Analog basic circuit designing

Chapter-1

Introduction
1. Introduction of basic electronics components
1.1 Determine the value of resister
1.2 Types of capacitor
1.3 Led
1.4 Bread board circuit

2. Rectifier
1.1 Half wave rectifier
1.2 Full wave rectifier
1.3 Bridge rectifier

3. Power supply
1.1 using IC78XX

4. Transistor
1.1 NPN transistor
1.2 PNP transistor

5. Relay
6. Amplifier
1.1 class A amplifier
1.2 class B amplifier
1.3 class AB amplifier

7. Op amp as comparator(LM358)
1.1 Non inverting mode
1.2 Inverting mode

8. IC555
1.1 Monostable
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1.2 Bistable
1.3 Astable

9. Filters
1.1 first order active low pass filter
1.2 second order low pass filter
1.3 First order active high pass filter
1.4 Second order high pass filter

8. Project work
1.1 Heart beart sensor

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To Determine The Value Of Resistor

At First,see the third colour band of resistor.

IFthird colour band is:-

i)Silver then its value is 0.1-0.99 ohm.

ii)Gold then its value is 1.0-9.9 ohm.

iii)Black then its value is 10-99ohm.

iv)Brown then its value is 100-999ohm.

v)Red then its value is 1.0-9.9Kilo ohm.

vi)Orange then its value is 10-99 Kilo ohm.

vii)Yellow then its value is 100-999 Kilo ohm.

viii)Green then its value is 1-9.9 Mega ohm.

determine the value.

Fourth band is of tolerance.

Some standard values of resistance are:-

i)10 12 15 18 means if first band is brown then second band is black,red,green

and grey any other combination is not valid.

ii)20 22 27 similarly if first band is red then there are three combinations.

iii)30 33 36 39 if first band is orange then there are four combinations.

iv)47 if first band is yellow then second band is always violet.

v)51 56 if first band is green then there are two combinations.

vi)68 if first band is blue then second band is always grey.

vii)75 if first band is violet then second band is always green.

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viii)82 if first band is grey then second band is always red.

ix)96 if first band is white then second band is always blue.

Types Of Capacitor-

There are two types of capacitors:-

1)Polar Capacitor-Apolarized capacitor is a type of capacitor that implicit

polarity.

Polar Capacitor

2)Non-Polar Capacitor-A non-polarized capacitor is a type of capacitor that

has no polarity.

Non-Polar Capacitor

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LED-It is a semiconductor light source that emits light when current flows
through it.

Structure Of LED

Breadboard-It is a simple device designed to create circuits without the need

of soldering.

Rectifier

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Rectifier is a device which converts A.C. into D.C. by allowing the current to
flow through it into one direction only.There are two types of Rectifier:-

i)Half Wave Rectifier-It is the circuit designed using the diode which is used
for converting the AC voltage into DC voltage.The half wave rectifier only
passes the one half of the input and rejects the other half.

Figure-1 Half Wave Rectifier

ii)Full Wave Rectifier:-It is a circuit which converts an AC voltage into DC

voltage using both cycles of the applied voltage.It uses two diodes one conducts
during one half cycle while the conducts during the other half cycle.

Figure-2 Full Wave Rectifier

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iii)Bridge Rectifier-It is an arrangement of four diodes in bridge circuit that

providesthesame polarityof output for either polarity of input.

Figure-3 Bridge Rectifier

POWER SUPPLY

i)Regulated Positive DC Power Supply-

Fi
gure-3 Regulated Positive Power Supply
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For making regulated power supply we need to use IC78xx

7805-For making 5V regulated supply.

7809- For making 9V regulated supply

7812- For making 12V regulated supply

Output from bridge rectifier goes to capacitor so that it can attenuates AC and
we get filtered DC.This DC supply then goes to first pin of IC.Second pin is
ground.We get output from third pin of IC.

ii) Regulated Negative DC Power Supply-For negative power supply we use

IC79xx. Output from bridge rectifier goes to capacitor so that it can attenuates
AC and we get filtered DC.This DC supply then goes to second pin of IC.First
pin is ground.From third pin of IC we get regulated negative power supply.

Figure-4 Regulated Negative Power Supply

iii) Regulated Dual Power Supply-Dual power supply is needed in many

digital and analog circuits.In this circuit we use two IC 78xx and 79xx.Second
pin of IC78xx is connected to third pin of IC79xx.We get output from third pin
of both IC’s.

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Figure-5 Regulated Dual Power Supply

iii)Variable Power Supply-Sometimes we need variable power supply.For

making variable power supply we attached a preset at SECOND pin of IC78xx
if we need positive variable power supply and at FIRST pin of IC79xx if we
need negative variable power supply.

Figure-6 Varible Power Supply

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TRANSISTORS

A transistor is a device that regulates current or voltage flow and acts a switch
or gate for electronic signals.Transistors consist of three layers of
semiconductor material,each capable of carrying a current.

1)Emitter-It is left hand section of the transistorand its main function is to

supply major charge carriersto the base.The emitter is always forward bias.The
emitter is heavily doped so that it may be able to inject a large number of
charge carriers.

2)Base-It is the middle section of the transistor and is very lightly doped to
reduce the recombination within the base so as to increase collector current and
is very thin in comparison either emitter or collector so that it may pass most of
the injected charge carriers to the collector.

3)Collector-It is the right hand section of the transistor and its main function is
to major charge carriers.Collector is always reverse biased as to remove the
charge carriers away from its junction with the base.It is moderately doped to
avoid the chances of mesh formation after taking the carriers away from the
emitter.

There are two types of transistors:-

i)N-P-N:-It is made up of two n-type semiconductor layer and one p-type

semiconductor layer.The emitter is forward biased and as a result a large
forward current flows across the emitter junction due to flow of majority
carriers i.e. electrons from the emitter region enter the base region and holes
from the base region into the emitter region.Since the conductivity of emitter
region is larger than that of base region,the electrons from the emitter region out
the number of holes from the base region.Then electrons enter into the base
region and few electrons combined with holes rest are enter into the collector
region.So current flows from collector to emitter region.

BC 546,547,548,549,550 are NPN transistors.

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Figure-7 NPN Transistor

ii)P-N-P:-It is made up of two p-type semiconductor layerand one n-type

semiconductor layer.The PNP Transistor behaves exactly the same way as NPN
device with the exception that the majority charge carriers are holes.Holes are
emitted from the P-type emitter across the forward biased emitter-base junction
into the base.Some of the holes flow out via the base terminal,but most are
drawn across the collector by the positive-negative electric field at the reverse-
biased collector-base junction.As in the case of NPN device,the forward bias at
the emitter base junction controls the collector and emitter currents.

BC 556,557,558,559.560 are PNP transistors.

Figure-8 PNP Transistor

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Relay
Relays are switches that open and close circuits electronically.The most
fundamental control of any equipment is the ability to turn it ‘ON’ and
‘OFF’.The easiest way to do this is using switches to interrupt the electrical
supply.Although switches can be used to control something.Relays however are
basically electrically operated switches that come in many shapes,sizes and
power ratings suitable for all types of applications.Relays can also have single
or multiple contacts within a single package with larger power relays used for
main voltage or high current switching being called ‘Contractors’.

Figure-9 Structure Of Relay

Working Of Relay

It works on the principle of an electromagnetic attraction.When the circuit of

the relay sense the fault current,it energises the electromagnetic field which
produces the temporary magnetic field.This magnetic fiels moves the relay
armature for opening or closing the connections.The small power relay has only
one contacts,and the high power relay has two contacts for opening the
switch.The inner section of relay has an iron core which is wound by a control
coil.The power supply is given to the coil through the contacts of the load and
the control switch.The current flows the coil produces the magnetic field around

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it.Due to this magnetic field the upper arm of the magnet attracts the lower
arm.Hence close the circuit which makes the current flow the through the load.

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Amplifier
Amplifier is an electronic device which is used to increase the magnitude of the
signal applied to its input.Classification of Amplifier:-

i)Class-A

ii)Class-B

iii)Class-AB

iv)Class-C

CLASS-A AMPLIFIER-Class A Amplifier is one in which the output current

flows the entire cycleof the AC input supply.The complete signal present at the
input is amplified at the output.

COLLECTOR FEEDBACK-The self biasing collector feedbsck is dependent

biasing method which requires two resistors to provide the necessary DC bias
for the transistor.The collector base feedback ensures thst the transistor is
always biased in the active region.

CLASS-B AMPLIFIER-It is a type of amplifier where the active device

conducts only for one half cycle of the input signal.Since the active device is

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switched off for half the input cycle,the active device dissipates less power and
hence the efficiency is improved.Maximum efficiency of class B amplifier is
78.5%.By using two transistors we amplified both cycles.So we use two
transistors.

Figure-12 Class B Amplifier

CLASS-C AMPLIFIER-It is a type of amplifier where the active element

conduct for less than one half cycle of the input signal.Conduction angle is less
than 180degree and its typical value is 80degree-120degree.The reduced
conduction angle improves the efficiency around 80% to the amplifier,it
introduces a very heavy distortion of the output signal.Therefore class c
amplifiers are not suitable for use as audio amplifiers.

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Figure-13 Class C Amplifier

CLASS AB AMPLIFIER-It is a combination of class A and B amplifiers.Its

output stage combines the advantages of class A amplifier and the class B
amplifier while minimise the problems of low efficiency and distortion .

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OP-AMP(LM 358)
An operational amplifier is a DC-coupled high gain electronic voltage amplifier
with a different input and usually a single ended output.In this configuration,an
op-amp produces an output potential that is typically hundreds of thousands of
times larger than the potential difference between its input terminals.Op-amp
are used in a wide variety of applications in electronics.Some of the common
application are:as a voltage follower,inversion circuit etc.It is basically a three
terminal devicewhich consists of two high impedance inputs.One of the input is
called the ‘INVERTING INPUT’ marked with a negative sign.The other input
is called the ‘NON-INVERTING INPUT, marked with a posotive sign.

Figure-14 Structure OP-AMP IC

Op-amp as a comparator-The comparator compares one voltage level with

another voltage level or some preset reference voltage and produces an output
signal based on this voltage comparison.In other words,the op-amp voltage
comparator compares the magnitudes of two voltage inputs and determines
which is the largest of two.Voltage comparators use positive feedback or no
feedback at all to switch its output between two saturated states.While using op-
amp as a comparator in instrumentation,the open loop can be used to compare
the two voltages.Therefore depending on the difference between the input
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voltage value and the reference voltage value the output will be equal to
maximum high value or minimum low value.

Figure-15 OP-AMP as comparator

Op-amp as an IR Sensor-An infrared sensor is an electronic device that emits

in order to sense some aspects of the surroundings.An IR sensor can measurethe
heat of an object as well as detects the motion.These types of sensors measures
only infrared radiation,rather than emitting it that is called as a passive IR
sensor.The emitter is an IR LED and detector is IR PHOTODIODE which is
senisitive to IR light of the same wavelength as that emitted by the IR
LED.When IR light falls on the photodiode,the resistances and these output
voltages,change in proportion to the magnitude of the IR light received.

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Figure-16 OP-AMP as an IR Sensor

Op-Amp as inverting Amplifier-It is called inverting because the phase angle

of the output signal exactly 180 degrees out of phase with respect to input
signal.This means that if the input pulse is positive,then the output pulse will be
negative and vice-versa.In this Inverting Amplifier circuit the op-amp is
connected with feedback to produce a closed loop operation.The non-inverting
input of the op-amp is connected to ground.As the gain of op-amp is very high
and the output from the amplifier is a matter of only a few volts.this means that
the difference between the two input terminals is small and can be ignored.

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Figure-17 OP-AMP as an Inverting Amplifier

Op-Amp as non-inverting Amplifier-A non-inverting amplifier is an op-amp

circuit which produces an amplified output signal.This output signalof non-
inverting op-amp is in phase with the input signal applied.In other words a non-
inverting amplifier behaves like a voltage follower circuit.As the input to the
op-amp draws no current this means that the current flowing in the resistors R2
and Rf is same.The voltage at the inverting input is formed from a potential
divider consisting of R2 and Rf and as the voltage at both inputs is the same,the
voltage at the inverting input must be same as that at the non-inverting
input.The voltage gain can be calculated by applying KCL at the inverting
node.

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Figure-18 OP-AMP as non-inverting amplifier

IC-555(PRECISION TIMERS)
These devices are precision timing circuts capable of producing accurate time
delays or oscillation.In the time delay or monostable mode of operation,the
timed intervals controlled by a single external resistor and capacitor network.In
the astable mode of operation,the frequency and duty cycle can be controlled
independently with two external resistors and a single external capacitor.

The threshold and trigger levels normally are two-thirds and one-
third,respectively of Vcc.These levels can be altered by use of the control-
voltage terminal.When the trigger input falls below the trigger level,the flip-
flop is set and the output goes high.If the trigger input is above the trigger level
and the threshold input is above the threshold level,the flip-flop is reset and
output is low.

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Figure-19 Structure of IC 555

Monostable Operation-In monostable operation,if the output is low

application of a negative going pulse to the trigger sets the internal flip-flop and
drives the output high.Capacitor C is then charged through Ra until the voltage
across the capacitor reaches the threshold voltage of the threshold input.If
TRIG has returned to a high level,the output of the threshold comparator resets
the internal flip-flop,drives the output low and discharges C. Monostable
operation is initiated when TRIG voltage falls below the trigger threshold.Once
initiated,the sequence ends only if TRIG is high for atleast 10microseconds
before the end of the timing interval.

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Figure-20 Monostable Operation

ASTABLE OPERATION-By adding a second resistor Rb to the circuit and

connecting the trigger input to the threshold input causes the timer to self-
trigger and run as a multivibrator.The capacitor C charges through Ra and Rb
and then dicharges through Rb.Therefore the duty cycle is controlled by the
values if Ra and Rb.This astable connection results in capacitor C charging and
discharging between the threshold voltage level and the trigger voltage level.

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Figure-21 Astable operation

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FILTERS
A filter is an electrical network that can transmit signals within a specified
frequency range.This frequency range is called pass band.The frequency that
separates the pass and attenuation bands is known as cut-off frequency.An ideal
filter would transmit signals under the pass band frequencies without
attenuation and completely suppress the signal with attenuation band of
frequencies with a sharp cut off profile.

PASSIVE FILTERS-They don’t need a power supply and depend only on

passive inductive(L),capacitive(C) and resisitive(R) components rather than
active devices such as transistors.Inductors pass low frequency waveforms but
offer increasing impedance to higher frequencies,capacitor do the
opposite.Passive filters are called single element types as they have just one
reactive element.

ACTIVE FILTERS-It are designed using op-amps.It has much higher gain and
high input impedance with low output impedance.It contains active components
such as op-amps,transistors or FET’s.They draw their power from external
source and use it to amplify the output signal.

Types of Active Filters:-

1)First Order LPF(Non-Inverting)-Figure represents an op-amp based active
filter circuit.This circuit is basically a non-inverting amplifier.

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Figure-22 First Order LPF(Non-Inverting)

2)First Order LPF(Inverting Amplifier)-In inverting amplifier input is

connected to inverting pin of op-amp and feedback is also given to inverting
pin.

Figure-23 First Order LPF (Inverting)

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3)Second Order LPF-It requires only a single op-amp for the gain control and
four passive RC components.Second order active filters has two RC
networks.The filter design is based around a non-inverting op-amp so that filter
gain will always be greater than 1.

Figure-24 Second Order LPF

4)First Order HPF-It have an infinite frequency response,the maximum pass

band frequencyresponse of an active high pass filter is limited by the open-loop
characteristics or bandwidth of the operational being used.

Figure-25 First Order HPF

5)Second Order HPF-Second order high pass and low pass filters are the same
circuits exceptthat the positions of the resistors and capacoitors are
interchanged.
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LIGHT AUTOMATION

It is created with help of IR sensor whenver IR sensor detects the infrared

radiation it turns on the relay and light is on.Output of IR sensor is connected
to 1Kohm resistor and then it connected to base of BC548 npn
transistor.Emitter of transistor is ground.+5V power supply is connected to
collecter with help of 4K7 resistor then output of collector is connected to
monostable circuit of IC555.Output of IC555 is connected to first pin
octocoupler with the help of 470ohm resistor.2nd pin is ground. 3rd pin is
connected to base of BC548 with the help of 150ohm resistor.Emitter of
BC548 is ground.Collector of transistor is connected to relay and also 4th pin of
octocoupler is connected to relay.We give +9V supply to relay.Bulb is
connected to relay.

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Project Work

PULSE SENSOR-When the IR transmitter emits light which will fall on the
vein directly.The veins will have blood flow inside them onlywhen the heart is
pumping.so if we monitor the flow of blood we can monitor the heart beats.If
the flow of blood is detected then then the light sensor will pick up more light.

Figure-28 Pulse Sensor

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