Class 12 Computer Notes by Binod Rijal

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System Development Concept

System
System is a set of interacting or interdependent components forming an integrated
whole. A system can be described as a set of objects joined together for a common
objective.
Components of system:
1. Hardware: hardware refers to the physical layer of the information system. It
includes computers, networks, scanners, digital capture devices, and other
technology-based infrastructure.
2. Software: software refers to the logical layer of information system that makes
hardware function properly. It includes system software (OS, device driver,
etc.) and application software.
3. Data: data is raw facts, figures, and measurements, etc. which are used as
input for the system. It may be alphabets, digits, figures and other symbols.
4. Processes: processes, or procedures, describe the tasks that users,
managers, and IT staff members perform.
5. People: people refer to users who interact with information system. The users
within the organization include mangers, technicians, sales representatives,
corporate officers, etc. are called internal users and the users outside the
organization include customers, suppliers, etc. are called external users.
Information System
An information system is a computer based system which is an integrated set of
different components for collection, process, storage and transmission of data.
Simply, it us a system which processes supplied/collected data and generates
information that can be used for decision making at different levels for the betterment
of an organization. The types of information system are:
1. Transaction processing system: it processes data resulting from business
transactions, updates operational database such as sales and inventory
processing and accounting systems.
2. Management information system: it is the integrated modern approach of
management, information and computerized system. It provides information to
support the operations, management, decision making functions of an
organization.
3. Decision support system: It is the information system at the organization's
senior level management that combines data and sophisticated analytical
models or data analysis tools to support semi-structures and unstructured
decision makings.
4. Executive support system: it is also known as executive information system. It

operates on the executive level of management. It provides critical information
from many sources customized to the information needs of executives.
System Analyst
System analyst is a people who is involved in analyzing, designing, implementing
and evaluating computer based information to support the decision making and
operation of an organization.
The roles of system analyst area as follows:
1. Change event
2. Investigator and event
3. Architect
4. Psychologist
5. Motivator
6. Defining and prioritizing the requirements
7. Analysis and evaluation
8. Designing system
The characteristics of system analyst are as follows:
1. Knowledge of organizations
2. Knowledge of computer system
3. Good inter-personal relation
4. Communication skills
5. Analytical skill
6. Breadth of knowledge
Waterfall model
it is a oldest type of model for software engineering. The fundamental processes of
waterfall model are as follows:
1. Requirements analysis and definition: it is the first stage of waterfall model. In
this stage, the developer should identify the actual requirements of the given
problem.
2. System design: in this stage the systems design process partition the
requirements to either hardware or software systems.
3. Implementation and unit system: During this stage, the system design is
realized and tested as a complete system to ensure that the software
requirements have been met.
4. Operation and maintenance: in this stage, the system is installed to the desire
location. The maintenance involves correcting errors which were not
discovered in earlier stages of the life cycle, improving the implementation of
system units and enhancing the system's service as new requirements are
discovered.
Prototyping model
It is the iterative process of system development which is more appropriate for
developing new system where there is no clear idea of requirements, inputs and
outputs.
1. Identify the user needs: the system analyst interviews the user to obtain an
idea of what is required from the system.
2. Develop a prototype: the system analyst, working uses one or more
prototyping tools to develop a prototype.
3. Determine if prototype is acceptable: the analyst educates the user in
prototype use and provides an opportunity from becoming familiar with the
system.
4. Use the prototype: the prototype becomes the operational system.
Spiral system
In this model, process is represented as a spiral rather than as a sequence of
activities with backtracking.
1. Planning: the project is reviewed and a decision made whether to continue
with a further loop of the spiral. If it is decided to continue, plans are drawn up
for the next phase of the project.
2. Risk analysis: for each of the identified project risks, a detailed analysis is
carried out. Steps are taken to reduce the risk. For example, if there is a risk
that the requirements are inappropriate, a prototype system may be
developed.
3. Software development: after risk evaluation, a development model for the
system is chosen.
4. User evaluation: specific objectives for the phase of the project are defined by
the evaluation of users. Constraints on the process and the product are
identified. And a detailed management plan is drawn up.
Prototyping
It is the iterative process of system development which is more appropriate for
developing new system where there is no clear idea of requirements, inputs and
outputs.
Advantages of Prototyping
1. Communications between the systems analyst and user are improved.
2. The expert system can do a better job of determining the user's needs.
3. The user plays a more active role in system development.
4. The expert and the user spend less time and effort in developing the system.
5. Implementation is much easier because the user knows what to expect.
6. A system is developed through operational prototyping is capable of easy
adaptation.
Disadvantages of Prototyping
1. Because of the iterative nature of prototyping, there is no definite deliverable
or competition deadline.
2. Code inefficiencies may be a drawback in terms of functionality.
3. The computer-human interface provided by certain prototyping tools may not
reflect good design techniques.
SDLC
SDLC consists of a set of development activities that have a prescribed order. It is
the development of software in chronological order.
The different phases of SDLC are as follows:
1. System study: A system is intended to meet the needs of an organization.
Thus the first step in the design is to specify these needs or requirements.
The top manager of the organization takes the basic decision to use a
computer based (information) system for managing the organization.
2. System analysis: system analysis is the dissection of a system into its
component pieces to study how those component pieces interact and work.
System analysis is a term that collectively describes the early phases of
development. It is defined as those phases and activities that focus on the
business problem, independent of technology.
3. Feasibility study: feasibility study is the most important activity in the system
analysis phase. It analyses the proposed system from different aspects so
that it makes us clear that how practical or beneficial the system will be to the
organization. So it tells us whether the system is feasible to design nor not.
4. System design: the next step is to develop the logical design of the system.
During this phase, the logic of the system, namely, the information
requirement of users, and use this to find the necessary database.
5. System development: after designing a logical diagram of a system then next
step is to convert into program. This process is called system development.
Flowchart, algorithm, Pseudocode, etc. are the outlines the procedures for
taking the input data and processing it into usable output.
6. System testing: it is an investigation conducted to provide stakeholders with

information about the quality of the product or service under test. System
testing also provides an objective, independent view of the software to allow
the business to appreciate and understand the risks of software
implementation.
7. Implementation: implementation involves testing the installed system,
converting from the old system to the new one and training the users. This
phase consists of implementation of the system into a production
environment, and resolution of the problem identified in testing phase.
8. Maintenance and review: it begins after the system is implemented. Like any
system, there is an ageing process that requires periodic maintenance of
hardware and software. The content of the review will include objectives met,
cost, performance, standards and recommendation.
Feasibility study
Feasibility study is the most important activity in the system analysis phase. It
analyses the proposed system from different aspects so that it makes us clear that
how practical or beneficial the system will be to the organization. So it tells us
whether the system is feasible to design nor not. Thus it is necessary before system
design.
The different levels of feasibility study are as:
1. Economical feasibility: it concerns with cost effectiveness of the system. The
main objective of economical feasibility is to calculate approximate cost-both
the development cost and the operational cost and the benefits from the
system.
2. Technical feasibility: it concerns with the availability of the hardware, software
and the support equipments for the complete development of the system.
3. Operational feasibility: it concerns with smooth operation of the system. It is
all about the problems that may occur during operation of the system after its
development.
4. Behavior feasibility: it concerns with behavior of the users and the society
towards the new system. Generally, most of the traditional employees are not
easily ready to upgrade them with the new system.
5. Schedule feasibility: it is the process of splitting project into tasks and
estimate time and resources required to complete each task. It determines the
deadline to complete a system and schedule the task accordingly.
6. Legal feasibility: it concerns with legal issue of the system. If the system is
illegal then the system designing is meaningless. Everything is measured
whether it is legal or illegal. It considers copyright law, foreign law, foreign
trade, tax, etc.
System testing
It is an investigation conducted to provide stakeholders with information about the

quality of the product or service under test. System testing also provides an
objective, independent view of the software to allow the business to appreciate and
understand the risks of software implementation.
1. White box testing: white box testing of software is predicted on close
examination of procedural details. Logical path through the software and
collaborations between components are tested by providing test case that
exercises specific sets of conditions or loops. It is used when the tester has
access it the internal data structures and algorithms including the code that
implement these.
2. Black box testing: black box testing treats the software as a black box
â€“without any knowledge of internal implementation. Black box testing
methods include: equivalence partitioning, boundary value analysis,
specification based testing, etc. it is also called functional testing because it
tests whether a system is functioning or not.
Flowchart
System flowchart describes the internal architecture of a system that describes how
data are moved inside the internal components of a system. Program flowchart
describes to solve the application types of real world problem. The different symbols
used in system flowchart are defined below:
DFD
DFD is the logical diagram to describe the flow of data inside the components of
system. It is easier to understand or grasp when being explained and most important
to all, it is much more precise and less ambiguous than a narrative one. The main
components are: process, data store, data flow, external entities.
ER diagram
The E-R diagram is an overall logical structure of a database that can be expressed
graphically. It was developed to facilitated database design and the simplicity and
pictorial clarity of this diagramming technique have done great help in the designing
part of database. The main components are attributes, entities and relationship.
Case diagram
computer aided software engineering tool is automatic computer based program that
helps for software engineering and SDLC process. It us very fast and effective tools
for the development of big scale software. It helps in analysis, design,
implementation, testing and maintenance.
UML
Unified Modelling Language is a standardized general purpose modelling language
in the field of object-oriented software engineering. The standard is managed, and
was created by, the object management group. UML includes a set of graphic
notation techniques to create visual models of object-oriented software.
System flowchart
System flowchart describes the internal architecture of a system that describes how
data are moved inside the internal components of a system. Program flowchart
describes to solve the application types of real world problem.
Database
Relational Database Management System (RDBMS)
The database system which stores and displays data in tabular format of rows and
columns, like spreadsheet, is known as Relational Database Management System.
Different between Database and DBMS

Database: it is a collection of related information about a subject organized in a
useful manner that provides a base or foundation for procedure, such as retrieving
information, drawing conclusion and make decision.
DBMS: A DBMS is a set of programs that manages the database files. It allows
accessing the files, updating the records and retrieving data as requested.
The technique for designing a database using top-down methods is to write a main
database parts that names all the major storage and retrievals it will need. Later, the
programming team looks at the requirements of each of those database components
and the process is repeated.
The top-down method starts from the general and moves to the specific. Basically,
you start with a general idea of what is needed for the system and then ask the end-
users what data they need to store. The analyst will then work with the users to
determine what data should be kept in the database. Using the top-down method
requires that the analyst has a detailed understanding of the system. The top-down
method also can have shortcomings. In some cases, top-down design can lead to
unsatisfactory results because the analyst and end-users can miss something that is
important and is necessary for the system.
Different database models

1. HierarchicDal database model: this is one of the oldest type of database
models. In this model data is represented in the form of records. Each record
has multiple fields. All records are arranged in database as tree like structure.
The relationship between the records is called parent child relationship in
which any child record relates to only a single parent type record.
2. Network database model: it replaced hierarchical network database model
due to some limitations on the model. Suppose, if an employee relates to two
departments, then the hierarchical database model cannot able to arrange
records in proper place. So network, database model was emerged to
arranged non-hierarchical database. The structure of database is more like
graph rather than tree structure.
3. Relational database model: in this model, the data is organized into tables
which contain multiple rows ad columns. These tables are called relations. A
row in a table represents a relationship among a set of values. Since a table is
a collection of such relationships, it is generally referred to the mathematical
term relation, from which the relational database model derives its name.
4. Entity-Relationship database model: this model is based on perception of a

real world that contains a collection of basic objects, called entities and of
relationship among these objects and characteristics of an entity. It shows
relationship between different entities.
Advantages of the database being centralized

1. easier to organize, edit, update and back-up the data
2. less data duplication - data is only entered once but can be accessed by
many users
3. data integrity - because data is stored once different data is no longer held in
different databases in various departments around the organization
Advantages of database
1. Sharing data
2. Reduced data redundancy
3. Data backup and recovery
4. Inconsistency avoided
5. Data integrity
6. Data security
7. Data independence
8. Multiple user interfaces
9. Process complex query
Domains and Tuples

In data management and database analysis, a data domain refers to all the values
which a data element may contain. The rule for determining the domain boundary
may be as simple as a data type with an enumerated list of values.
Tuple is the collection of information about the attributes of table for single instance.
In simple this also can be called as a 'row' in a Table.
Different between centralize and distributed database system

Centralized database system Distributed database system
Simple type Complex type
Located on particular location Located in many geographical locations.
Consists of only one server Contains servers in several locations

Suitable for small organizations Suitable for large organizations
Less chance of data lost More chances of data hacking, lost
Maintenance is easy and security is
Maintenance is not easy and security is low
high
Failure of system makes whole system Failure of one server does not make the whole
down system down
There is no feature of load balancing There is feature of load balancing
Data traffic rate is high Data traffic rate is low
Cost of centralized database system is
Cost of distributed database system is high
low
DBA and responsibilities of DBA

DBA is the most responsible person in an organization with sound knowledge of
DBMS. He/she is the overall administrator of the system. He/she has the maximum
amount of privileges (permission to access the database) for accessing the
database, settings up system and defining the role of the employees which use the
system.
Responsibilities of DBA:
1. DBA defines data security, schemas, forms, reports, relationships and user
privileges.
2. DBA has responsibility to install. Monitor and upgrade database server.
3. DBA provides different facilities for data retrieving and making reports as
required.
4. DBA has responsibility to maintain database security, backup-recovery
strategy, and documentation of data recovery.
5. DBA supervises all the activities in the system: addition, modification and
deletion data from the database.
State and different types of data integrity

Mainly there are 3 types of data integrity constraints used in the database system.
They are as:
1. Domain integrity constraints: it defines a set range of data values for given
specific data field. And also determines whether null values are allowed or not
in the data field.
2. Entity integrity constraints: it specify that all rows in a table have a unique
identifier, known as the primary key value and it never be null i.e. blank.
3. Referential integrity constrains: it exists in a relationship between the two

tables in a database. It ensures that the relationship between the primary keys
in the master table and foreign key in child table are always maintained.
Normalization and normalization process

Normalization is a database design process in which complex database table is
broken down into simple separate tables. It makes data model more flexible and
easier to maintain. There are two goals of the normalization process: eliminating
redundant data and ensuring data dependencies make sense.
For example: the table shown is our database without normalized. Here in table we
can see that for the large records of this table, there would be multiple data row of
same values especially in the country and city column. So, we can normalize the
table by splitting it into two tables where one table only stores the location area of
each person name and could be referenced by some unique id. Say Area code.
id country City Name
15 Nepal Kathmandu Alex
16 India Delhi Martin
17 Nepal Kathmandu Melman
18 Japan Tokyo Gloria
The above table can be normalized in two tables as below:
country city Area code
Nepal Kathmandu N1
India Delhi I1
Japan Tokyo J1
Id Area code Name

15 N1 Alex
16 I1 Martin
17 N1 Melman
18 J1 Gloria
Data and information: Data is defined as the raw facts and figures. It could be any
numbers, alphabets or any combination of it.
When data are processed using a database program or software, they are converted
to the meaningful result, called information.
Field and record: A column in a table is called field and it contains specific piece of
information within a record.
A row in a table is called record and it contains information about person, event, etc.
Another name of record is tuple.
Data dictionary: A data dictionary is a file which contains meta-data that is data
about data. It also called information system catalogue. It keeps all the data
information about the database system such as location, size of the database,
tables, records, fields, user information, recovery system, etc.
DDL: DDL is used by the database designers and programmers to specify the
content and structure of the table. It is used to define the physical characteristics of
records. It includes commands that manipulate the structure of objects such as
views, tables, and indexes, etc.
DML: DML is related with manipulation of records such as retrieval, sorting, display
and deletion of records of data. It helps user to use query and display reports of the
table. So it provides technique for processing the database.
Primary key: the field or fields that contain the unique value can be set as primary
key. It does not permit duplicate or null values.
Relationship: A relationship is an association among several entities and represents

meaningful dependencies between them. It is represented by diamond. There are 3
types of relationship:
i. One to one
ii. One to many
iii. Many to many
Communication and Networking

Computer Network
It is defined as the collection of two or more autonomous computers which are
interconnected together for sharing resources with the help of transmission media
and set of protocols.
Advantages of Computer Network
1. Sharing resources: hardware resources such as processor, storage devices,
printers, scanner, etc. can be shared among us using computer network. It
helps to minimize the operational cost of an organization.
2. Faster and cheaper communication: communication in modern days has
become very faster and cheaper to send information to a long distance
through network.
3. Centralized control: all network resources such as computers, printer file ,
database , etc can be managed and controlled by a central connecting
computer also known as the server.
4. Backup and recovery: server is used to keep data as backup. It maintains
backup of all individual computerâ€™s information.
5. Remote and mobile access: a remote user can access resources from the
distance using computer network.
Disadvantages of Computer Network
1. Expensive: In order to install computer network, we require some extra cost to
purchase networking devices such as hubs, switch, cables, etc.
2. Security problems: network security is the most challenging job for network
administrator in order to protect network resources from authorized users and
physical destructions.
3. Needs technical person: it is very difficult to install and operate good computer
network.
Types of Computer Network

On the basis of size computer networks can be classified into three categories:
1. Local Area Network (LAN): A LAN is privately owned small size network. It
spans only in small geographical area such as within a room, office, buildings
or up to few kilometers (2 to 3 Km). it connects the network resources such as
computers, faxes, printers and various networking devices.
2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): A MAN can be either public or privately
owned network. Its size is bigger than LAN and smaller than WAN. It spans
within one metropolitan city or larger geographical area. It can connect large
number of computers and heterogeneous multiple LANs within a city
maximum, up to 100Km.
3. Wide Area Network (WAN): A WAN is basically public type heterogeneous

network. It is the largest sized network and connects millions of computers,
thousands of LANs, hundreds of MANs around the countries, continents and
even the whole world.
Difference between LAN and WAN

LAN WAN
LAN (Local Area Network) is a WAN (Wide Area Network) is a computer network
computer network covering a small that covers a broad area (e.g., any network whose
geographic area, like a home, office, communications links cross metropolitan, regional, or
school, or group of buildings. national boundaries over a long distance).
High speed (1000 mbps) Less speed (150 mbps)
Network in an organization can be a
Internet is a good example of a WAN
LAN
For WANs since networks in remote areas have to be
If there is a need to set-up a couple of
connected the set-up costs are higher. However
extra devices on the network, it is not
WANs using public networks can be setup very
very expensive to do that.
cheaply using just software (VPN etc).
LAN covers 100 m WAN covers more than 100 m
Experiences fewer data transmission Experiences more data transmission errors as
errors compared to LAN
WANs (like the Internet) are not owned by any one
Typically owned, controlled, and
organization but rather exist under collective or
managed by a single person or
distributed ownership and management over long
organization.
distances.
Network topology and it's types

Network topology refers to the physical layout of the network. It shows the
geometrical representation of all links and linking devices, also called nodes. Its
types are as:
1. Bus topology: computers are connected to a single continuous cable that is
called bus. A bus must be terminated on both sides to prevent signal bounce
and computers are connected to the bus with the help of drop line and T-
connector.
2. Star topology: Many home networks use the star topology. A star network
features a central connection point called a "hub node" that may be a network
hub, switch or router. Devices typically connect to the hub with Unshielded
Twisted Pair (UTP) Ethernet.
3. Ring topology: In a ring network, every device has exactly two neighbors for
communication purposes. All messages travel through a ring in the same
direction (either "clockwise" or "counterclockwise"). A failure in any cable or
device breaks the loop and can take down the entire network.
4. Mesh topology: Mesh topologies involve the concept of routes. Unlike each of
the previous topologies, messages sent on a mesh network can take any of
several possible paths from source to destination. (Recall that even in a ring,
although two cable paths exist, messages can only travel in one direction.)
Some WANs, most notably the Internet, employ mesh routing.
5. Tree topology: Tree topologies integrate multiple star topologies together onto
a bus. In its simplest form, only hub devices connect directly to the tree bus,
and each hub functions as the root of a tree of devices. This bus/star hybrid
approach supports future expandability of the network much better than a bus
(limited in the number of devices due to the broadcast traffic it generates) or a
star (limited by the number of hub connection points) alone.
6. Hybrid topology: if two or more topologies are combined together then it is
called hybrid topology. So it is very difficult to design and to implement the
hybrid topology. It is expensive too.
Network architecture
Network architecture refers to the various services provided by the network and it
also deals with how data is transmitted from one computer to others.
Client server network: The client/server topology is the model for vertical scaling,
where clients typically host a small subset of the data in the application process
space and delegate to the server system for the rest. Compared to peer-to-peer by
itself, the client/server architecture provides better data isolation, high fetch
performance, and more scalability. If you expect data distribution to put a very heavy
load on the network, client/server architecture usually gives better performance. In
any client/server installation, the server system is itself a peer-to-peer system, with
data distributed between servers. Client systems have a connection pool, which it
uses to communicate with servers and other Gem Fire members. A client may also
contain a local cache.
Peer-peer network: The peer-to-peer distributed system is the building block for all
Gem Fire installations. Peer-to-peer alone is the simplest topology. Each cache
instance, or member, directly communicates with each every other member in the
distributed system. This cache configuration is primarily designed for applications
that want to embed a cache within the application process space and participate in a
cluster. A typical application example would be an application server cluster where
the application and the cache are co-located and share the same heap.
Difference analog and digital single

Analog signal Digital signal
Analog signal is a continuous signal which Digital signals are discrete time signals
represents physical measurements. generated by digital modulation.

Subjected to deterioration by noise during Can be noise-immune without deterioration
transmission and write/read cycle. during transmission and write/read cycle.
Less affected since noise response are analog in
More likely to get affected reducing accuracy
nature
Stored in the form of wave signal Stored in the form of binary bit
Low cost and portable Cost is high and not easily portable
Example: Human voice in air, analog Example: Computers, CDs, DVDs, and other
electronic devices. digital electronic devices.
Difference between Internaet and Intranet

Internet Intranet
The Internet is a worldwide, publicly An intranet is a private computer network that
accessible series of interconnected computer uses Internet protocols, network connectivity
networks transmit data by packet switching to securely share part of an organization's
using the standard Internet Protocol information or operations
This is the base, independent of the World Independent of the internet; however, internet
Wide Web is also used parallel
The Internet allows computer users to connect Intranets are being used to deliver tools &
to other computers & information stores easily applications, helps to improve the services
across the world; it is also used in marketing, provided to the users, increases employees'
online chat, file transfer, etc. ability to perform their jobs faster, etc.
Internet is a public computer network Intranet is a private computer network
Signal modulation
In electronics and telecommunications, modulation is the process of varying one or
more properties of a periodic waveform, called the carrier signal (high frequency
signal), with a modulating signal that typically contains information to be transmitted.
Three forms of modulations are possible. They are as:
1. Amplitude Modulation (AM): Amplitude modulation is an increase or
decrease of the carrier voltage (Ec), will all other factors remaining constant.
2. Frequency Modulation (FM): Frequency modulation is a change in the
carrier frequency (fc) with all other factors remaining constant.
3. Phase Modulation (PM): Phase modulation is a change in the carrier phase
angle (Î¸). The phase angle cannot change without also affecting a change in
frequency. Therefore, phase modulation is in reality a second form of
frequency modulation.
Transmission media
A transmission media is defined as the means of communication between two
networking devices that helps to transfer data from sender to receiver and vice
versa.
Transmission media is broadly classified into two groups.
1. Wired or Guided Media or Bound Transmission Media: Bound transmission
media are the cables that are tangible or have physical existence and are
limited by the physical geography. Popular bound transmission media in use
are twisted pair cable, co-axial cable and fiber optical cable. Each of them has
its own characteristics like transmission speed, effect of noise, physical
appearance, cost etc.
2. Wireless or Unguided Media or Unbound Transmission Media: Unbound
transmission media are the ways of transmitting data without using any
cables. These media are not bounded by physical geography. This type of
transmission is called Wireless communication. Nowadays wireless
communication is becoming popular. Wireless LANs are being installed in
office and college campuses. This transmission uses Microwave, Radio wave,
Infra red are some of popular unbound transmission media.
Switching system
It provides a path between the two devices in a network. The process of transferring
data blocks from one node to another node is called data switching.
Types of switching system are as follows:
1. Circuit switching: It is the most familiar technique used to build a
communication network. Used in ordinary telephone lines and it allows
communications equipment and circuits to be shared among users. Each user
has the sole access to a circuit during network use.
2. Message switching: Message switching is a network switching technique in
which data is routed in its entirety from the source node to the destination
node, one hope at a time. During message routing, every intermediate switch
in the network stores the whole message. If the entire network's resources are
engaged or the network becomes blocked, the message-switched network
stores and delays the message until ample resources become available for
effective transmission of the message.
3. Packet switching: A network technology that breaks up a message into small
packets for transmission, unlike circuit switching, which requires the
establishment of a dedicated point to point connections each packet in a
packed switched network contains a destination address. Thus all packets in
a single message do not have to follow the same path. Packet can arrive out
of order. Destination computer reassembles the packets into their proper
sequence.
OSI reference model

It is based on a proposal developed by the international organization for

standardization (ISO). The model is called ISO OSI reference model, because it
deals with connecting open system i.e. the system that are open for communication
with other system.
1. Physical Layer: This layer concerned with transmission of bit it determines
voltage level for 0 & 1. It also determines the data rate of the system. This layer
involves standardized protocol dealing with electrical & signaling interface.
2. Data Link Layer: It handles error in physical layer. This layer ensures the correct
delivery of frame to the destination address. It consists of 2 parts or 2 sub-layers. i.e.
i. Logic Link Control
ii. Media Access Control
3. Network Layer: This layer is concerned with transmission of packet. N/w layer
protocol chooses the best path to send a package called routing. Two protocols are
widely used in n/w layer.
i. X.25 Protocol
ii. Internet Protocol
4. Transport Layer: It provides the mechanism for the exchange of data between
end systems. It ensures that the data received is in fact in order. Following jobs are
performed by this layer.
i. Port Addressing
ii. Segmentation & Reassemble
iii. Connection Control
5. Session Layer: It is responsible for requesting logical connection to be
established for communication process. This logical connection is termed as
session. It also provides data synchronization between two communication
terminals.
6. Presentation layer: This layer translates format data to adapt to the needs of the
application layer & nodes at both receiving & sending end of communication
process. It handles data communication, formatting, encryption, decryption, etc.
7. Application Layer: It is the top-most layer of OSI model & provides user access
to the n/w. It provides services that support user application, such as database
access, email & file transfer, etc.
IP address: this is a code made up of numbers separated by three dots that

identifies a particular computer on the Internet. Every computer, whether it is a Web
server or the computer you're using right now, requires an IP address to connect to
the Internet. IP addresses consist of four sets of numbers from 0 to 255, separated
by three dots. For example "66.72.98.236" or "216.239.115.148". Your Internet
Service Provider (ISP), will assign you either a static IP address (which is always the
same) or a dynamic IP address, (which changes every time you log on).
MAC address: Stands for "Media Access Control Address," and no, it is not related
Apple Macintosh computers. A MAC address is a hardware identification number
that uniquely identifies each device on a network. The MAC address is manufactured
into every network card, such as an Ethernet card or Wi-Fi card, and therefore
cannot be changed.
Repeater: Network repeaters regenerate incoming electrical, wireless or optical
signals. With physical media like Ethernet or Wi-Fi, data transmissions can only span
a limited distance before the quality of the signal degrades. Repeaters attempt to
preserve signal integrity and extend the distance over which data can safely travel.
Bridge: In telecommunication networks, a bridge is a product that connects a local
area network (LAN) to another local area network that uses the same protocol (for
example, Ethernet or token ring). You can envision a bridge as being a device that
decides whether a message from you to someone else is going to the local area
network in your building or to someone on the local area network in the building
across the street. A bridge examines each message on a LAN, "passing" those
known to be within the same LAN, and forwarding those known to be on the other
interconnected LAN (or LANs).
Protocol: A standard set of regulations and requirements that allow two electronic
items to connect to and exchange information with one another. Protocols regulate
data transmission among devices as well as within a network of linked devices
through both error control and specifying which data compression method to use. In
particular, protocols decide: the method of error checking, how to compact data (if
required), how the transmitting device signals that it has concluded sending data,
and how the receiving device signals that it has completed receiving data.
Wi-Fi: Wi-Fi is the name of a popular wireless networking technology that uses radio
waves to provide wireless high-speed Internet and network connections. A common
misconception is that the term Wi-Fi is short for "wireless fidelity," however this is not
the case. Wi-Fi is simply a trademarked phrase that means IEEE 802.11x.
Object Oriented Programming (OOP)

Object Oriented Programming (OOP)
Object oriented programming is a programming paradigm that was developed to
overcome the drawbacks and limitations of particularly procedure oriented
programming. The major need for developing such languages was to manage the
ever-increasing size and complexity of programs.
Characteristics of OOP
Emphasis is on data rather than procedure.
Programs are divided into objects.
Data structures are designed such that they characterize the objects.
Functions that separate on the data of an object are tied together in the data
structure.
Data is hidden and cannot be accessed by external functions.
Objects may communicate with each other through functions.
New data and functions can be easily added whenever necessary.
Bottom-up approach is followed in program design.
Advantages of OOP:
We can eliminate redundant codes by using inheritance feature of OOP.
It is very easy for managing complex and large size problems.
The most important is the reusability of codes by using the features inheritance.
It takes very less time for the development and maintaining the software.
It is efficient for testing and implementation of the system.
It follows bottom up approach.
It can be implemented in the field of OODBMS, OOAD and different fields of
engineering.
OOP has several disadvantages which made it unpopular in the early years.
Size: Object oriented programs are much larger than other programs. In the early
days of computing, space on hard drives, floppy drives and in memory was at a
premium. Today we do not have these restrictions.
Effort: Object oriented programs require a lot of work to create. Specifically, a great
deal of planning goes into an object oriented program well before a single piece of
code is ever written. Initially, this early effort was felt by many to be a waste of time.
In addition, because the programs were larger (see above) coders spent more time
actually writing the program.
Speed: Object oriented programs are slower than other programs, partially because
of their size. Other aspects of Object Oriented Programs also demand more system
resources, thus slowing the program down.
Inheritance and polymorphism important feature in OOP

The process of creating a new class form an existing class in which objects of the
new class inherit the attributes and behaviors of the existing class is known as
inheritance. The newly created class is called derived class or child class and the
class from which new class is derived is called base class or parent class. It permits
the expansion and reuse of existing code without rewriting it hence, the concept of
inheritance supports the concept of reusability.
The meaning of polymorphism is having many forms. It is an important feature of
OOP which refers to the ability of an object to take on different forms depending
upon situations. It simplifies coding and reduces the rework involved in modifying
and developing an application.
Object: An object is any entity, thing or organization that exits in real world. It
consists of two fundamentals characteristics: its attributes and behaviors. For
example: a dog is an object having attributes such as color, weight, age, etc. and
behaviors such as barking, wagging tail, etc. In OOP, attributes are represented by
data and behaviors are represented by functions.
Class: A class is the collection of similar objects. It is defined as the template or

prototype to define the common attributes and behavior for all the objects of the
class. The entire set of data and code of an object can be made a user-defined data
type with the help of a class. In fact objects are variables of type class. Once, a class
has been defined,, we can create any number of objects associated with that class.
Data abstraction: In OOP, data abstraction defines the conceptual boundaries of an

object. These boundaries distinguish an object from another object. So, abstraction
is the act of representing essential features without including the background details.
It focuses the outside view of an object, separating its essential behavior from its
implementation.
Encapsulation: Encapsulation is a way if organizing data and function into a

structure by concealing the way the object is implemented, that is preventing access
to data by any means other than those specified. Encapsulation therefore
guarantees the integrity of the data contained in the object. It implies that there is
visibility to the functionalities offered by an object, and no visibility to its data.
Information Communication
Technology and Cyber Law
Term Ict and it's impacts on society
ICT is applied area of computer science, electronics, telecommunication, business
and of every fields that deal with processing, storing and transmitting information.
Positive impacts:
Education
Medicine
Banks
Business
Communication
Multimedia
Employment
Productivity
Ecommerce
Entertainment
Negative impacts:
Health problem
Piracy
Pornography
Computer viruses
Hacking
Privacy
Cost
Less employment
Loss of information
Digital socialization
Digital Divide and it's Conceptualization

The digital divide refers to the gap between the have and the does not have in
computers, internet access, access to information and ecommerce.
Conceptualization:
Means of connectivity or how individuals and their associates are connecting and to
what like infrastructure, location, and network availability.
Intensity of connectivity, or how sophisticated are the usage like mere access,
retrieval, interactivity, innovative contributions.
Purpose of connectivity or why individuals and their associates are connecting like
the reasons why individuals are online and use the internet and ICT's.
Lack of connectivity which means that why individuals and their associates are not
connecting.
Computer ethics and Commandments of computer ethics

Ethics deals with placing a value on acts according to whether they are good or bad.
Computer and information ethics can be understood as that branch of applied ethics
which studies and analyzes such social and ethical impacts of ICT.
Commandments:
Do not use a computer to harm other people
Do not interfere with other people's computer work
Do not snoop or view around in other people's files
Do not use a computer to steal
Do not use or copy software for which you have not paid
Do not use other people's computer resources without authorization
Think about the social consequences of the program you write
Use a computer in ways that show consideration and respect
Intellectual property (IP)

Intellectual property (IP) refers to creations of the mind: inventions, literacy and
artistic works, and symbols, names, images, and designs used in commerce. IP is
divided into two categories: industrial property and copyright.
Anonymity and privacy

Anonymity means that the person does not expose his or her identity. It means
outsiders cannot trace, link or observe the contents of the messages.
Privacy is the interest that the individuals have in sustaining a personal space, free
from interference by other people and organizations.
Cyber law
Cyber law is a type of law which rules in the internet to prevent internet related
crime.
Fields of cyber law

Electronic and digital signature
Computer crime
Intellectual property
Data protection and privacy
Telecommunication law
Cyber law of Nepal

Nepal cannot be isolated from emerging technology and the problems raised by the
technology. The cyber law is on the process of development. Nepal passed the
Electronic Transaction and Digital Signature Act 2004, also known as Cyber law.
The main laws are:
The law covers most of the issues related with cyber activities and is supposed to
forecast to be landmark legislation for development of IT industry in Nepal.
Conducts such as hacking, deleting data, stealing e-document, software piracy and
posting offensive information are capable of criminal and civil sanctioning under the
new cyber law.
The government can punish cyber offenders with up to 5 years of imprisonment and
/or fine of up to Rs. 50,000. However, much depends on the harshness of the crime.
The law has tightened the security for banking transactions through electronics
means, which should boost the economic activities across the internet via Nepal.
It gives legal status to information posted on the websites of government offices,
government run corporations and local bodies.
It has also granted legal status to digital signatures sent through the electronic media
like e-banking, e-commerce, etc.
The law has also made a new judicial body to listen to complaints, cases and
matters concerning cyber crime.
Computer Crime
Computer crime has been defined broadly as a criminal act that has been committed
using a computer as the primary tool.
Forms of computer crime

The theft of money, for example, the transfer of payments to the wrong accounts
The theft of information, for example, by tapping into data transmission lines or
databases at no cost.
The theft of goods by their diversion to the wrong destination
The theft of computer time, for example, use of an employer's computer resources
for personal work.
Besides of these, computer crime can also take form of hacking, cracking, sabotage
and blackmail.
IT policies
The policies of IT are the action adopted for the implementation of strategies to
achieve goals and fulfill the objectives. Some of the policies of IT are as follows:
To declare information technology sectors a prioritized sector.
To provide internet facilities to all village development committees.
To render assistance to educational institutions and encourage native and foreign
training.
To computerize the records of each governmental office.
To increase the use of computers in the private sector.
To develop physical and virtual information technology park.
To use information-technology to promote e-commerce, e-education, e-health,
among others.
To establish National Information Technology Centre.
To establish a national level fund by mobilizing the resources.
To establish Nepal in the global market through the use of information technology.
Multimedia
Term multimedia
The term multimedia is simply a combination of multiple forms of media which
includes text, graphics, audio, video, animation, etc.
The uses of multimedia

Education: we can see teachers delivering course contents using different
multimedia techniques in institutions, colleges and universities which help the
students for clear concept and understanding by putting designed text, audio, video,
etc.
Entertainment: multimedia technology is widely used in entertainment business.
Without this technology, itâ€™s impossible to make entertainment files, movies,
animation, etc.
Business: business houses give the product information to their customers through
newspaper, radio, online, television whatever it may be. But gives the information
attractively using multimedia tools.
Communication: in the field of communication using different sorts of multimedia
tools, we can communicate with each other very easily, like live text chat, audio chat,
video chat which makes our daily communication like easy.
Training: we use multimedia tools and techniques for delivering information in the
form of text, image, audio, and video for trainee in attractive and effective way so
that they can capture the contents easily.
Web pages: now a days, website of any organization, individuals is quite familiar for
presence on NET to provide information for the users. They give the information with
user friendly and interactively to the users applying different multimedia tools by
using images, video, audio, animation on web page.
Components of multimedia
Text
Graphics or images
Audio
Video
Animation
Hypermedia
Abbreviations and its full form

WMA: Windows Media Audio
WAV: Windows Audio Video
MIDI: Musical Instrument Digital Interface
WMV: Windows Media Video
MPEG: MOtion PIcture Experts Group/Moving Picture Expert Group/Moving
AVI: Audio Video Interleave
FLV: Flash Live Video
SWF: Small Web Format
Artificial Intelligence
Artificial Intelligence (AI) and it's application areas
Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a branch of computer science which is concerned with
programs that solves and analyze problems intelligently.
The applications of AI are as:

Game playing: Ai emerges and gives new height for dull machines on the field of
game playing. Some intelligence programming is far better than human brain.
Expert systems: it is computer programming to make decisions in real life situations.
AI based computer system can decide and think itself for desired result what is to be
happened.
Pattern detection: it detects most common patterns for authentication, for example
thumb detection, iris detection, etc. This is most widely used tools for security
purpose which once stored in database.
Natural Language Processing: NLP is a branch of artificial intelligence that deals with
analyzing understanding and generating the languages that human use naturally in
order to interface with computers in both written and spoken.
Automated operation: AI is used to automate satellite, space shuttle, airplane without
pilot, etc. Without any technical human being, the system automatically handle a and
controls the systems that are already set in that corresponding instruction with logics
and mathematics.
Robotics: robots are used in many fields like in space, medicine, and research etc.
Now a days, robots are broadly using in surgery for operation micro level surgery for
operation micro-level surgery.
components of AI
Search: this intelligence is used to search solution of particular problem like
possibilities of moves on chess playing game. Searching is very important and needs
to be very fast and must search with accuracy. So AI based system is useful for
particular problem oriented search easily.
Pattern recognization: it is used to recognize some type of figures, images or audio
sounds. Its application is used for the authentication like face detection, iris
detection, voice recognization, etc.
Logic generate: as the name suggest, AI is intelligence with creating logic in different
problems. Logic in terms of predicate basis or whatever, this system creates logic for
solving the any kind of related problems as per the AI related system and software.
Common sense and reasoning: the main goal of AI is to produce good reasoning
power and produce logic. This reasoning power and logic made machines like
human.
Learning from experience: AI programming is built to learn from the experiences like
human being. Although learning are limited with comparison to the human beings
and also depends on the programming language used.
Genetic programming: AI programs are used to solve relationship between humans.
As we see in genetically there is inheritance properties that can help the future
prediction.
Neural network: AI technique that mimics the operation of the human brain that
refers to nerves and neurons, and comprises of densely interconnected processors
working simultaneously that means parallel.
Ethical aspect of AI
AI can be used for good or bad. This is why it's important to think about what AI is,
and how we want it to be used.
Some ethical aspects of AI are:
AI builders have an obligation not to exploit people's ignorance and make them think.
AI is human.
Robots are not really your friends. They may be harmful for individuals. So
developers should be ethical. Use of AI must obey the social norms and values.
Use of AI should be under the intellectual property rights.
Contemporary Technology
e-Commerce and e-business
E-commerce refers to online transactions, buying and selling of goods and/or
services over the internet.
E-business covers online transactions, but also extends to all internets based
interactions with business partners, suppliers and customers.
Advantages of e-commerce:
a. It makes buying selling procedure faster, as well as easy to find products.
b. It makes buying/selling possible 24/7.
c. There are no theoretical geographical limitations hence more reach to customers.
d. It reduces operational costs and provides better quality of services.
e. It does not require physical company set ups.
f. It is easy to start and manage a business.
Disadvantages of e-commerce:
a. Any one, good or bad can easily start a business. And there are many bad sites
which eat up customer's money.
b. There is no guarantee of product quality.
c. Mechanical failures can cause unpredictable effects on the total processes.
d. As there is minimum chance of direct customer to company interactions, customer
loyalty is always on a check.
e. There are many hackers who look for opportunities and thus an ecommerce site,
service payment gateways all are always prone attack.
E-learning
E-learning is a new concept of delivering digital contents in learner oriented
environment using information and communication te4chnology (ICT). Delivery of the
digital content is the main characteristic of e-learning.
Advantages of e-learning:
It maintains the consistency of content.
It is easy for customization.
There is no any geographical limitation for learning.
It is quite favorable for learner as it can happen at any time and anywhere.
It reduces or eliminates travel costs to attend learning events.
It reduces or eliminates need for classroom/instructor infrastructure.
Disadvantages of e-learning:
Learners with low motivation or bad study habits may fall behind
Without the routine structures of a traditional class, students may get lost or
confused about course activities and deadlines
Students may feel isolated from the instructor and classmates
Instructor may not always be available when students are studying or need help
Slow Internet connections or older computers may make accessing course materials
frustrating
Managing computer files and online learning software can sometimes seem complex
for students with beginner-level computer skills
Hands-on or lab work is difficult to simulate in a virtual classroom.
E-governance
E-governance is the application of electronic means to improve the interaction
between government and citizens; and to increase the administrative effectiveness
and efficiency in the internal government operations.
Despite the government of Nepal has positively giving attention towards the
development of ICTs and subsequent implementing e-governance, a number of
issues has yet addressed. Some of the challenges for successful implementation of
e-governance are presented as:
Information transparency
Legal issues
Resources availability
Infrastructure including connectivity in rural area
Capacity and awareness
Political will and government action
Advantages of E-governance
E-Governance offers many benefits and advantages for the government, corporate
sector and society. E-Governance facilitates better delivery of government services
to citizens, improved interactions with business and industry, citizen empowerment
through access to information, or more efficient government management. It
simplifies internal operations and improves performance of government departments
while helping all sections of society to avail government services at lower cost with
maximum ease of use.
Virtual reality
Virtual reality is a new computational paradigm that redefines the interface between
human and computer becomes a significant and universal technology and
subsequently penetrates applications for education and learning.
Application fields of Virtual reality

Virtual Reality in the Military: A virtual reality simulation enables them to do so but
without the risk of death or a serious injury. They can re-enact a particular scenario,
for example engagement with an enemy in an environment in which they experience
this but without the real world risks.
Virtual Reality in Education: Education is another area which has adopted virtual
reality for teaching and learning situations. The advantage of this is that it enables
large groups of students to interact with each other as well as within a three
dimensional environment.
Virtual Reality in Healthcare: Healthcare is one of the biggest adopters of virtual
reality which encompasses surgery simulation, phobia treatment, robotic surgery and
skills training.
Virtual Reality in Business: Many businesses have embraced virtual reality as a cost
effective way of developing a product or service. For example it enables them to test
a prototype without having to develop several versions of this which can be time
consuming and expensive.
Virtual Reality in Engineering: Virtual reality engineering includes the use of 3D
modelling tools and visualization techniques as part of the design process. This
technology enables engineers to view their project in 3D and gain a greater
understanding of how it works. Plus they can spot any flaws or potential risks before
implementation.
Virtual Reality and Scientific Visualization: Virtual reality is being increasingly used in
the field of scientific visualization. This field is based upon using computer graphics
to express complex ideas and scientific concepts, for example molecular models or
statistical results.
Virtual Reality Programming Languages: For virtual reality to be truly effective, it
must have a good sense of realism. Just on its own this is a technical challenge and,
as such, virtual reality is highly demanding on many resources. From hardware
performance to the intellectual ability of the implementer of the system, how these
are managed are a massive issue.
E-medicine
E-medicine refers to an approach that provides medical services whenever and
wherever required using information and communication technology.
With the help of this approach, even small number of doctors can provide medical
service to large number of people scattered in different locations. The people of rural
areas who are unable to get service of doctors can be benefitted from this approach.
The patients share his/her medical problems to the doctors. This approach is now
getting more popularity among the doctors too. They can post their experiences and
issues in the online discussion forum. Without good facility of information and
communication technology, e-medicine cannot be effective. This is the problem
facing in the developing countries like Nepal.
Impact of Robotics in human life

Positive Impacts:
Robots can provide a wide variety of benefits to society. The most prominent benefit
of robots is that they allow physical tasks to be performed at a greater speed than
humans could reasonably achieve, and that tasks can be performed by robots that
are beyond the reasonable physical capabilities of humans. For example, in
manufacturing, mechanized processes allow production to take place at a great
speed, with little human effort required. This allows for the low-cost mass-production
of goods. These manufacturing processes allow for great precision, and can allow
products of a very high quality to be produced.
Negative Impacts:
As they are out to use to do common tasks, Humans are increasingly becoming lazy,
and thus their health is adversely affected. Also, as robots become more and more
autonomous, the chances that they commit a mistake are very high. These mistakes
can lead to serious problems if unchecked. Also, as self-learning Robots evolve, they
may make decisions that are harmful to Human beings. From another perspective, If
the robots are not self-learning, they will do jobs only which they are programmed
for. Updating their functions will thus require more expertise.

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System Development Concept

4. Executive support system: it is also known as executive information system. It

6. System testing: it is an investigation conducted to provide stakeholders with

It is an investigation conducted to provide stakeholders with information about the

Different between Database and DBMS

Different database models

4. Entity-Relationship database model: this model is based on perception of a

Advantages of the database being centralized

Domains and Tuples

Different between centralize and distributed database system

Consists of only one server Contains servers in several locations

DBA and responsibilities of DBA

State and different types of data integrity

3. Referential integrity constrains: it exists in a relationship between the two

Normalization and normalization process

Id Area code Name

Relationship: A relationship is an association among several entities and represents

Communication and Networking

Types of Computer Network

3. Wide Area Network (WAN): A WAN is basically public type heterogeneous

Difference between LAN and WAN

Network topology and it's types

Difference analog and digital single

represents physical measurements. generated by digital modulation.

Difference between Internaet and Intranet

OSI reference model

It is based on a proposal developed by the international organization for

IP address: this is a code made up of numbers separated by three dots that

Object Oriented Programming (OOP)

Inheritance and polymorphism important feature in OOP

Class: A class is the collection of similar objects. It is defined as the template or

Data abstraction: In OOP, data abstraction defines the conceptual boundaries of an

Encapsulation: Encapsulation is a way if organizing data and function into a

Digital Divide and it's Conceptualization

Computer ethics and Commandments of computer ethics

Intellectual property (IP)

Anonymity and privacy

Fields of cyber law

Cyber law of Nepal

Forms of computer crime

The uses of multimedia

Abbreviations and its full form

The applications of AI are as:

Application fields of Virtual reality

Impact of Robotics in human life

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