Vaivav Mohanty

NON WOVENS IN PROTECTIVE WEAR

SEMINAR SUBMITTED TO THE

INSTITUTE OF CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

in

FIBRES AND TEXTILE PROCESSING

TECHNOLOGY

UNDER THE GUIDANCE

OF

PROF. ASHOK ATHALYE

BY

VAIVAV MOHANTY

B.Tech. – (Fibres and Textile Processing Technology) – SEMESTER VII

INSTITUTE OF CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY,

Deemed to be University

MATUNGA, MUMBAI- 400 019

submitted on 20 November 2020

th

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 Vaivav Mohanty

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

On successful completion of the seminar “Non Wovens for Protective Wear”, I would
like to thank my guide Prof. Ashok Athalye for his constant guidance and support in
completion of this seminar

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 Vaivav Mohanty

CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that Vaivav Mohanty, Roll No 17TXT115 of B.Tech in Fibres and
Textile Processing Technology has successfully completed the seminar on the topic “Non
Wovens in Protective Wear” under the guidance of Prof. Ashok Athalye of Department
of Fibres and Textile Processing Technology, Institute of Chemical Technology,
Mumbai.

Seminar Supervisor,

Head, Dept of Fibres and Textile Processing Technology

Seal

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 INDEX

Sr. No Topic Page Number

1 Abstract 5
2 Introduction to Non Wovens 6
3 Manufacturing of Non 7
Wovens
3.1 Web Formation 8
3.2 Web Bonding 12
4 Fibres Used in Non Wovens
5 Global Scenario and Future
Trends for Non Wovens
6 Why use Non Wovens in
Protective Clothing
7 Applications in Protective
Clothing
7.1 Chemical Protective Clothing
7.2 Protective Clothing for
Defense Personnel
7.3 Non Wovens in Medical
Textiles
9 EDANA and INDA Standard
Procedures
10 Performance Evaluation
Standards
11 References

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1. ABSTRACT

Protective clothing manufacturing, mainly against fire and chemicals, is the major driver
of the apparel manufacturing market for nonwoven fabrics. Nonwoven fabrics are further
utilized for manufacturing of masks, surgical gowns and also as protective clothing
against chemicals, pesticides, manufacturing electronics, and in all laboratories.

Nonwoven provides a numerous advantages contrast to woven fabrics, particularly with

respect to cost benefits, owing to its direct fiber to fabric formation process, high volume
of production and less manpower requirement. This difference in cost is sufficient for
them to completely replace woven fabrics for fashion apparel applications, if they were
not suffered by the distinct disadvantages in terms of their mechanical properties, poor
drape or flexibility. Design and production of a nonwoven fabric to mimic a woven cloth
for apparel uses have to meet the following requirements such as physical requirements,
thermo-physiological requirements, biomechanical requirements and psychological
requirements.

In this detailed report on the applications of non wovens in the protective clothing sector,
we look into the different manufacturing processes and the process variables for non
wovens, the global scenario and the future for non wovens, the applications of non
wovens in protective wear, and the various standard procedures to be followed and the
tests to be carried out on protective clothing to be deemed fit for various end uses.

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2.0 INTRODUCTION TO NON WOVENS

Nonwoven fabrics are engineered fabrics created from fibers, continuous

filaments or cut yarns. They are flexible, porous, products consisting of one or
more fibre layers. The separate fibres may either be preferentially oriented in one
direction or may be deposited in a random manner. Non-woven are bonded by
chemical, thermal or mechanical processes into textile products. They are mainly
planar structures.

Figure: Nonwoven fabric

Definition ISO 9092:1988 & EDANA

“A nonwoven is a sheet of fibres, continuous filaments, or chopped yarns of any

nature or origin, that have been formed into a web by any means, and bonded
together by any means, with the exception of weaving or knitting.

Felts obtained by wet milling are not nonwovens. Wetlaid webs are nonwovens
provided they contain a minimum of 50% of man-made fibers or other fibres of
non-vegetable origin with a length to diameter ratio equals or superior to 300, or a
minimum of 30% of man-made fibers with a length to

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 diameter ratio equals or superior to 600, and a maximum apparent density of 0.40
g/cm³.
Composite structures are considered nonwovens provided their mass is
constituted of at least 50% of nonwoven as per to the above definitions, or if the
nonwoven component plays a prevalent role.”
Woven and knitted fabrics require a preliminary set of spinning yarns from fibres
before fabric assembly. In some nonwoven manufacture the fibers are assembled
directly into fabrics (missing out the yarn stage), and in other nonwoven
manufacture the fabric is made directly from the polymer (i.e. the material goes
from polymers to form a stable fabric in a single processing step)
As the term nonwovens covers a large variety of differing manufacturing
processes the definition of a nonwoven is not a simple one.
Today, there are two leading associations of nonwovens in the world, namely
EDANA (The European Disposables and Nonwovens Association) and INDA
(The North America’s Association of the Nonwoven Fabrics Industry). They have
been the voice of the nonwoven industries in Europe and North America,
respectively. Nonwovens are defined by them as well. Though EDANA has
adopted the ISO 9092 or CEN 29092 definition of nonwoven. but, INDA prefers
to define nonwovens in another way. According to INDA, “Nonwoven fabrics are
broadly defined as sheet or web structures bonded together by entangling fiber or
filaments (and by perforating films) mechanically, thermally or chemically. They
are flat, porous sheets that are made directly from separate fibers or from molten
plastic or plastic film. They are not made by weaving or knitting and do not
require converting the fibers to yarn.”
It is quite interesting to note that these definitions include raw materials,
structures, and manufacturing processes employed to prepare nonwovens.
However, there is no unique definition of nonwoven found exist into world.

3.0 MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF NONWOVEN

Nonwovens are typically manufactured by putting small fibers together in the form of a
sheet or web (similar to paper on a paper machine), and then binding them either

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mechanically (as in the case of felt, by interlocking them with serrated needles such that
the inter-fiber friction results in a stronger fabric), withan adhesive, or thermally (by
applying binder (in the form of powder, paste, or polymer melt) and melting the binder
onto the web by increasing temperature).

The production of nonwovens takes place in three stages, although modern technology
allows an overlapping of some stages, and in some cases all three stages can take place at
the same time.

The three stages are:

Figure: 3 stages of Manufacturing of Non Wovens

3.1 WEB FORMATION

Nonwovens manufacturing starts by the arrangement of fibres in a sheet or web. The
fibres can be staple fibres or filaments extruded from molten polymer granules.

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Illustrations of some of the methods used to form a web:

I. DRYLAID CARDED

Figure: Drylaid Carded

Carding is a mechanical process which starts from bales of fibres. These fibres are
‘opened’ and blended after which they are conveyed to the card by air transport. They are
then combed into a web by a carding machine, which is a rotating drum or series of
drums covered by card wire (thin strips with teeth). The precise configuration of cards
will depend on the type of fibre and the basis weight to be produced. The web can be
parallel-laid, where most of the fibres are laid in the machine direction, or they can be
randomised. Typical parallel-laid carded webs result in good tensile strength, low
elongation and low tear strength in the machine direction and the reverse in the cross
direction. Machine parameters and fibre mix can be varied to produce a wide range of
fabrics with different properties.

II. MELTBLOWN CARDED

WEB FORMATION
 Figure: Meltblown Carded

Meltblown, like spunlaid, starts with extruding a low viscosity polymer. But instead
of quenching the filaments when they leave the spinneret, the filaments are being
attenuated by hot air streams, keeping the filaments in a partly molten state. This
leads to much thinner filaments, with a low tensile strength. The filaments hit a belt
or a conveyor belt where they form a web.

Melt-blown nonwovens are produced by extruding melted polymer fibers through a

spin net or die consisting of up to 40 holes per inch to form long thin fibers which are
stretched and cooled by passing hot air over the fibers as they fall from the die. The
resultant web is collected into rolls and subsequently converted to finished products.
The extremely fine fibers (typically polypropylene) differ from other extrusions,
particularly spun bond, in that they have low intrinsic strength but much smaller size
offering key properties. Often melt blown is added to spun bond to form SM or SMS
webs, which are strong and offer the intrinsic benefits of fine fibers such as fine
filtration, low pressure drop as used in face masks or filters and physical benefits such
as acoustic insulation as used in dishwashers. One of the largest users of SM and
SMS materials is the disposable diaper and feminine care industry.

III. SPUNLAID CARDED

WEB FORMATION
 Figure: Spunlaid Carded

Spunmelt is a generic term describing the manufacturing of nonwoven webs directly

from thermoplastic polymers. It encompasses 2 processes, spunlaid and meltblown,
often run in combination.

Polymer granules are extruded into filaments through so called spinnerets. The
continuous filaments are stretched and quenched before being deposited on conveyor
belt to form a uniform web. The spunlaid process results into nonwovens with an
increased strength compared to carding, due to the attenuation of the filaments. The
downside is that the choice of raw materials is more restricted. Co-extrusion of two
components leads to bico fibres, either adding more properties to the web or allowing
air-through bonding. Please note that the word spunbonded is reserved for thermo
bonded spunlaid.

Spunlaid, also called spunbond, nonwovens are made in one continuous process.
Fibers are spun and then directly dispersed into a web by deflectors or can be directed
with air streams. This technique leads to faster belt speeds, and cheaper costs. Several
variants of this concept are available, such as the REICOFIL machinery. PP

WEB FORMATION
spunbonds run faster and at lower temperatures than PET spunbonds, mostly due to
the difference in melting points

Spunbond has been combined with melt-blown nonwovens, conforming them into a
layered product called SMS (spun-melt-spun). Melt-blown nonwovens have
extremely fine fiber diameters but are not strong fabrics. SMS fabrics, made
completely from PP are water-repellent and fine enough to serve as disposable
fabrics. Melt-blown is often used as filter media, being able to capture very fine
particles. Spunlaid is bonded by either resin or thermally. Regarding the bonding of
Spunlaid, Reiter has launched a new generation of nonwovens called Spunjet. In fact,
Spunjet is the bonding of the Spunlaid filaments thanks to the hydroentanglement.

IV. SHORT FIBRE AIRLAID

Figure: Short Fibre Airlaid

In short fibre airlaid the fibres, which are always relatively short, are fed into a
forming head by an airstream. The forming head assures a homogeneous mix of

WEB FORMATION
 all fibres. By air again, a controlled part of the fibre mix leaves the forming head
and is deposited on a moving belt, where a randomly oriented web is formed.
Compared with carded webs, airlaid webs have a lower density, a greater softness
and an absence of laminar structure. Airlaid webs offer great versatility in terms
of the fibres and fibre blends that can be used.

3.2 MATERIAL VARIABLES

The material variables include the polymer type, molecular weight, molecular weight
distribution, polymer additives, polymer degradation and polymer forms.
Basically, any fiber-forming polymer that can give an acceptably low-melt viscosity at a
suitably processing temperature and can solidify before landing on the collector screen ca
be melt blown into fine-fibered webs. Some of the processed polymers are:
 Polypropylene is easy to process and makes good web.
Polyethylene is more difficult to melt-blow into fine fibrous webs than is
polypropylene.
 Polyethylene is difficult to draw because of its melt elasticity.
PBT processes easily and produces very soft, fine-fibered webs.
 Nylon 6 is easy to process and makes good webs.
 Nylon 11 melt-blows well into webs that have very unusual leather like feel.
 Polycarbonate produces very soft-fiber webs.
 Polystyrene produces an extremely soft, fluffy material with essentially no shot
defects.
Usually, polymer in pellet form is used for processing, but the present trend is to
use polymer granules. It is beloved that the granules melt faster and give a more
even heat distribution.
The melt blown process requires low molecular weight and narrow molecular
weight distribution resins to produce uniform fine-fibered webs.

3.3 WEB BONDING

Webs have a limited initial strength right after the web formation (depending on various

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bonding mechanisms). The web needs therefore to be consolidated in one or the other
way. The choice of the web consolidation method strongly depends on functional
properties that are needed as well as on the type of fibres used.

There are three basic types of bonding:

I. THERMAL BONDING (COHESIVE BONDING)

Figure: Thermal Bonding

This method uses the thermoplastic properties of certain synthetic fibres to form
bonds under controlled heating. In some cases, the web fibre itself can be used,
but more often a low melt fibre or bicomponent fibre is introduced at the web
formation stage to perform the binding function later in the process.

There are several thermal bonding systems in use:

Calendering uses heat and high pressure applied through rollers to weld the fibre
webs together at high speed.

Through-air thermal bonding makes bulkier products by the overall bonding of a

web containing low melting fibres. This takes place in a carefully controlled hot
air stream.

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 Drum and blanket systems apply pressure and heat to make products of average
bulk.

Ultrasonic bonding is a technology in which molecules of the fibres are being

‘excited’ under a patterned roller by high frequency movement of a ‘sonotrode’
which produces internal heating and softening of the fibres.

II. MECHANICAL BONDING

Figure: Mechanical Bonding

In mechanical bonding the strengthening of the web is achieved by inter-fibre
friction as a result of the physical entanglement of the fibres. There are two main
types of mechanical bonding:
Needlepunching, specially designed needles are pushed and pulled through the
web to entangle the fibres. Webs of different characteristics can be needled
together to produce a gradation of properties difficult to achieve by other means.
Needlepunching can be used with most fibre types but, because of the nature of
the process, not with very fine fibers.
Hydroentanglement is commonly applied to carded or wetlaid webs and uses fine,

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high pressure water jets to cause the fibres to interlace. Hydroentangling is
sometimes referred to as spunlacing, as the arrangement of jets can also be used to

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 give a wide variety of aesthetically pleasing effects. The water jet pressure used
has a direct bearing on the strength of the web.

III. CHEMICAL BONDING (ADHESIVE BONDING)

Figure: Chemical Bonding

Chemical bonding refers to the application of a liquid-based bonding agent to the
web. Three groups of materials are commonly used as binders-acrylate polymers
and copolymers, styrene-butadiene copolymers and vinyl acetate ethylene
copolymers. Water based binder systems are the most widely used but powdered
adhesives, foam and in some cases organic solvent solutions can be found.
The binder can be applied in many ways. It can be applied uniformly by
impregnating, coating or spraying or intermittently, as in print bonding.

IV. Ultrasonic pattern bonding: used in high-loft or fabric insulation/quilts/bedding

V. Needle punching/needle felting: mechanical intertwining of fibres by needles
VI. Melt-blown: fibre is bonded as air attenuated fibers intertangle with themselves
during simultaneous fiber and web formation.

4. FIBERS USED FOR NONWOVEN FABRIC

Fibers are the basic element of Nonwovens. Manufacturers of Nonwovens products can

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make use of almost any kind of fibers. These include traditional textile fibers, as well as
recently developed hi-tech fibers. The selection of raw fibers, to considerable degree,
determines the properties of the final nonwoven products. The selection of fibers also
depend on customer requirement, cost, process ability, changes of properties because of
web formation and consolidation. The fibers can be in the form of filament, staple fiber
or even yarn. The following table shows the significant fibers used in the Nonwovens
industry all over the world.

Fig: Fibers used in the Nonwovens industry

5. GLOBAL SCENARIO AND FUTURE TRENDS FOR NONWOVENS
The Nonwoven industry is one of the fastest growing industries in the world. It is rapidly
developing a sophisticated and diverse market. It has been exhibiting an average growth
of about 10% over the past twenty years and should continue this rate of growth in the
next ten years. The technology in Nonwoven industry has been improved significantly in

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nearly all available major manufacturing processes, including those of spun bond,
meltblown, needle punched, spunlaced, wet laid and dry laid fabrication. The most
important point in rapid development and commercial acceptance of nonwovens is the
ability to produce materials of special properties in less time and at reasonable prices.
The relative production speeds of various textile technologies are compared in table.

Fig: Relative production rates of different Textile technologies

A large number of fibers are available n the market, but the Nonwovens market is mainly
dominated by three fibers, namely polyolefin’s, polyester, and rayon. These three fiber
types make up a substantial part of the overall Nonwovens markets for fibers.

The production of Nonwovens amounts to approximately 20% of the total production of

textiles and this percentage grows year by year. The world production of Nonwovens is
shown in below Table. The growth rates of Nonwoven production are extremely high,
when compared with the conventional textiles industry.

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 Fig: World production of Nonwovens

Fig: The global nonwoven growth from 2010-20

Recent years have been marked by an accelerated development of unconventional

techniques in textile manufacturing. A common characteristic of those new technologies
has been a partial or complete elimination of conventional operational practices like
spinning, weaving, knitting, etc. One of the characteristic mark of the new product, which
can't be identified by the criteria of conventional textiles, are their specific properties and
end uses. Nonwoven product is one of them.

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Nonwovens are novel, innovative, engineered fabrics produced directly from fibres and
are used over an extensive variety of products and applications. There are abundant end-
uses of nonwovens like in hygiene, medical, wipes, surgical fabrics, liquids and gas
filtration, protective clothing, interlinings and clothing, leather like- goods and coating
substrates, shoes, upholstery, floor-covers, furniture and bedding, building and roofing,
structural engineering and in geosynthetics. Current life would be impossible without
them.

Nonwovens represent the highest growth segment in the textiles field. Over the last
decade, the extent of textile fibre used as a part of nonwoven has surpassed fibre use for
woven, knitted and other textile products. The growth in nonwovens is because of
growing technological advancements, new product developments and rising awareness
among consumers and their pace in adopting nonwoven goods. Growing hygiene and
medical industries are also supporting the nonwoven market growth, particularly in the
Asia-Pacific and Latin American regions. The Asia-Pacific region is expected to play a
major role for the nonwovens market primarily due to emerging economies in China and
India, accompanied with growing awareness among customers about the benefits of
nonwoven products.

Figure: Global Non Woven Market Value

The global nonwovens fabric market was valued at $37 billion in 2015 and according to
recent studies, it is anticipated to grow to around $50 billion by 2020, with the hygiene
segment being a key part of the market. Worldwide use of nonwovens was more than 9
million tonnes in 2015, and this could grow to 12 million tonnes by 2020. Anticipated
global growth rate is to be in the strong 6-7 per cent range.

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 Figure: Asia Non Woven Consumption

Spunlaid continue to be the principal web forming process

Spunlaid nonwovens, which incorporate spunbond, meltblown and SMS nonwoven

fabrics, were over half of the total market in 2016. They are anticipated to grow at the
rate of 7.5 per cent through 2020, which is the highest among all web-forming processes.
The massive use of spunlaid nonwovens is in the medical textiles fields, especially as
spunlaid polypropylene nonwovens fabrics. The spunlaid nonwovens consumption is
expected to reach 6.3 million tonnes by 2020. This will benefit from increased
penetration of markets which are now served by competing nonwovens or other classes
of materials.

Disposable nonwovens to see better growth than durables

Disposable nonwovens are growing at a slightly faster pace than durables, as in the
Central Asian markets, where growing upper and middle classes demand high
performance and high-value consumer goods (like medical materials, feminine hygiene
products and diapers), and move away from lower cost, low-quality products. The
disposables nonwoven market segment was around at $14.5 billion in 2015 and its value
will exhibit a 6.5 per cent growth rate, pushing the global market to $20 billion in 2020.
Hygiene materials are the biggest segment among disposable nonwovens, due for the
most part to the substantial baby diaper, toddler training pants and feminine hygiene
markets. Disposable wipes are another important, large and growing segment for
disposable nonwovens.

Expanding ground for durable nonwovens

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Nowadays, the use of nonwovens is clearly different from the earlier times when they
were only substitutes for wovens and knits. At present, they remain all alone in the areas
of durables and advanced application that historically have high profit margins.

Durable nonwovens reached $23.5 billion in 2015, and with a projected growth of 6.3 per
cent, sales are expected to reach $32 billion in 2020. A major use of durable nonwovens
is in building construction. A considerable chunk of nonwovens is used in automobiles
for carpeting, ceiling, dashboard, trunk lining and sound insulation. Their properties are
better than whatever else is used. Moreover, nonwovens are making progress in
geosynthetics and farming. They are highly engineered to give good strength-to-weight
ratio, and are more affordable than their woven counterparts.

Basis weights for nonwovens will keep dropping

Another important trend being seen across recent studies is the push towards reduction in
basis weights across all nonwovens. This has benefits like reducing raw material costs,
shipping and warehouse expenses, and waste disposal loads. For disposable nonwovens,
the overall reduction in basis weight in 2010-2015 was around 5 per cent. For 2015-2020,
this will proceed at a slower rate, with a further decrease of 3.8 per cent in basis weight.
This reduction in average basis weight can be because of newer equipment within a
process which can deliver lighter products. Polypropylene largest used raw material
for nonwovens

The raw materials used for production of nonwovens mostly include synthetic polymers
and fibres. They represent more than 90 per cent of overall output. Currently,
polypropylene (PP) is the major raw material used for global nonwovens.

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 Figure: Market Share of Materials Used in Non Wovens

PP, used as raw material in nonwovens manufacturing, is extremely versatile. It can be

softened sufficiently to bond with other fibres, reducing the need for chemical binding.
Use of PP was more than 60 per cent for nonwovens in 2015. The spunbonded PP
nonwoven fabrics market size occupied close to half of the total demand in 2015.
Considering superior characteristics, overall performance and competitive cost compared
to other synthetic fibers, PP fibres dominate the nonwoven market.

Reasons behind the anticipated growth in nonwovens

1. The world is becoming wealthier A great part of the nonwoven market is composed
of disposable nonwoven products. At the point when individuals have more income, they
generally spend that on "luxury" items, that includes nonwoven products.

2. The global population is increasing In 2015, as indicated by the World Bank, the
global population was estimated to be 7.347 billion. With this increase, it is logical to
expect that the demand for nonwoven products like medical supplies, hygiene products,
automobiles and infrastructure products like geotextiles will keep on rising.

3. The population is also aging As per World Bank, while most of the population (65.6
per cent) is between 15 and 64 years of age, 8.4 per cent population was more than 65
years old in 2015. This has an impact on adult incontinence products in addition to the
demand for medical nonwoven products. Moreover, life expectancy is growing as well.

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4. Several large countries are building infrastructure India and China are growing at
an accelerated rate with a large quantity of nonwoven product requirements in civil
engineering applications, building constructions and geotextiles applications.

5. Furniture applications in PP nonwovens may witness significant growth PP

nonwovens are used for manufacturing furniture & bedding construction, sheeting, arms
and back, dust covers, insulators, etc. These applications are expected to see significant
growth in the future.

6. Increasing number of surgical procedures This has been acting as one of the major
factors driving nonwovens demand in the medical industry. The medical nonwoven
products will remain the component of choice in future for giving required protection
because of their ability to create barriers either by the structure or from an additional
active coating for personal protective apparel.

Bright future ahead

There is a tremendous scope for growth in the nonwovens segment of the textiles
industry. Over the last few years, nonwovens have been one of the fastest growing
segments of the industry. Asia is the biggest consumer of nonwovens and it will keep on
growing with a healthy growth rate in coming years. China and India are the major
markets within Asia and they together represent more than two-third of the total
nonwovens consumption in Asia. It's an excellent time to be involved in nonwoven
product manufacturing. Like never before, innovation and investment are critical as the
market continues to expand. The future is brilliant for nonwovens.

6. WHY USE NON WOVENS IN PROTECTIVE CLOTHING?

Nonwovens are extensively used in the medical field and in protection against liquid,
biological and chemical agents in many sectors. They are also used in clean rooms,
laboratories and in the electronics industry to protect materials, goods and components
from human contamination.

The different uses are:

 Chemical handling

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  Petrochem industry
 Automotive industry
 Pharmaceutical industry (Manufacturing and Packaging)
 Laboratories
 Food industry
 Visitors, inspectors across in industry
 Agriculture and horticulture, veterinary inspections, farms, facilities etc.
 Decontamination of contaminated land
 Decommissioning of production plants
 Oil handling, oil tanker cleaning
 Tank cleaning
 Industrial cleaning and maintenance
 Hazardous waste clean-up
 Disease and disaster management
 Emergency response services, spill clean up
 Police
 Medical applications

They are used as protection against a variety of substances which could be harmful for
human contact, such as asbestos, dioxin, body fluids, hazardous gases, oils and lubricants,
inorganic, organic chemicals, dyes, colours, inks, disinfectants, nutraceuticals (vitamins,
etc.), dirt, fine dust, liquid aerosols, splashes, liquids under pressure.

Because they are used only once and incinerated after use, the need for handling is
avoided and the spread of contaminants is minimized.

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 Figure: Firemen dousing out fire

The advantages of using nonwovens in protective clothing

 Protection against
o dry or wet contact
o air-borne particles
 Flex cracking resistance
 Single-use = 100% certainty
 Excellent barrier properties
 Excellent uniformity
 Breathability
 Abrasion resistance

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 Repellence
 Trapezoidal tear strength
 Tensile strength
 Puncture resistance
 Resistance to permeation of liquids

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  Resistance to ignition
 Liquid repellence
 Flame retardancy

Nonwovens technologies used in protective clothing

 Drylaid
 Meltblown
 Spunlaid
 Hydro-entanglement

7.0 APPLICATIONS IN PROTECTIVE CLOTHING

In the nonwoven, the combined contribution of neighbouring fibers depends totally on

the extensibility of fiber and bond and is accordingly very restricted. The mechanism of
nonwoven fabric fitting is represented by the fiber rotation, fiber straightening, bond
rotation, bond expansion and fiber extension. The nonwoven can’t simply accommodate
in-plane compression without buckling as it does not have the easy shear path. The
incapability of nonwovens to distribute the stress at a tear, leads to premature breakdown
in outer wear. To put it plainly, the nonwoven structure is not in a superior position to
withstand tears, stitch gatherings and transfer of stresses in a fabricated garment in day-
to-day service.

The solutions recommended to improve the performance of nonwoven for apparel

applications are given below:

 The presentation of highly elastic and tough fibers and similarly elastic and strong
bonds needs to make nonwovens sturdier and stronger.
 Darting of the strands between the two surfaces of the fabric and presenting
bonding just at the midplane. This could improve the strength and flexibility of
nonwoven.

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  Extra fiber length between bonding points must allow higher deformability and
consequently decreased the fabric stiffness.
 The chance of attaining greater degrees of filament freedom of motion would be
improved with increasing space between the bonding points.
 Better fabric drapeability could be achieved by the use of binders with enhanced
mechanical properties.
 The durable and washable nonwovens by need must be hydroentangled. Hydro-
entangling produces fabrics that are flexible, soft and conformable, alike
traditional woven fabrics.

7.1 CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING

INTRODUCTION

The routes of chemical entry into the human body are oral, respiratory, and dermal. Of
these three main routes, the dermal exposure is considered the primary mechanism of
chemical entry through human body. While considering the entry of chemical through
respiration to prevent this it is essential to consider the respiratory mask as an essential
part of chemical protective clothing. It has been reported that 90% of all occupational
allergic contact dermatitis was found on the back of the hands and the fore arms.
However, contact dermatitis among homemakers occurred in almost 50% of the cases on
the palms. Whereas 15% of the time it affected the back of hands and fingers. The
location on body affected by occupational contact. This makes clear that chemicals used
in industries and work areas affect most of the workers.

The chemical protective clothing can be manufactured by many techniques that depend
on the end use requirements. This clearly implies the importance of protective clothing.

PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
The garments used in domestic purpose protect people from normal sunlight and climatic
conditions, but Protective garments are used for saving valuable human lives from

30
various hazards and climatic conditions which encounters human life.

Some of the hazards are

Hazards from thermal radiation.
Hazardous environments in warfare requiring bullet proof fabric.
Chemical hazards,
Mechanical hazards.
Extreme cold conditions.
Nuclear radiation.

Requirements of Protective Garments

Protective materials should have primary protective properties such as ballistic resistive,
puncture resistive, nuclear resistive, biological resistive, chemical resistive material,
and any combination of these properties.
Ability to incorporate communications means in electrical connection to system's
general computer; wherein electrical connections are hard-wire or wireless.
Capabilities wherein the protective material is camouflaged.
Ability to house a user-supported computer and providing protection against
penetrating threats to the user and to the computer.

Chemical Resistant Clothing

Where the chemical hazard results in a high level of skin protection required, appropriate
chemical resistant apparel which provides an effective barrier between the chemicals
used and the area of the body to be protected must be worn. It is important to note that no
single material will protect against all chemicals, and that no material is totally
impermeable2. Materials only temporarily resist chemical breakthrough; even the most
chemically resistant material will break down after repeated chemical exposures.
Selecting the clothing material which best protects against a particular chemical must be
based on chemical resistance performance upon contact with the chemical. Appropriate

31
chemical resistant clothing must demonstrate no penetration, no significant degradation, a
breakthrough time greater than the duration of the task, and a low permeation rate upon
contact with the chemicals used:
1) Penetration occurs when a chemical, leaks through seams, zippers, pinholes and other
imperfections in the clothing.
2) Degradation is the physical deterioration of a material due to contact with a chemical.
This may cause the material to soften, swell, shrink, stretch, dissolve, or to become hard
and brittle. Materials having a good to excellent rating against degradation should be
selected.
3) Permeation is the process by which a specific chemical diffuses through a material at
the molecular level, from the outside to the inside surface of the material. Chemical
permeation frequently occurs with no obvious signs of physical degradation of the
material. The rate of permeation is affected by factors such as the type of chemical,
chemical concentration, material thickness, humidity, temperature and pressure.
Permeation testing provides two important pieces of data for material selection ---
breakthrough time and permeation rate.
Breakthrough time is the elapsed time from the initial contact of the chemical on the
material exterior to the time of detection of the chemical on the inside surface and is a
measure of the time needed for a chemical to soak through the clothing material. The
expected duration for handling the chemical must fall well within the breakthrough time
of the clothing material under the conditions of use.
Permeation rate refers to the rate at which a chemical will move through the clothing
material once the chemical has broken through. The higher the permeation rate, the faster
the chemical will move through the material. The chemical protective clothing must have
a low permeation rate under the conditions of use.

CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING

The chemical protective earlier developed used activated carbon as absorbent that
absorbs chemicals; the activated carbon granules were coated using polyurethane foam,
but this method of coating resulted in heat stress for the wearer due to low air and water

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vapour permeability of the fabric. In this project we have used activated carbon as the
absorbent layer but with a novel method of coating them using needle punching
technique. Our chemical protective clothing consists of three layers outer fabric, sorptive
layer and inner layer.

The outer shell is a water repellent layer protecting from liquid chemicals, the sorptive
layer is the soul of the protective clothing absorbing liquid and air borne chemicals. The
inner layer provides comfort to the wearer.

ACTIVATED CARBON
In recent times, carbon has been one of the magnificent elements which have
revolutionized materials science. Carbon provides materials with excellent properties for
a large spectrum of industrial applications. Carbon exists in different forms from carbon
fibres to diamond. Porous carbons can be grouped into two categories: (i) Carbon foams
with desired architecture of pores for structural and thermal applications; recently, these
have been used as templates for making ceramics, (ii) activated carbons consisting of
porous carbons with added active surface chemical groups. Porous carbons, especially
activated porous carbons, constitute one of the most important types of industrial carbons
and have been in use for thousands of years.
Activated Carbon Absorption & Adsorption
Activated carbon in very fine powder or granular form is useful to purify both water and
air. Activated carbon has particular affinity to organic materials such as solvents used in
printing inks and common coatings.

When the carbon particle becomes saturated with the contaminant, the exit stream will
evidence a "breakthrough" of that contaminant, at which time the canister will be
replaced and/or reactivated (usually by heat). Since the waste stream usually can't be
interrupted during this regeneration, two or more carbon beds are often designed into the
system.

Activated carbon particles don't react with most organics, permitting:

Recovery through later heat regeneration and separation, or

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Incineration during regeneration from water-borne streams.
Water-born organic streams are usually mixed with activated carbon particles and
removed later by filtration. Granular activated carbon is often used in the filter bed itself.
It has been used to remove hydrocarbons, oils, phenols, and low concentrations of metals.
It isn't applicable for most heavy metals, nor waste streams with more than 10,000 ppm
organics or low molecular weight aliphatic hydrocarbons. Pretreatment of the stream may
be advisable where bed clogging by particulates or suspended materials is likely.

Development of Chemical Protective Clothing

The chemical protective clothing is formed by five layers, the outer shell made of
polyester as it has low absorption of 2% and it provides a good strength to the fabric and
polyester has a good resistance to lab grade chemicals. The inner layer is made up of
cotton fabric as it gives good absorbency and comfort. The middle layer comprises of
cotton non woven sandwiched with activated carbon.

The polyester fabric has 2% absorption, to avoid penetration of liquid chemicals through
the fabric; the fabric is finished with water repellent chemical NUVA HPU.

WATER REPELLENT FINISHING OF POLYESTER

1.NuvaHPU
Appearance -Liquid, milky-white dispersion
Chemical character - Dispersion of a flour compound
Ionic character - slightly cationic
Ph (DIN 53 996) - about 4 (5% as supplied aqueous)
Procedure
The finishing liquor is prepared with 50 g/l of Nuva- HPU and ph of the finishing liquor
is adjusted to 4 by using 0.5-1.5 ml/l acetic acid 60%. The polyester fabric is washed with
water to remove any dirt particles present on the fabric. The fabric to be finished is
padded in the finishing liquor for 1 hour at room temperature and the fabric is dried at
800c. The fabric is then cured at 1100c for 3 min. The fabric thus finished was evaluated
for its water repellency according to AATCC test method 22 – 1996, the fabric showed a
100% water repellency.

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Recipe:
Nuva HPU: 50 gpl
Aceticacid: 0.5 – 1.5 ml/l
Time: 1hour
Temperature : room temperature

NOVEL TECHNIQUE OF EMBEDING ACTIVATED CARBON

Activated carbon is a well known absorbent, there is a world Wide insistence on this
product for a multitude of uses, particularly air/gas treatment and Purification, Precious
Metal Recovery, in Catalysis and in protective clothing for absorbing of hazardous
chemicals. Extensive surface area pores of 5 to 10 A 0 radius, which provides
unmatchable adsorption and retentive capabilities for gases and low molecular weight.
The activated carbon used in the chemical protective clothing was got from core carbons
pvt ltd. The carbon had the following specifications
Carbon Tetra Chloride Adsorption % - 75/85
Apparent Density gm/cc - 0.42 - 0.47
Ash Content (Max) % - max 2.5
Ball - Pan Hardness Number - 96.5+
PH - 9/11
Surface Area sq.M/gm - 1300 – 1400
Size of granules - 0.85 X 0.300 mm

The conventional chemical protective clothing was based on embedding activated carbon
using adhesives and polyurethane foam with an activated carbon load of 120 – 160 GSM.
These fabrics had low comfort properties of air permeability and thermal comfort causing
stress to the wearer. As a solution to this problem selectively permeable membranes were
developed. Which is capable of protecting from some chemicals and the membranes are
too costly. Another cost-effective solution to this problem is the Novel approach of
bonding activated carbon using needle punching technology.

Preparation of Non-Woven Fabric & Embedding of Activated Carbon

The novel technique of embedding activated carbon uses a base fabric made of 100 %

35
cotton and needle punched cotton non-woven. The fabric acts as base for the activated
carbon and also as a inner lining for the final fabric enabling easy absorption of sweat
from the wearer and transporting them to the outer layer. More over the cotton fabric
provides comfort to the wearer. The plain-woven cotton fabric was spread over the table.
Above the fabric needle punched non-woven produced by previously explained technique
was placed and the activated carbon particles were spread uniformly over the width and
length of the fabric (Refer Fig 3.2). The carbon was spread uniformly to give a GSM of
160. Above the activated carbon layer another layer of needle punched non-woven was
placed. The whole assembly was then applied with pressure and wound to form a roll.

The activated carbon granules coated over the double pass needle punched fabric gets
embedded in the non-woven. The cotton fibres dose not allows the carbon granules to
move from its place. The activated carbon coated non-woven had a GSM of 341.

Needling
The fabric thus prepared was fed in to the needle punching machine through a pair of
conveyors and calendar rollers. To provide a initial cohesion to the layers a pressure of 6
bar was maintained at front and back pair of calendar rollers. The web was fed such that
the cotton woven fabric as the top layer.
The fabric layers were needle punched with following settings:
In feed speed: 0.4 m /min
Draw off speed: 0.4 m/ min
Strokes / min: 152
Depth: 15 mm
Width: 700 mm
The activated carbon granules held in its position by the cotton fibres in the non-woven is
further locked by needle punching where the fibres from the top and bottom layer are
drawn through the fibre web causing the fibres to occupy vertical position. The resulted
composite fabric had a good locking of activated carbon granules. The woven cotton
fabric was also bonded together. In the final fabric a uniform layer of cotton fibres was
seen on the reverse side of the cotton woven fabric.

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Bonding of Polyester and Non-Woven Fabric
The activated carbon sandwiched non-woven and polyester fabric are bonded together
using acrylic resin. Acrylic resin provides a good strength along with flexibility. The
fabric is placed on a platform and the resin is uniformly sprayed on the fabric using a
hand spray gun and the cotton non woven is placed over the fabric and the fabric is
applied with uniform pressure. Thus prepared fabric is cured at 1100c for 2 min.

7.2 PROTECTIVE CLOTHING FOR DEFENSE PERSONNEL

There are various types of clothing developed in India to protect soldiers in extreme
weather conditions in high altitudes. Soldiers are accustomed to rigorous physical activity
like running and carrying equipment and weapons. Excessive activity in cold climate
followed by inactivity results in hypothermia, whereas high work rates while wearing
layers of protective clothing in hot climate leads to hyperthermia. Sometimes these
conditions can even lead to illness or death. The troops deployed in high altitude regions
like the Siachen glacier and Leh, Doklam, Kargil and Tawang regions are challenged by
many medical conditions like hypothermia and other cold- related injuries, such as
frostbite, frost nip, superficial ulcers of the skin and trench foot (caused by constant
exposure to wet, non-freezing conditions). The biggest factor behind death of soldiers in
Siachen is not by enemy bullets but due to the extreme weather conditions and
avalanches.

To overcome physiological hazards caused by exposure to varying degrees of cold at

high altitudes, clothing should be designed and developed by using special fabrics that
can protect them.

Concept of high altitude clothing

High altitude clothing or Extreme Cold Climate clothing (ECC) is a type of multilayer
clothing used in very cold climate zones like Siachen. There, the clothing needs to meet
both functional as well as comfort parameters and comprises jackets, waistcoats, trousers,
glacier caps, rappelling gloves and glacier gloves. The typical characteristics of high
altitude clothing are hydrophilic or waterproof, moisture resistance, breathable, abrasion
resistance and resistance to wear and tear.

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The high-altitude clothing used by Indian soldiers till now have generally been heavy,
bulky and clumsy. Most were imported from China and used bird feathers as filler.
Besides, these either did not provide adequate warmth or caused excessive heat stress and
restricted operational movement. Additionally, there has been an acute shortage of
clothing for Indian troops deployed in high altitudes. The Defense Bioengineering and
Electromedical Laboratory (DEBEL) under the Defense Research and Development
Organization has developed several high-altitude clothing for defense personnel. Here
are some such clothing displayed at the Aero India 2019:

1. Battery-operated Arctic gloves:

These have active heating elements, specially designed for aircrew operating at very high
altitudes to protect them in temperatures up to minus 30C. They heat up automatically
when the temperature drops below 20C, maintaining the temperature within physiological
comfort. Advanced materials like non-woven polyester for insulation and wind stopper
material for protection against cold wind are used in the gloves.

Figure. Battery-operated Arctic glove

2. Battery-heated shoe insoles:

The limbs of army personnel deployed at high altitudes and extreme cold weather
conditions need more protection as they are highly susceptible to vaso constriction of
blood vessels resulting in reduction of blood flow. Hence, battery-heated shoe insoles
have been designed in which heat is produced in the soles and keep the feet warm.

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Figure : Battery-heated shoe insoles

3. Battery-heated jacket:

This jacket has also been developed by DEBEL in collaboration with one of the garment
exporting units in Bangalore and uses the same concept like heated gloves. It comprises
heating tapes, temperature controller and lightweight lithium-ion rechargeable batteries.
The jacket is made up of multi-functional layers and each layer has a definite purpose.

Figure : Battery-heated jacket

4. Flame retardant winter jacket:

The flame retardant (FR) winter flying jacket is specially designed for pilots who operate
in high altitude conditions. The garment is made from functional fabrics to provide
thermal protection, breathability and water repellency. The aircrew can use this garment
alone or in combination with thermal vests, depending on the severity of the climatic
condition and operational requirements.

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Figure : FR winter jacket

5. Electrically-heated jackets and trousers:

This is made up of a three-layer fabric material and is an extended version of electrically-

heated glove made by DEBEL.

Figure : Electrically-heated jackets and trousers

6. Electrically-heated blanket:

This is also an extended version of heated gloves and specially developed for soldiers and
paramilitary troops operating in extreme cold climate. Unlike commercially available
heated blankets that work on 220 V AC, this blanket developed by DEBEL works on 24
V DC and hence prevents electrocution when any liquid, snow or ice falls on its surface.

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Figure : Electrically heated blanket

7. Fur-lined boots:

This piece of personal protective equipment has been designed to provide smart, durable,
light-weight and comfortable boots for use by the Indian air force crew in extreme cold
conditions.

Figure : Fur-lined boots

Figure : Self-heated jacket.

Source: Sayingtruth.com

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Apart from these, students of the Technological Institute of Textile & Sciences, Bhiwani,
have developed a special ‘self-heated jacket’ to provide relief to soldiers in the
temperature range of −34C and −51C. The jacket is lined with four layers of thermo
electric generator (TEG) that ensures that they get activated by the body heat of the
wearer and keep him warm. The jacket consists of simple layers: a wind/water-proof
outer layer, an insulation layer, an electric heating layer and an inner layer.

Meanwhile, the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) has developed the world’s
lightest material called silica aerogel or blue air, an excellent insulator that can be used as
filler in soldier’s uniform to keep them warm. This material has excellent thermal
resistance, and is light-weight.

7.3 NON WOVENS IN MEDICAL TEXTILES

The use of nonwovens in medical field goes back to the time of Second world war when
the need was enormous for production of medical products. In many reports printed,
nonwovens were considered the foremost effective materials for microorganism barriers.
They were conjointly found superior to linens within the reduction of air-borne
contamination.

After important development of nonwovens, they were designed in a very thanks to suit
the medical wants and provides a performance far better than their woven counterparts in
terms of price, effectiveness, disposability etc. In hospitals, cross-contamination is
usually one among the most important issues that were attributed mostly to re-using of
woven robes, masks and alternative similar articles which might get contaminated and
doubtless unfold the germs.

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Material used in medical nonwovens:

The fibers used in medical nonwovens can be classified in natural and synthetic
categories. The natural fibers used are wood-pulp, cotton and rayon. Wood pulp is used
for its obvious absorbency, bulk and low cost. Cotton and rayon are good to be used
directly on wounds. They have good absorbency and make excellent nonwovens. The
reasons natural fibers make excellent medical nonwovens are:

 They are highly absorbent of exudate and blood

 Excellent breathability
 Good aesthetic characteristics
 Easy launderability and can be sterilized
 Excellent dimensional stability and high operability temperature ~ 175 deg C
 Biodegradable
 Excellent drape and conformability
 Good heat resistance
 Excellent water retaining capacity

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  Nonallergenic and non-irritant-fibers

The synthetic fibers mostly used in this application are: polypropylene for its excellent
rheological characteristics, hydrophobicity which is desired in some systems where
barrier properties are required, low cost, bicomponent fibers which are widely used in
thermal bonding and added functionality and polyester when strength, mechanical
properties and ease of sterilization are of prime importance. Synthetic fibers also account
for the products strength, solvent resistance, static dissipation and many other desirable
properties.

The properties of synthetic fibers, which are required in many applications:

Hydrophobicity: to be able to act as a barrier fabric

Easy to process

Cost-effectiveness

Better performance due to strength, low density

Easy to dispose, not hazardous

Felted Fabrics

Wool felt is the most common nonwoven fabric and is produced by using short-staple
fibres from wool or other animal hairs (such as camel). Wool is an ideal fibre because its
surface has natural hooks like scales, which when moisture, heat and vigorous movement
are applied, interlock with each other. The heat and damp conditions cause the fibres to
curl up, and the scales locking together prevent the fibres from straightening out again.
When you wash a natural wool jumper and it shrinks in size the jumper is actually felting
and you can’t make it bigger again no matter how hard you try to stretch it back.

Bonded Fabrics

There are three main methods of making bonded fabrics:

1. Dry laid

2.Wet-laid

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3.Direct spun

Felted and bonded fabrics applications

Hats, jackets, toys and snooker table covers are some commonly used for wool felts.

Bonded fabrics are used for disposable products such as cloths, medical masks, and table
linen. They are also used for interfacings for stiffening and strengthening clothing and
dressmaking (e.g. Vilene).

Laminated Fabrics

Laminated fabrics are made by bonding two or more fabrics together. Many fabrics
require extra insulation or protection, and the foam is bonded to provide this. Sometimes
comfort can be an issue with PVC fabrics, so a softer fabric may be bonded instead of
using a lining. Making a fabric breathable and waterproof may require lamination of a
membrane.

Nonwoven-based products contributing in the race against the COVID-19 pandemic

Nonwovens are present in a wide range of everyday products. The current global health
crisis caused by the COVID-19 virus has highlighted the importance of face masks,
disinfecting wipes and personal protective clothing, as well as the need to keep the supply
chain going to ensure the production and supply of those products.

In this context it is interesting to look at the wider picture including other nonwovens-
based products that also contribute in the battle against this pandemic:

 Components for rapid test kits

Many diagnostics companies worldwide are working on the development of test
kits for easy and rapid detection of the Coronavirus. These kits include fibre-
based components which can detect the virus in blood.
 Cards for collection of bio samples
These cards are used for screening of infectious diseases on a large scale. They
can be an alternative to the more traditional liquid sampling: blood or saliva
samples collected directly onto the card, can be stored and transported at ambient
temperature prior to analysis

45
  Filters for ventilators
As the most severe cases affected by COVID-19 require artificial ventilation,
there is a strong demand for the filter media that are used in order to secure the
safety of ventilators and the quality of air provided to patients.
 Laboratory filters
Healthcare structures, hospitals and laboratories are now facing new challenges
for analysis, sample preparation and laboratory works especially research geared
towards treatment of and vaccination against COVID-19. Laboratory filters are
used to remove particulates from samples in laboratory-scale applications.

8.0 EDANA and INDA Standard Procedures

Test Method Method Number Test Material

Three Standard Test Methods NWSP 10.1 Nonwovens
for Nonwoven Absorption
Absorption, Rate - Water NWSP 10.2 Wipes
Absorption, Capacity - Oil NWSP 10.4 Nonwovens, Absorbent
Products
Abrasion Resistance, NWSP 20.5 Nonwovens
Martindale
Electrostatic Decay NWSP 40.2 Nonwovens
Air Permeability NWSP 70.1 Nonwovens
Liquid Strike-Through NWSP 70.3 Nonwovens
Liquid Strike-Through, NWSP 70.7 Nonwovens
Repeated
Liquid Strike-Through, NWSP 70.8 Nonwovens
Wetback with Repeated
Strike-Through
Rate of Acqusition and Re- NWSP 70.9 Nonwovens
Wet
Centrifugal Liquid Retention WSP 70.10 Nonwovens
Capacity
Water Penetration, Spray NWSP 80.3 Nonwovens
Impact
Water Resistance, NWSP 80.6 Nonwovens
Hydrostatic Pressure
Liquid Strike-Through, NWSP 80.10 Nonwovens
Wetback
Stiffness, Cantilever NWSP 90.1 Nonwovens
Softness, Handle-O-Meter NWSP 90.3 Nonwovens

46
Tearing Strength, Elmendorf NWSP 100.1 Nonwovens
Tensile, Trapezoidal Tear NWSP 100.2 Nonwovens
Tensile, Grab Strength NWSP 110.1 Nonwovens
Tensile, Strip Method - Dry NWSP 110.4 Nonwovens
Tensile, Strip Method - Wet NWSP 110.4 Nonwovens
Resistance to Penetration - NWSP 110.5 Nonwovens
Ball Burst
Basis Weight NWSP 130.1 Nonwovens
Lint (Gelbo) NWSP 160.1 Nonwovens
Absorption, Retention WSP 241.2 Superabsorbent Polymers
Capacity - Tea Bag Test
Superabsorbent Materials - WSP 242.2 Superabsorbent Polymers
Absorption Under Pressure
Menstrual Tampons NWSP 350.1 Tampons
Absorbency - Syngina
Method
Softness, Cup Crush NWSP 402.0 Nonwovens , Paper
Dispersability, Vortex WSP 511.3 Tissue, Flushable Products
Method without Screening
Figure: Nonwovens Standard Procedures – Edition 2019

9.0 PERFORMANCE EVALUATION STANDARDS

Barrier Protection Confidence

Gloves

Acceptable Quality Level (AQL). This typically refers to the barrier protection
confidence level. A lower AQL number represents a higher quality product, i.e., a
manufacturing process with fewer allowable defects. For purposes of sampling
inspection, the AQL is used by manufacturers to identify the maximum number of
allowable defects(pinholes) per hundred units. All gloves must be statistically sampled to
verify the attainment of specific AQLs.

Barrier Tests
Gloves

The 1000 mL water leak test and/or air inflation test is typically used to verify the AQL.

Water Leak. Consists of filling the glove with 1000 mL of water, suspending it, and
allowing it to hang for two minutes then inspecting it for any leakage (ASTM D5151).

47
Air Inflation. Consists of inflating the glove with compressed air and visually inspecting
for holes.

Chemical Permeation. This test method measures the resistance of protective clothing
materials to permeation by liquid or gaseous chemicals under conditions of continuous
contact (ASTM F739).

Repellency Tests
PPE is designed to protect the wearer from exposure to a variety of potentially hazardous
fluids and other materials. Effectiveness is measured in several ways.

Gowns and Drapes

Water Impact. A measurement of a fabric's resistance to the penetration of water by

impact, which indicates performance when fluid falls onto the fabric. Lower numbers
reflect superior performance (AATCC 42).

Mason Jar. A measurement of the resistance of a fabric to an aqueous solution under

constant pressure, which indicates performance when fluid remains standing on an area
of the fabric. Higher numbers reflect superior performance (IST 80.5).

Hydrostatic Head. A measurement of the resistance of a fabric to an aqueous solution

under constantly increasing pressure, which indicates performance when fluid is
accumulating on the fabric. Higher numbers reflect superior performance (AATCC 127).

Alcohol Repellency. A measurement of a fabric's resistance to aqueous isopropyl alcohol

solutions, which indicates the fabric's barrier capabilities to alcohol solutions. Higher
numbers reflect superior performance (IST 80.8).

Strength Tests
PPE comes under quite a bit of stress during its actual usage. Product strength ismeasured
by its resistance to tearing, puncturing, and breaking and by its ability tostretch.

Gloves

Tensile Strength. Measures how much force, in pounds per square inch, is required to
stretch a sample of glove until it breaks. Higher numbers reflect superior performance.

48
Elongation. Measures how far, as a percentage of the original sample length, the glove
stretches before it breaks. For example, if a 1" sample stretches 9"before it breaks, the
elongation is 900%. Higher numbers reflect superior performance.

V-Tear. Measures the force in pounds per square inch necessary to start a tear(ASTM
D412).

Trouser Tear. Measures the force (pounds per square inch) necessary to continue tearing
once an initial tear has been made (ASTM D412).

Gowns and Drapes

Mullen Burst. A measurement of a fabric's resistance to puncture under increasing

pressure. Higher numbers reflect superior performance (ASTM D744).

Grab Tensile. A measurement of a fabric's resistance to tearing under increasing pulling

stress without an initial tear in the material. Higher numbers reflect superior performance
(ASTM D5034).

Elmendorf Tear. A measurement of a fabric's resistance to tearing under controlled

force when there is an initial tear in the material (ASTM D1424).

Safety
All fabrics used in surgical gowns and drapes can burn. Manufacturers of gowns and
drapes incorporate a caution label on the package warning that the fabric can burn in
theOR.

The rate of flame travel will vary with the specific material and can be measured using a
standard test method described in the Consumer Products Safety Commission (CPSC) 16
CFR part 1610. This measure is the basis for the separation of various fabrics into three
classes of flammability. Class I represents "normal flammability" or a flame spread time
of 3.5 or more seconds.

Biocompatibility
Medical gloves, drapes, and gowns are required to undergo a variety of tests that
demonstrate the potential of the material to cause irritation to the skin. These tests
include:

49
  Cytotoxicity (cell culture)
 Primary skin irritation (demonstrates the potential for irritating abraded skin)
 Dermal sensitization (demonstrates the potential for eliciting allergic contact
dermatitis)

Comfort
While barrier effectiveness is foremost, if PPE is uncomfortable to wear, it is less likely
to be used effectively. The discomfort may even interfere with the clinician's ability to do
his or her job.

Gloves

Tensile Stress (Modulus). Measures how much force, in pounds per square inch, is
required to stretch a sample of glove twice its length. This is a measure of comfort; lower
numbers reflect a softer, typically more comfortable glove.

Gowns and Drapes

Air Permeability. A measurement of the air flow that can be maintained through a
material at a specified pressure, which indicates the fabric's breathability and comfort
during use. Higher numbers reflect superior performance (ASTM D737).

Handle-O-Meter (Stiffness). A measurement of the force of a fabric's resistance to

flexing (i.e., folding or draping). The higher the force, the stiffer the fabric (IST 90).

Protection Against Microorganisms

While fluid repellency and barrier tests are excellent indicators of PPE's performance,
there is also testing, which more specifically demonstrates a material's ability to prevent
penetration by microorganisms.

Bacteriophage penetration resistance is a test method that assesses the effectiveness of

materials used in protective clothing for preventing the penetration of a surrogate microbe
(Phi X 174 bacteriophage) suspended in a simulated body fluid under conditions of
continuous contact. This is a pass/fail test (ASTM F1671).

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Storage Conditions
How the product is stored can affect the polymers and fabrics used in the products and,
therefore, adversely affect barrier properties. Products should be stored in their original
packaging in cool, dry environments and away from UV or fluorescent lights to help
ensure the barrier effectiveness stability during storage. Stock should be rotated on a first
in, first out basis.

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https://www.edana.org/nw-related-industry/how-are-nonwovens-made
https://textilelearner.blogspot.com/2019/03/nonwoven-textile-material-on-rise.html
Nonwovens Theory, Process, Performance & Testing edited by Albin F Turbak.
Introduction to Nonwovens edited by Albin F Turbak.
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Malkan, S.R. and Wadsworth, L.C., IND JNR, No.2, pp21-23, 1991.
Bhat, G.S., Zhang, y., and Wadsworth, L.C., Processing of the Tappi Nonwoven
Conference, Macro Island, FL, May, pp61-68, 1992.
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%20de%20lasson-locked.pdf
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