ENERGY RESOURCES &

UTILIZATION (ERU)
Arranged By
Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah
anaeems@uet.edu.pk
SOLAR RADIATION-2
“Sun is the primary source of all renewable
energy resources. The technology based on solar
energy are eco-friendly with environment.”
 OPTIMUM ORIENTATION OF A
COLLECTOR
 A concentrating collector should always point towards the
direction of the solar beam (i.e. 𝜽𝒊 = 𝟎). However, the
optimum direction of a fixed flat plate collector may not be
obvious, because the collector insolation (𝑯𝒄 ) is the sum of
both the beam and the diffuse components:

𝑯𝒄 = 𝑮𝒃∗ 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽𝒊 + 𝑮𝒅 𝒅𝒕

where * denotes the plane perpendicular to the beam.

 A suitable fixed collector orientation for most purposes is

facing the equator with a slope equal to the latitude. As the
angle of solar noon varies considerably over the year, it is
sensible to adjust the ‘fixed’ collector slope month by month.
 HOURLY VARIATION OF IRRADIANCE
 The variation of solar radiation on
a horizontal plane (𝑮𝒉 ) for clear
and cloudy days is given in Fig.
1(a) & Fig. 1(b), respectively.
 On clear days the form of Fig. 1(a)
follows the relation given as:
𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝝅𝒕
𝑮𝒉 ≈ 𝑮𝒉 𝒔𝒊𝒏 → (𝟏)
𝑵
where 𝑡 = time after sunrise &
N = the duration of daylight for a
particular clear day.
 Integrating Eqn.(1) over the
daylight period (N) for a clear day,

𝑯𝒉 ≈ 𝟐𝑵 𝝅 𝑮𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝒉 → (𝟐)
Fig. 1: variation of solar radiation
 AIR-MASS-RATIO
 The increased mass encountered,
compared with standard mass (i.e.
mass that caused by normal path
due to the normal incidence of
direct beam, if the beam is at 𝜽𝒛 ) is
called the air-mass-ratio or air-
mass, with symbol m. The
abbreviation AM is also used for
air-mass. It, basically, is a distance Fig. 1: Air-mass-ratio
travelled by the sun’s rays to reach
the earth’s surface.
 If the distance-dependent density
is ρ(s) then the actual optical mass,
ma, can be expressed as:
∞
𝒎𝒂 = 𝝆 𝒔 𝒅𝒔 → (𝟏)
𝟎
 AIR-MASS-RATIO Cont.
 If the sun is at its zenith at a location then Eq. (1) can be written as:
∞
𝒎𝒛 = 𝝆 𝒛 𝒅𝒛 → (𝟐)
𝟎
where z is the distance on the zenith direction.

 However, if the path is different than the zenith direction then its optical
path can be expressed as the ratio, m, of Eqs. (1) & (2):

∞
𝒎𝒂 𝟎
𝝆 𝒔 𝒅𝒔
𝒎= = ∞ → (𝟑)
𝒎𝒛 𝝆 𝒛 𝒅𝒛
𝟎

 From Fig. (1) it is clear that: 𝒎𝒛 = 𝒎𝒂 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽𝒛

𝒎 = 𝑨𝑴 = 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝜽𝒛 → (𝟒)

CASES: 𝒊 𝒎𝒂 = 𝟎; 𝒊𝒊 𝒎𝒂 = 𝒎𝒛 ; 𝒊𝒊𝒊 𝒎𝒂 ≠ 𝒎𝒛 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒎𝒂 > 𝒎𝒛

 AIR-MASS-RATIO Cont.
AM Condition Radiation flux (W/m2)

AM0 Extraterrestrial 1367 to 1376

AM1 Sun at overhead position 1105

AM1.5 Sun at about 48⁰ from overhead position 1000

AM2 Sun at about 60⁰ from overhead position 894

 ATMOSPHERIC ABSORPTION AND
RELATED PROCESSES
As the solar short wave radiation passes through the Earth’s atmosphere, a
complicated set of interactions occurs. The interactions include reflection,
scattering, and absorption. These processes are outlined in Fig. 1, while the
effects and interactions are summarized as follow:
 Reflection: On average, about 30% of the extraterrestrial solar
intensity is reflected back into space (i.e. 𝝆𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟑). This reflectance 𝝆𝟎
(into space) is called the albedo, and varies with atmospheric conditions
and angle of incidence.
 Greenhouse effect, climate change and long wave radiation: At
thermal equilibrium (the power received is equal to the power radiated
from the Earth system of emittance 𝜺 = 𝟏, with mean equilibrium
temperature = 𝑻𝒆 ) as observed from space, we have:
𝝅𝑹𝟐 𝟏 − 𝝆𝟎 𝑮𝟎 = 𝟒𝝅𝑹𝟐 𝝇𝑻𝟒𝒆 → (𝟏)
Where R = radius of the earth
 ATMOSPHERIC ABSORPTION AND RELATED
PROCESSES Cont.

Fig.1: Effects of extraterrestrial

radiations on atmosphere.
 ATMOSPHERIC ABSORPTION AND RELATED
PROCESSES Cont.

 Thus, in space, the long wave radiation from the Earth has approximately
the spectral distribution of a black body at 250 K. The peak spectral
distribution at this temperature occurs at 10 𝝁𝒎, and the distribution
does not overlap with the solar distribution (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2: Short (including visible) and long wave (far infrared) spectral
distributions at the top of the atmosphere.
 ATMOSPHERIC ABSORPTION AND RELATED
PROCESSES Cont.
 It is obvious from Fig. 2 that a definite distinction can be made
between the spectral distribution (i) of the Sun’s radiation (short
wave) and (ii) that of the thermal sources (long waves).
 The invisible infrared fluxes in the environment reach at intensities
of ∼1kW m-2. The infrared long wave fluxes, however, at the Earth’s
surface are themselves complex and large. The atmosphere
radiates both down to this surface and up into space.
 The black body temperature of the Earth’s system in space is
effectively that of the outer atmosphere and not of the ground and
sea surface.
 However, the Earth’s average surface (not space) temperature is
𝟏𝟕℃ i.e. it is about 40⁰C greater than the effective temperature of
the outer atmosphere.
 ATMOSPHERIC ABSORPTION AND RELATED
PROCESSES Cont.

 Actually, the atmosphere acts as an infrared blanket, because some of its

gases absorb long wave radiation. Thus increase in surface temperature
(relative to what it would be without the atmosphere) is called the
greenhouse effect, and the gases responsible for it are called greenhouse
gases (GHG).
 The glass of a horticultural glasshouse (a greenhouse) likewise prevents
the transmission of infrared radiation from inside to out, but does allow
the short wave solar radiation to be transmitted.
 Thus the Earth’s atmosphere is not only a source and sink of chemical
substances for life, it provides the physical mechanisms for controlling the
environmental temperature at which life continues and at which water
for life remains liquid.
 Absorption in the atmosphere: In order to explain the
absorption processes, the solar short wave and the atmospheric long
wave spectral distributions may be divided into following regions:
 ATMOSPHERIC ABSORPTION AND RELATED
PROCESSES Cont.
 Short wave ultraviolet region (𝝀 < 𝟎. 𝟑𝝁𝒎): Solar radiation is
completely removed at sea level by absorption in O2, O3, O and N2 gases and
ions.
 Near ultraviolet region (𝟎. 𝟑𝝁𝒎 < 𝝀 < 𝟎. 𝟒μm): Only a little
radiation is transmitted, but enough to cause sunburn.
 Visible region (𝟎. 𝟒𝝁𝒎 < 𝝀 < 𝟎. 𝟕μm): The pure atmosphere is
almost totally transparent to visible radiation, and becomes an open
‘window’ for solar energy to reach the earth. About half of the solar
irradiance is in this spectral region as shown in Fig. 3. However, aerosol
particulate matter (PM) and pollutant gases can cause significant
absorption effects.
 Near infrared region (𝟎. 𝟕𝝁𝒎 < 𝝀 < 𝟐. 𝟓μm): About 50% of
the extraterrestrial solar radiation is in this region. Up to about 20% of
this may be absorbed, mostly by water vapor and also by carbon dioxide
(CO2) in the atmosphere.
 ATMOSPHERIC ABSORPTION AND RELATED
PROCESSES Cont.

 Far infrared region λ > 𝟏𝟐 μ𝒎 : The atmosphere is almost

completely opaque in this part of the spectrum.

Fig. 3: Spectral distributions of solar irradiance received above

the atmosphere (upper curve) and at sea level (lower curve).
 MEASUREMENTS OF SOLAR
RADIATION
 Some useful instruments used for measuring the solar radiation are
listed in Tables. They are basically divided into two categories:
a) Pyroheliometer: An instrument using a collimated detector for
measuring the beam irradiance at normal incidence. It is also known as
actinometer.
b) Pyranometer or solarimeter: An instrument used for measuring
total irradiance (beam + diffuse), usually on a horizontal surface.
 Only the active cavity radiometer (ACR) gives an absolute reading. In this
instrument, the solar beam falls on an absorbing surface of area A, whose
temperature increase is measured and compared with the temperature
increase in an identical absorber heated electrically. In principle, we may
write:
𝜶𝑨𝑮∗𝒃 = 𝑷𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄 → (𝟏)
where 𝜶 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟗𝟗
MEASUREMENTS OF SOLAR
RADIATION Cont.
MEASUREMENTS OF SOLAR
RADIATION Cont.
Thanks