Plato

Plato (/ˈpleɪtoʊ/ PLAY-toe;[2] Greek: Πλάτων Plátōn,

Plato
pronounced [plá.tɔːn] in Classical Attic; 428/427 or 424/423 – 348/347
BC) was an Athenian philosopher during the Classical period in
Ancient Greece, founder of the Platonist school of thought, and the
Academy, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world.

He is widely considered the pivotal figure in the history of Ancient

Greek and Western philosophy, along with his teacher, Socrates, and
his most famous student, Aristotle.[a] Plato has also often been cited as
one of the founders of Western religion and spirituality.[4] The so-
called Neoplatonism of philosophers like Plotinus and Porphyry
greatly influenced Christianity through Church Fathers such as
Augustine. Alfred North Whitehead once noted: "the safest general
characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that it
consists of a series of footnotes to Plato."[5]

Plato was the innovator of the written dialogue and dialectic forms in
philosophy. Plato is also considered the founder of Western political
philosophy. His most famous contribution is the theory of Forms
known by pure reason, in which Plato presents a solution to the Roman copy of a portrait bust by
problem of universals known as Platonism (also ambiguously called
Silanion for the Academia in Athens
either Platonic realism or Platonic idealism). He is also the namesake
(c. 370 BC)
of Platonic love and the Platonic solids.
Born 428/427 or 424/423
His own most decisive philosophical influences are usually thought to BC
have been along with Socrates, the pre-Socratics Pythagoras, Athens, Greece
Heraclitus and Parmenides, although few of his predecessors' works
remain extant and much of what we know about these figures today Died 348/347 BC (age
derives from Plato himself.[b] Unlike the work of nearly all of his c. 80)
contemporaries, Plato's entire body of work is believed to have Athens, Greece
survived intact for over 2,400 years.[7] Although their popularity has Notable work Apology · Crito ·
fluctuated over the years, Plato's works have never been without Euthyphro · Meno ·
readers since the time they were written.[8] Parmenides ·
Phaedo · Phaedrus
· Republic ·
Contents Symposium ·
Timaeus
Biography
Early life Era Ancient Greek
Birth and family philosophy
Name Region Western philosophy
Education
School Platonism
Later life and death
Notable
Influences Aristotle
students
Pythagoras
 Plato and mathematics Eudoxus of
Heraclitus and Parmenides Cnidus
Socrates Main Metaphysics ·
interests Ethics · Politics ·
Philosophy
Metaphysics Epistemology ·
The Forms Aesthetics · Soul ·
The soul Love · Mathematics
Epistemology · Language ·
Recollection Education ·
Justified true belief Cosmology ·
Eschatology
Ethics
Justice Notable Platonic philosophy
ideas · Innatism · Theory
Politics
Art and poetry of forms · Idealism
Unwritten doctrines Influences

Themes of Plato's dialogues Socrates · Pythagoras · Parmenides

Trial of Socrates · Heraclitus · Cratylus · the Sophists
The trial in other dialogues · Eleusinian Mysteries · Orphism ·
Allegories Diotima[1] · Theaetetus · Theodorus
The Cave · Homer · Hesiod
Ring of Gyges Influenced
Chariot Virtually all subsequent Western
Dialectic philosophy (and religion), especially
Family Platonism, including Aristotle,
Narration Speusippus and Xenocrates,
Academic skepticism, Middle
History of Plato's dialogues
Platonism, Philo, Plotinus and
Chronology
Neoplatonism, Augustine and
Writings of doubted authenticity
Christian Platonism, Boethius,
Spurious writings
Islamic Platonism and Isma'ilism,
Textual sources and history
Gemistus Pletho, Florentine
Modern editions
Academy and Renaissance
Criticism Platonism, Cambridge Platonism,
Legacy Modern Platonism
In the arts
In philosophy
See also
Philosophy
Ancient scholars
Modern scholars
Other
Notes
References
Works cited
Further reading
External links

Biography

Early life

Birth and family

Due to a lack of surviving accounts, little is known about Plato's early life
and education. Plato belonged to an aristocratic and influential family.
According to a disputed tradition, reported by doxographer Diogenes
Laërtius, Plato's father Ariston traced his descent from the king of Athens,
Codrus, and the king of Messenia, Melanthus.[9] According to the ancient
Hellenic tradition, Codrus was said to have been descended from the
mythological deity Poseidon.[10][11]

Plato's mother was Perictione, whose family

boasted of a relationship with the famous
Athenian lawmaker and lyric poet Solon, one
of the seven sages, who repealed the laws of
Draco (except for the death penalty for Diogenes Laertius is a
homicide).[11] Perictione was sister of principal source for the history
Charmides and niece of Critias, both of ancient Greek philosophy.
prominent figures of the Thirty Tyrants,
known as the Thirty, the brief oligarchic
regime (404–403 BC), which followed on the collapse of Athens at the end of
the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC).[12] According to some accounts,
Ariston tried to force his attentions on Perictione, but failed in his purpose; then
the god Apollo appeared to him in a vision, and as a result, Ariston left
Perictione unmolested.[13]
Through his mother, Plato The exact time and place of Plato's birth are unknown. Based on ancient
was related to Solon. sources, most modern scholars believe that he was born in Athens or Aegina[c]
between 429 and 423 BC, not long after the start of the Peloponnesian War.[d]
The traditional date of Plato's birth during the 87th or 88th Olympiad, 428 or
427 BC, is based on a dubious interpretation of Diogenes Laërtius, who says, "When [Socrates] was gone,
[Plato] joined Cratylus the Heracleitean and Hermogenes, who philosophized in the manner of Parmenides.
Then, at twenty-eight, Hermodorus says, [Plato] went to Euclides in Megara." However, as Debra Nails
argues, the text does not state that Plato left for Megara immediately after joining Cratylus and
Hermogenes.[23] In his Seventh Letter, Plato notes that his coming of age coincided with the taking of power
by the Thirty, remarking, "But a youth under the age of twenty made himself a laughingstock if he attempted
to enter the political arena." Thus, Nails dates Plato's birth to 424/423.[24]

According to Neanthes, Plato was six years younger than Isocrates, and therefore was born the same year the
prominent Athenian statesman Pericles died (429 BC).[25] Jonathan Barnes regards 428 BC as the year of
Plato's birth.[21][22] The grammarian Apollodorus of Athens in his Chronicles argues that Plato was born in
the 88th Olympiad.[18] Both the Suda and Sir Thomas Browne also claimed he was born during the 88th
Olympiad.[17][26] Another legend related that, when Plato was an infant, bees settled on his lips while he was
sleeping: an augury of the sweetness of style in which he would discourse about philosophy.[27]

Besides Plato himself, Ariston and Perictione had three other children; two
sons, Adeimantus and Glaucon, and a daughter Potone, the mother of
Speusippus (the nephew and successor of Plato as head of the Academy).[12]
The brothers Adeimantus and Glaucon are mentioned in the Republic as sons
of Ariston,[28] and presumably brothers of Plato, though some have argued
they were uncles.[e] In a scenario in the Memorabilia, Xenophon confused the
issue by presenting a Glaucon much younger than Plato.[30]

Ariston appears to have died in Plato's childhood, although the precise dating of
his death is difficult.[31] Perictione then married Pyrilampes, her mother's
brother,[32] who had served many times as an ambassador to the Persian court
and was a friend of Pericles, the leader of the democratic faction in Athens.[33]
Pyrilampes had a son from a previous marriage, Demus, who was famous for
his beauty.[34] Perictione gave birth to Pyrilampes' second son, Antiphon, the Speusippus was Plato's
half-brother of Plato, who appears in Parmenides.[35] nephew.

In contrast to his reticence about himself, Plato often introduced his

distinguished relatives into his dialogues or referred to them with some precision. In addition to Adeimantus
and Glaucon in the Republic, Charmides has a dialogue named after him; and Critias speaks in both
Charmides and Protagoras.[36] These and other references suggest a considerable amount of family pride and
enable us to reconstruct Plato's family tree. According to Burnet, "the opening scene of the Charmides is a
glorification of the whole [family] connection ... Plato's dialogues are not only a memorial to Socrates but also
the happier days of his own family."[37]

Name

The fact that the philosopher in his maturity called himself Platon is indisputable, but the origin of this name
remains mysterious. Platon is a nickname from the adjective platýs (πλατύς (http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopp
er/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=platu/s)) 'broad'. Although Platon was a fairly common name
(31 instances are known from Athens alone),[38] the name does not occur in Plato's known family line.[39] The
sources of Diogenes Laërtius account for this by claiming that his wrestling coach, Ariston of Argos, dubbed
him "broad" on account of his chest and shoulders, or that Plato derived his name from the breadth of his
eloquence, or his wide forehead.[40][41] While recalling a moral lesson about frugal living Seneca mentions the
meaning of Plato's name: "His very name was given him because of his broad chest."[42]

His true name was supposedly Aristocles (Ἀριστοκλῆς), meaning 'best reputation'.[f] According to Diogenes
Laërtius, he was named after his grandfather, as was common in Athenian society.[43] But there is only one
inscription of an Aristocles, an early archon of Athens in 605/4 BC. There is no record of a line from
Aristocles to Plato's father, Ariston. Recently a scholar has argued that even the name Aristocles for Plato was
a much later invention.[44] However, another scholar claims that "there is good reason for not dismissing [the
idea that Aristocles was Plato's given name] as a mere invention of his biographers", noting how prevalent that
account is in our sources.[39]

Education
Ancient sources describe him as a bright though modest boy who
excelled in his studies. Apuleius informs us that Speusippus praised
Plato's quickness of mind and modesty as a boy, and the "first fruits of
his youth infused with hard work and love of study".[45] His father
contributed all which was necessary to give to his son a good
education, and, therefore, Plato must have been instructed in
grammar, music, and gymnastics by the most distinguished teachers of
his time.[46] Plato invokes Damon many times in the Republic. Plato
was a wrestler, and Dicaearchus went so far as to say that Plato
wrestled at the Isthmian games.[47] Plato had also attended courses of
philosophy; before meeting Socrates, he first became acquainted with
Cratylus and the Heraclitean doctrines.[48]
Plato was a wrestler
Ambrose believed that Plato met Jeremiah in Egypt and was
influenced by his ideas. Augustine initially accepted this claim, but
later rejected it, arguing in The City of God that "Plato was born a hundred years after Jeremiah
prophesied."[49]

Later life and death

Plato may have travelled in Italy, Sicily, Egypt and

Cyrene.[50]Plato's own statement was that he visited Italy
and Sicily at the age of forty and was disgusted by the
sensuality of life there. Said to have returned to Athens at
the age of forty, Plato founded one of the earliest known
organized schools in Western Civilization on a plot of land
in the Grove of Hecademus or Academus.[51] This land was
named after Academus, an Attic hero in Greek mythology.
In historic Greek times it was adorned with oriental plane
and olive plantations[52][53]

The Academy was a large enclosure of ground about six

stadia (a total of between a kilometer and a half mile) outside Plato in his academy, drawing after a painting
of Athens proper. One story is that the name of the by Swedish painter Carl Johan Wahlbom
Academy comes from the ancient hero, Academus; still
another story is that the name came from a supposed former
owner of the plot of land, an Athenian citizen whose name was (also) Academus; while yet another account is
that it was named after a member of the army of Castor and Pollux, an Arcadian named Echedemus.[54] The
Academy operated until it was destroyed by Lucius Cornelius Sulla in 84 BC. Many intellectuals were
schooled in the Academy, the most prominent one being Aristotle.[55][56]

Throughout his later life, Plato became entangled with the politics of the city of Syracuse. According to
Diogenes Laërtius, Plato initially visited Syracuse while it was under the rule of Dionysius.[57] During this first
trip Dionysius's brother-in-law, Dion of Syracuse, became one of Plato's disciples, but the tyrant himself turned
against Plato. Plato almost faced death, but he was sold into slavery.[g] Anniceris, a Cyrenaic philosopher,
subsequently bought Plato's freedom for twenty minas,[59] and sent him home. After Dionysius's death,
according to Plato's Seventh Letter, Dion requested Plato return to Syracuse to tutor Dionysius II and guide
him to become a philosopher king. Dionysius II seemed to accept Plato's teachings, but he became suspicious
of Dion, his uncle. Dionysius expelled Dion and kept Plato against his will. Eventually Plato left Syracuse.
Dion would return to overthrow Dionysius and ruled Syracuse for a short time before being usurped by
Calippus, a fellow disciple of Plato.
According to Seneca, Plato died at the age of 81 on the same day he was born.[60] The Suda indicates that he
lived to 82 years,[17] while Neanthes claims an age of 84.[18] A variety of sources have given accounts of his
death. One story, based on a mutilated manuscript,[61] suggests Plato died in his bed, whilst a young Thracian
girl played the flute to him.[62] Another tradition suggests Plato died at a wedding feast. The account is based
on Diogenes Laërtius's reference to an account by Hermippus, a third-century Alexandrian.[63] According to
Tertullian, Plato simply died in his sleep.[63]

Plato owned an estate at Iphistiadae, which by will he left to a certain youth named Adeimantus, presumably a
younger relative, as Plato had an elder brother or uncle by this name.

Influences

Pythagoras

Although Socrates influenced Plato directly as related in the dialogues,

the influence of Pythagoras upon Plato, or in a broader sense, the
Pythagoreans, such as Archytas also appears to have been significant.
Aristotle claimed that the philosophy of Plato closely followed the
teachings of the Pythagoreans,[64] and Cicero repeats this claim: "They
say Plato learned all things Pythagorean."[65] It is probable that both
were influenced by Orphism, and both believed in metempsychosis,
transmigration of the soul.

Pythagoras held that all things are number, and the cosmos comes from
numerical principles. He introduced the concept of form as distinct from
matter, and that the physical world is an imitation of an eternal
mathematical world. These ideas were very influential on Heraclitus,
Parmenides and Plato.[66]
Bust of Pythagoras in Rome.
George Karamanolis notes that

Numenius accepted both Pythagoras and Plato as the two authorities one should follow in
philosophy, but he regarded Plato's authority as subordinate to that of Pythagoras, whom he
considered to be the source of all true philosophy—including Plato's own. For Numenius it is just
that Plato wrote so many philosophical works, whereas Pythagoras' views were originally passed
on only orally.[67]

According to R. M. Hare, this influence consists of three points:

1. The platonic Republic might be related to the idea of "a tightly organized community of like-
minded thinkers", like the one established by Pythagoras in Croton.
2. The idea that mathematics and, generally speaking, abstract thinking is a secure basis for
philosophical thinking as well as "for substantial theses in science and morals".
3. They shared a "mystical approach to the soul and its place in the material world".[68][69]

Plato and mathematics

Plato may have studied under the mathematician Theodorus of Cyrene, and has a dialogue named for and
whose central character is the mathematician Theaetetus. While not a mathematician, Plato was considered an
accomplished teacher of mathematics. Eudoxus of Cnidus, the greatest mathematician in Classical Greece,
who contributed much of what is found in Euclid's Elements, was taught by Archytas and Plato. Plato helped
to distinguish between pure and applied mathematics by widening the gap between "arithmetic", now called
number theory and "logistic", now called arithmetic.[h]

In the dialogue Timaeus Plato

associated each of the four classical
elements (earth, air, water, and fire)
with a regular solid (cube, octahedron,
icosahedron, and tetrahedron
respectively) due to their shape, the so- Assignment to the elements in Kepler's Mysterium Cosmographicum
called Platonic solids. The fifth regular
solid, the dodecahedron, was supposed
to be the element which made up the heavens.

Heraclitus and Parmenides

The two philosophers Heraclitus and Parmenides, following the way initiated by pre-Socratic Greek
philosophers like Pythagoras, depart from mythology and begin the metaphysical tradition that strongly
influenced Plato and continues today.[66]

The surviving fragments written by

Heraclitus suggest the view that all things
are continuously changing, or becoming.
His image of the river, with ever-changing
waters, is well known. According to some
ancient traditions like that of Diogenes
Laërtius, Plato received these ideas
through Heraclitus' disciple Cratylus, who
held the more radical view that continuous
change warrants scepticism because we
cannot define a thing that does not have a
permanent nature.[71]

Parmenides adopted an altogether contrary

vision, arguing for the idea of changeless Heraclitus (1628) by Hendrick ter Bust of Parmenides from Velia
Being and the view that change is an Brugghen
illusion. [66] John Palmer notes
"Parmenides' distinction among the
principal modes of being and his derivation of the attributes that must belong to what must be, simply as such,
qualify him to be seen as the founder of metaphysics or ontology as a domain of inquiry distinct from
theology."[72]

These ideas about change and permanence, or becoming and Being, influenced Plato in formulating his theory
of Forms.[71]

Plato's most self-critical dialogue is called Parmenides, featuring Parmenides and his student Zeno, who
following Parmenides' denial of change argued forcefully with his paradoxes to deny the existence of motion.
Plato's Sophist dialogue includes an Eleatic stranger, a follower of Parmenides, as a foil for his arguments
against Parmenides. In the dialogue Plato distinguishes nouns and verbs, providing some of the earliest
treatment of subject and predicate. He also argues that motion and rest both "are", against followers of
Parmenides who say rest is but motion is not.

Socrates

Plato was one of the devoted young followers of Socrates. The precise
relationship between Plato and Socrates remains an area of contention
among scholars.

Plato never speaks in his own voice in his dialogues, and speaks as
Socrates in all but the Laws. In the Second Letter, it says, "no writing of
Plato exists or ever will exist, but those now said to be his are those of a
Socrates become beautiful and new";[73] if the Letter is Plato's, the final
qualification seems to call into question the dialogues' historical fidelity.
In any case, Xenophon's Memorabilia and Aristophanes's The Clouds
seem to present a somewhat different portrait of Socrates from the one
Plato paints. The Socratic problem asks how to reconcile these various
accounts. Leo Strauss notes that Socrates' reputation for irony casts doubt
on whether Plato's Socrates is expressing sincere beliefs.[74]
Bust of Socrates at the Louvre.
Aristotle attributes a different doctrine with respect to Forms to Plato and
Socrates.[75] Aristotle suggests that Socrates' idea of forms can be
discovered through investigation of the natural world, unlike Plato's Forms that exist beyond and outside the
ordinary range of human understanding. In the dialogues of Plato though, Socrates sometimes seems to
support a mystical side, discussing reincarnation and the mystery religions, this is generally attributed to
Plato.[76] Regardless, this view of Socrates cannot be dismissed out of hand, as we cannot be sure of the
differences between the views of Plato and Socrates. In the Meno Plato refers to the Eleusinian Mysteries,
telling Meno he would understand Socrates's answers better if he could stay for the initiations next week. It is
possible that Plato and Socrates took part in the Eleusinian Mysteries.[77]

Philosophy

Metaphysics

In Plato's dialogues, Socrates and his company of disputants had something to say on many subjects, including
several aspects of metaphysics. These include religion and science, human nature, love, and sexuality. More
than one dialogue contrasts perception and reality, nature and custom, and body and soul.

The Forms

"Platonism" and its theory of Forms (or theory of Ideas) denies the reality of the material world, considering it
only an image or copy of the real world. The theory of Forms is first introduced in the Phaedo dialogue (also
known as On the Soul), wherein Socrates refutes the pluralism of the likes of Anaxagoras, then the most
popular response to Heraclitus and Parmenides, while giving the "Opposites Argument" in support of the
Forms.
According to this theory of Forms there are at least two worlds: the apparent world
of concrete objects, grasped by the senses, which constantly changes, and an
unchanging and unseen world of Forms or abstract objects, grasped by pure reason
(λογική). which ground what is apparent.

It can also be said there are three worlds, with the apparent world consisting of both
the world of material objects and of mental images, with the "third realm" consisting
of the Forms. Thus, though there is the term "Platonic idealism", this refers to
Platonic Ideas or the Forms, and not to some platonic kind of idealism, an 18th- The "windmill proof"
century view which sees matter as unreal in favour of mind. For Plato, though of the Pythagorean
grasped by the mind, only the Forms are truly real. theorem found in
Euclid's Elements.
Plato's Forms thus represent types of things, as well as properties, patterns, and
relations, to which we refer as objects. Just as individual tables, chairs, and cars refer
to objects in this world, 'tableness', 'chairness', and 'carness', as well as e. g. justice, truth, and beauty refer to
objects in another world. One of Plato's most cited examples for the Forms were the truths of geometry, such
as the Pythagorean theorem.

In other words, the Forms are universals given as a solution to the problem of universals, or the problem of
"the One and the Many", e. g. how one predicate "red" can apply to many red objects. For Plato this is
because there is one abstract object or Form of red, redness itself, in which the several red things "participate".
As Plato's solution is that universals are Forms and that Forms are real if anything is, Plato's philosophy is
unambiguously called Platonic realism. According to Aristotle, Plato's best known argument in support of the
Forms was the "one over many" argument.[78]

Aside from being immutable, timeless, changeless, and one over many,
the Forms also provide definitions and the standard against which all
instances are measured. In the dialogues Socrates regularly asks for the
meaning – in the sense of intensional definitions – of a general term (e. g.
justice, truth, beauty), and criticizes those who instead give him
particular, extensional examples, rather than the quality shared by all
examples.

There is thus a world of perfect, eternal, and changeless meanings of

predicates, the Forms, existing in the realm of Being outside of space and
time; and the imperfect sensible world of becoming, subjects somehow in
a state between being and nothing, that partakes of the qualities of the
Forms, and is its instantiation.

The soul What is justice?

Plato advocates a belief in the immortality of the soul, and several

dialogues end with long speeches imagining the afterlife. In the Timaeus, Socrates locates the parts of the soul
within the human body: Reason is located in the head, spirit in the top third of the torso, and the appetite in the
middle third of the torso, down to the navel.[79][80]

Epistemology

Socrates, such as wisdom also discuss several aspects of epistemology. More than one dialogue contrasts
knowledge and opinion. Plato's epistemology involves Socrates arguing that knowledge is not empirical, and
that it comes from divine insight. The Forms are also responsible for both knowledge or certainty, and are
grasped by pure reason.
In several dialogues, Socrates inverts the common man's intuition about what is knowable and what is real.
Reality is unavailable to those who use their senses. Socrates says that he who sees with his eyes is blind.
While most people take the objects of their senses to be real if anything is, Socrates is contemptuous of people
who think that something has to be graspable in the hands to be real. In the Theaetetus, he says such people
are eu amousoi (εὖ ἄμουσοι), an expression that means literally, "happily without the muses".[81] In other
words, such people are willingly ignorant, living without divine inspiration and access to higher insights about
reality.

In Plato's dialogues, Socrates always insists on his ignorance and humility, that he knows nothing, so called
Socratic irony. Several dialogues refute a series of viewpoints, but offer no positive position of its own, ending
in aporia.

Recollection

In several of Plato's dialogues, Socrates promulgates the idea that knowledge is a matter of recollection of the
state before one is born, and not of observation or study.[82] Keeping with the theme of admitting his own
ignorance, Socrates regularly complains of his forgetfulness. In the Meno, Socrates uses a geometrical example
to expound Plato's view that knowledge in this latter sense is acquired by recollection. Socrates elicits a fact
concerning a geometrical construction from a slave boy, who could not have otherwise known the fact (due to
the slave boy's lack of education). The knowledge must be present, Socrates concludes, in an eternal, non-
experiential form.

In other dialogues, the Sophist, Statesman, Republic, and the Parmenides, Plato himself associates knowledge
with the apprehension of unchanging Forms and their relationships to one another (which he calls "expertise"
in Dialectic), including through the processes of collection and division.[83] More explicitly, Plato himself
argues in the Timaeus that knowledge is always proportionate to the realm from which it is gained. In other
words, if one derives one's account of something experientially, because the world of sense is in flux, the
views therein attained will be mere opinions. And opinions are characterized by a lack of necessity and
stability. On the other hand, if one derives one's account of something by way of the non-sensible forms,
because these forms are unchanging, so too is the account derived from them. That apprehension of forms is
required for knowledge may be taken to cohere with Plato's theory in the Theaetetus and Meno.[84] Indeed, the
apprehension of Forms may be at the base of the "account" required for justification, in that it offers
foundational knowledge which itself needs no account, thereby avoiding an infinite regression.[85]

Justified true belief

Many have interpreted Plato as stating—even having been the first to

write—that knowledge is justified true belief, an influential view that
informed future developments in epistemology.[86] This interpretation
is partly based on a reading of the Theaetetus wherein Plato argues
that knowledge is distinguished from mere true belief by the knower
having an "account" of the object of their true belief.[87] And this
theory may again be seen in the Meno, where it is suggested that true
belief can be raised to the level of knowledge if it is bound with an
A Venn diagram illustrating the
account as to the question of "why" the object of the true belief is
classical theory of knowledge.
so.[88][89]

Many years later, Edmund Gettier famously demonstrated the

problems of the justified true belief account of knowledge. That the modern theory of justified true belief as
knowledge which Gettier addresses is equivalent to Plato's is accepted by some scholars but rejected by
others.[90] Plato himself also identified problems with the justified true belief definition in the Theaetetus,
concluding that justification (or an "account") would require knowledge of difference, meaning that the
definition of knowledge is circular.[91][92]

Ethics

Several dialogues discuss ethics including virtue and vice, pleasure and pain, crime and punishment, and
justice and medicine. Plato views "The Good" as the supreme Form, somehow existing even "beyond being".

Socrates propounded a moral intellectualism which claimed nobody does bad on purpose, and to know what is
good results in doing what is good; that knowledge is virtue. In the Protagoras dialogue it is argued that virtue
is innate and cannot be learned.

Socrates presents the famous Euthyphro dilemma in the dialogue of the same name: "Is the pious (τὸ ὅσιον)
loved by the gods because it is pious, or is it pious because it is loved by the gods?" (10a)

Justice

As above, in the Republic, Plato asks the question, “What is justice?” By means of the Greek term dikaiosune
– a term for “justice” that captures both individual justice and the justice that informs societies, Plato is able not
only to inform metaphysics, but also ethics and politics with the question: “What is the basis of moral and
social obligation?”

Plato's well-known answer rests upon the fundamental responsibility to seek wisdom, wisdom which leads to
an understanding of the Form of the Good. Plato further argues that such understanding of forms produces and
ensures the good communal life when ideally structured under a philosopher king in a society with three
classes (philosophers kings, guardians and workers) that neatly mirror his triadic view of the individual soul
(reason, spirit and appetite). In this manner, justice is obtained when knowledge of how to fulfill one's moral
and political function in society is put into practice.[93]

Politics

The dialogues also discuss politics. Some of Plato's most famous

doctrines are contained in the Republic as well as in the Laws and the
Statesman. Because these doctrines are not spoken directly by Plato
and vary between dialogues, they cannot be straightforwardly
assumed as representing Plato's own views.

Socrates asserts that societies have a tripartite class structure

corresponding to the appetite/spirit/reason structure of the individual
soul. The appetite/spirit/reason are analogous to the castes of
society.[94]

Productive (Workers) – the labourers, carpenters,

plumbers, masons, merchants, farmers, ranchers, etc. Oxyrhynchus Papyri, with fragment
These correspond to the "appetite" part of the soul. of Plato's Republic
Protective (Warriors or Guardians) – those who are
adventurous, strong and brave; in the armed forces. These
correspond to the "spirit" part of the soul.
Governing (Rulers or Philosopher Kings) – those who are intelligent, rational, self-controlled, in
love with wisdom, well suited to make decisions for the community. These correspond to the
 "reason" part of the soul and are very few.

According to this model, the principles of Athenian democracy (as it existed in his day) are rejected as only a
few are fit to rule. Instead of rhetoric and persuasion, Socrates says reason and wisdom should govern. As
Socrates puts it:

"Until philosophers rule as kings or those who are now called kings and leading men
genuinely and adequately philosophize, that is, until political power and philosophy entirely
coincide, while the many natures who at present pursue either one exclusively are forcibly
prevented from doing so, cities will have no rest from evils,... nor, I think, will the human
race."[95]

Socrates describes these "philosopher kings" as "those who love the sight of truth"[96] and supports the idea
with the analogy of a captain and his ship or a doctor and his medicine. According to him, sailing and health
are not things that everyone is qualified to practice by nature. A large part of the Republic then addresses how
the educational system should be set up to produce these philosopher kings.

In addition, the ideal city is used as an image to illuminate the state of one's soul, or the will, reason, and
desires combined in the human body. Socrates is attempting to make an image of a rightly ordered human, and
then later goes on to describe the different kinds of humans that can be observed, from tyrants to lovers of
money in various kinds of cities. The ideal city is not promoted, but only used to magnify the different kinds of
individual humans and the state of their soul. However, the philosopher king image was used by many after
Plato to justify their personal political beliefs. The philosophic soul according to Socrates has reason, will, and
desires united in virtuous harmony. A philosopher has the moderate love for wisdom and the courage to act
according to wisdom. Wisdom is knowledge about the Good or the right relations between all that exists.

Wherein it concerns states and rulers, Socrates asks which is better—a bad democracy or a country reigned by
a tyrant. He argues that it is better to be ruled by a bad tyrant, than by a bad democracy (since here all the
people are now responsible for such actions, rather than one individual committing many bad deeds.) This is
emphasised within the Republic as Socrates describes the event of mutiny on board a ship.[97] Socrates
suggests the ship's crew to be in line with the democratic rule of many and the captain, although inhibited
through ailments, the tyrant. Socrates' description of this event is parallel to that of democracy within the state
and the inherent problems that arise.

According to Socrates, a state made up of different kinds of souls will, overall, decline from an aristocracy
(rule by the best) to a timocracy (rule by the honourable), then to an oligarchy (rule by the few), then to a
democracy (rule by the people), and finally to tyranny (rule by one person, rule by a tyrant).[98] Aristocracy in
the sense of government (politeia) is advocated in Plato's Republic. This regime is ruled by a philosopher king,
and thus is grounded on wisdom and reason.

The aristocratic state, and the man whose nature corresponds to it, are the objects of Plato's analyses
throughout much of the Republic, as opposed to the other four types of states/men, who are discussed later in
his work. In Book VIII, Socrates states in order the other four imperfect societies with a description of the
state's structure and individual character. In timocracy the ruling class is made up primarily of those with a
warrior-like character.[99] Oligarchy is made up of a society in which wealth is the criterion of merit and the
wealthy are in control.[100] In democracy, the state bears resemblance to ancient Athens with traits such as
equality of political opportunity and freedom for the individual to do as he likes.[101] Democracy then
degenerates into tyranny from the conflict of rich and poor. It is characterized by an undisciplined society
existing in chaos, where the tyrant rises as popular champion leading to the formation of his private army and
the growth of oppression.[102][98][103]

Art and poetry

Several dialogues tackle questions about art, including rhetoric and rhapsody. Socrates says that poetry is
inspired by the muses, and is not rational. He speaks approvingly of this, and other forms of divine madness
(drunkenness, eroticism, and dreaming) in the Phaedrus,[104] and yet in the Republic wants to outlaw Homer's
great poetry, and laughter as well. In Ion, Socrates gives no hint of the disapproval of Homer that he expresses
in the Republic. The dialogue Ion suggests that Homer's Iliad functioned in the ancient Greek world as the
Bible does today in the modern Christian world: as divinely inspired literature that can provide moral
guidance, if only it can be properly interpreted.

Unwritten doctrines

For a long time, Plato's unwritten doctrines[105][106][107] had been

controversial. Many modern books on Plato seem to diminish its
importance; nevertheless, the first important witness who mentions its
existence is Aristotle, who in his Physics writes: "It is true, indeed,
that the account he gives there [i.e. in Timaeus] of the participant is
different from what he says in his so-called unwritten teachings
(ἄγραφα δόγματα)."[108] The term "ἄγραφα δόγματα" literally means
unwritten doctrines or unwritten dogmas and it stands for the most
fundamental metaphysical teaching of Plato, which he disclosed only
orally, and some say only to his most trusted fellows, and which he
may have kept secret from the public. The importance of the
unwritten doctrines does not seem to have been seriously questioned
before the 19th century.

A reason for not revealing it to everyone is partially discussed in

Phaedrus where Plato criticizes the written transmission of
knowledge as faulty, favouring instead the spoken logos: "he who has Bust excavated at the Villa of the
Papyri, possibly of Dionysus, Plato
knowledge of the just and the good and beautiful ... will not, when in
or Poseidon.
earnest, write them in ink, sowing them through a pen with words,
which cannot defend themselves by argument and cannot teach the
truth effectually."[109] The same argument is repeated in Plato's
Seventh Letter: "every serious man in dealing with really serious subjects carefully avoids writing."[110] In the
same letter he writes: "I can certainly declare concerning all these writers who claim to know the subjects that I
seriously study ... there does not exist, nor will there ever exist, any treatise of mine dealing therewith."[111]
Such secrecy is necessary in order not "to expose them to unseemly and degrading treatment".[112]

It is, however, said that Plato once disclosed this knowledge to the public in his lecture On the Good (Περὶ
τἀγαθοῦ), in which the Good (τὸ ἀγαθόν) is identified with the One (the Unity, τὸ ἕν), the fundamental
ontological principle. The content of this lecture has been transmitted by several witnesses. Aristoxenus
describes the event in the following words: "Each came expecting to learn something about the things that are
generally considered good for men, such as wealth, good health, physical strength, and altogether a kind of
wonderful happiness. But when the mathematical demonstrations came, including numbers, geometrical
figures and astronomy, and finally the statement Good is One seemed to them, I imagine, utterly unexpected
and strange; hence some belittled the matter, while others rejected it."[113] Simplicius quotes Alexander of
Aphrodisias, who states that "according to Plato, the first principles of everything, including the Forms
themselves are One and Indefinite Duality (ἡ ἀόριστος δυάς), which he called Large and Small (τὸ μέγα καὶ
τὸ μικρόν)", and Simplicius reports as well that "one might also learn this from Speusippus and Xenocrates
and the others who were present at Plato's lecture on the Good".[44]
Their account is in full agreement with Aristotle's description of Plato's metaphysical doctrine. In Metaphysics
he writes: "Now since the Forms are the causes of everything else, he [i.e. Plato] supposed that their elements
are the elements of all things. Accordingly the material principle is the Great and Small [i.e. the Dyad], and the
essence is the One (τὸ ἕν), since the numbers are derived from the Great and Small by participation in the
One".[114] "From this account it is clear that he only employed two causes: that of the essence, and the
material cause; for the Forms are the cause of the essence in everything else, and the One is the cause of it in
the Forms. He also tells us what the material substrate is of which the Forms are predicated in the case of
sensible things, and the One in that of the Forms—that it is this the duality (the Dyad, ἡ δυάς), the Great and
Small (τὸ μέγα καὶ τὸ μικρόν). Further, he assigned to these two elements respectively the causation of good
and of evil".[114]

The most important aspect of this interpretation of Plato's metaphysics is the continuity between his teaching
and the Neoplatonic interpretation of Plotinus[i] or Ficino[j] which has been considered erroneous by many but
may in fact have been directly influenced by oral transmission of Plato's doctrine. A modern scholar who
recognized the importance of the unwritten doctrine of Plato was Heinrich Gomperz who described it in his
speech during the 7th International Congress of Philosophy in 1930.[115] All the sources related to the ἄγραφα
δόγματα have been collected by Konrad Gaiser and published as Testimonia Platonica.[116] These sources
have subsequently been interpreted by scholars from the German Tübingen School of interpretation such as
Hans Joachim Krämer or Thomas A. Szlezák.[k]

Themes of Plato's dialogues

Trial of Socrates

The trial of Socrates and his death sentence is the

central, unifying event of Plato's dialogues. It is
relayed in the dialogues Apology, Crito, and
Phaedo. Apology is Socrates' defence speech, and
Crito and Phaedo take place in prison after the
conviction.

Apology is among the most frequently read of Plato's

works. In the Apology, Socrates tries to dismiss
rumours that he is a sophist and defends himself
against charges of disbelief in the gods and
corruption of the young. Socrates insists that long-
The Death of Socrates (1787), by Jacques-Louis David
standing slander will be the real cause of his demise,
and says the legal charges are essentially false.
Socrates famously denies being wise, and explains
how his life as a philosopher was launched by the Oracle at Delphi. He says that his quest to resolve the riddle
of the oracle put him at odds with his fellow man, and that this is the reason he has been mistaken for a menace
to the city-state of Athens.

In Apology, Socrates is presented as mentioning Plato by name as one of those youths close enough to him to
have been corrupted, if he were in fact guilty of corrupting the youth, and questioning why their fathers and
brothers did not step forward to testify against him if he was indeed guilty of such a crime.[117] Later, Plato is
mentioned along with Crito, Critobolus, and Apollodorus as offering to pay a fine of 30 minas on Socrates'
behalf, in lieu of the death penalty proposed by Meletus.[118] In the Phaedo, the title character lists those who
were in attendance at the prison on Socrates' last day, explaining Plato's absence by saying, "Plato was
ill".[119]
The trial in other dialogues

If Plato's important dialogues do not refer to Socrates' execution explicitly, they allude to it, or use characters or
themes that play a part in it. Five dialogues foreshadow the trial: In the Theaetetus and the Euthyphro Socrates
tells people that he is about to face corruption charges.[120][121] In the Meno, one of the men who brings legal
charges against Socrates, Anytus, warns him about the trouble he may get into if he does not stop criticizing
important people.[122] In the Gorgias, Socrates says that his trial will be like a doctor prosecuted by a cook
who asks a jury of children to choose between the doctor's bitter medicine and the cook's tasty treats.[123] In
the Republic, Socrates explains why an enlightened man (presumably himself) will stumble in a courtroom
situation.[124] Plato's support of aristocracy and distrust of democracy is also taken to be partly rooted in a
democracy having killed Socrates. In the Protagoras, Socrates is a guest at the home of Callias, son of
Hipponicus, a man whom Socrates disparages in the Apology as having wasted a great amount of money on
sophists' fees.

Two other important dialogues, the Symposium and the Phaedrus, are linked to the main storyline by
characters. In the Apology, Socrates says Aristophanes slandered him in a comic play, and blames him for
causing his bad reputation, and ultimately, his death.[125] In the Symposium, the two of them are drinking
together with other friends. The character Phaedrus is linked to the main story line by character (Phaedrus is
also a participant in the Symposium and the Protagoras) and by theme (the philosopher as divine emissary,
etc.) The Protagoras is also strongly linked to the Symposium by characters: all of the formal speakers at the
Symposium (with the exception of Aristophanes) are present at the home of Callias in that dialogue. Charmides
and his guardian Critias are present for the discussion in the Protagoras. Examples of characters crossing
between dialogues can be further multiplied. The Protagoras contains the largest gathering of Socratic
associates.

In the dialogues Plato is most celebrated and admired for, Socrates is concerned with human and political
virtue, has a distinctive personality, and friends and enemies who "travel" with him from dialogue to dialogue.
This is not to say that Socrates is consistent: a man who is his friend in one dialogue may be an adversary or
subject of his mockery in another. For example, Socrates praises the wisdom of Euthyphro many times in the
Cratylus, but makes him look like a fool in the Euthyphro. He disparages sophists generally, and Prodicus
specifically in the Apology, whom he also slyly jabs in the Cratylus for charging the hefty fee of fifty drachmas
for a course on language and grammar. However, Socrates tells Theaetetus in his namesake dialogue that he
admires Prodicus and has directed many pupils to him. Socrates' ideas are also not consistent within or
between or among dialogues.

Allegories

Mythos and logos are terms that evolved along classical Greek history. In the times of Homer and Hesiod (8th
century BC) they were essentially synonyms, and contained the meaning of 'tale' or 'history'. Later came
historians like Herodotus and Thucydides, as well as philosophers like Heraclitus and Parmenides and other
Presocratics who introduced a distinction between both terms; mythos became more a nonverifiable account,
and logos a rational account.[126] It may seem that Plato, being a disciple of Socrates and a strong partisan of
philosophy based on logos, should have avoided the use of myth-telling. Instead he made an abundant use of
it. This fact has produced analytical and interpretative work, in order to clarify the reasons and purposes for
that use.

Plato, in general, distinguished between three types of myth.[l] First there were the false myths, like those
based on stories of gods subject to passions and sufferings, because reason teaches that God is perfect. Then
came the myths based on true reasoning, and therefore also true. Finally there were those non verifiable
because beyond of human reason, but containing some truth in them. Regarding the subjects of Plato's myths
they are of two types, those dealing with the origin of the universe, and those about morals and the origin and
fate of the soul.[127]
It is generally agreed that the main purpose for Plato in using myths was didactic. He considered that only a
few people were capable or interested in following a reasoned philosophical discourse, but men in general are
attracted by stories and tales. Consequently, then, he used the myth to convey the conclusions of the
philosophical reasoning. Some of Plato's myths were based in traditional ones, others were modifications of
them, and finally he also invented altogether new myths.[128] Notable examples include the story of Atlantis,
the Myth of Er, and the Allegory of the Cave.

The Cave

The theory of Forms is most famously captured in

his Allegory of the Cave, and more explicitly in his
analogy of the sun and the divided line. The
Allegory of the Cave is a paradoxical analogy
wherein Socrates argues that the invisible world is
the most intelligible ('noeton') and that the visible
world ((h)oraton) is the least knowable, and the
most obscure.

Socrates says in the Republic that people who take

the sun-lit world of the senses to be good and real
are living pitifully in a den of evil and ignorance.
Socrates admits that few climb out of the den, or
cave of ignorance, and those who do, not only have Plato's Allegory of the Cave by Jan Saenredam,
according to Cornelis van Haarlem, 1604, Albertina,
a terrible struggle to attain the heights, but when
Vienna
they go back down for a visit or to help other people
up, they find themselves objects of scorn and
ridicule.

According to Socrates, physical objects and physical events are "shadows" of their ideal or perfect forms, and
exist only to the extent that they instantiate the perfect versions of themselves. Just as shadows are temporary,
inconsequential epiphenomena produced by physical objects, physical objects are themselves fleeting
phenomena caused by more substantial causes, the ideals of which they are mere instances. For example,
Socrates thinks that perfect justice exists (although it is not clear where) and his own trial would be a cheap
copy of it.

The Allegory of the Cave is intimately connected to his political ideology, that only people who have climbed
out of the cave and cast their eyes on a vision of goodness are fit to rule. Socrates claims that the enlightened
men of society must be forced from their divine contemplation and be compelled to run the city according to
their lofty insights. Thus is born the idea of the "philosopher-king", the wise person who accepts the power
thrust upon him by the people who are wise enough to choose a good master. This is the main thesis of
Socrates in the Republic, that the most wisdom the masses can muster is the wise choice of a ruler.[129]

Ring of Gyges

A ring which could make one invisible, the Ring of Gyges is proposed in the Republic by the character of
Glaucon, and considered by the rest of characters for its ethical consequences, whether an individual
possessing it would be most happy abstaining or doing injustice.

Chariot
He also compares the soul (psyche) to a chariot. In this allegory he introduces a triple soul which composed of
a charioteer and two horses. The charioteer is a symbol of intellectual and logical part of the soul (logistikon),
and two horses represents the moral virtues (thymoeides) and passionate instincts (epithymetikon), respectively,
to illustrate the conflict between them.

Dialectic

Socrates employs a dialectic method which proceeds by questioning. The role of dialectic in Plato's thought is
contested but there are two main interpretations: a type of reasoning and a method of intuition.[130] Simon
Blackburn adopts the first, saying that Plato's dialectic is "the process of eliciting the truth by means of
questions aimed at opening out what is already implicitly known, or at exposing the contradictions and
muddles of an opponent's position."[130] A similar interpretation has been put forth by Louis Hartz, who
suggests that elements of the dialectic are borrowed from Hegel.[131] According to this view, opposing
arguments improve upon each other, and prevailing opinion is shaped by the synthesis of many conflicting
ideas over time. Each new idea exposes a flaw in the accepted model, and the epistemological substance of the
debate continually approaches the truth. Hartz's is a teleological interpretation at the core, in which
philosophers will ultimately exhaust the available body of knowledge and thus reach "the end of history." Karl
Popper, on the other hand, claims that dialectic is the art of intuition for "visualising the divine originals, the
Forms or Ideas, of unveiling the Great Mystery behind the common man's everyday world of
appearances."[132]

Family

Plato often discusses the father-son relationship and the question of whether a father's interest in his sons has
much to do with how well his sons turn out. In ancient Athens, a boy was socially located by his family
identity, and Plato often refers to his characters in terms of their paternal and fraternal relationships. Socrates
was not a family man, and saw himself as the son of his mother, who was apparently a midwife. A divine
fatalist, Socrates mocks men who spent exorbitant fees on tutors and trainers for their sons, and repeatedly
ventures the idea that good character is a gift from the gods. Plato's dialogue Crito reminds Socrates that
orphans are at the mercy of chance, but Socrates is unconcerned. In the Theaetetus, he is found recruiting as a
disciple a young man whose inheritance has been squandered. Socrates twice compares the relationship of the
older man and his boy lover to the father-son relationship,[133][134] and in the Phaedo, Socrates' disciples,
towards whom he displays more concern than his biological sons, say they will feel "fatherless" when he is
gone.

Though Plato agreed with Aristotle that women were inferior to men, in the fourth book of the Republic the
character of Socrates says this was only because of nomos or custom and not because of nature, and thus
women needed paidia, rearing or education to be equal to men. In the "merely probable tale" of the
eponymous character in the Timaeus, unjust men who live corrupted lives would be reincarnated as women or
various animal kinds.

Narration

Plato never presents himself as a participant in any of the dialogues, and with the exception of the Apology,
there is no suggestion that he heard any of the dialogues firsthand. Some dialogues have no narrator but have a
pure "dramatic" form (examples: Meno, Gorgias, Phaedrus, Crito, Euthyphro), some dialogues are narrated by
Socrates, wherein he speaks in first person (examples: Lysis, Charmides, Republic). One dialogue,
Protagoras, begins in dramatic form but quickly proceeds to Socrates' narration of a conversation he had
previously with the sophist for whom the dialogue is named; this narration continues uninterrupted till the
dialogue's end.
Two dialogues Phaedo and Symposium
also begin in dramatic form but then
proceed to virtually uninterrupted
narration by followers of Socrates.
Phaedo, an account of Socrates' final
conversation and hemlock drinking, is
narrated by Phaedo to Echecrates in a
foreign city not long after the execution
took place.[m] The Symposium is narrated
by Apollodorus, a Socratic disciple,
apparently to Glaucon. Apollodorus
assures his listener that he is recounting Painting of a scene from Plato's Symposium (Anselm Feuerbach,
the story, which took place when he 1873)
himself was an infant, not from his own
memory, but as remembered by
Aristodemus, who told him the story years ago.

The Theaetetus is a peculiar case: a dialogue in dramatic form embedded within another dialogue in dramatic
form. In the beginning of the Theaetetus,[136] Euclides says that he compiled the conversation from notes he
took based on what Socrates told him of his conversation with the title character. The rest of the Theaetetus is
presented as a "book" written in dramatic form and read by one of Euclides' slaves.[137] Some scholars take
this as an indication that Plato had by this date wearied of the narrated form.[138] With the exception of the
Theaetetus, Plato gives no explicit indication as to how these orally transmitted conversations came to be
written down.

History of Plato's dialogues

Thirty-five dialogues and thirteen letters (the
Epistles) have traditionally been ascribed to
Plato, though modern scholarship doubts the
authenticity of at least some of these. Plato's
writings have been published in several fashions;
this has led to several conventions regarding the
naming and referencing of Plato's texts.

The usual system for making unique references

to sections of the text by Plato derives from a
16th-century edition of Plato's works by
Henricus Stephanus known as Stephanus
pagination.

One tradition regarding the arrangement of

Plato's texts is according to tetralogies. This Volume 3, pp. 32–33, of the 1578 Stephanus edition of
scheme is ascribed by Diogenes Laërtius to an Plato, showing a passage of Timaeus with the Latin
ancient scholar and court astrologer to Tiberius translation and notes of Jean de Serres
named Thrasyllus.

Chronology
No one knows the exact order Plato's dialogues were written in, nor the extent to which some might have been
later revised and rewritten. The works are usually grouped into Early (sometimes by some into Transitional),
Middle, and Late period.[139][140] This choice to group chronologically is thought worthy of criticism by some
(Cooper et al),[141] given that it is recognized that there is no absolute agreement as to the true chronology,
since the facts of the temporal order of writing are not confidently ascertained.[142] Chronology was not a
consideration in ancient times, in that groupings of this nature are virtually absent (Tarrant) in the extant
writings of ancient Platonists.[143]

Whereas those classified as "early dialogues" often conclude in aporia, the so-called "middle dialogues"
provide more clearly stated positive teachings that are often ascribed to Plato such as the theory of Forms. The
remaining dialogues are classified as "late" and are generally agreed to be difficult and challenging pieces of
philosophy. This grouping is the only one proven by stylometric analysis.[144] Among those who classify the
dialogues into periods of composition, Socrates figures in all of the "early dialogues" and they are considered
the most faithful representations of the historical Socrates.[145]

The following represents one relatively common division.[146] It should, however, be kept in mind that many
of the positions in the ordering are still highly disputed, and also that the very notion that Plato's dialogues can
or should be "ordered" is by no means universally accepted. Increasingly in the most recent Plato scholarship,
writers are sceptical of the notion that the order of Plato's writings can be established with any precision,[147]
though Plato's works are still often characterized as falling at least roughly into three groups.[6]

Early: Apology, Charmides, Crito, Euthyphro, Gorgias, (Lesser) Hippias (minor), (Greater) Hippias (major),
Ion, Laches, Lysis, Protagoras

Middle: Cratylus, Euthydemus, Meno, Parmenides, Phaedo, Phaedrus, Republic, Symposium, Theaetetus

Late: Critias, Sophist, Statesman / Politicus, Timaeus, Philebus, Laws.[145]

A significant distinction of the early Plato and the later Plato has been offered by scholars such as E.R. Dodds
and has been summarized by Harold Bloom in his book titled Agon: "E.R. Dodds is the classical scholar
whose writings most illuminated the Hellenic descent (in) The Greeks and the Irrational ... In his chapter on
Plato and the Irrational Soul ... Dodds traces Plato's spiritual evolution from the pure rationalist of the
Protagoras to the transcendental psychologist, influenced by the Pythagoreans and Orphics, of the later works
culminating in the Laws."[148]

Lewis Campbell was the first[149] to make exhaustive use of stylometry to prove the great probability that the
Critias, Timaeus, Laws, Philebus, Sophist, and Statesman were all clustered together as a group, while the
Parmenides, Phaedrus, Republic, and Theaetetus belong to a separate group, which must be earlier (given
Aristotle's statement in his Politics[150] that the Laws was written after the Republic; cf. Diogenes Laërtius
Lives 3.37). What is remarkable about Campbell's conclusions is that, in spite of all the stylometric studies that
have been conducted since his time, perhaps the only chronological fact about Plato's works that can now be
said to be proven by stylometry is the fact that Critias, Timaeus, Laws, Philebus, Sophist, and Statesman are
the latest of Plato's dialogues, the others earlier.[144]

Protagoras is often considered one of the last of the "early dialogues". Three dialogues are often considered
"transitional" or "pre-middle": Euthydemus, Gorgias, and Meno. Proponents of dividing the dialogues into
periods often consider the Parmenides and Theaetetus to come late in the middle period and be transitional to
the next, as they seem to treat the theory of Forms critically (Parmenides) or only indirectly (Theaetetus).[151]
Ritter's stylometric analysis places Phaedrus as probably after Theaetetus and Parmenides,[152] although it
does not relate to the theory of Forms in the same way. The first book of the Republic is often thought to have
been written significantly earlier than the rest of the work, although possibly having undergone revisions when
the later books were attached to it.[151]
While looked to for Plato's "mature" answers to the questions posed by his earlier works, those answers are
difficult to discern. Some scholars[145] indicate that the theory of Forms is absent from the late dialogues, its
having been refuted in the Parmenides, but there isn't total consensus that the Parmenides actually refutes the
theory of Forms.[153]

Writings of doubted authenticity

Jowett mentions in his Appendix to Menexenus, that works which bore the character of a writer were
attributed to that writer even when the actual author was unknown.[154]

For below:

(*) if there is no consensus among scholars as to whether Plato is the author, and (‡) if most scholars agree that
Plato is not the author of the work.[155]

First Alcibiades (*), Second Alcibiades ( ‡ ), Clitophon (*), Epinomis ( ‡ ), Epistles (*), Hipparchus ( ‡ ),
Menexenus (*), Minos (‡), (Rival) Lovers (‡), Theages (‡)

Spurious writings

The following works were transmitted under Plato's name, most of them already considered spurious in
antiquity, and so were not included by Thrasyllus in his tetralogical arrangement. These works are labelled as
Notheuomenoi ("spurious") or Apocrypha.

Axiochus, Definitions, Demodocus, Epigrams, Eryxias, Halcyon, On Justice, On Virtue,

Sisyphus.

Textual sources and history

Some 250 known manuscripts of Plato survive.[156] The texts of Plato as received today apparently represent
the complete written philosophical work of Plato and are generally good by the standards of textual
criticism.[157] No modern edition of Plato in the original Greek represents a single source, but rather it is
reconstructed from multiple sources which are compared with each other. These sources are medieval
manuscripts written on vellum (mainly from 9th to 13th century AD Byzantium), papyri (mainly from late
antiquity in Egypt), and from the independent testimonia of other authors who quote various segments of the
works (which come from a variety of sources). The text as presented is usually not much different from what
appears in the Byzantine manuscripts, and papyri and testimonia just confirm the manuscript tradition. In some
editions however the readings in the papyri or testimonia are favoured in some places by the editing critic of
the text. Reviewing editions of papyri for the Republic in 1987, Slings suggests that the use of papyri is
hampered due to some poor editing practices.[158]

In the first century AD, Thrasyllus of Mendes had compiled and published the works of Plato in the original
Greek, both genuine and spurious. While it has not survived to the present day, all the extant medieval Greek
manuscripts are based on his edition.[159]

The oldest surviving complete manuscript for many of the dialogues is the Clarke Plato (Codex Oxoniensis
Clarkianus 39, or Codex Boleianus MS E.D. Clarke 39), which was written in Constantinople in 895 and
acquired by Oxford University in 1809.[160] The Clarke is given the siglum B in modern editions. B contains
the first six tetralogies and is described internally as being written by "John the Calligrapher" on behalf of
Arethas of Caesarea. It appears to have undergone corrections by Arethas himself.[161] For the last two
tetralogies and the apocrypha, the oldest surviving complete manuscript is Codex Parisinus graecus 1807,
designated A, which was written nearly contemporaneously to B,
circa 900 AD.[162] A must be a copy of the edition edited by the
patriarch, Photios, teacher of Arethas.[163][164][165]A probably had an
initial volume containing the first 7 tetralogies which is now lost, but
of which a copy was made, Codex Venetus append. class. 4, 1, which
has the siglum T. The oldest manuscript for the seventh tetralogy is
Codex Vindobonensis 54. suppl. phil. Gr. 7, with siglum W, with a
supposed date in the twelfth century.[166] In total there are fifty-one
such Byzantine manuscripts known, while others may yet be
found.[167]

To help establish the text, the older evidence of papyri and the
independent evidence of the testimony of commentators and other
authors (i.e., those who quote and refer to an old text of Plato which is
no longer extant) are also used. Many papyri which contain fragments
of Plato's texts are among the Oxyrhynchus Papyri. The 2003 Oxford
Classical Texts edition by Slings even cites the Coptic translation of a
fragment of the Republic in the Nag Hammadi library as
evidence.[168] Important authors for testimony include Olympiodorus First page of the Euthyphro, from the
the Younger, Plutarch, Proclus, Iamblichus, Eusebius, and Stobaeus. Clarke Plato (Codex Oxoniensis
Clarkianus 39), 895 AD. The text is
During the early Renaissance, the Greek language and, along with it, Greek minuscule.
Plato's texts were reintroduced to Western Europe by Byzantine
scholars. In September or October 1484 Filippo Valori and Francesco
Berlinghieri printed 1025 copies of Ficino's translation, using the printing press at the Dominican convent
S.Jacopo di Ripoli.[169][170] Cosimo had been influenced toward studying Plato by the many Byzantine
Platonists in Florence during his day, including George Gemistus Plethon.

The 1578 edition[171] of Plato's complete works published by Henricus Stephanus (Henri Estienne) in Geneva
also included parallel Latin translation and running commentary by Joannes Serranus (Jean de Serres). It was
this edition which established standard Stephanus pagination, still in use today.[172]

Modern editions

The Oxford Classical Texts offers the current standard complete Greek text of Plato's complete works. In five
volumes edited by John Burnet, its first edition was published 1900–1907, and it is still available from the
publisher, having last been printed in 1993.[173][174] The second edition is still in progress with only the first
volume, printed in 1995, and the Republic, printed in 2003, available. The Cambridge Greek and Latin Texts
and Cambridge Classical Texts and Commentaries series includes Greek editions of the Protagoras,
Symposium, Phaedrus, Alcibiades, and Clitophon, with English philological, literary, and, to an extent,
philosophical commentary.[175][176] One distinguished edition of the Greek text is E. R. Dodds' of the
Gorgias, which includes extensive English commentary.[177][178]

The modern standard complete English edition is the 1997 Hackett Plato, Complete Works, edited by John M.
Cooper.[179][180] For many of these translations Hackett offers separate volumes which include more by way
of commentary, notes, and introductory material. There is also the Clarendon Plato Series by Oxford
University Press which offers English translations and thorough philosophical commentary by leading scholars
on a few of Plato's works, including John McDowell's version of the Theaetetus.[181] Cornell University Press
has also begun the Agora series of English translations of classical and medieval philosophical texts, including
a few of Plato's.[182]
Criticism
The most famous criticism of the Theory of Forms is the Third Man Argument by Aristotle in the Metaphysics.
Plato had actually already considered this objection with the idea of "large" rather than "man" in the dialogue
Parmenides, using the elderly Elean philosophers Parmenides and Zeno characters anachronistically to
criticize the character of the younger Socrates who proposed the idea. The dialogue ends in aporia.

Many recent philosophers have diverged from what some would describe as the ontological models and moral
ideals characteristic of traditional Platonism. A number of these postmodern philosophers have thus appeared
to disparage Platonism from more or less informed perspectives. Friedrich Nietzsche notoriously attacked
Plato's "idea of the good itself" along with many fundamentals of Christian morality, which he interpreted as
"Platonism for the masses" in one of his most important works, Beyond Good and Evil (1886). Martin
Heidegger argued against Plato's alleged obfuscation of Being in his incomplete tome, Being and Time (1927),
and the philosopher of science Karl Popper argued in The Open Society and Its Enemies (1945) that Plato's
alleged proposal for a utopian political regime in the Republic was prototypically totalitarian.

The Dutch historian of science Eduard Jan Dijksterhuis criticizes Plato, stating that he was guilty of
"constructing an imaginary nature by reasoning from preconceived principles and forcing reality more or less
to adapt itself to this construction."[183] Dijksterhuis adds that one of the errors into which Plato had "fallen in
an almost grotesque manner, consisted in an over-estimation of what unaided thought, i.e. without recourse to
experience, could achieve in the field of natural science."[184]

Legacy

In the arts

Plato's Academy mosaic was created in the villa of T. Siminius

Stephanus in Pompeii, around 100 BC to 100 CE. The School of Athens
fresco by Raphael features Plato also as a central figure. The Nuremberg
Chronicle depicts Plato and other as anachronistic schoolmen.

In philosophy

Plato's thought is often compared with that of his most famous student,
Aristotle, whose reputation during the Western Middle Ages so
completely eclipsed that of Plato that the Scholastic philosophers referred
to Aristotle as "the Philosopher". However, in the Byzantine Empire, the
study of Plato continued.

The only Platonic work known to western scholarship was Timaeus, Plato (left) and Aristotle (right) a
until translations were made after the fall of Constantinople, which detail of The School of Athens, a
occurred during 1453.[185] George Gemistos Plethon brought Plato's fresco by Raphael. Aristotle
original writings from Constantinople in the century of its fall. It is gestures to the earth while
believed that Plethon passed a copy of the Dialogues to Cosimo de' holding a copy of his
Medici when in 1438 the Council of Ferrara, called to unify the Greek Nicomachean Ethics in his hand.
and Latin Churches, was adjourned to Florence, where Plethon then Plato holds his Timaeus and
gestures to the heavens.
lectured on the relation and differences of Plato and Aristotle, and fired
Cosimo with his enthusiasm;[186] Cosimo would supply Marsilio Ficino
with Plato's text for translation to Latin. During the early Islamic era,
Persian and Arab scholars translated much of Plato into Arabic and wrote commentaries and interpretations on
Plato's, Aristotle's and other Platonist philosophers' works (see Al-Farabi, Avicenna, Averroes, Hunayn ibn
Ishaq). Many of these commentaries on Plato were translated from Arabic into Latin and as such influenced
Medieval scholastic philosophers.[187]

During the Renaissance, with the general resurgence of interest in classical civilization, knowledge of Plato's
philosophy would become widespread again in the West. Many of the greatest early modern scientists and
artists who broke with Scholasticism and fostered the flowering of the Renaissance, with the support of the
Plato-inspired Lorenzo (grandson of Cosimo), saw Plato's philosophy as the basis for progress in the arts and
sciences. More problematic was Plato's belief in metempsychosis as well as his ethical views (on polyamory
and euthanasia in particular), which did not match those of Christianity. It was Plethon's student Bessarion
who reconciled Plato with Christian theology, arguing that Plato's views were only ideals, unattainable due to
the fall of man.[188] The Cambridge Platonists were around in the 17th century.

By the 19th century, Plato's reputation was restored, and at least on par with Aristotle's. Notable Western
philosophers have continued to draw upon Plato's work since that time. Plato's influence has been especially
strong in mathematics and the sciences. Plato's resurgence further inspired some of the greatest advances in
logic since Aristotle, primarily through Gottlob Frege and his followers Kurt Gödel, Alonzo Church, and
Alfred Tarski. Albert Einstein suggested that the scientist who takes philosophy seriously would have to avoid
systematization and take on many different roles, and possibly appear as a Platonist or Pythagorean, in that
such a one would have "the viewpoint of logical simplicity as an indispensable and effective tool of his
research."[189]

The political philosopher and professor Leo Strauss is considered by

some as the prime thinker involved in the recovery of Platonic thought
in its more political, and less metaphysical, form. Strauss' political
approach was in part inspired by the appropriation of Plato and
Aristotle by medieval Jewish and Islamic political philosophers,
especially Maimonides and Al-Farabi, as opposed to the Christian
metaphysical tradition that developed from Neoplatonism. Deeply
influenced by Nietzsche and Heidegger, Strauss nonetheless rejects
their condemnation of Plato and looks to the dialogues for a solution
to what all three latter day thinkers acknowledge as 'the crisis of the
West.

W. V. O. Quine dubbed the problem of negative existentials "Plato's

beard". Noam Chomsky dubbed the problem of knowledge Plato's
problem. One author calls the definist fallacy the Socratic fallacy[190].

More broadly, platonism (sometimes distinguished from Plato's

particular view by the lowercase) refers to the view that there are
many abstract objects. Still to this day, platonists take number and the
truths of mathematics as the best support in favour of this view. Most
"The safest general characterization
mathematicians think, like platonists, that numbers and the truths of of the European philosophical
mathematics are perceived by reason rather than the senses yet exist tradition is that it consists of a series
independently of minds and people, that is to say, they are discovered of footnotes to Plato." (Alfred North
rather than invented. Whitehead, Process and Reality,
1929).
Contemporary platonism is also more open to the idea of there being
infinitely many abstract objects, as numbers or propositions might
qualify as abstract objects, while ancient Platonism seemed to resist this view, possibly because of the need to
overcome the problem of "the One and the Many". Thus e. g. in the Parmenides dialogue, Plato denies there
are Forms for more mundane things like hair and mud. However, he repeatedly does support the idea that there
are Forms of artifacts, e. g. the Form of Bed. Contemporary platonism also tends to view abstract objects as
unable to cause anything, but it is unclear whether the ancient Platonists felt this way.

See also

Philosophy
Socratic Problem
Platonic Academy
Plato's unwritten doctrines
List of speakers in Plato's dialogues
Commentaries on Plato
Neoplatonism
Academic Skepticism

Ancient scholars
Philip of Opus, Plato's amanuensis
Speusippus, Plato's nephew and the second scholarch of the academy
Menedemus of Pyrrha
Xenocrates
Crantor
Polemon
Crates of Athens
Arcesilaus
Carneades
Plotinus, founder of Neoplatonism, although he had no connection to the previous Academy of
Plato
Proclus
Ammonius Saccas
Yahya Ibn al-Batriq, Syrian scholar and associate of Al-Kindi who translated Timaeus into
Arabic
Hunayn ibn Ishaq, Arab scholar who either amended or surpassed the Timaeus of al-Batriq
and translated Plato's Republic and Laws into Arabic
Ishaq ibn Hunayn, translated Plato's Sophist with the commentary of Olympiodorus the
Younger
Yahya ibn Adi, translated Laws into Arabic
Al-Farabi, author of a commentary on Plato's political philosophy
Averroes, author of a commentary on the Republic
Marsilio Ficino, Italian scholar and first translator of Plato's complete works into Latin
Stephanus pagination, the standard reference numbering in Platonic scholarship, based on the
1578 complete Latin translation by Jean de Serres, and published by Henri Estienne

Modern scholars
Johann Gottfried Stallbaum, major Plato scholar and commentator in Latin
Eduard Zeller, scholar and classicist
John Alexander Stewart, major Plato scholar and classicist
Victor Cousin, scholar and the first translator Plato's complete works into French
Émile Saisset, scholar and a translator Plato's complete works into French
Émile Chambry, scholar and a translator Plato's complete works into French
Otto Apelt, scholar and the first translator Plato's complete works into German
Benjamin Jowett, scholar and the first translated Plato's complete works into English
James Adam, major Plato scholar and author of the authoritative critical edition of the Republic
John Burnet, major Plato scholar and translator
Francis Macdonald Cornford, translator of Republic and author of commentaries
William Keith Chambers Guthrie, classical scholar and historian
E. R. Dodds, classical scholar and author of commentaries on Plato
Allan Bloom, major Plato scholar and translator of Republic in English
Myles Burnyeat, major Plato scholar
Harold F. Cherniss, major Plato scholar
Guy Cromwell Field, Plato scholar
Paul Friedländer, Plato scholar
Terence Irwin, major Plato scholar
Richard Kraut, major Plato scholar
Ellen Francis Mason, translator of Plato
Eric Havelock, Plato scholar
Debra Nails, Plato scholar
Alexander Nehamas, major Plato scholar
Thomas Pangle, major Plato scholar and translator of Laws in English
Friedrich Schleiermacher, commentator
Paul Shorey, major Plato scholar and translator of Republic
John Madison Cooper, major Plato scholar and translator of several works of Plato, and editor
of the Hackett edition of the complete works of Plato in English
Leo Strauss, major Plato scholar
Seth Benardete, major Plato scholar
Gregory Vlastos, major Plato scholar
Hans-Georg Gadamer, major Plato scholar
Paul Woodruff, major Plato scholar
Catherine Zuckert, Plato scholar and political philosopher
Julia Annas, Plato scholar and moral philosopher
John McDowell, translated Theaetetus in English
Robin Waterfield, Plato scholar and translator in English
Léon Robin, scholar of Ancient Greek philosophy, translator of the complete works of Plato in
French
Alain Badiou, French philosopher, loosely translated Republic in French
Chen Chung-hwan, scholar and commentator, translated Parmenides in Chinese
Liu Xiaofeng, scholar and commentator, translated Symposium in Chinese
Michitaro Tanaka and Norio Fujisawa, translators of the complete works of Plato in Japanese
Joseph Gerhard Liebes, major scholar and commentator, the first to translate Plato's complete
works in Hebrew
 Margalit Finkelberg, scholar and commentator, translated Symposium in Hebrew
Virgilio S. Almario, translated Republic to Filipino
Mahatma Gandhi, translated Apology in Gujarati
Zakir Husain, Indian politician and academic, translated Republic in Urdu[191]
Pierre Hadot, scholar and author of commentaries of Plato in French
Luc Brisson, translator and author of commentaries on several works of Plato, and editor of the
complete French translations; widely considered to be the most important contemporary
scholar of Plato[192]

Other
Oxyrhynchus Papyri, including the Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 228, containing the oldest fragment of
the Laches, and Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 24, that of the Book X of the Republic
Plato, a lunar impact crater on the Moon aged 3.8 billion years, named after the Greek
philosopher

Notes
a. "...the subject of philosophy, as it is often conceived—a rigorous and systematic examination of
ethical, political, metaphysical, and epistemological issues, armed with a distinctive method—
can be called his invention."[3]
b. "Though influenced primarily by Socrates, to the extent that Socrates is usually the main
character in many of Plato's writings, he was also influenced by Heraclitus, Parmenides, and
the Pythagoreans"[6]
c. Diogenes Laërtius mentions that Plato "was born, according to some writers, in Aegina in the
house of Phidiades, the son of Thales." Diogenes mentions as one of his sources the Universal
History of Favorinus. According to Favorinus, Ariston, Plato's family, and his family were sent
by Athens to settle as cleruchs (colonists retaining their Athenian citizenship), on the island of
Aegina, from which the Spartans expelled them after Plato's birth there.[14] Nails points out,
however, that there is no record of any Spartan expulsion of Athenians from Aegina between
431–411 BC.[15] On the other hand, at the Peace of Nicias, Aegina was silently left under
Athens' control, and it was not until the summer of 411 that the Spartans overran the island.[16]
Therefore, Nails concludes that "perhaps Ariston was a cleruch, perhaps he went to Aegina in
431, and perhaps Plato was born on Aegina, but none of this enables a precise dating of
Ariston's death (or Plato's birth).[15] Aegina is regarded as Plato's place of birth by the Suda as
well.[17]
d. Apollodorus of Athens said Plato was born on the seventh day of the month Thargelion;
according to this tradition the god Apollo was born this day.[18] Renaissance Platonists
celebrated Plato's birth on November 7.[19] Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff estimates that
Plato was born when Diotimos was archon eponymous, namely between July 29, 428 BC and
July 24, 427 BC.[20] Greek philologist Ioannis Kalitsounakis believes that he was born on May
26 or 27, 427 BC.[21][22]
e. According to James Adam, some have held that "Glaucon and Adeimantus were uncles of
Plato, but Zeller decides for the usual view that they were brothers."[29]
f. From aristos and kleos
g. A scroll by Philodemus analysed in 2019 may suggest that Plato was enslaved earlier than
was previously believed.[58]
h. He regarded "logistic" as appropriate for business men and men of war who "must learn the art
of numbers or he will not know how to array his troops," while "arithmetic" was appropriate for
philosophers "because he has to arise out of the sea of change and lay hold of true being."[70]
i. Plotinus describes this in the last part of his final Ennead (VI, 9) entitled On the Good, or the
One (Περὶ τἀγαθοῦ ἢ τοῦ ἑνός). Jens Halfwassen states in Der Aufstieg zum Einen' (http://ccat.
sas.upenn.edu/bmcr/2006/2006-08-16.html) (2006) that "Plotinus' ontology—which should be
called Plotinus' henology—is a rather accurate philosophical renewal and continuation of
Plato's unwritten doctrine, i.e. the doctrine rediscovered by Krämer and Gaiser."
j. In one of his letters (Epistolae 1612) Ficino writes: "The main goal of the divine Plato ... is to
show one principle of things, which he called the One (τὸ ἕν)", cf. Montoriola 1926, p. 147.
k. For a brief description of the problem see for example Gaiser 1980. A more detailed analysis is
given by Krämer 1990. Another description is by Reale 1997 and Reale 1990. A thorough
analysis of the consequences of such an approach is given by Szlezak 1999. Another
supporter of this interpretation is the German philosopher Karl Albert, cf. Albert 1980 or Albert
1996. Hans-Georg Gadamer is also sympathetic towards it, cf. Grondin 2010 and Gadamer
1980. Gadamer's final position on the subject is stated in Gadamer 1997.
l. Some use the term allegory instead of myth. This is in accordance with the practice in the
specialized literature, in which it is common to find that the terms allegory and myth are used as
synonyms. Nevertheless, there is a trend among modern scholars to use the term myth and
avoid the term allegory, as it is considered more appropriate to modern interpretation of Plato's
writings. One of the first to initiate this trend was the Oxford University professor John
Alexander Stewart, in his work The Myths of Plato.
m. "The time is not long after the death of Socrates; for the Pythagoreans [Echecrates & co.] have
not heard any details yet".[135]

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i00alfr). New York: The Free Press.
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Further reading
Alican, Necip Fikri (2012). Rethinking Plato: A Cartesian Quest for the Real Plato. Amsterdam
and New York: Editions Rodopi B.V. ISBN 978-90-420-3537-9.
Allen, R.E. (1965). Studies in Plato's Metaphysics II. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0-7100-3626-4
Ambuel, David (2007). Image and Paradigm in Plato's Sophist. Parmenides Publishing.
ISBN 978-1-930972-04-9
Anderson, Mark; Osborn, Ginger (2009). Approaching Plato: A Guide to the Early and Middle
Dialogues (http://campus.belmont.edu/philosophy/Book.pdf) (PDF). Nashville: Belmont
University.
Arieti, James A. Interpreting Plato: The Dialogues as Drama, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers,
Inc. ISBN 0-8476-7662-5
Bakalis, Nikolaos (2005). Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysis
and Fragments, Trafford Publishing ISBN 1-4120-4843-5
Barrow, Robin (2007). Plato: Continuum Library of Educational Thought. Continuum.
ISBN 978-0-8264-8408-6.
Cadame, Claude (1999). Indigenous and Modern Perspectives on Tribal Initiation Rites:
Education According to Plato, pp. 278–312, in Padilla, Mark William (editor), "Rites of Passage
in Ancient Greece: Literature, Religion, Society" (https://books.google.com/books?id=-0JVScga
2oYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=rites+of+passage+in+ancient+greece), Bucknell University
Press, 1999. ISBN 0-8387-5418-X
Cooper, John M.; Hutchinson, D.S., eds. (1997). Plato: Complete Works (https://archive.org/det
ails/completeworks00plat). Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. ISBN 978-0-87220-349-5.
Corlett, J. Angelo (2005). Interpreting Plato's Dialogues. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-
930972-02-5
Durant, Will (1926). The Story of Philosophy (https://archive.org/details/storyofphilosophdura00
dura). Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-671-69500-2.
Derrida, Jacques (1972). La dissémination, Paris: Seuil. (esp. cap.: La Pharmacie de Platon,
69–199) ISBN 2-02-001958-2
Field, G.C. (1969). The Philosophy of Plato (2nd ed. with an appendix by Cross, R.C. ed.).
London: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-888040-0.
Fine, Gail (2000). Plato 1: Metaphysics and Epistemology Oxford University Press, US,
ISBN 0-19-875206-7
Finley, M.I. (1969). Aspects of antiquity: Discoveries and Controversies The Viking Press, Inc.,
US
Garvey, James (2006). Twenty Greatest Philosophy Books (https://archive.org/details/twentygre
atestph00garv). Continuum. ISBN 978-0-8264-9053-7.
Guthrie, W.K.C. (1986). A History of Greek Philosophy (Plato – The Man & His Dialogues –
Earlier Period), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-31101-2
Guthrie, W.K.C. (1986). A History of Greek Philosophy (Later Plato & the Academy) Cambridge
University Press, ISBN 0-521-31102-0
Havelock, Eric (2005). Preface to Plato (History of the Greek Mind), Belknap Press, ISBN 0-
674-69906-8
Hamilton, Edith; Cairns, Huntington, eds. (1961). The Collected Dialogues of Plato, Including
the Letters (https://archive.org/details/collecteddialogu00tred). Princeton Univ. Press.
ISBN 978-0-691-09718-3.
Harvard University Press publishes the hardbound series Loeb Classical Library, containing
Plato's works in Greek, with English translations on facing pages.
Irvine, Andrew David (2008). Socrates on Trial: A play based on Aristophanes' Clouds and
Plato's Apology, Crito, and Phaedo, adapted for modern performance. Toronto: University of
Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-9783-5, 978-0-8020-9538-1
Hermann, Arnold (2010). Plato's Parmenides: Text, Translation & Introductory Essay,
Parmenides Publishing, ISBN 978-1-930972-71-1
Irwin, Terence (1995). Plato's Ethics, Oxford University Press, US, ISBN 0-19-508645-7
Jackson, Roy (2001). Plato: A Beginner's Guide. London: Hoder & Stroughton. ISBN 978-0-
340-80385-1.
Jowett, Benjamin (1892). [The Dialogues of Plato. Translated into English with analyses and
introductions by B. Jowett.], Oxford Clarendon Press, UK, UIN:BLL01002931898
Kochin, Michael S. (2002). Gender and Rhetoric in Plato's Political Thought. Cambridge Univ.
Press. ISBN 978-0-521-80852-1.
Kraut, Richard, ed. (1993). The Cambridge Companion to Plato (https://archive.org/details/isbn
_9780521436106). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-43610-6.
LeMoine, Rebecca (2020). Plato's Caves: The Liberating Sting of Cultural Diversity. New York:
Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0190936983.
Lilar, Suzanne (1954), Journal de l'analogiste, Paris, Éditions Julliard; Reedited 1979, Paris,
Grasset. Foreword by Julien Gracq
Lilar, Suzanne (1963), Le couple, Paris, Grasset. Translated as Aspects of Love in Western
Society in 1965, with a foreword by Jonathan Griffin London, Thames and Hudson.
Lilar, Suzanne (1967) A propos de Sartre et de l'amour , Paris, Grasset.
Lundberg, Phillip (2005). Tallyho – The Hunt for Virtue: Beauty, Truth and Goodness Nine
Dialogues by Plato: Pheadrus, Lysis, Protagoras, Charmides, Parmenides, Gorgias,
Theaetetus, Meno & Sophist. Authorhouse. ISBN 978-1-4184-4977-3.
Márquez, Xavier (2012) A Stranger's Knowledge: Statesmanship, Philosophy & Law in Plato's
Statesman, Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-79-7
Melchert, Norman (2002). The Great Conversation: A Historical Introduction to Philosophy (http
s://archive.org/details/greatconversatio00norm). McGraw Hill. ISBN 978-0-19-517510-3.
Miller, Mitchell (2004). The Philosopher in Plato's Statesman. Parmenides Publishing.
ISBN 978-1-930972-16-2
Mohr, Richard D. (2006). God and Forms in Plato – and other Essays in Plato's Metaphysics.
Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-01-8
Mohr, Richard D. (Ed.), Sattler, Barbara M. (Ed.) (2010) One Book, The Whole Universe: Plato's
Timaeus Today, Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-32-2
Moore, Edward (2007). Plato. Philosophy Insights Series. Tirril, Humanities-Ebooks. ISBN 978-
1-84760-047-9
Nightingale, Andrea Wilson. (1995). "Genres in Dialogue: Plato and the Construct of
Philosophy" (https://books.google.com/books?id=n3MeQikAp00C&printsec=frontcover&source
=gbs_summary_r&cad=0), Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-48264-X
Oxford University Press publishes scholarly editions of Plato's Greek texts in the Oxford
Classical Texts series, and some translations in the Clarendon Plato Series.
Patterson, Richard (Ed.), Karasmanis, Vassilis (Ed.), Hermann, Arnold (Ed.) (2013)
Presocratics & Plato: Festschrift at Delphi in Honor of Charles Kahn, Parmenides Publishing.
ISBN 978-1-930972-75-9
Piechowiak, Marek (2019). Plato's Conception of Justice and the Question of Human Dignity.
Peter Lang: Berlin. ISBN 978-3-631-65970-0.
Sallis, John (1996). Being and Logos: Reading the Platonic Dialogues. Indiana University
Press. ISBN 978-0-253-21071-5.
Sallis, John (1999). Chorology: On Beginning in Plato's "Timaeus". Indiana University Press.
ISBN 978-0-253-21308-2.
Sayre, Kenneth M. (2005). Plato's Late Ontology: A Riddle Resolved. Parmenides Publishing.
ISBN 978-1-930972-09-4
Seung, T.K. (1996). Plato Rediscovered: Human Value and Social Order. Rowman and
Littlefield. ISBN 0-8476-8112-2
Smith, William. (1867). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. University of
Michigan/Online version.
Stewart, John. (2010). Kierkegaard and the Greek World – Socrates and Plato. Ashgate.
ISBN 978-0-7546-6981-4
Thesleff, Holger (2009). Platonic Patterns: A Collection of Studies by Holger Thesleff,
Parmenides Publishing, ISBN 978-1-930972-29-2
Thomas Taylor has translated Plato's complete works.
Thomas Taylor (1804). The Works of Plato, viz. His Fifty-Five Dialogues and Twelve Epistles (h
ttp://www.universaltheosophy.com/pdf-library/1804_The-Works-of-Plato-His-Fifty-Five-Dialogu
es-and-Twelve-Epistles_vols-1-5.pdf) 5 vols
Vlastos, Gregory (1981). Platonic Studies, Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-10021-7
Vlastos, Gregory (2006). Plato's Universe – with a new Introduction by Luc Brisson,
Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-13-1
Zuckert, Catherine (2009). Plato's Philosophers: The Coherence of the Dialogues, The
University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-99335-5
External links
Works available online:
Works by Plato (http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/searchresults?q=Plato) at Perseus
Project – Greek & English hyperlinked text
Works by Plato (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/93) at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about Plato (https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Pl
ato%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Plato%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Plato%22%
20OR%20title%3A%22Plato%22%29%20OR%20%28%22427-347%22%20AND%20Plat
o%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29) at Internet Archive
Works by Plato (https://librivox.org/author/599) at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (http://www.iep.utm.edu/plato/)
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/plato)
Other resources:
Plato (https://inpho.cogs.indiana.edu/thinker/3724) at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology
Project
Plato (https://philpapers.org/browse/plato) at PhilPapers
"Plato and Platonism" (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Plato_
and_Platonism). Catholic Encyclopedia. 1913.

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