboratory 3. Superior appendicular skeleton ...... 41
Laboratory 4. Inferior appendicular skeleton ...... 57
Laboratory 5. Integumentary system ...... 71
Laboratory 6. Muscles of chest, shoulder, and brachium ...... 75
Laboratory 7. Muscles of forearm, wrist and hand ...... 87
Laboratory 8. Muscles of hip, thigh and abdomen ...... 93
Laboratory 9. Muscles of leg, ankle and foot ...... 104
Laboratory 10. Celom and digestive system ...... 109
Laboratory 11. Cardiovascular system ...... 123
Laboratory 12. Respiratory system ...... 137
Laboratory 13. Nervous system: Brain, spinal cord and nerves ...... 147
Laboratory 14. Urogenital systems ...... 163
Laboratory 15. Laboratory Final Exam ….. 181
References ...... 185
Appendix
1. Laboratory procedures and safety considerations ...... 187
2. Working with cadavers and other anatomical specimens ...... 191
3. Muscles to dissect and learn in the laboratory ...... 193
4. Midsemester course critique ...... 197
5. How to study for the laboratory ...... 199
6. Supplies needed for laboratory study …..201
7. Answer keys to self tests …..203
8. Surface Anatomy of the human body ….. 205
9. Safety plan for Human Anatomy Program ….. 209
10. Laboratory quiz sheets ...... 215
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INTRODUCTION TO THE LABORATORY
Humans have a long history of curiosity about the structure and functioning of the human body. History
is filled with colorful accounts of attempts to understand our form-functional relationships, the meaning
of life, the basis and origin of life, and the contrasts among healthy functioning, disease, pathology, and
death. The main purpose of the laboratory experience in a human anatomy class is to provide the
opportunity to experience the structure of the human body first hand. During the laboratory you will learn
anatomical relationships by dissection of embalmed cadavers and cats. You will also have the
opportunity to study skeletal collections, and a variety of exhibits designed to enhance your understanding
of anatomy.
Many students and associates have significantly contributed to the development of our anatomy
instructional program, and to this laboratory manual. Their continual comments, suggestions and
contributions are greatly appreciated. Thanks to Orit Gal and Erin Williams for constructive comments
and help with editing revisions. Thanks to Rebecca Siedner and William Gallegos for contributing many
illustrations, and for constructive comments. Thanks to Jett Chinn for years of support in developing and
delivering our program of laboratory instruction. Finally thanks to the following colleagues for
stimulating my thinking on the importance and methodology for anatomical investigation and instruction:
James E. Crouch (San Diego State University), Jeff Johnston (U.S. Air Force Academy), Claude J.
Coppenger (San Francisco State University). Lawrence Swan (San Francisco State University), and J.
Russell Gabel (San Francisco State University).
VALUES OF THE LABORATORY

Through dissection and examination of real specimens you will experience anatomical adaptations and
relationships that cannot be revealed by models, drawings or photographs. One should begin with the
realization that it is important to learn the architectural strategy of the body, and that this can best be
accomplished by the direct study of the human. There are secondary values of the laboratory experience
as well such as: 1. Improving language skills, 2. Improving memory for important detail, 3. Learning
terminology of value professionally, clinically, or personally, 4. Improving manual dexterity through
dissection and examination of specimens, 5. Learning how to care for and maintain anatomical
specimens, 6. Learning to distinguish between normal anatomy and common conditions of pathology, and
7. Learning the anatomical basis of physical conditioning and pathology.
I am convinced that the laboratory is the most important educational activity that you will encounter in an
anatomy course. The laboratory is a precious resource that needs to be taken seriously. How well you
learn in the laboratory is highly correlated with how well you will do in the anatomy course as a whole .
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OBJECTIVES
The objectives of the Anatomy Laboratory are to study anatomical structures and relationships using the
various resources available. Ordinarily you will concentrate on the study of human materials such as skeletal
collections, cadavers, special exhibits, models and charts. However, you will also study embalmed cats, and
embalmed mammalian organs to more clearly understand anatomical structure and relationships. Every unit
of instruction identifies specific learning objectives. Students should make sure that these objectives have
been effectively accomplished through their laboratory investigations and studies.
RESOURCES
In the laboratory we normally will have four or five embalmed human cadavers for study. In addition,
embalmed cats will be available for comparative study. Fairly complete skeletal collections are available
for study. Special anatomical preparations, models, and other exhibits will be available as appropriate.
The laboratory is equipped with histological slides and microscopes and laboratory instructors will make
these available as needed or requested.
HOW TO USE THIS STUDY GUIDE

The main purpose of this laboratory manual is to provide a guideline for the depth and breadth of
laboratory study. Most texts and laboratory manuals go into more depth than is practical to cover in a
one-semester course. This manual will give guidance for setting priorities for structures to study and
learn. It should also serve as an effective way to review. Each lab session contains an explicit set of
learning objectives that should be used to direct and guide your learning activities.
LANGUAGE
Human anatomy is a mature science that is based on centuries of study. Early anatomists communicated
with each other, and published their findings in the classic languages of their day. This has resulted in a
rich terminology deeply rooted in Latin and Greek. This makes the study of anatomy easy if you have
language skills based in these languages, but makes it a greater challenge when these language skills are
weak. In any case, it is highly advisable to study and learn commonly used prefixes, suffixes, and word
roots. They are used repeatedly, and their understanding can simplify your study of anatomy.
SAFETY
In the laboratory you will be studying specimens that have been preserved or embalmed. You will also be
working with very sharp scalpels. It is advisable to read and follow the safety guidelines outlined in the
appendix.
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Lab 1. Axial Skeleton: Vertebral column and rib cage
LABORATORY 1
AXIAL SKELETON: VERTEBRAL COLUMN
AND RIB CAGE
The axial skeleton is composed of the skull, vertebral column and rib cage. The vertebral column is made up
of a series of about 32 vertebrae. These develop along the midline of the back and provide support for the
attachment of the appendicular skeleton, support for posture (bipedal posture in humans), and protection of a
number of soft organs including the central nervous system, heart and lungs. Before birth, the vertebrae have
a simple, flexed configuration, called the primary or fetal arch. During postnatal development, two
secondary arches develop, resulting in a series of four arches that facilitate bipedal posture. Through the
developmental process, the vertebrae in each of these arches become specialized structurally and
functionally, and can be readily identified. Vertebrae are classified as irregular bones because of their
structural uniqueness and complexity, and are numbered consecutively from superior to inferior. Each has a
conspicuous vertebral foramen that protects the spinal cord, a series of distinctive bony processes that
support the attachment of muscles and ligaments, and several articular surfaces. The rib cage is composed of
a sternum, a series of 12 pairs of ribs, and the costal cartilages. The sternum develops from a segmented
series of ossicles that ultimately become fused into a single bone with three distinct regions in the adult. The
ribs develop into a series of 12 pairs of elongate, "flat bones" that have important functions in breathing, in
protecting the thoracic viscera, supporting the sternum, and serving as an important muscle attachment
surface. Understanding the structure of the vertebral column is important to the understanding of the
evolution of upright posture -- a striking human characteristic. A good understanding of the spinal column is
also important for the understanding of many clinical concerns such as slipped discs and scoliosis, pinched
nerves, etc. Because of the size of modern humans and the design of the spinal column we often experience
problems with the spinal column and its articulations. In this laboratory we will examine the structure of
vertebrae, the spinal curvatures, and the rib cage. You will also be introduced to several important kinds of
articulations, e.g., symphysis and gliding synovial joints, and the important movements they support.
OBJECTIVES
❑ Learn the structure, functions and articulations of the axial skeleton (excluding the skull).
❑ Study articulated and disarticulated vertebrae, ribs, and sterna.
❑ Compare homologous structures on cat and chicken skeletons and note similarities and differences
compared to the human.
❑ Compare the axial skeletons of various primates and other vertebrate animals on exhibit.
❑ Visualize the changes in the skeleton that facilitated the gradual evolution to upright posture and
bipedal locomotion.
❑ Practice and predict common terms for describing anatomical structures and bone markings.
❑ Use anatomical terms of direction and placement.
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METHODS
Study the skeletons, and disarticulated bones available, learning the names of the bones, how to recognize
them, and the various structures and the osteological landmarks indicated below. Study the models, charts
and exhibits available in the laboratory. The skeletal materials you will be studying are, for the most part,
real human bones. Most of these bones are fragile, difficult to repair and not replaceable. For this reason
you are requested to have clean hands when handling these specimens, and to never use pens or pencils as
pointers. Wooden pointers will be provided for your use. In your study please handle all specimens with
great care, and carefully put them away after your study.
GREEK & LATIN ORIGINS OF WORDS USED WITH THE AXIAL SKELETON
Table 1.1. Words commonly used in the study of the axial skeleton.
Word Definition Example

ala L. wing ala of sacrum
atlas G. god who held up heaven atlas vertebra
axis L. an axle, axis axis vertebra)
chord G. a string spinal chord
coccyx G. a cuckoo the coccyx bone
costa L. rib costal cartilages
kyphos G. humpbacked kyphosis
lamina L. a thin plate, leaf lamina of a vertebra
lordos G. bent backwards lordosis
lumbus L. the loin lumbar curvature
manubrium L. a handle manubrium of sternum
noto G. the south, the back notochord
skolios G. bent scoliosis
thorax G. a breast plate thoracic cavity
vertebra L. a joint cervical vertebra
xiphos G. a sword xiphoid process
process project from spinous process
foramen an opening foramen magnum
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Table 1.2. Bones of the adult human skeleton. There are

approximately 206 bones making up the adult skeleton. Some
bones are single others are paired.
Name of Bone Single Paired
Skull, Cranial (8)
Frontal (2 fused) 1
Parietal 2
Occipital 1
Temporal 2
Sphenoid 1
Ethmoid 1
Skull, Facial (14)

Nasal 2
Lacrimal 2
Maxilla (branchial) 2
Inferior nasal concha 2
Zygomatic 2
Palatine 2
Vomer 1
Mandible (2 fused) 1
Vertebrae (26)
Cervical 7
Thoracic 12
Lumbar 5
Sacrum (= 5 fused) 1
Coccyx (= 3-5 fused) 1
Thorax (25)
Ribs 24
Sternum 1
Superior appendage (64)
Clavicle 2
Scapula 2
Humerus 2
Radius 2
Ulna 2
Carpus (2 rows of 8) 16
Metacarpus (row of 5) 10
Phalanges of hand 28
Inferior appendage (62)

Os coxa (= 3 fused) 2
Femur 2
Patella (= sesamoid) 2
Tibia 2
Fibula 2
Tarsus 14
Metatarsus 10
Phalanges of foot 28
Miscellaneous
Ear ossicles (= 3 pair) 6
Hyoid (= 2 fused) 1
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EXERCISE 1. THE STRUCTURE OF VERTEBRAE

Obtain specimens of human vertebrae and examine them for structural landmarks and adaptations. Locate
each of the following structures: Pedicle, lamina, spinous process, transverse processes, superior articular
processes, inferior articular processes, superior articular facets, inferior articular facets. On thoracic
vertebrae locate the facets and demifacets on the bodies of the vertebrae, and the transverse articular facets
on the transverse processes. Examine an articulated spinal column and identify the following foramina
(openings or passageways): Vertebral, intervertebral, and transverse foramina, and the sacral canal and
hiatus. Locate the intervertebral discs (of fibrocartilage). Locate the synovial facet articulations, and the
symphysis joints between adjacent vertebrae.
Figure 1.1. General view of Generalized Typical Vertebra. Label all landmarks shown.
Transverse view (left) and lateral view (right).
What functions are served by the vertebrae?

What anatomical specializations are apparent in the structure of vertebrae?
EXERCISE 2. COMPARISON OF VERTEBRAE TYPES AND SPECIALIZATIONS
Obtain specimens of cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and sacral vertebrae and compare them for their structural
and adaptive uniqueness. Learn the landmarks and characteristics that will permit you to distinguish among
them. Identify the structures indicated below.
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Cervical vertebrae (7) -- bifid spinous processes, transverse foramina for vertebral artery, light weight.
Thoracic vertebrae (12) -- spinous process elongate and is directed inferiorly, facets or demifacets on
bodies, articular facets on transverse processes (for rib articulation).
Lumbar vertebrae (5) -- heavy bodies, thick block-like transverse processes, interlocking superior and
inferior articular facets.
Figure 1.2. Human vertebra types. Cervical (top left), thoracic (top right),
lumbar (bottom left and right.
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Sacral vertebrae (= sacrum) (5) -- fusion of 5 vertebrae.

• auricular surface • sacral promontory
• median sacral crest • sacral tuberosity
• sacral canal • ala
• sacral cornu • body
• dorsal and ventral sacral foramen
Coccyx (3-5) -- tail vertebrae, note their location on skeleton and their relatively degenerate structure and
function in humans.
Figure 1.3. Sacrum, posterior (upper and lower left) view and anterior view (lower right).
Coccyx is appended inferior to sacrum.
How are the kinds of vertebrae classified? How do we use so many different kinds of vertebrae?
Which kind of vertebrae demonstrates the most anatomical specialization?
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Explain the specializations and how they are adaptive.
It is said that the vertebrae are serially homologous. What does this mean?
Cervical vertebra seven is called the "vertebra prominens". What is distinctive and important about this
vertebra?
Table 1.3 Distinguishing characteristics of vertebrae.

Features Cervical Thoracic Lumbar
size small medium Large
transverse foramina present absent Absent
spinous process slender often bifid long and thick short and blunt
transverse process small, narrow medium, narrow short, wide/blunt
articular facets/ demifacets absent present Absent

on vertebral body for ribs
articular facets for ribs absent present Absent
on transverse processes
EXERCISE 3. THE ATLAS AND AXIS VERTEBRAE

Examine specimens of cervical vertebrae 1 and 2. Vertebrae are numbered consecutively from superior to
inferior, by type. The atlas vertebra is C-1 (i.e., "cervical one") and the axis is C-2. The articulations
between bones usually are named by the articulating bones (i.e., the atlantoaxial is the articulation between
the atlas and axis vertebrae). Study the structure of the following vertebrae using disarticulated and
articulated bones, learning the indicated structures.
Atlas: Superior articular facet, transverse foramen, anterior tubercle, posterior tubercle,
tubercle for transverse ligament (which separates the dens from the spinal cord).
Axis: Dens, groove for transverse atlantal ligament, superior articular facet, body, bifid
spinous process.
Atlantooccipital articulation -- characteristic “yes" movement. A synovial hinge joint.
Atlantoaxial articulation -- characteristic “no" movement. A synovial pivot joint.
Figure 1. 4. Cervical vertebrae one and two, called the atlas (left) and axis (right).
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Explain how the atlas vertebra facilitates the "yes" movement of the head, and how the atlas and axis vertebrae
facilitate the "no" movement of the head.
Where is the body of the atlas vertebra?

Describe the articulation between the atlas vertebra and the occipital condyles of the skull.
Describe the nature of the articulation between the atlas and axis vertebrae.
EXERCISE 4. THE SPINAL CURVATURES
On the adult skeleton, locate the following curves and note how each contributes to the characteristic "S-
shaped" curvature of the spine: Cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and sacral. Compare the spinal curvatures of the
fetus with that of the adult.
A B
Figure 1.5. Adult vertebral column, lateral view (A) Indicate the location of the cervical,
thoracic, lumbar, and sacral arches on the illustration. B. Primary arch of most common
vertebrates (above). Spinal arches of Apes and spinal arch of human fetus (below).
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Considering we begin life with a primary fetal spinal curvature that is flexed, which of the adult arches should be
considered as primary and which should be considered secondary?
How does the spinal curvature of the fetus differ from that of the adult? Make a sketch of the
adult and fetal curvatures.
How are the curvatures of the adult spine adaptive?
Hyperlordosis, hyperkyphosis and scoliosis are abnormal curvatures that may develop in the spine. Explain
what each is and how each may effect the functioning of the body.
What are the most important functions of the spinal column and vertebrae? Explain how their anatomical
structure supports and facilitates these functions.
EXERCISE 5. STRUCTURE OF THE RIB CAGE

Examine the structure and parts of the rib cage and learn the indicated structures.
Sternum: Manubrium, body, and xiphoid process.

Landmarks: Suprasternal (jugular) notch, clavicular notch, costal notches, sternal angle.
Articulations: Clavicular, sternocostal, sternal symphysis, xiphisternal
1. body of sternum
2. clavicle
3. clavicular notch
4. costal cartilage of 3rd rib
5. first sternocostal articulation
6. manubrium
7. seventh sternocostal articulation
8 sternal angle (location)
9. sternal symphysis
10. suprasternal (=jugular) notch
11. xiphoid process
Figure 1.6. Sternum, anterior view, showing articulation of clavicle, xiphoid sternum, and costal
cartilages. Note xiphoid sternum is ossified and that the sternum has a slight asymmetry. Label
indicated parts on the drawing.
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Ribs. Examine a rib, learn the indicated structures, and how to identify the different kinds of ribs.
Parts: Head, neck, tubercle, body, costal groove, pit for costal cartilage, angle,
articular facets (for body of thoracic vertebrae and transverse processes)
Examine an articulated skeleton and locate the following:

Costal cartilages
Kinds of ribs: True, false, and floating
Figure 1.7. Structure of a rib.
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1. angle of rib
2. costal groove of rib
3. articular facet for transverse process of
vertebra
4. articular facet for body of vertebra
5. first rib
6. neck of rib
7. pit for costal cartilage
8. sternal end of rib
9. tubercle
Figure 18. 3. Typical rib structure (left), and rib number 1 (right). Label indicated
structures.
What is the difference between a false rib and a true rib?
Why are some false ribs called "floating"?
Of what specific kind of tissue are the costal cartilage and xiphoid sternum composed? How is the use of this
kind of tissue adaptive?
EXERCISE 6. ARTICULATIONS OF THE AXIAL SKELETON

The spinal column provides for a remarkable amount of movement among its parts. These movements are
facilitated by several kinds of articulations. Specific articulations are normally identified by the names of the
participating bones. Locate each of the following kinds of articulations and visualize the movements
facilitated by each.
• Intervertebral (symphysis)
• Sacroiliac (modified gliding)
• Atlantooccipital (hinge)
• Medial atlantoaxial (pivot)
• Intervertebral facet (gliding)
• Costovertebral (gliding)
• Costotransverse (gliding)
Describe how ribs articulate to the vertebral column, and the nature of the movement that occurs.
What is flexion and extension of the spine? How are these movements accomplished?
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EXERCISE 7 EXAMINATION OF THE FETAL SKELETON

Examine the spinal column and rib cage of the fetus and compare its structure with that of the adult.
Outline the similarities and the differences that are apparent.
From your observations, what can you infer about the state of development of the spine and rib cage at time of
birth?
What might you infer about the number of bones that actually contribute to the make up the human sternum?
After comparing the sterna of the human fetus and adult, what inferences can you make about the development
and morphology of the adult sternum?
After comparing the sacrum of the fetus and adult, what inferences can you make about the nature of the sacrum
at birth and the nature of its subsequent development to that of the adult?
Figure 1.8. Human fetal skeleton at time of birth, anterior and lateral views.
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EXERCISE 8. COMPARISON OF THE AXIAL SKELETON OF HUMANS WITH THOSE

OF OTHER VERTEBRATE ANIMALS
Compare the composition and structure of the vertebral columns and rib cages of the human, cat and chicken,
making special reference to the sternum, sacrum, spinal column and spinal curvatures .
In what ways are they similar? In what ways are they different?
What evidence can you find that suggests that the three skeletons have homologous parts?
What unique adaptations can you infer by comparing the spinal column and rib cages of these three species?
Figure 1.9. Articulated skeleton of a chicken.
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Figure 1.10. Domestic cat skeleton.
Self test -- Modified True False. Indicate if each of the following statements is true. Make each
incorrect statement correct by replacing the underlined words with the correct word or phrase.
1. The part of the body called posterior in humans would be called dorsal in a quadruped such as a dog.
2. The head is at the superior end of the body in humans and is at the anterior end in a quadruped such as a dog.
3. The transverse process lies on the medial aspect of a vertebra.
4. The spinous process of a vertebra lies on the ventral aspect of a vertebra
5. The atlas vertebra is inferior to the axis vertebra.
6. The sacrum is inferior to the lumbar vertebrae in humans
7. The coccyx is inferior to the sacrum in quadrupeds such as cats
8. A transverse section through a vertebra divides it into asymmetrical anterior and posterior parts.
9. A median section through a vertebra divides it into right and left equal parts.
10. The skull of a quadruped is attached to the cephalic end of the spinal column
11. The human spine is composed of 31-34 vertebrae in most persons.
12. The rib cage contains 12 pairs of ribs in humans.
13. The vertebrae of humans, cats and birds are said to be homologous because they appear to have had a common
evolutionary origin, and therefore appear to be older than the species in which they are found today.
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14. The spinal column and rib cage of the human is very similar to that of other mammals such as cats, in structure,
composition and function.
15. Humans differ from great apes, such as the chimpanzee, in that we tend to have longer arms and shorter legs.
16. A vertebra articulates with the one above by means of a pair of inferior articular facets.
17. The spinal cord is located within the transverse foramina.
18. Spinal nerves exit the vertebral canal via the transverse foramina.
19. Vertebrae are said to be serially homologous with each other, because they arise from similar developmental
processes in the embryo.
20. The skull articulates with the axis vertebra of the spinal column.
21. Normally adult humans only have three to five coccygeal vertebrae.
22. The axis vertebra can be easily distinguished because it lacks a vertebral body.
23. The primary fetal curvature of the spine remains evident in the adult human as the thoracic and lumbar curves.
24. The sacral curve is present in humans, but not in other vertebrate animals.
25. The sternum of humans is distinctively segmented at time of birth, but normally becomes fused into a single
bone by adulthood.
26. The clavicular notch of the sternum is found on the xiphoid process.
27. The most inferior part of the sternum is called the manubrium.
28. The costal groove of a rib is located on its superior surface.
29. The ribs articulate with the lumbar vertebrae.
30. When one bends over to touch their toes, the spine undergoes a movement called rotation.
31. Ribs that do not articulate directly to sternum are called floating ribs.
32. The joints between the bodies of the vertebrae are classified as cartilaginous joints.
33. The inferior five pairs of ribs are called floating ribs.
34. The two pairs of ribs that lack an anterior cartilage articulation with the sternum are and called floating ribs.
35. Humans have two secondarily developed spinal curvatures called the lumbar and thoracic curves.
36. An excessive amount of curvature in the lumbar arch is called kyphosis.
37. Abnormal lateral curvature of the spinal column is called lordosis.
38. During early development, six vertebrae join and fuse together to form the sacrum in humans.
39. The jugular notch is located on the superior aspect of the body of the sternum.
40. The sternal angle is measured at the juncture of manubrium and body of the sternum.
41. Cervical vertebrae can easily be distinguished by the presence of transverse foramina.
42. Thoracic vertebrae have heavy bodies, wide blocky spinous processes, and have transverse processes lacking
articular facets.
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Name: Lab section:
LABORATORY 1 REPORT
VERTEBRAL COLUMN AND RIB CAGE
FORMAT: Group report (2-4 students per group); written; due next lab.
1. Make a drawing of a cervical vertebra, showing the important structures studied in this exercise.
Label the parts and indicate the main function of each.
2. What evidence can you find that the axial skeletons of higher vertebrates have homologous parts? What
inferences would this lead scientists to conclude?
3. Explain how the spinal curvatures of the adult differ from that of the fetus. Make a sketch
illustrating these curvatures.
4. Describe the state of development of the vertebrae, spinal column and rib cage of humans at time of birth.
Explain how this is adaptive.
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Lab 2. Axial Skeleton: Skull
LABORATORY 2
AXIAL SKELETON: THE SKULL
The structure and adaptations of the human skull are striking and distinctive. They reflect our unique
adaptation as a species, our impressive brain size, our sophisticated sensory orientation, and our upright
posture. At birth the skull is not fully mature, an adaptation that facilitates birth and the need for nervous
system growth during the first few years of life. The skull is divided into facial and cranial components, and
the respective bones often lose their identity because of a fusion process that restricts movement at many
articulations. Skeletal bones are classified as cranial or facial depending on whether they make up part of the
cranium or not, and are further classified as single or paired. In addition to protecting the brain, the skull also
houses important sensory organs, facilitates breathing and eating functions, resonates sound waves from the
vocal folds, provides for mastication, and gives us distinctive personal characteristics that aid in individual
recognition. In this laboratory we will examine adult and fetal skulls learning the bones, important structural
landmarks on these bones, skull adaptations, movements and articulations, and general surface features of the
skull.
OBJECTIVES
❑ Complete an understanding of the structure of the axial skeleton and it connection to the skull.
❑ Learn the foramina of the skull related to cranial nerves, especially, CN I, II, V, VII, X
❑ Identify the bones of the skull and their important landmarks.
❑ Differentiate the fetal skull and learn its unique adaptations especially related to bone development
❑ Review the articulations of the skull, name the main sutures and articulations
METHODS AND MATERIALS
Identify the bones of the skull, important structures, and articulation by studying the skulls, disarticulated
skull bones, and models available. Good skull illustrations will be a valuable learning aid as well. Materials
available for study include the following: Human skulls, skull showing sinuses, fetal skulls, fetal skeleton,
disarticulated skull bones, skull with bones disarticulated in exploded view, model showing trigeminal nerve,
model of temporal bone showing inner ear, and model of orbit with eye. Please handle all skulls carefully
and with two hands. Use only the pointers provided – never use a pencil or pen as a pointer.
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GREEK & LATIN ORIGINS OF WORDS USED WITH THE SKULL
Table 2.1. Words commonly used in the study of the skull.

acoust G. hearing acoustic meatus
alveolus L. air space, sockets alveolar margin
chiasma G. a crossing optic chiasma
concha L. shell nasal concha
condyle G. A rounded surface occipital condyle
corona L. A crown coronal suture
cranium G. the skull cranial vault
cribriform L. sieve-like cribriform plate
crista galli L. cock’s comb crista galli
ethmoid G. resembling a sieve ethmoid bone
fossa L. a ditch glenoid fossa
lacrima L. tears, weeping lacrimal canal
lambda G. like the letter “lambda” lambdoidal suture
mastoid G. resembling a breast mastoid process
maxilla L. the jaw maxilla
meatus L. a passage auditory meatus
mentum L. the chin mental foreman
occiput L. back of the head occipital bone
olfact L. smell olfactory nerve
parietal L. pertaining to a wall parietal bone
petrous G. stony, rocklike petrous portion
ramus L. a branch ramus of mandible
sagitta L. an arrow sagittal suture
sella turcica L. a Turk’s saddle sella turcica
septum L. a fence nasal septum
sulcus L. a groove, trench central sulcus
sutura L. a seam a suture
sphenoid G. resembling a wedge sphenoid bone
squamous part of
squamous L. flat temporal bone
styloid G. peg like styloid process
vomer L. a plowshare vomer bone
EXERCISE 1. GENERAL FEATURES OF THE SKULL

Examine a skull and orient yourself by locating the following general features, using the illustrations in your
text, or other reference.
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Sutures (immovable, fibrous articulations between cranial bones). Locate each of the following sutures.
• Frontal (in fetus only) • Squamosal
• Coronal • Lambdoidal
• Sagittal • Interpalatine
Wormian bones -- unpredictable bones often developing within sutures (especially lambdoidal suture).
Cranium vs. face -- and reference to cranial vs. facial bones.
Cavities and fossae:
• orbital fossa • posterior cranial fossa

• temporal fossa • middle and inner ear cavities --
• anterior cranial fossa within temporal bone
• middle cranial fossa
Zygomatic arch
Mastoid Process
External occipital protuberance
Vertical septum of the nasal cavity -- divides nasal cavity into right and left sides.
Horizontal septum of the face (= hard palate) -- divides face into oral and nasal regions.
Hyoid bone -- supports tongue and larynx.
What is adaptive about the location and orientation of the orbits?
Which bones make up the orbits of the eye?
What is the lacrimal canal? What is its function? How does it work?
EXERCISE 2. EXTERNAL STRUCTURE OF SKULL

Examine the skull and learn the bones and structural landmarks indicated using the illustrations in your text
or other references. The bones, structures and foramina are arranged by column. Begin by learning the
bones, then return to each bone and learn the indicated structures. Finally, locate the foramina and learn their
functions (i.e., what structures pass through them).
A. Anterior view of skull.

Bones (#) Structures Foramina
Frontal (1) squama supraorbital foramen
supraorbital margin
superciliary arch
orbital plate
Sphenoid (1) greater wing superior orbital fissure
lesser wing inferior orbital fissure
optic canal or foramen
Ethmoid (1) perpendicular plate
superior and middle concha
Inferior nasal concha (2)
Vomer (1)
25
Maxilla (2) alveolar margin infraorbital foramen

anterior nasal aperture
orbital plate
frontal process
Nasal (2)
Mandible (1) alveolar margin mental foramen
alveoli
Lacrimal (2)
Zygomatic (2) frontal process
temporal process
_______________________________________________________________
Landmarks: Orbital fossae, nasal septum, and anterior nasal aperture
Figure 2.1. Human skull, ANTERIOR view. Label bones, landmarks and foramina shown.
What are the functions of cranial foramina?
26
B. Lateral view of skull.
Bone (#) Structures Foramina___________
Frontal (1)
Parietal (2) temporal lines
Nasal (2)
Zygomatic (2)
Ethmoid (1) lamina orbitalis
Lacrimal (2) lacrimal canal
Sphenoid (1)
Temporal (2) squamous portion external acoustic meatus
mastoid process
styloid process
zygomatic process
Occipital (1) external occipital protuberance
nuchal lines
Maxilla (2) frontal process
anterior nasal spine
Mandible (1) mandibular body mental foramen
ramus mandibular foramen (medial)
coronoid process
condyloid process
mandibular angle
Landmarks: Zygomatic arch, mental protuberance, and temporomandibular articulation.
______________________________________________________________________________
Figure 2.2. Skull, LATERAL view. Label all bones, landmarks and foramina shown.
27
Figure 2.3. Human Skull, INFERIOR AND SUPERIOR view. Locate and label
indicated bones, landmarks, foramina and sutures.
C. Inferior view of skull.

Bones (#) Structures Foramina______
Maxilla (1) alveoli
palatine process
Palatine (2) greater palatine foramen
Vomer (1)
Sphenoid (1) pterygoid plates foramen ovale
foramen spinosum
foramen lacerum
choanae
Temporal (2) petrous portion carotid canal
mandibular fossa eustachian canal
zygomatic process
Occipital (1) occipital condyles foramen magnum
condylar fossa condylar foramen
jugular foramen
Zygomatic (2)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Landmarks: Hard palate, choanae (= posterior nasal aperture), dental arch (16 teeth),
zygomatic arch and temporal fossa.
28
Figure 2.4 Human Skull, INTERIOR view. Identify and label bones and landmark
EXERCISE 3. INTERIOR VIEW OF CRANIUM.

Remove the calvarium of the skull and examine the inferior floor of the cranial cavity. Locate the indicated
bones, structures and foramina with the aid of your text and other references.
Bone Structure Foramina________
Frontal (1) frontal sinus
orbital plate
Ethmoid (1) cribriform plate olfactory foramen
crista galli
Sphenoid (1) lesser wing foramen rotundum
greater wing
chiasmatic groove superior orbital fissure
anterior clinoid process optic foramen
posterior clinoid process
sella turcica
Temporal petrous portion internal acoustic meatus
Occipital groove for transverse sinus hypoglossal canal
_____________________________________________________________
Landmarks: Anterior, middle and posterior cranial fossae; petrous ridge of tempo
29
Table 2. 2. Foramina associated with bones of the skull.
Facial bones
Foramina Bones associated Structures passing through
Incisive maxilla (horizontal part, posterior to descending palatine vessels (anterior branches );
incisors) nasopalatine nerves
Greater palatine palatines (at posterior angle of hard palate) descending palatine vessels (posterior branches); anterior
palatine nerves
Supraorbital f. frontal (anterior, above orbit) supraorbital nerves and vessels
(sometimes a notch)
Infraorbital f. maxilla (anterior, below orbit) Infraorbital nerves and vessels
Zygomaticofacial f. zygomatic (lateral to orbit) Zygomticofacial nerve
Mental f. mandible (anterolateral) mental nerves and vessels
Mandibular f. mandible (proximomedial) inferior alveolar vessels and nerve
Lacrimal canal lacrimal (inferiomedial orbital surface) lacrimal (=tear) duct
Cranial Bones
Olfactory f. ethmoid (cribriform plate) Olfactory nerve (I)
Optic f. (=optic canal) Sphenoid Optic nerve (II)
Superior orbital fissure sphenoid (between greater and lesser Oculomotor (III), trochlear (IV), ophthalmic br. of
wings) trigeminal (V), abducens (VI) nerves
Inferior orbital fissure sphenoid, maxilla, palatine, zygomatic maxillary nerve (V), infraorbital vessels
f. Rotundum Sphenoid Trigeminal nerve (V) – maxillary branch
f. Ovale Sphenoid mandibular nerve (V)
f. Spinosum Sphenoid middle meningeal vessels
f. Lacerum sphenoid, temporal, occipital ascending pharyngeal artery (meningeal br), internal
carotid artery
Internal acoustic meatus temporal, petrous portion facial (VII) and vestibulocochlear (VIII) nerves, internal
auditory artery
Jugular f. temporal (petrous), occipital glossopharyngeal (IX), vagus (X), and accessory
(XI)nerves, internal jugular vein
Hypoglossal canal occipital (anterior to condyle, sometimes hypoglossal nerve (XII)
divided)
Carotid canal temporal (petrous portion) internal carotid artery
Stylomastoid f. temporal (between mastoid and styloid facial nerve (VII)
processes)
Condyloid canal occipital (posterior to condyle) vein to transverse sinus
f. Magnum occipital (anterior region) medulla oblongata; accessory nerves; vertebral arteries
Mastoid f. temporal, mastoid portion an emissary vein
External acoustic temporal, external airborne sound waves
meatus
EXERCISE 4. PARANASAL SINUSES
Study the skull that has been specially prepared for examination of sinuses. Locate the sinuses and
determine how they are drained:
• Frontal sinus
• Maxillary sinus
• Sphenoid sinus
• Ethmoid air cells
• Mastoid air cells
What are two important functions of the sinuses?
30
Fig 2.5. The Sphenoid bone, anterior view (above) and posterior view (below).
31
Figure 2.6. Ethmoid bone (superior view).
Figure 2.7. Left temporal bone, lateral view (left), and medial view (right).
32
Figure 2.8. Frontal bone, anterior view.
Figure 2.9. Occipital bone. Superior view
33
EXERCISE 5. MOVEMENTS AND ARTICULATIONS OF THE SKULL
The following kinds of movements are facilitated by the structure of the skull. Try to visualize the
characteristics of each.
A. Movements.
• protraction -- retraction (mandible at temporomandibular joint).
• elevation -- depression (mandible at temporomandibular joint).
• flexion -- extension (skull at occipital condyle).
• movement suppression (immovable sutures, e.g., sagittal suture).
B. Articulations. Study the articulations in the skull, their structure and functions .
• temporomandibular -- synovial, condyloid articulation.
• atlantooccipital joint -- synovial hinge articulation.
• serrate sutures (sagittal, lambdoidal, coronal) -- synarthroses.
• squamous sutures (squamous, sphenoparietal) -- synarthroses.
• plane sutures ( intermaxillary, interpalatine, lacrimoethmoid) - synarthroses.
• gomphoses (root of teeth and alveolar margin of jaw). -- synarthroses.
How are sutures an adaptive articulation?
EXERCISE 6. INNER STRUCTURE OF TEMPORAL BONE

Examine the model of the temporal bone showing the ear ossicles, and other associated structures. Locate
eardrum, ear ossicles: malleus, incus, stapes, semicircular canals, cochlea, mastoid air cells, external and
internal acoustic meatus, and Eustachian canal.
What is the function and importance of the Eustachian tubes and canal?
How does the external auditory canal of the adult differ from that of the fetus?
What are the functions of each of the three ear chambers?
34
EXERCISE 7. FETAL SKULL

Study the fetal skull and determine how it is adapted for parturition and how it differs from the adult skull.
Locate the four major membranous regions or fontanels:
• Anterior (= frontal)
• Posterior (= occipital)
• Anterolateral (= sphenoidal)
• Posterolateral (= mastoidal) Examine the following fetal characteristics:
• ear drum near skull surface
• little facial development
• skull very small
• bones not well ossified;
• alveolar margins of jaws reduced, teeth lacking
• frontal and intermandibular sutures present
• fontanels conspicuous
• small size of nasal chamber
What are the most conspicuous changes in the skull during the first year of life?
35
Fig 2.10. Fetal Skull, anterior, lateral and superior views.
1. coronal suture
2. frontal bone
3. frontal fontanel
4. frontal suture
5. mandible
6. mandibular symphysis
7. maxilla
8. mental foramen
9. nasal bone
10.parietal bone
11. sagittal suture
12. sphenoidal fontanel
13.zygomatic bone
Figure 2.11. Fetal skull, anterior view. Label the indicated structures.
36
1. alveolar margins of maxilla and

mandible
2. frontal bone
3. condyloid process of mandible
4. coronal suture
5. coronoid process
6. external auditory meatus
7. lambdoidal suture
8. mandible
9. mastoidal fontanel
10. maxilla
11. occipital bone
12. parietal bone
13. squamous suture
14. sphenoidal fontanel
Figure 2.12. Fetal skull, lateral view. Label the indicated structures.
EXERCISE 8. HUMAN TOOTH DEVELOPMENT. Examine the skull of the four-year-old human
skeleton and locate the dental arches. Describe the location and nature of the permanent and deciduous
teeth. Note that the alveolar margins of the jaws have been dissected away to reveal the dental
relationships.
Figure 2.13. Human tooth development at about age 4.
37
SELF-TEST -- AXIAL SKELETON: SKULL
Modified True-False. Indicate if each of the following statements is true. Make each incorrect statement
correct by replacing the underlined words with the correct word or phrase.
1. The adult human skull is normally considered to be composed of 29 separate bones, most of which become fused
together during development.
2. The bones of the skull are often classified as cranial or facial.
3. The frontal suture is distinctly present at time of birth, but normally completely disappears by adulthood.
4. The coronal suture is an articulation between the parietal and temporal bones.
5. The frontal process develops to support the roots of the teeth.
6. The posterior openings of the nasal aperture are called the pharynx.
7. The infraorbital foramen passes through the mandible.
8. The lamina orbitalis is a landmark on the sphenoid bone.
9. The teeth are anchored in sockets called palatine processes.
10. The skull articulates with the atlas vertebra by its styloid processes.
11. Olfactory foramina pass through the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone.
12. The sella turcica is an important landmark on the ethmoid bone.
13. The sinus of the skull that does not directly empty into the nasal passageway is the mastoid sinus (=air cells).
14. Soft, membranous areas of the fetal skull are called wormian bones.
15. An intermandibular suture is present in the human skull at time of birth, but not normally in the adult.
16. Comparing adult with fetal skulls, the external auditory canal is distinctly more prominent in the fetal skull.
17. Teeth are anchored in the jaws by means of articulations called sutures.
18. The temporomandibular joint is classified as a cartilaginous joint.
19. The organs of hearing are housed within the temporal bones.
20. The ear ossicles articulate with each other by means of synovial joints.
21. The nasal septum is formed partly from hyaline cartilage.
22. Most joints of the skull are immovable.
23. The most movable bone of the skull is the maxilla.
24. The foramen magnum is a passageway through the sphenoid bone.
25. The coronal suture lies between the frontal and parietal bones.
26. The occipital fontanel is found between the occipital and temporal bones.
27. The hard palate separates the oral and nasal cavities.
28. Olfactory nerves pass though the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone.
29. The frontal sinus drains into the throat.
30. The incus is the middle one of the three ear ossicles.
31. The stapes is in contact with the tympanic membrane.
32. The mastoid process is part of the occipital bone.
38
33. The “no movements” of the head take place between the atlas and occipital.
34. The mastoid air cells drain into the inner ear cavity.
35. The Wormian bones in the skull are unpredictable in occurrence and number.
36. A hole or passageway through a bone that provides for the passage of nerves or blood vessels is called a foramen.
37. Immovable, line-like articulations between skull bones are called sutures.
38. The inferior nasal conchae are considered to be distinct bones, and not part of the ethmoid.
39. The zygomatic arch is formed from the fusion of processes from the frontal and zygomatic bones.
40. The bone lying above the larynx that supports muscles from the tongue is called the hyoid.
39
Name: Lab section:
LABORATORY 2 REPORT
AXIAL SKELETON: SKULL
Format: Group report (2-4 students per group); written; due next lab.
1. Which bones make up the orbit of the eye? What special functions do the sphenoid and lacrimal bones
have in the orbit?
2. Describe the anatomical basis for the separation of the face into oral and nasal parts.
3. What special structural adaptations are demonstrated by the temporal bone and by the sphenoid
bone?
4. What structural adaptations are apparent in the fetal skull? Explain how these are adaptive.
40
Lab 3. Superior appendicular skeleton
LABORATORY 3
SUPERIOR APPENDICULAR SKELETON
The superior appendicular skeleton in humans is unique in that it is not dedicated to support the weight of the
body or for locomotion. Instead, it is specialized for flexibility and highly dexterous movements. The
superior (= pectoral) girdle is "incomplete" in that it is not fused to the axial skeleton, and is composed of
only two separate bones, rather than three as in the pelvic girdle. Other adaptations include the free
rotational movement of the radius around the ulna thus permitting the important supination and pronation
movements of the hand, and the opposable movements of the thumb. In this laboratory you will study the
bones of the pectoral girdle and the superior appendages. You will also learn important landmarks on these
bones that will aid you in understanding their unique articulations and the associations of the muscles to be
studied later.
OBJECTIVES
❑ Identify the bones that comprise the superior appendicular appendages and the associated girdles.
❑ Describe the landmarks of these bones
❑ Analyze the major articulations of this skeletal region and describe how they work.
❑ Distinguish and describe the bony landmarks associated with these bones
❑ Recognize the regions of a long bone, Explain how these are affected by bone growth.

It is suggested that you begin your study by learning all the bones by name, then learn the important
anatomical landmarks or parts of these bones. Finally study the important articulations between these bones.
In this laboratory, you will have the following material to examine and study human skeletons; disarticulated
bones of pectoral girdle and appendage; sectioned long bones; and prepared microscope slides of haversian
systems.
41
GREEK AND LATIN ORIGINS OF WORDS

acro G. the tip acromion process- tip of
the shoulder
axilla L. the armpit axilla of shoulder
brachium G. the arm brachial fascia
capitulum L. a little head capitulum of radius

carpus G. the wrist carpal tunnel
clavicula L. a key Clavicle
conoid G. like a pine cone conoid tubercle

coracoid G. like a raven beak coracoid process
gleno G. a socket glenoid fossa
hamate L. hooked hamate bone of carpals
luna L. the moon lunate bone of carpals
olecran G. the elbow olecranon process
phalanx G. soldiers in ranks phalanges
pisi G. pea pisiform bone
pollex L. the thumb pollucis
radius L. a spoke, a ray radius
scaph G. A boat scaphoid bone
tuber L. a knot, swelling tubercle
trapez G. a table the trapezium carpals
triquetr L. triangular the triquetrum carpal

trochlea G. a pulley trochlea of humerus
spine an abrupt or pointed scapular spine
projection
condyle a knuckle, knob occipital condyle
epicondyle above the condyle epicondyle
42
EXERCISE 1. PECTORAL GIRDLE

The pectoral girdle is composed of the clavicle and scapula. Study the skeleton to learn the orientation of the
pectoral girdle and its association with the axial skeleton. Learn the structures indicated.
Bone Landmarks_______________________
Clavicle
• sternal end
• acromial end
• anterior surface
• conoid tubercle
Scapula
• superior border • supraspinous fossa
• axillary (= lateral) border • infraspinous fossa
• vertebral (= medial) border • subscapular fossa
• spine • glenoid fossa
• acromion process • infraglenoid tubercle
• coracoid process • supraglenoid tubercle
________________________________________________________________________
Figure 3.1. Clavicle, superior surface (above) and inferior surface (below). Label the
indicated structures.
43
Figure 3.2. Left human scapula, posterior (left) and anterior (right) views. Label indicated
structures.
EXERCISE 2. PECTORAL APPENDAGE
Study the bones and landmarks of the pectoral appendages. Locate the following :
Bone Landmarks____________________________________
Humerus
• Head • Epicondyle: medial and lateral
• Surgical and anatomical necks • Supracondylar region
• Greater and lesser tubercles • Coronoid fossa
• Intertubercular groove • Olecranon fossa
• Deltoid tuberosity • Trochlea and capitulum
Radius
• Head • Ulnar notch
• Neck • Interosseous crest
• Styloid process • Radial tuberosity
44
Ulna
• Olecranon process • Ulnar tuberosity
• Coronoid process • Styloid process
• Trochlear notch • Interosseous crest
• Radial notch
Carpus: Component bones arranged in two rows: (medial to lateral)

• Proximal row: Pisiform - triquetrum (= triangular) - lunate - scaphoid
• Distal row: Hamate - capitate - trapezoid - trapezium
Metacarpus: Metacarpals 1-5 (numbered starting with pollex)
Phalanges: Pollex with 2 phalanges, digits 2-5 with 3 phalanges (proximal - middle - distal)
_______________________________________________________________________
Figure 3.3. Right human humerus, anterior (left), and posterior (right) views.
Label the indicated structures.
45
Figure 3.4. Right human radius and ulna, anterior (left) and posterior (right) views.
Figure 3.5. Carpus, anterior view. Carpus is composed of two

rows of carpal bones. Much of the articulation with the antebrachium
is between the radius and the scaphoid and lunate bones of the carpus.
46
Figure 3.6. Hand and wrist, anterior view. The styloid

processes of radius and ulna restrict lateral movement of the hand.
Describe the adaptations of the pectoral girdle and the shoulder joint that facilitates a maximum amount of
movement and flexibility for the pectoral appendage.
Describe the anatomical basis of the "carpal tunnel”. How is this structure adaptive? What is the anatomical
explanation for the occurrence of "carpal tunnel syndrome"?
Describe the unique articulation and resulting movements that occur where the pollex articulates with the
trapezium carpal. How is this articulation particularly adaptive?
47
1. capitate
2. digit 5
3. distal phalanx of pollex
4. hamate
5. interphalangeal articulation
6. lunate
7. metacarpal 1
8. metacarpophalangeal
articulation
9.phalanx, distal
10.phalanx, middle
11.phalanx proximal
12.pisiform
13.scaphoid
14.trapezium
15. trapezoid
16. triquetrum
Figure 3.7. Human hand skeleton, anterior view. Label bones and indicated structures.
HINT: Place a rubber glove on your hand and then take a Sharpie or felt pen and
draw the bones of the hand on the rubber glove.
48
EXERCISE 3. MAJOR ARTICULATIONS OF SUPERIOR GIRDLE AND APPENDAGE
Study the indicated articulations and learn the characteristic movements, and joint
classification.
• Shoulder (= glenohumeral) -- synovial, ball and socket -- rotation, abduction, adduction,

circumduction, flexion, and
extension.
• Elbow -- synovial, hinge -- flexion and extension.

• Wrist (= radiocarpal) -- synovial condyloid -- flexion, extension, abduction and
adduction.
• Thumb -- synovial saddle -- flexion, extension, abduction, adduction.
• Interphalangeal -- synovial, hinge -- flexion, extension.
• Proximal Radioulnar -- synovial, pivot -- medial and lateral rotation, supination
and pronation of hand.
• Distal Radioulnar -- synovial, pivot -- pronation and supination.
• Radioulnar interosseous membrane -- fibrous syndesmoses -- supination and pronation.
Figure 3.7. Shoulder (= glenohumeral) and elbow (right) joints. Shoulder is a synovial ball
and socket joint and the elbow is a synovial hinge joint. A fibrous syndesmosis articulates the
radius to the ulna along much of its opposing surface.
49
Table 3.1 Articulations of the superior appendages. The superior appendages have a number of
sophisticated articulations that promote maximum dexterity of this appendage. The extreme
movements of these joints result in weaker articulations that may be more readily injured.
Articulation Type Bones involved Accessory structures

Sternoclavicular gliding Sternum & medial end of clavicle Articular fibrocartilage disc
Acromioclavicular gliding Lateral end of clavicle and acromion of Articular fibrocartilage disc
scapula
Glenohumeral ball & Glenoid fossa of scapula and head of humerus Coracoacromial, coracohumeral, &
socket transverse humeral ligaments
Elbow
Humeroradial condyloid Distal end of humerus and head of radius Radial collateral lig.
Humeroulnar hinge Distal end of humerus and head of ulna Ulnar collateral lig.
Prox. radioulnar pivot Head of radius and radial notch of ulna Annular radial & interosseous ligament
Mid radioulnar syndesmosis Interosseous crests of radius and ulna Interosseous membrane
Distal radioulnar Pivot (or Distal end of radius and ulna Articular disc of fibrocartilage;
gliding) interosseous ligament
Radiocarpal (=wrist) condyloid Distal end of radius and scaphoid, lunate, and Articular disc of fibrocartilage; volar &
triquetrum posterior carpal lig.
Intercarpal gliding Between proximal and distal rows of carpals Interosseous ligs, volar & posterior
(except pisiform and triquetrum) carpal ligs.
Intermetacarpal gliding Between bases of 4 medial metacarpals Transverse ligaments
Carpometacarpal stellaris Base of first metacarpal and trapezium
of pollex
Carpometacarpal gliding Base of 4 medial metacarpals with distal row Interosseous ligs.
of fingers of carpals
Metacarpophalangeal condyloid Distal ends of metacarpals with bases of
of fingers proximal phalanges
Interphalangeal hinge Adjacent phalanges
EXERCISE 4. HOMOLOGIES AMONG SUPERIOR APPENDAGES

Study the skeleton of the human, cat, and chicken and compare the homologous parts of the superior girdles
and appendages. Determine in which ways these skeletons are similar and how they are different. Pay
particular attention to the kinds and numbers of bones, the structure and orientation of the girdle, and the
structure and orientation of the appendages -- especially the carpals, and metacarpals.
50
Figure 3.8. Three toed sloth skeleton. The sloth is specialized for arboreal dwelling.
Note the similarities of skeletal components to those of humans and other vertebrates.
These similar components are interpreted as homologies.
What evidence suggests that these vertebrate animals share a common origin of their superior appendages and
girdles?
How might the human uniqueness be adaptive?
In what significant ways does the superior appendicular skeleton of humans (i.e. bipeds) differ from that of
quadrupeds?
EXERCISE 5. GROSS STRUCTURE OF LONG BONES

Study the sectioned specimens of long bones, by inspection, and under the dissection microscope. Identify
and learn the structures indicated below. Make a drawing that shows and explains the structure of a long
bone, and label the indicated parts.
• epiphysis
• diaphysis • red marrow region
• periosteum • yellow marrow cavity
• endosteum • epiphyseal plate (or line)
• compact bone • articular cartilage
• spongy bone
51
Figure 3.9. Structure of long bones as demonstrated by a

longitudinal section through the femur. The spongy bone in
the head of the bone would support the presence of red marrow
in life. The hollow space in the diaphysis of the bone would
contain yellow marrow in life.
Examine the articulated skeletons in the laboratory that show obvious evidence that they were growing at
their epiphyseal plates at the time of death. Describe evidence of skeletal growth that is apparent
52
. Lab 3. Superior appendicular skeleton
SELF TEST -- SUPERIOR APPENDICULAR SKELETON

Modified True False. Indicate if each of the following statements is true. Make each incorrect statement
1. The number of bones normally counted in the adult skeleton is about 206.
2. Ligaments are composed of dense fibrous connective tissue.
3. Elastic cartilage covers the articular surfaces of bones.
4. In anatomical position, the radius is on the medial side of the ulna.
5. The scaphoid is classified as a long bone.
6. The phalanges are classified as irregular bones.
7. The scapula articulates with the proximal end of the humerus.
8. The cavity of the shoulder joint is lined with synovial membrane.
9. The carpal tunnel is a groove that normally runs between the greater and lesser tubercles of the humerus.
10. The longest bone in the hand is normally a phalanx.
11. The head of the ulna fits into the glenoid fossa.
12. The clavicle articulates laterally with the humerus.
13. The bones of the wrist are called tarsals.
14. The radius articulates distally with the wrist.
15. The ulna articulates proximally with the trochlea of the humerus.
16. The elbow articulation is classified as a ball and socket joint.
17. Lifting the arms upward, to the sides, is a movement called adduction.
18. Turning the palm of the hand up is a rotational movement called pronation.
19. The glenoid fossa is found at the superior angle of the scapula.
20. The scapula and clavicle make up the pectoral girdle.
21. The pectoral girdle articulates medially directly with the spinal column.
22. The carpal bones are arranged in two rows of four bones each.
23. The carpal tunnel crosses the posterior side of the carpus.
24. The great digit of the hand is called the hallux.
25. The little digit of the hand characteristically is composed of more phalanges than is the thumb.
26. The digits of the hand are individually identified by a numbering system that progresses from lateral to medial.
27. The distinctive ridge that runs across the posterior side of the scapula is called the spine.
28. The head of the radius articulates proximally with the trochlea of the humerus.
29. The bony prominence, palpable at the end of the elbow, is the coronoid process.
30. The sharp “knife-edge-like” landmark running the length of the ulna and radius is called the interosseous crest.
31. The number of phalanges found in one hand normally number 15.
32. The metacarpal of the pollex articulates with the trapezium carpal.
33. The distal end of the radius articulates with the scaphoid and lunate carpals of the wrist.
53
33. The main central shaft of long bones is also called the diaphysis.
34. The fatty substance found in the central cavity of the diaphysis of many long bones is red marrow.
35. The thin sheet of dense fibrous connective tissue that covers the exterior surface of bones is called
perichondrium.
36. The relatively soft, trabecular, bony tissue that is often found within the epiphysis of bone is called spongy
bone.
37. Early in life, long bones grow in length at the epiphyseal plates.
38. Hyaline cartilage is the tissue characteristically found in the epiphyseal plates of long bones.
39. Bone cells are called osteocytes.
40. In compact bone, bone tissues are arranged in structural units called Haversian systems.
41. In adults, the bones of the skeleton are normally considered to be dead.
42. The humerus is an example of a long bone.
54
Name: Lab section:
LABORATORY 3 REPORT
SUPERIOR APPENDICULAR SKELETON
Format: Group report (2-4 students per group); written; due next laboratory.
1. Explain the structure of a long bone by means of a drawing. Label the significant structural components.
2. Describe how the wrist and hand articulates with the distal forearm. Explain how this effects the kinds of
movements that occur there.
3. Locate each of the indicated landmarks on the bones studied. Using the skeleton with muscle origins and
insertions indicated, identify the specific muscles associated with each landmark.
a. Infraglenoid tubercle of scapula
b. Axillary border of scapula
c. Deltoid tuberosity of humerus
d. Ulnar tuberosity
e. Radial tuberosity
f. Styloid process of radius
4. How can learning to read the bone landmarks be instructive in understanding something
about the person from whom the bone came? Give three examples from today's laboratory of such
inferences you were able to make, and give the anatomical clues that lead you to these inferences.
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56
. Lab 4. Inferior appendicular skeleton
LABORATORY 4
INFERIOR APPENDICULAR SKELETON
The inferior appendicular skeleton consists of the pelvic girdle and the inferior appendages. The human
inferior appendicular skeleton shows definite homologies with those of other vertebrate animals, but there are
impressive adaptations to support upright posture and bipedal locomotion. The fusion of the three pelvic
girdle bones into a single os coxa in the adult, the sexual dimorphism of the pelvis, the strong structure of hip
and knee joint, the plantigrade orientation of the foot and the foot arches are all important adaptations for the
human mode of life. In this laboratory we will learn the bones that comprise the pectoral girdle and the
lower limbs, and their articulations. We will also examine the unique human pelvic adaptations, and the
arches of the foot.
OBJECTIVES
❑ List the bones that comprise the inferior appendicular skeleton and describe their important landmarks.
❑ Describe the important articulations of the inferior appendicular skeleton.
❑ Explain the unique human adaptations of the inferior appendicular skeleton for walking upright.
❑ Categorize types of bones, long, short, irregular, flat

Begin by learning all the bones by name, then learn the important anatomical landmarks on these bones. Finally
you should study the important articulations and unique adaptations.
GREEK AND LATIN ORIGINS OF WORDS

acetabulum L. little vinegar cup acetabulum
calcan L. the heel calcaneus bone of tarsals
fibula L. a clasp, buckle fibula
gluteo G. the rump gluteal tuberosity
hallux L. the great toe hallux
malleolus L. a little hammer lateral malleolus
navicula L. a little ship navicular bone of tarsals
patella L. a little dish patella
poplit L. the back of the knee poplitial space
sacrum L. the sacred bone sacrum
solea L. a sandal soleal line
sustentaculum L. a little supporter sustentaculum tali
tarsus G. the ankle tarsus
trochanter G. one who turns greater trochanter
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EXERCISE 1. PELVIC GIRDLE

Study the articulated skeleton and disarticulated pelvic girdle bones. Locate the indicated structures.
General Landmarks:
• acetabulum
• obturator foramen
• true pelvis
• false pelvis
• pelvic inlet and outlet
• pubic crest
• pubic arch and angle of arch
• sacroiliac joint
Figure 4.1. Pelvis of male. Notice the sacroiliac joint, false and true pelvis, iliac crests,
and pubic angle. The right and left pubic bones are articulated at the symphysis pubis.
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Os coxa (= innominate bones)
Bone Structures
Ilium
• Iliac crest
• Anterior superior iliac spine
• Anterior inferior iliac spine
• Posterior superior iliac spine
• Posterior inferior iliac spine
• Greater sciatic notch
• Auricular surface
• Iliac tuberosity
• Arcuate (= iliopectineal) line
• Iliac fossa
Ischium
• Ischial tuberosity
• Ischial spine
• Lesser sciatic notch
• Ramus
Pubis
• Symphysis pubis
• Superior and inferior rami
• Obturator foramen
• Pubic crest
• Pubic Arch and angle
Acetabulum
• Acetabular fossa
• Acetabular notch
______________________________________________________________
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Figure 4.2. Os coxa, medial view (left) and lateral view (right). Note the articulation scar of the
symphysis pubis and the auricular scar of the sacroiliac articulation. Each os coxa is the result of the
fusion of three separate bones, the ilium, pubis, and ischium.
What adaptations are apparent in the pelvis?
What is particularly important about the true pelvic cavity and its diameter?
What may cause a person to need a hip replacement?
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EXERCISE 2. INFERIOR APPENDAGE

Examine the articulated skeleton and disarticulated bones and locate the indicated structures.
Bone __ Structures___________________________
Femur
• Head • Linea aspera
• Fovea capitis • Medial and lateral condyles
• Neck • Intercondylar notch (= fossa)
• Greater trochanter • Medial & lateral epicondyles
• Gluteal tuberosity • Adductor tubercle
• Lesser trochanter • Popliteal surface
• Intertrochanteric crest • Patellar surface
• Intertrochanteric line
Patella
• Articular facets
• Anterior and posterior surface
• Apex
Tibia
• Head • Medial malleolus
• Tibial tuberosity • Fibular facet
• Anterior crest • Soleal line (see marked skeleton)
• Lateral and medial condyles • Socket for talus
• Intercondyloid eminence
Fibula
• Proximal head
• Shaft
• Proximal tibial facet
• Lateral malleolus
Tarsus (= ankle)
• Talus -- trochlea for articulation of tibia
• Calcaneus
o Sustentaculum tali
o Tuberosity
• Navicular
• Cuboid
• Cuneiforms first (= medial), second (= intermediate) , and third (=lateral)
Metatarsus 1-5, numbered from medial to lateral (note massive proportions of metatarsus 1, and inferior
sesamoid bones)
Digits 1-5 (numbered medial to lateral )

Phalanges: 2-3-3-3-3 (Note enlarged proportions of phalanges of digit 1)
_______________________________________________________________________
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Figure 4.3. Femur, anterior surface (left) and posterior surface (right). Label
the structural parts
Figure 4.4. Patella, anterior surface (left) and posterior surface (right). The patella
is a sesamoid bone that develops within the tendon of insertion of the quadriceps muscle
group.
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Figure 4.5. Tibia and Fibula. Anterior view.
Figure 4.6. Left tarsus of juvenile, four years old, anterior view.
Note the epiphyseal plates on tibia and tarsus. Six of the seven tarsals
can be seen here; only the calcaneus is obscured from view.
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1. calcaneous
2. calcaneal tuberosity
3. cuboid
4. cuneiform 1 (= medial)
5. cuneiform 2 (= intermediate)
6. cuneiform 3 (= lateral)
7. digit 5
8. hallux
9. interphalangeal articulation
10. metatarsal 1
11. metatarsophalangeal articulation
12. navicular
13. phalanx –proximal
14. phalanx – distal
15. tibiotalar articular surface
16. talus
17. tarsometatarsal articulation
Figure 4.7 Skeleton of the human foot, superior view. Label all indicated parts .
How does the foot and hand structure differ?
How do you explain the similarity in the hand and foot?
EXERCISE 3. ARCHES OF THE FOOT: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
Examine the articulated foot skeleton, and the model. Locate the following foot arches.
• Median longitudinal
• Lateral longitudinal
• Transverse
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What is the anatomical structure of each of the above arches, and what are their functions?
What is a fallen arch? What is its anatomical basis? Why is a fallen arch painful?
Compare the foot of the cat with that of the human. What structural differences are apparent?
transverse arch
median longitudinal arch lateral longitudinal arch
Figure 4.9. Human foot showing arches.
EXERCISE 4. SEXUAL DIMORPHISM EVIDENT IN PELVIC GIRDLE

The pelvis of males and females tends to show morphological differences. The component parts are the
same, but certain morphological proportions differ. These differences are explained as unique adaptations
related to facilitation of childbirth.
Examine the male and female pelvic demonstration and observe the following general trends:
• Pelvic tilt (greater in female)
• Distance between anterior superior iliac spines (wider in female)
• Diameter of true pelvis (greater in female)
• Shape of true pelvis (rounded in female, heart shaped in male)
• Depth of pubic symphysis (shallower in female)
• Pubic angle (wider in female)
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EXERCISE 5. MAJOR ARTICULATIONS
Study the following articulations. Learn their structure, and kinds of movement supported.
A. Hip: Acetabulum, acetabular fossa, head of femur, ligamentum teres, articular capsule, and circular
fibers of articular capsule.
B. Knee: Medial and lateral condyles of femur, medial and lateral condyles of tibia, articular cartilage
medial and lateral menisci (fibrocartilage), anterior and posterior cruciate ligaments,
Collateral ligaments: tibial and fibular, patellar tendon.
EXERCISE 6. COMPARISON OF THE SKELETON OF FETUS WITH ADULT
Examine the fetal skeleton and compare its morphology, and state of development, with that
of the adult. Observe the following fetal characteristics:
1. Much of the fetal skeleton is not ossified.
2. Joints still do not have much definition.
3. The ilium, pubis and ischium are still separate and not fused.
4. The acetabulum is not mature.
5. The patella is not ossified.
Figure 4. 9. Hip and knee of four-year-old human juvenile. The os coxa is composed of three
bones, the ilium, pubis, and ischium. The knee joints have definite patellae but are still largely
cartilage. The tarsus is still largely cartilage.
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EXERCISE 7. COMPARISON OF THE HUMAN INFERIOR APPENDICULAR

SKELETON WITH THOSE OF OTHER VERTEBRATES
Examine the inferior appendicular skeletons of the cat, and chicken, and compare them with
that of the human. Pay particular attention to the composition and orientation of the girdle and
appendage, the orientation of the foot, the morphology of the pelvis, and the fusion with the axial skeleton.
What structural similarities are apparent? How do they differ?
What is distinctive or unique about the human inferior appendicular skeleton?
What special human adaptations can be inferred from these skeletal uniquenesses?
SELF-TEST -- INFERIOR APPENDICULAR SKELETON

1. Cartilage normally contains many blood vessels.

2. Mature cartilage cells are called chondrocytes.
3. The true pelvis lies above the iliopectineal line.
4. The pubic symphysis is composed of hyaline cartilage.
5. A male pelvis can often be distinguished from that of a female by having a wider pubic arch angle.
6. The distal end of the femur has two articular condyles.
7. The pelvis of females tends to have a wider diameter than that of similar size males.
8. The tibiofibular joint is classified as a synovial joint.
9. The most lateral bone of the leg is the tibia.
10. The articular ends of long bones are called epiphyses.
11. Fluid filled sacs that are often found around joints are called bursae.
12. The pelvic girdle articulates with the spinal column at the sacroiliac joint.
13. There are eight tarsal bones in the human ankle.
14. The lateral malleolus is a bony landmark on the fibula.
15. An os coxa is formed from the fusion of the ilium, ischium and sacrum, during early development.
16. The menisci are fibrocartilage pads found in the knee joint.
17. Standing on the tips of your toes involves a movement called dorsiflexion.
18. The complex movement called rotation may also facilitate movements called flexion, extension, abduction and
adduction.
19. Distinct bony projections, called malleoli, occur distally on the tibia and fibula.
20. Bones that make up the toes and fingers are called phalanges.
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21. Bones that make up the ankle are called tarsals.

22. The arcuate line is found on the os coxa (=innominate bone).
23. The patella is a sesamoid bone that develops within the tendon of the quadriceps muscle.
24. The heel of the foot is formed mainly from a bone called the talus.
25. The arch of the foot that runs at right angles to the long axis of the foot is the median longitudinal arch.
26. The great digit of the foot is called the hallux.
27. The head of the femur articulates with the glenoid fossa of the pelvis.
28. The distinctive pit in the head of the femur is called the lesser sciatic notch.
29. The large lever-like bony projection near the head of the femur is called the adductor tubercle.
30. The linea aspera is a an important landmark that runs longitudinally along the posterior side of the femur.
31. The main weight bearing articulation between the leg and ankle occurs between the tibia and the calcaneous.
32. The sustentaculum tali is an important landmark on the calcaneus.
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Name: Lab section:
LABORATORY 4 REPORT
INFERIOR APPENDICULAR SKELETON
1. Examine the skeleton marked with muscle origins and insertions and determine the special functions
of the following landmarks:
Anterior superior spine of ilium
Ischial tuberosity
Greater trochanter of femur
Linea aspera of femur
Tuberosity of tibia
Tuberosity of calcaneus
2. Describe, with the aid of labeled sketches, the arches of the foot, and explain how they are adaptive
for humans.
3. Explain how the human pectoral and pelvic girdles differ structurally and functionally.
4. What significant differences occur in the structure of the inferior appendicular skeleton of a
quadruped such as a cat, compared with that of the human. What inferences might these differences
lead one to draw?
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70
Lab 5. Integumentary system
LABORATORY 5
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
The integumentary system is a large organ system consisting of the skin, hair, nails, and a variety of
associated glands. It gives the body structural integrity, protects from the invasion of pathogens and
parasites, serves as an important sense organ, performs excretory functions, and helps to regulate our thermal
and water balances. As we prepare to dissect the cadaver, the integumentary system is the first system
encountered. In this laboratory we will study the structure and composition of the integumentary system
through dissection of cats and the cadaver. We will also examine models and microscope slides.
OBJECTIVES
❑ Study and learn the structure of the integument and its appendages.
❑ Compare the integument and integumentary appendages of the cat with that of the human.

We will begin our study of the integument by examining a model and illustrations. Then, the structure of the
integument will be investigated by dissection of the cat. The integumentary structures should then be reviewed
as the integument of the cadaver is carefully removed in preparation for later study of the muscular system.
During this laboratory the following materials will be studied: Embalmed cat with arteries and veins injected with
colored latex, human cadaver, model showing skin structure, and microscope slides showing structure of skin and
appendages. Students will need to bring examination gloves, scalpel, blades, and forceps.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
Embalming fluid should not be allowed to contact your skin or eyes. Protect your skin by wearing examination
gloves at all times when handling embalmed materials. In case of accidental exposure to embalming fluid or
other preservatives, wash it off skin as soon as possible using soap and water. In case embalming fluid
accidentally contacts eyes, wash eyes using clean water and seek medical advice if irritation persists. Students
should read the appendix addressing safety practices in this manual.
EXERCISE 1. CROSS SECTIONAL STRUCTURE OF SKIN

Study the model of the cross section of the skin and the microscope slides provided and locate the following
features. Make a sketch of the structure of the skin as observed under the microscope. Locate the following
structures:
71
A. Epidermis
• stratum corneum
• stratum lucidum
• stratum granulosum
• stratum spinosum
• stratum basale
• basement membrane
B. Dermis (= corium)
• papillary layer • sweat glands
• reticular layer • hair follicles
• subcutaneous layer • sebaceous glands
• Meissner's corpuscles • arrector pili muscl
• Pacinian corpuscles
• adipose deposits.
Examine a prepared microscope slide showing the structure of a nail. Locate, and sketch the
anatomical relationships of all the structures on this page.
• nail bed • matrix
• root • hyponychium
• free edge • eponychium
Figure 5.1. Cross section model of human skin. And layers of epidermis. Label the
important parts
What is the structural and functional difference between the epidermis and dermis?
What is the stratum basale? Why is it important?
What is important to remember about the basement membrane?
Which structures are mechanoreceptors for touch and pressure?
72
EXERCISE 2. SKIN STRUCTURES REVEALED BY DISSECTION
Skin examination reveals the following structures. Later, locate these on the cadaver.
• Superficial fascia -- areolar tissue attaching skin to underlying anatomy
• Adipose fat depots -- layer of adipose cytes engorged with fat
• Areolar water depots -- fluids stored subcutaneously in superficial fascia
• Cutaneous arteries, veins and nerves -- running from body mass to skin
• Cutaneous muscles -- muscles inserting on ski
B. SKIN FEATURES ON THE CADAVER. Examine the cadaver carefully and look for
interesting features reflected by the skin. A number of features should be apparent such as incisions
made by the embalmer, scar tissue from prior surgery, age spots, ecchymosis and changes
characteristic of aging.
Look at the atlas in the lab and locate any of the following conditions on the skin.
What do these conditions tell you about the cadaver?
Your name and lab section# -

SAN FRANCISCO STATE UNIVERSITY – HUMAN ANATOMY LAB –
Cadaver Number Age Sex Todays Lab section: Estimated height and Your
Date: weight: Intials:
Condition of skin:
Area of body described
Lentigenes (age or liver spots)
Nevus or mole (plural nevi
Scars
Venous stasis
Seborrheic keratoses
Tattoos
Ecchymosis – bruise
Sun Damage and/or tan lines
Notes on Descriptions:
73
SELF-TEST -- INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

1. The epidermal region of the skin is composed of cornified stratified squamous epithelium.
2. The inner part of the skin is called the dermis.
3. Hairs develop in follicles that are dermal in origin.
4. The epidermis continually develops from epithelial cells that divide in the stratum spinosum.
5. Meissner’s corpuscles are normally found in the hypodermal layer of the dermis.
6. Pacinian corpuscles are found characteristically in the stratum basale of the skin.
7. Sebaceous glands are normally associated with hair follicles.
8. Hairs are erected to a more vertical position by action of the arrector pili muscles.
9. The integument is attached to the underlying body structures by the deep fascia.
10. The superficial fascia is composed mainly of areolar connective tissue.
11. The subcutaneous layer of the skin is also called the superficial fascia.
12. Sudoriferous glands function in excretion and temperature control.
13. Muscles that move the skin relative to the underlying structures are called cutaneous muscles
14. The stratum granulosum is characteristically found only in thick skin such as that on the soles of the feet.
15. The stratum basale lies on the basement membrane.
16. Blood vessels and nerves normally do not penetrate through the basement membrane of the skin.
17. Fat, stored in adipose cells, is commonly found concentrated in the hypodermis.
18. Hair, nails and sweat glands develop from the epidermal layer of the skin.
19. In the integument, collagen is most concentrated in the papillary layer.
20. In adults, mitosis occurs more rapidly in the stratum basale than in other layers of the skin.
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Lab 6. Muscles of chest, shoulder and brachium
LABORATORY 6
MUSCLES OF THE CHEST, SHOULDER AND
BRACHIUM
Much of the mass of the body is composed of skeletal muscle tissue. This tissue is of importance because the
various voluntary movements of the body are made possible through the contraction of the skeletal muscles
and their resulting forces. There are over 600 muscles in the human body, and they facilitate numerous
functions. During our laboratory study, we will only be dissecting and learning about sixty of these muscles,
over the next several weeks. For each muscle it is important to know the origin (where it arises), where it
inserts, where its belly (main mass of muscle) is located, and its primary functions. It is also important to
understand how each muscle works with others in functional groups. For example, it is important to identify
muscles coagonists, its antagonists, and perhaps important synergists. An understanding of the muscular
system is essential for understanding how to achieve physical performance, how to effectively manage our
muscles, and how to maintain physical fitness. An understanding of the muscular system is also an important
requisite for understanding movements, kinesiology, arthrology, and biomechanics. Over the next several
laboratory sessions you will be studying select muscles groups regionally. Through these laboratories you
will learn important muscles and how they facilitate movements at important articulations.
GUIDELINES FOR MUSCLE STUDY

Muscle study requires careful, well-planned dissection. After the muscles are isolated for study they must
then be maintained in good condition for later review and kept moist and flexible. The guidelines outlined
below will help make your study of muscles more effective and easier.
1. Remove integument in such a way that it can be used to cover the underlying muscles and protect them
from desiccation, or use cloth to cover the cadaver’s exposed muscles.
2. When the presence of a muscle of interest is detected, carefully remove associated fat and fascia along the
entire length of the muscle. Then clearly identify the muscle by separating it from adjacent ones using a
blunt instrument. Locate each origin, insertion and belly.
3. Avoid cutting muscles if possible. When necessary, cut a muscle across the middle of its belly so that the
cut ends can easily be related at a later time. Avoid cutting origins and insertions.
4. When finished working, place all waste tissues in the container designated for human tissues. Never place
human tissues in the trash, or with other animal tissues.
5. Remove all dissection instruments before securing the cadaver.
6. Before leaving the cadaver, wet it thoroughly with wetting solution, cover all dissection surfaces with
integument, or moistened gauze, and make sure the cadaver is covered with a protective sheet.
7. Keep cadaver covered when not being studied. Take all steps necessary to prevent desiccation as this can
75
reduce the instructional value, and make a cadaver difficult to study. Before leaving dissection area, be sure
all dissection instruments are cleaned with soap and water, and put away, and that the lab is clean and neat.
8. Use the skeleton with the muscle locations marked to help understand muscle function. Muscle origins
are marked in red; their insertions are indicated in blue. Use clean hands when handling skeleton.
IMPORTANT STRUCTURES ASSOCIATED WITH MUSCLES

During dissection you will encounter the following structures that relate to muscles. Review these in
advance so that your muscle study will be facilitated.
• Tendon of origin -- attachment point for a muscle
• Tendon of insertion -- attachment point for a muscle
• Belly (= gaster) -- main mass of a muscle
• Synovial tendon sheath -- lubricated sheath surrounding tendons
• Retinacula -- connective tissue bands that hold tendons near adjacent bones
• Deep fascia -- dense fibrous connective tissue associated with muscle systems.
• Hiatus -- passageway for a tendon, vessel, or nerve
• Fascia compartments -- fascial systems that enclose muscles in compartments.
muscle origin
muscle belly
lacertus muscle insertion

tendon of fibrosis
insertion
Figure 6.1. Configuration and orientation of skeletal muscles. Muscles somewhat obscured by
their fascia and fat associations (left). Biceps brachii as viewed anteriorly showing gaster, tendons
of origin and insertion and lacertus fibrosis (= bicipital aponeurosis) (middle). Biceps brachii as
viewed more laterally showing gaster and tendons of origin and insertion (fascia and fat have been
removed to facilitate muscle examination.)
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OBJECTIVES
❑ Identify the muscles of the abdomen, chest, shoulder and brachium, and describe how they function,
and how they work in functional groups.
❑ Describe how these muscles associate with articulations and bones, and relate kinds of movements
they facilitate by their actions.
❑ Outline and describe the associated structures encountered during this dissection.
❑ Distinguish the arrangement of muscle fascicles and compare with length and width of muscle. Does
the name of the muscle describe this?
GREEK AND LATIN ORIGIN OF WORDS USED IN THE STUDY OF MUSCLES

antebrachium G. the forearm antebrachial fascia
abductor moves bone away from abductor pollicis longus
midline
adductor moves bone closer to adductor longus
midline
biceps L. two heads biceps brachii
brachium G. the arm brachium
brevis L. short extensor brevis
cleido G. the clavicle sternocleidomastoid
deltoid G. triangular deltoid
dia G. through across diameter
extensor increases a joint angle extensor carpi ulnaris
flexor decreases joint angle flexor carpi radialis
gaster G. the belly gastrocnemius
latissimus L. broadest latissimus dorsi
longus longest adductor longus
magnus large adductor magnus
major larger pectoralis major
minor smaller pectoralis minor
oblique diagonal to midline external oblique
pronator turns palms inferiorly or pronator teres
posteriorly
quadratus L. square pronator quadratus
rectus L. straight rectus abdominis
serratus saw-toothed serratus anterior
supinator turns palms superiorly or supinator
anteriorly
teres L. smooth, rounded teres major
transverse parallel to midline transverse abdominis
triceps L. three heads triceps brachii
vastus great vastus lateralis
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EXERCISE 1. MUSCLES OF PECTORAL GIRDLE
Remove the skin from the chest, shoulder and back in the area of the shoulder. Observe each of
the following unique aspects of this region:
1. Skin is loosely bound to underlying muscle mass by superficial fascia.

2. Major fat and water depots occur in the axillary area.
3. The axillary area provides a major passageway for blood vessels and nerves to and from the arms.
4. Vessels, nerves and lymph nodes are packaged together and supported by areolar connective tissue.
5. Pectoral girdle is suspended from the axial skeleton by muscle.
6. Humerus is suspended from the pectoral girdle by muscles and these hold the humerus into the glenoid
fossa.
A number of muscles suspend the pectoral girdle and provide for its unique movements. Through dissection,
isolate, and learn each of the muscles listed in Table 6.1. You should also learn the origin, insertion and
major functions of each muscle.
Table 6.1. Muscles acting on the pectoral girdle.

___________________________________________________________________________
Muscle Origin Insertion Action____ ____ __
ANTERIOR
Serratus anterior `upper 8 or 9 ribs ant. surface of vertebral border and scapula protraction, & upward rotation
inferior angle of scapula
Pectoralis minor ribs 3, 4 & 5 coracoid process of scapula, depress scapula; scapula downward
near costal cartilage medial aspect rotation; elevates ribs
Sternocleidomastoid sup border of ant. lat surface of mastoid process & head rotation: lat bending of head
surf of med. clavicle lat half of sup nuchal line of
& manubrium occipital bone
POSTERIOR
Trapezius ext. occipital spine of scapula, acromion process upper- elev. and upward scapular rotation
protuberance & distal clavicle middle – scapula retraction
nuchal line;C6-T12 lower – scapula upward rotation &
spinous processes depression; braces shoulder
Rhomboid major spinous processes vertebral border of scapula scapula retraction & elevation
of T1-T5 & from root of its spine to apex
Rhomboid minor spinous process vertebral border of scapula scapula retraction & elevation
of C7 & T1 at root of spine
Levator scapulae transverse process superior angle of scapula scapula elevation & rotation
of C1-C4
__________________________________________________________________________
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EXERCISE 2. MUSCLES ACTING ON THE BRACHIUM AND ANTEBRACHIUM
A number of muscles originate on the pectoral girdle and insert on the skeleton of the brachium or
antebrachium. These facilitate the rich movements characteristic of the shoulder. One group of muscles,
called the rotator cuff, strengthens the shoulder articulation at the glenoid fossa. Through dissection, locate
and isolate each of the muscles listed in table 6.2. Learn their origins, insertions and primary functions.
Identify the rotator cuff consisting of the subscapularis, infraspinatus, supraspinatus, and teres minor. Study
their origins and insertions and understand how they function as a group. Locate the nerve and blood vessel
complex in the subclavian, axillary and brachial regions.
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Table 6.2. Muscles of the brachium.

_______________________________________________________________________
Muscle Origin Insertion Action
______________________________________________________________________________
ANTERIOR
Pectoralis major clavicle, sternum, crest of greater adducts arm; medial rotation of humerus;
costal cartilages tubercle of humerus
Coracobrachialis apex of coracoid process medial humerus flexion & adduction of humerus at shoulder
Deltoid distal 1/3 of clavicle deltoid tuberosity anterior – flexion of humerus at shoulder
acromion process; of humerus middle - abduction of humerus at shoulder
lateral spine of scapula posterior – assists in full abduction of humerus
Teres major inferior angle of medial lip of intertubercular extension of humerus at shoulder
scapula groove of humerus med. rotation of humerus
Teres minor axillary border of lowermost part of greater extends shoulder

scapula (upper 2/3) tubercle of humerus lateral rotation of humerus; stabilizes shoulder
Biceps brachii flexion of elbow; flexion of shoulder; stabilizes

glenohumeral joint
long head superior margin of radial tuberosity adduction of shoulder

supraglenoid tubercle of radius
short head coracoid process radial tuberosity supination of forearm; flexion of elbow
of radius
Brachialis distal anterior surface coronoid process of flexion of elbow

of humerus ulna
Brachioradialis lateral supracondyle radial styloid flexion of elbow

of humerus process supination of forearm
POSTERIOR
Triceps brachii olecranon process extension of elbow
long head infraglenoid tubercle of ulna adduction of shoulder
lateral head posterior humerus
medial head posterior distal humerus
Latissimus dorsi spinous processes of lower portion of extension of humerus at shoulder;

lower thoracic vertebrae; intertubercular groove med. rotation of humerus;
lumbar & sacral vertebrae; of humerus adduction of humerus at shoulder
iliac crest; lower 3-4 ribs
Supraspinatus medial 2/3 of supraspinatus superior facet of greater shoulder abduction

fossa of scapula greater tubercle of
humerus
Infraspinatus medial 2/3 of infraspinatus middle facet of greater lateral rotation of shoulder
fossa of scapula tubercle of humerus
Subscapularis subscapular fossa lesser tubercle med. rotation of humerus at shoulder;

of scapula of humerus adduction of humerus
________________________________________________________________________________
*The subscapularis, supraspinatus, infraspinatus, and teres minor make up the rotator cuff and stabilize the
glenohumeral joint.
80
Associated structures to observe and learn:

• Rotator cuff
• Subclavian artery and vein
• Axillary artery and vein
• Brachial fascia.
Explain why the rotator cuff is adaptive, and why it is so important to normal functioning of the shoulder
joint.
Which muscles studied in today's lab cross more than one joint? What is adaptive about crossing more
than one joint?
Outline the kinds of movements that occur at the shoulder. What are the main muscles that facilitate
each movement?
Muscles of the Shoulder and Chest

Identification exercise. Identify each muscle; describe the origin, insertion and actions.
ant ant post ant
Muscle: Muscle: Muscle: Muscle:

Origin: Origin: Origin: Origin:
Insertion: Insertion: Insertion: Insertion:
Action: Action: Action: Action:
81
ant ant ant post

post post post ant

82

Muscle: Muscle:
Origin: Origin:
Insertion: Insertion:
Action: Action:
83
SELF TEST–- MUSCLES OF THE CHEST, SHOULDER AND BRACHIUM

1. Cardiac muscle tissue has branching fibers.

2. Smooth muscle has spindle-shaped cells with single nuclei in each cell
3. The organs of the muscular system are composed of skeletal muscle tissue.
4. Skeletal muscle is voluntary and has prominent striations.
5. Cardiac muscle tissue is found in the walls of most visceral organs.
6. Intercalated discs are found only in smooth muscle tissue.
7. The proximal part of the upper limb is called the arm or brachium.
8. Between the skin and the muscle mass is a layer of connective tissue called the deep fascia.
9. The tendon of a muscle attached to the more movable of two bones is called the tendon of insertion.
10. Distinct tendons are always present on muscles,
11. The biceps brachii is an antagonist to the triceps brachii
12. Muscles with their origins on the axial skeleton and their insertions on the appendicular skeleton are called
intrinsic muscles.
13. The brachialis anticus (=brachialis) muscle inserts on the radius.
14. The trapezius muscle, in the human, inserts on the ulna.
15. Three muscles in the cat represent the single trapezius muscle of humans.
16. Major muscles inserting on the vertebral border of the scapula include the serratus anterior and levator
scapulae.
17. The supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor and the coracobrachialis are rotator cuff muscles.
18. The triceps brachii has its insertion on the olecranon process of the ulna.
19. The layer of dense connective tissue covering the muscle mass of the forearm is the antebrachial fascia.
20. The action of adduction of the arm at the shoulder is caused by action of the pectoralis minor.
21. The antagonist of the brachialis muscle is the triceps brachii.
22. The trapezius muscle in humans originates on the acromion process, spine of scapula, and clavicle.
23. A muscle that flexes the elbow and supinates the hand is the biceps brachii
24. The biceps brachii flexes the shoulder and extends the elbow.
84
Name: Lab section:
LABORATORY 6 REPORT
MUSCLES OF THE SHOULDER AND BRACHIUM
1. Outline the muscles that work together to facilitate each of the following movements of the pectoral
girdle:
Elevation
Depression
Protraction
Retraction
2. Outline the muscles that facilitate each of the following movements of the shoulder joint at the glenoid
fossa:
Abduction
Adduction
Flexion of the humerus at the glenoid fossa
Extension of the shoulder at the glenoid fossa
Medial rotation
Lateral rotation
3. Make a drawing of the insertions of the rotator cuff muscles on the head of the humerus. What is
distinctive about their insertion pattern?
4. Outline the muscles that facilitate the flexion and extension movements of the elbow?
85
86
Lab 7. Muscles of forearm, wrist and hand
LABORATORY 7
MUSCLES OF THE FOREARM, WRIST, AND
HAND
The human forearm, wrist and hand is distinctive among mammals because of unique movements, and
utility. Most mammals have forearms that are dedicated to walking and supporting the weight of the body,
and are thus unavailable for other services. Human bipedal posture has freed our forearm and hand so that
they can be used as an important tool. This is further supported by the development of binocular vision, the
supination and pronation movements of the forearm, and by the development of the opposable thumb. In this
laboratory we will study the muscles of the forearm and hand and the unique movements they provide.
OBJECTIVES
❑ Identify the major muscles that provide the movements of the forearm, wrist and hand.
❑ Understand the unique movements and articulations of the forearm, wrist and hand.
❑ Relate the name of the muscle describe it’s placement and action?
EXERCISE 1. MUSCLES OF THE FOREARM, CARPUS, HAND AND FINGERS

Remove the skin from the forearm, wrist, hand and fingers. Observe the dense, surface sheath of deep fascia,
called the antebrachial fascia. It holds the muscle mass closely to the underlying skeletal framework. Locate
carpal retinaculum that holds tendons in place where they cross the wrist, and the palmar aponeurosis that
supports the palm of hand. Locate the muscles of the anterior aspect of the arm, then the muscles of the
posterior aspect of the arm. Note the muscle gasters tends to be proximally dislocated from the site of their
actions, and that they often insert on the skeleton by means of conspicuously elongate tendons. The muscles
to be studied are outlined in table 7.1.
Rules of the antebrachium:
RULES: All Ulnaris muslces ADDUCT plus function their name implies ( sometimes called ulnar deviation)
All Radialis muscles ABDUCT plus function their name implies ( sometimes called radial deviation)
Anterior muscles Flex plus function their name implies
Posterior muscles Extend plus function their name implies
ORIENTATION: Ulnaris (pinky) = medial

Radialis (thumb ) = lateral
87
Table 7.1. Muscles of the forearm, carpus hand and fingers.

________________________________________________________________________
Muscles Origin Insertion Action______________
Anterior muscles:
Palmaris longus medial epicondyle palmar aponeurosis & flexion of. wrist and antebrachium;
of humerus transverse carpal ligament tenses palmar aponeurosis
Flexor carpi ulnaris medial epicondyle pisiform & hamate bones flexion and adduction of wrist;
of humerus base of metacarpal 5 flexion of wrist
Flexor carpi radialis medial epicondyle base of metacarpal 2; flexion of wrist & forearm
of humerus slip to metacarpal 3 abduction of hand
Flexor digitorum medial epicondyle of middle phalanx of 4 flexion of second phalanges of 4 fingers;
superficialis humerus; coronoid process fingers flexion of elbow and wrist
(= sublimis) of ulna; oblique line of
radius
Flexor digitorum proximal shaft of ulna distal phalanx of 4 fingers flexion of all phalanges of 4 fingers
profundus coronoid process of ulna flexion hand at wrist
Flexor pollicis anterior radius: coronoid distal phalanx of thumb flexion of thumb;
longus process of ulna; median flexion & adduction of first metatarsal
epicondyle of humerus
Pronator teres med epicondyle of humerus; proximal & middle pronation of hand
coronoid process of ulna radius, lateral side
Pronator quadratus anterior. distal ulna anterior distal 1/4 of radius pronation of hand
Posterior muscles:
Extensor carpi lateral supracondyle base of metacarpal 2 extension and abduction of wrist
radialis longus of humerus
Extensor carpi lateral epicondyle metacarpal 3 extension and abduction of wrist

radialis brevis of humerus
Extensor carpi lat. epicondyle of humerus metacarpal 5 extension and adduction of wrist
ulnaris anterior proximal ulna
Extensor digitorum lateral epicondyle middle & distal extension of digits and wrist
of humerus phalanges of 4 fingers
Extensor digiti lateral epicondyle posterior proximal. extension of little finger

minimi of humerus phalanx 5
Extensor indicis distal ulna & tendon of ext. digitorum extension of index finger
interosseous membrane to index finger
Abductor pollicis mid ulna, radius & proximal metacarpal-1, abduction of thumb & hand
longus interosseous membrane lateral side
Extensor pollicis distal, posterior ulna base of distal phalanx of extension of thumb & abduction of wrist
longus thumb
Extensor pollicis distal radius & proximal phalanx of extension of proximal phalanx of thumb;
brevis interosseous membrane thumb abduction of hand
_____________________________________________________________________________________
88
Landmarks to learn:
• Antebrachial fascia • Hiatus of flexor digitorum
• Flexor carpal retinaculum superficialis for passage of flexor
• Extensor carpal retinaculum, digitorum profundus tendon of
• Palmar fascia insertion.
• Carpal tunnel
Muscles of the antebrachium (anterior)

Identify each muscle; describe the origin, insertion and actions.
ant ant ant ant

ant ant ant post

89
post post post
Muscle: Muscle: Muscle:

Origin: Origin: Origin:
Insertion: Insertion: Insertion:
Action: Action: Action:
post post post

90
SELF-TEST -- MUSCLES OF THE FOREARM, WRIST, AND HAND

1. The conspicuous sheath of dense fibrous connective tissue covering the muscle mass of the forearm is the
antebrachial fascia.
2. The pronator teres inserts on the styloid process of the radius.
3. The tendons of insertion of the flexor digitorum muscles are held close to the wrist bone by the anterior carpal
retinaculum.
4. The palmaris longus muscle functions to tense the palmar fascia of the hand.
5. Flexion of the wrist by the flexor carpi ulnaris muscle is an example of class 3 leverage.
6. Tendons of insertion of the extensor digitorum muscle of the antebracium pass over the heads of the metacarpal
bones
7. Muscles originating on the medial epicondyle of the humerus normally tend to be flexors of the wrist.
8. Muscles originating on the lateral epicondyle of the humerus normally tend to function as pronators of the wrist or
hand.
9. The tendons of insertion of the extensor digitorum communis cross the wrist through the “carpal tunnel”.
10. The sheet of dense fibrous connective tissue that connects the radius to the ulna along much of their lengths is
called an interosseous membrane.
11. The muscle inserting on the anterior side of the distal phalanx of digits 2-5 is the extensor digitorum .
91
Name: Lab section:
LABORATORY 7 REPORT
MUSCLES OF FOREARM, WRIST AND HAND
Format: group report (2-4 students per group); written; due ext lab.
1. What is the importance of the epicondyles of the humerus to the muscles of the forearm?
2. Draw a biomechanical force diagram for the flexor carpi radialis muscle. Label the fulcrum, bones used
as levers, force application point, and the resistance. What kind of lever system does this represent?
3. Explain the relationship between the muscles of the forearm and the carpal tunnel.
4. Describe the locations, structure and functions of the retinacula of the forearm and wrist. How are they
named?
92
Lab 8. Muscles of hip, thigh and abdomen
LABORATORY 8
MUSCLES OF THE HIP, THIGH AND ABDOMEN
The muscles of the hip and thigh are among the most massive in the body. They facilitate the sophisticated
movements of the hip and provide the powerful forces used in locomotion. Because of their mass, they are
often the focus of physical fitness programs. Over the span of a lifetime the massive joints that they operate
may show wear and aging, thus, frustrating the normal functions of the large extensors of the hip joint, and
the flexors of the knee joint. The abdominal and associated thoracic muscles are of vital importance because
of the role they play in breathing movements, and in compression of the abdominal viscera. Visceral
compression provides essential forces for propelling objects out of the abdominal cavity, thus is an important
component in defecation, urination, and childbirth. The abdominal muscles also support the spine when
lifting heavy objects, and contribute to the maintenance of bipedal posture. In this laboratory we will learn
some of the major muscles of the hips, thigh, abdomen and thorax through dissection of the cadaver.
OBJECTIVES
❑ Identify the major muscles that provide the movements of the hip, thigh and abdomen on the
cadaver.
❑ Define the origin, insertion and antagonists of each of the major muscles of the hip, thigh and
abdomen.
❑ Analyze the actions carried out by the major muscles of the hip, thigh and abdomen.
❑ Understand the unique movements and articulations of the hip, thigh and abdomen.
❑ Point out the major systems of fascia associated with the anatomy of the hip, thigh and abdomen.
❑ Differentiate the inguinal ligament, inguinal ring and fossa ovalis.
❑ Which muscles re called the “core”?
❑ Look at the deep back muscles and how they relate to the spine.
EXERCISE 1. MUSCLES OF THE HIP AND THIGH

Remove the skin carefully from the hip and thigh. Observe the following anatomical features: Gluteal fat
deposits, fat deposits over thigh (especially inner thigh), inguinal canal and ring, femoral vein and artery,
fascia lata, and iliotibial band. Remove excess fat and expose the underlying muscles for study. The study
of these muscles may require turning the cadaver, or elevating the leg. Note the anatomical adaptation of the
pelvis in supporting important muscle origins. Dissect and learn the muscles indicated in Table 8.1, and their
origins, insertions and functions.
93
Table 8.1. Muscles of hip and thigh.

______________________________________________________________________
Muscle Origin Insertion Action
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ANTERIOR:
Tensor fascia lata anterior outer crest of iliotibial band to tensor of fascia lata;
ilium Gredy’s tubercle (tibia) abduction, flexion & medial rotation of hip
Quadriceps femoris
Rectus femoris ant. inf. spine of ilium; prox border of patella & extension of leg at knee & flex. of hip
post. brim of acetabulum via patellar ligament to
tibial tuberosity
Vastus lateralis linea aspera lateral border of patella extension of leg at knee
Vastus medialis linea aspera medial border of patella extension of leg at knee
Vastus intermedius anterior & lat. surface of proximal border of patella extension of leg at knee
proximal 2/3 of femur
Sartorius anterior superior spine med. prox. tibia flexion of knee, flexion & abduction of hip;
of ilium (pes anserine) lateral. rotation of femur
Gracilis ischiopubic ramus near med. prox tibia & tibial adduction of hip, flexion of knee
symphysis pubis condyle (pes anserine) medial rotation of thigh at hip
Adductor longus pubis near. symphysis linea aspera (proximal) adduction and flexion of thigh at hip;
& obturator foramen (mid 1/3 of femur) medial rotation of thigh at hip
Adductor magnus ischial ramus linea aspera & adductor adducts, exends, flexes and medially
tubercle of femur rotates. thigh at hip
Adductor brevis ischiopubic ramus proximal linea aspera adducts, flexes and medially rotates thigh at
hip
Pectineus ` superior ramus of pubis pectineal line, distal. to adducts and flexes thigh at hip
& pubic tubercle lesser trochanter
POSTERIOR
Gluteus maximus posterior iliac crest and gluteal line & tuberosity extension adduction and lateral rotation of
sacrum of femur & iliotibial band thigh at hip
Gluteus medius anterior ¾ of iliac crest posterior and middle abduction & lateral & medial rotation of
greater trochanter thigh at hip
Biceps femoris
long head ischial tuberosity lateral head of fibula flexion of knee
short head linea aspera extension of thigh at hip
Semimembranosus ischial tuberosity medial proximal tibia flexion of knee, extension of hip
Semitendinosus ischial tuberosity medial proximal tibia flexion of knee & extension of hip
_______________________________________________________________________________
Associated structures to learn:
Inguinal ligament Iliotibial band Gluteal fascia Fascia lata

Fat deposits of hip and thigh Femoral artery & veins Femoral nerves Sciatic nerve
Femoral triangle Patellar ligament
94
EXERCISE 2. MUSCLES OF ABDOMEN AND THORAX

Remove the skin from the abdomen and chest. An anterior exposure of the underlying muscles should be
adequate. Muscles in this area are arranged into thin, flat sheets. These sheets are arranged in layers with
muscle fibers of each layer oriented in different directions. Deeper layers of these muscles may be viewed
by making a small window in the overlying layers with a scalpel. Avoid opening the body cavity at this
point. Note how this anatomical configuration supports the viscera, permits compression of viscera,
elevation and depression of the rib cage, and support of the spine. Dissect and learn the muscles outlined in
Table 8.2.
Table 8.2. Muscles of the abdomen and thorax.

________________________________________________________________________
Muscle Origin Insertion Function_____
External oblique lower 8 ribs, anterior ant. iliac crest, pubis & compression of
inferior aspect linea alba by abdominal cavity
aponeurosis
Internal oblique inguinal ligament lower 3-4 ribs, compression of

crest of ilium linea alba, pubic crest: abdominal cavity; flexion
dorsolumbar fascia xiphoid process of vertebral column
Transverse abdominis inguinal ligament xiphoid process; linea alba; compression of

crest of ilium pubic crest; inguinal ligament abdominal cavity
dorsolumbar fascia
costal cartilage of
lower 6 ribs
Rectus abdominis crest of pubis & xiphoid process compression of

symphysis pubis costal cartilages abdominal cavity;
of ribs 5-7 flexion of spine
External intercostal inferior border of superior border of elevates ribs; draws ribs
rib above rib below together; dilates thorax
Internal intercostal superior border of inferior border of depresses ribs;

rib below rib above compresses thorax
__________________________________________________________________________
Associated structures to locate and learn

• Aponeurosis of M. external oblique
• Linea alba
• Sheath of M. rectus abdominis
• Tendinous inscriptions of M. rectus abdominis
• Umbilicus
• Dorsolumbar fascia (= thoracolumbar fascia)
• Abdominal subcutaneous fat deposits and lumbar fat deposits.
• Inguinal ligament and canal
95
Muscles of Hip and Thigh

96

97
Muscles of Hip and Thigh


98
Muscles of Abdomen
Identification exercise. Identify each muscle; describe the origin, insertion and actions

Muscles of the thigh, cross-section. Identify the indicated structures.
1. Fascia Lata
2. Fat Deposits
3. Femoral Artery, Vein & Nerve
4. Femur
5. M. Adductor Brevis
6. M. Adductor Longus
7. M. Adductor Magnus
8. M. Biceps Femoris, long head
9. M. Gracilis
10. M. Rectus Femoris
11. M. Sartorius
12. M. Semimembranosus
13. M. Semitendinosus
14. M. Vastus Intermedius
15. M. Vastus Lateralis
16. M. Vastus Medialis
17. Sciatic Nerve
99
Muscles of the thigh, anterior superficial view. Identify the indicated structures
1. Fascia Lata – Iliotibial band

2. M. Adductor Brevis
3. M. Adductor Longus
4. M. Adductor Magnus
5. M. Gracilis
6. M. Pectineus
7. M. Rectus Femoris
8. M. Sartorius
9. M. Tensor Fascia Lata
10. M. Vastus Intermedius
11. M. Vastus Lateralis
12. Patella
13. Patellar tendon
SELF-TEST -- MUSCLES OF THE HIP, THIGH AND ABDOMEN

1. The trunk is composed of the thorax and abdomen.

2. An aponeurosis is a broad, flat, tendinous sheet.
3. The anterior part of the cat’s trunk is suspended in a sling formed by he serratus anterior muscle.
4. Intercostal muscles are intrinsic to the thorax.
5. The rectus abdominis muscles insert on the linea alba.
6. Weak places in the structure of the abdominal wall occur at the umbilicus and inguinal canals.
7. The vastus intermedius muscles flexes the thigh at the hip and extends the leg at the knee.
8. The gracilis muscle flexes the thigh at the hip and flexes the leg at the knee and laterally rotates the femur.
9. The system of dense fibrous connective tissue that covers the muscle mass of the thigh is the fascia lata.
10. The sheet of dense fibrous connective tissue that runs along the lateral side of the thigh is called the iliotibial band.
11. The largest of the muscles that adduct the thigh at the hip is the adductor longus.
12. The major adductors of the thigh are the adductor magnus, adductor longus, adductor brevis and the tensor fascia lata.
13. The arches of the foot are an example of the application of synovial gliding articulations.
14. The large nerve that runs through the muscles of the posterior thigh is the “sciatic nerve”.
15. The dense fibrous connective tissue covering the gluteus maximus is the crural fascia.
16. Major fat deposits typically may be found at the inner thigh.
17. Tension on the patella and extension of the leg at the knee is accomplished mainly by action of the hamstring muscles.
18. Hamstring muscles include the biceps femoris, semitendinosus, and gluteus maximus.
19. The knee joint is an example of a ball and socket joint.
100
Name: Lab section:
LABORATORY 8 REPORT
MUSCLES OF THE HIP, THIGH AND ABDOMEN
Format: Group report (2-4 students per group), written, due next laboratory).
1. List the muscles of the hip and thigh that cross two joints and give the unique functions of these muscles
because of this configuration.
2. Make a sketch of the ischial tuberosity of the pelvis and show which muscles are associated.
3. Outline the muscles that contribute to each of hip movements listed.

flexion
extension
adduction
abduction
4. What are the main muscles of the abdomen? What do they do and how do they work?
101
Lab 9. Muscles of leg, ankle and foot
LABORATORY 9
MUSCLES OF THE LEG, ANKLE AND FOOT
The muscles of the leg and foot are important in supporting our bipedal locomotion. Most of the muscle
mass is located fairly high in the leg, with muscle being inconspicuous in the ankle. Humans are unique
in that, in anatomical position, the foot is already flexed. Because of this foot orientation, the larger
muscles acting on the foot often use pulley like structures to direct their action (e.g., median and lateral
malleolus of tibia and fibula, and the sustentaculum tali of the calcaneus). The leg muscles are packaged,
and work, within strong compartments of deep fascia. These compartments facilitate circulatory
dynamics, and minimize the pooling of blood and other fluids in the lower extremities. In this laboratory
we will study the muscles of the leg and associated structures.
OBJECTIVES
❑ Identify the major muscles that provide the movements of the leg, ankle, and foot.
❑ Distinguish the origins and insertions of the major muscles of the leg, ankle, and foot.
❑ Describe how the major actions of the muscles of the leg, ankle and foot relate to the actions of
the foot during walking. State the main antagonists of each muscle.
❑ Locate and describe the major systems of fascia and retinacula located in the leg, ankle and foot.
❑ Explain how the malleoli and sustentaculum tali affect muscle dynamics in this region as pulleys.
❑ Describe how muscles support the arches of the foot.
❑ Explain how the plantar aponeurosis (= plantar fascia) is adaptive.
❑ Predict how fluids are kept from pooling in the leg, ankle and foot (Lymphatics).
❑ How do the muscles of the foot support the arches and actions of walking?
EXERCISE 1. MUSCLES OF THE LEG

Remove the skin from the lower leg, ankle, and foot. Observe the superficial layer of deep fascia, called
the fascia crurus, which holds the muscle mass closely to the underlying skeleton. Note that the anterior
crest of the tibia lies just below the skin, and note the location and attachment of the tendo calcaneus (=
Achilles tendon). Observe that the muscles of the leg are tightly packaged in one of four compartments
by deep fascia as follows: Anterior, lateral (= peroneal), posterior superficial, and posterior deep
compartments. Observe that the muscles of lower leg attach to their points of insertion by long tendons
that cross the ankle. These tendons are held in place by flexor and extensor retinacula. The lateral
malleolus serves as a pulley to redirect the forces of the M. peroneus longus and peroneus brevis. The
median malleolus serves as a pulley to redirect the forces of the M. tibialis posterior and flexor digitorum
longus. The sustentaculum tali serve as a pulley to redirect the forces of the M. flexor hallucis longus.
The foot skeleton is configured into a series of flexible arches and is protected inferiorly by the plantar
aponeurosis (= plantar fascia). Isolate the muscles outlined in Table 9.1 by dissection. Learn their
identity, origins, insertions and actions.
102
Table 9.1. Muscles of the lower leg.

____________________________________________________________________________
Muscles Origin Insertion _____ Action__
ANTERIOR:
Tibialis anterior lateral condyle &. upper medial plantar surface of first dorsiflexion & inversion of
& upper lat ½ tibia cuneiform & med plantar foot; supports med longt arch
base of metatarsal 1
Extensor digitorum lateral condyle, upper middle and distal phalanges of extension of toes 2-5
longus 3/4 of anterior fibula toes 2-5 (on anterior surface) dorsiflexion of foot
Peroneus tertius distal 1/2 of ant. fibula mediodorsal metatarsal 5 eversion of foot
and base of metatarsal 4 dorsiflexion of foot
Extensor hallucis medial & mid fibula base of distal phalanx extension of hallux
longus of hallux dorsiflexion of foot
POSTERIOR:
Gastrocnemius post. lat & med condyles tuberosity of calcaneus plantar flexion of foot
of femur (Achilles tendon) flexion of knee
Soleus head of fibula, posterior 1/3 tuberosity of calcaneus plantar flexion of foot
of fibula, soleal line of (Achilles tendon)
mid tibia
Plantaris lateral.posterior condyle of tuberosity of calcaneus plantar flexion

femur (Achilles tendon) flex. of knee
Flexor digitorum proximal mid tibia distal phalanges 2-5 flexion of toes 2-5, plantar flexion
longus via median malleolus supports med longitudinal arch,
inversion of foot
Flexor hallucis inferior 2/3 of fibula base of distal. phalanx flexion of hallux; plantar flexion
longus (posterior) of hallux (via of foot; supports longitudinal arch
sustentaculum tali) foot inversion
Tibialis posterior proximal fibula plantar surface of navicular,. plantar flexion & inversion of foot
lateral mid. tibia cuneiform 1-3, metatarsals 2-4 inversion of foot; supports arches
interosseous membrane (via med malleolus)
LATERAL:
Peroneus longus head & prox 2/3 of fibula base of metatarsal 1 plantar flexion & eversion of foot:
(=Fibularis longus) intermuscular septum and first cuneiform (=pronation)
(via lat malleolus) supports transverse arches of foot
Peroneus brevis distal. 2/3 of fibula; lat base of metatarsal 5 plantar flexion & eversion
(= Fibularis brevis) intermuscular septum of foot; supports lat. longit. arch
_______________________________________________________________________________________
103
Associated structures to locate and learn:

• Fascia crurus -- deep fascia completely investing muscles of leg.
• Achilles tendon (= tendo calcaneus) -- tendon of insertion for M. gastrocnemius, soleus, and
plantaris.
• Sustentaculum tali of calcaneus -- pulley for tendon of insertion of M. flex. hallucis
longus.
• Median malleolus -- pulley for tendons of insertion of M. tibialis posterior and flex.
digitorum longus.
• Lateral malleolus -- pulley for tendons of insertion of M. peroneus longus and p. brevis.
• Plantar aponeurosis -- thick layer of fascia and fat protecting inferior surface of foot.
• Arches of the foot -- and muscular arch support by M. tibialis anterior and peroneus longus.
• Extensor retinaculum: Transverse crural ligament, and cruciate crural ligament.
• Peroneal retinaculum -- hold peroneal tendons to ankle.
• Flexor retinaculum -- holds flexor tendons to ankle.
• Deep fascial muscle compartments (anterior, lateral, posterior superficial, posterior deep)
Muscles of the Leg (Anterior compartment)
Identification exercise. Identify each muscle; describe the origin, insertion and actions
104

Muscles of the Leg (posterior superficial compartment)
105

Muscles of the Leg (posterior deep compartment)
106

Muscles of the Leg, cross-section. Identify the indicated structures
1. Anterior tibial vessels

2. Crural septum, anterior & posterior
3. Fascia crurus
4. Fat deposits
5. Fibula
6. Intermuscular septum, deep posterior
7. Interosseous membrane
8. M. Extensor digitorum longus
9. M. Extensor hallucis longus
10. M. Flexor digitorum longus
11. M. Flexor hallucis longus
12. M. Gastrocnemius, aponeurosis
13. M. Peroneus (= Fibularis) brevis
14. M. Peroneus (= Fibularis) longus
15. M. Plantaris, tendon of insertion
16. M. Soleus
17. M. Tibialis anterior
18. M. Tibialis posterior
19. Peroneal (=Fibular) vessels
20. Posterior tibial vessels & nerves
21. Tibia
107
Tendons of the ankle, from median view, showing malleolus and sustentaculum tali. Locate and
identify structures shown.
1. Calcaneus, tuberosity
2. Cuneiform bone1
3. Median Malleolus of tibia
4. Metatarsal 1
5. Sustentaculum tali of calcaneus
6. Tendo Calcaneus (= Achilles tendon)
7. Tendon of M. Extensor digitorum long.
8. Tendon of M. Extensor hallucis longus
9. Tendon of M. Flexor digitorum longus
10. Tendon of M. Flexor hallucis longus
11. Tendon of M. Tibialis anterior
12. Tendon of M. Tibialis posterior
108
SELF-TEST -- MUSCLES OF THE LEG, ANKLE AND FOOT

1. The muscles contributing to the structure of the tendon of Achilles are the Gastrocnemius, soleus, and popliteus.
2. The system of dense connective tissue covering the surface of the leg is the curural fascia.
3. The soleus muscle causes an action called dorsiflexion of the foot at the ankle.
4. The gastrocnemius muscle causes flexion of the knee and plantar flexion of the foot at the ankle.
5. The Achilles tendon inserts on the talus bone.
6. The peroneus longus and peroneus brevis use the lateral malleolus as pulley to redirect the direction of their
force.
7. Lifting the body weight vertically over the ball of the foot by the contraction of the soleus muscle is an example
of a third class lever.
8. The sole of the foot is covered by a system of dense fibrous connective tissue called the plantar aponeurosis.
9. The lateral longitudinal arch is supported by contractions of the tibialis anterior, and tibialis posterior muscle.
10. Muscles of the leg are found in one of four fascial compartments.
11. Muscles found in the anterior fascial compartment of the leg include the tibialis anterior, extensor digitorum
longus, extensor hallucis longus, and peroneus longus.
12. The muscles that extend the toes and ankle are held close to the anklebones by the cruciate retinaculum.
13. The tendons of insertion of the peroneus brevis and longus are held in place by the flexor retinaculum.
14. A major muscle that raises the toes off the ground, by dorsiflexion of the foot, when we step forward is the tibialis
posterior.
109
Name: Lab section:
LABORATORY 9 REPORT
MUSCLES OF THE LEG, ANKLE, AND FOOT
Format: Group report (2-4 students per group); written; due next lab
1. The gastrocnemius and soleus are closely associated in location, but have a striking difference in
functions. Explain the difference in function of these two muscles and give the anatomical basis for
the differences.
2. How do muscles help support the arches of the foot? If you have foot pain caused by a falling arch,
what might you be able to do to correct the problem?
3. Make a biomechanical force diagram that explains the dorsi flexion movement caused by the tibialis
anterior. Give the bones that serve as levers, the joint serving as the primary fulcrum, the point at
which the force is applied and the resistance. What class of lever is this?
4. Outline the muscles that contribute to each of the following important movements of the ankle and
foot.
dorsiflexion
plantar flexion
eversion of foot
inversion of foot
elevators of the arches
110
111

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Biol 328 Fall 2018 Lab Manual Part 1 (Labs 1-9)

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Human Anatomy

with illustrations by students:

Copyright © 2015 by Stanley C. Williams

VALUES OF THE LABORATORY

HOW TO USE THIS STUDY GUIDE

Word Definition Example

Table 1.2. Bones of the adult human skeleton. There are

Skull, Facial (14)

Inferior appendage (62)

EXERCISE 1. THE STRUCTURE OF VERTEBRAE

What functions are served by the vertebrae?

EXERCISE 2. COMPARISON OF VERTEBRAE TYPES AND SPECIALIZATIONS

Sacral vertebrae (= sacrum) (5) -- fusion of 5 vertebrae.

Which kind of vertebrae demonstrates the most anatomical specialization?

Explain the specializations and how they are adaptive.

Table 1.3 Distinguishing characteristics of vertebrae.

size small medium Large

transverse foramina present absent Absent

transverse process small, narrow medium, narrow short, wide/blunt

articular facets/ demifacets absent present Absent

EXERCISE 3. THE ATLAS AND AXIS VERTEBRAE

Atlantooccipital articulation -- characteristic “yes" movement. A synovial hinge joint.

Atlantoaxial articulation -- characteristic “no" movement. A synovial pivot joint.

Where is the body of the atlas vertebra?

EXERCISE 4. THE SPINAL CURVATURES

How are the curvatures of the adult spine adaptive?

EXERCISE 5. STRUCTURE OF THE RIB CAGE

Sternum: Manubrium, body, and xiphoid process.

Examine an articulated skeleton and locate the following:

Figure 1.7. Structure of a rib.

What is the difference between a false rib and a true rib?

Why are some false ribs called "floating"?

EXERCISE 6. ARTICULATIONS OF THE AXIAL SKELETON

EXERCISE 7 EXAMINATION OF THE FETAL SKELETON

EXERCISE 8. COMPARISON OF THE AXIAL SKELETON OF HUMANS WITH THOSE

Figure 1.9. Articulated skeleton of a chicken.

Figure 1.10. Domestic cat skeleton.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

GREEK & LATIN ORIGINS OF WORDS USED WITH THE SKULL

Table 2.1. Words commonly used in the study of the skull.

EXERCISE 1. GENERAL FEATURES OF THE SKULL

Cranium vs. face -- and reference to cranial vs. facial bones.

Cavities and fossae:

• orbital fossa • posterior cranial fossa

What is adaptive about the location and orientation of the orbits?

Which bones make up the orbits of the eye?

EXERCISE 2. EXTERNAL STRUCTURE OF SKULL

A. Anterior view of skull.

Maxilla (2) alveolar margin infraorbital foramen

Landmarks: Orbital fossae, nasal septum, and anterior nasal aperture

What are the functions of cranial foramina?

B. Lateral view of skull.

Bone (#) Structures Foramina___________

C. Inferior view of skull.

EXERCISE 3. INTERIOR VIEW OF CRANIUM.

Table 2. 2. Foramina associated with bones of the skull.

EXERCISE 4. PARANASAL SINUSES

What are two important functions of the sinuses?

Figure 2.6. Ethmoid bone (superior view).

Figure 2.8. Frontal bone, anterior view.

Figure 2.9. Occipital bone. Superior view

EXERCISE 5. MOVEMENTS AND ARTICULATIONS OF THE SKULL

How are sutures an adaptive articulation?

EXERCISE 6. INNER STRUCTURE OF TEMPORAL BONE