Lecture Notes Book: Metal Forming

METAL FORMING
Lecture Notes Book
By
Dr. Yassin M. Ahmed
2016 -2017
1
Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1 ............................................................................................................................................... 13
Fundamentals of metal forming processes .................................................................................................. 13
1. Definitions and classification of Metal forming processes: ................................................................ 13
1.1 Introduction:................................................................................................................................ 13
1.2 Advantages of Metal Forming Process: ...................................................................................... 13
1.3 Disadvantages of Metal Forming Process:.................................................................................. 15
1.4 Metals and Nonmetals................................................................................................................. 15
1.4.1 Engineering Materials ......................................................................................................... 16
1.5 Metal forming – definition: ......................................................................................................... 17
1.6 Historical of Metal Forming: ...................................................................................................... 17
1.7 Classification of Forming: .......................................................................................................... 25
1- Bulk or massive, forming operations. ............................................................................................. 25
2- Sheet forming operations. ............................................................................................................... 25
No............................................................................................................................................................ 27
Main classification .................................................................................................................................. 27
Partial classification ................................................................................................................................ 27
1 .............................................................................................................................................................. 27
Forging .................................................................................................................................................... 27
1- Closed-die forging with flash. ......................................................................................................... 27
2- Closed-die forging without flash..................................................................................................... 27
3- Coining............................................................................................................................................ 27
4- Electro-upsetting. ............................................................................................................................ 27
5- Forward extrusion forging. ............................................................................................................. 27
6- Backward extrusion forging. ........................................................................................................... 27
7- Hobbling process. ........................................................................................................................... 27
8- Isothermal forging. .......................................................................................................................... 27
9- Nosing. ............................................................................................................................................ 27
10- Open-die forging ......................................................................................................................... 27
11- Rotary (orbital) forging. .............................................................................................................. 27
12- Precision forging. ........................................................................................................................ 27
13- Metal powder forging.................................................................................................................. 27
2
14- Radial forging. ............................................................................................................................ 27
15- Upsetting. .................................................................................................................................... 27
2 .............................................................................................................................................................. 27
Rolling .................................................................................................................................................... 27
1. Sheet rolling. ................................................................................................................................... 27
2. Shape rolling. .................................................................................................................................. 27
3. Tube rolling..................................................................................................................................... 27
4. Ring rolling ..................................................................................................................................... 27
5. Rotary tube piercing ........................................................................................................................ 27
6. Gear rolling ..................................................................................................................................... 27
7. Roll forging ..................................................................................................................................... 27
8. Cross rolling .................................................................................................................................... 27
9. Surface rolling ................................................................................................................................. 27
10. Shear forming.............................................................................................................................. 27
11. Tube reducing ............................................................................................................................. 27
3 .............................................................................................................................................................. 27
Extrusion ................................................................................................................................................. 27
1. Nonlubricated hot extrusion ............................................................................................................ 27
2. Lubricated direct hot extrusion ....................................................................................................... 27
3. Hydrostatic extrusion ...................................................................................................................... 27
4 .............................................................................................................................................................. 27
Drawing .................................................................................................................................................. 27
1. Drawing........................................................................................................................................... 27
2. Drawing with rolls .......................................................................................................................... 27
3. Ironing ............................................................................................................................................. 27
4. Tube sinking.................................................................................................................................... 27
No............................................................................................................................................................ 30
Main classification .................................................................................................................................. 30
partial classification ................................................................................................................................ 30
1 .............................................................................................................................................................. 30
1. Brake bending ................................................................................................................................. 30
2. Roll bending .................................................................................................................................... 30
3
2 .............................................................................................................................................................. 30
1. Contour stretch forming (stretch forming). ..................................................................................... 30
2. Hydroforming ................................................................................................................................. 30
3. Age forming. ................................................................................................................................... 30
4. Creep forming. ................................................................................................................................ 30
5. Die-quench forming. ....................................................................................................................... 30
6. Bulging. ........................................................................................................................................... 30
7. Vacuum forming. ............................................................................................................................ 30
8. Linear stretch forming (stretch forming). ....................................................................................... 30
9. Linear roll forming (roll forming). .................................................................................................. 30
3 .............................................................................................................................................................. 30
Deep recessing and flanging ................................................................................................................... 30
1. Spinning (and roller flanging) ......................................................................................................... 30
2. Deep drawing .................................................................................................................................. 30
3. Rubber-pad forming ........................................................................................................................ 30
4. Marform process ............................................................................................................................. 30
5. Rubber-diaphragm hydroforming (fluid cell forming or fluid forming) ......................................... 30
4 .............................................................................................................................................................. 30
Shallow recessing.................................................................................................................................... 30
1. Dimpling ......................................................................................................................................... 30
2. Drop hammer forming .................................................................................................................... 30
3. Electromagnetic forming................................................................................................................. 30
4. Explosive forming ........................................................................................................................... 30
5. Joggling ........................................................................................................................................... 30
a. Temperature Classification: ............................................................................................................ 32
i. Cold Working Temperatures ....................................................................................................... 32
ii. Hot Working Temperatures: ....................................................................................................... 33
iii. Warm Working Temperatures: ............................................................................................... 34
b. Flow Behavior Classification: ......................................................................................................... 34
c. Stress State Classification ............................................................................................................... 36
CHAPTER 2 ............................................................................................................................................... 39
Metal Forming Tribology and Surfaces Engineering: ................................................................................ 39
4
1. Tribology......................................................................................................................................... 39
1.1. Etymology ............................................................................................................................... 39
1.2 Fundamentals .......................................................................................................................... 40
1.3 History: ................................................................................................................................... 42
1.4 Tribological problems ............................................................................................................. 44
1.5 Applications and Fields which Encompass Modern Tribology: ............................................. 45
1.6 Commonality in Tribology: .................................................................................................... 50
1.7 Aspects of a Surface:............................................................................................................... 51
1.8 Surface Characterization ......................................................................................................... 52
1.9 Surface Engineering : Definition ............................................................................................ 53
1.10 Summary of Surfaces in Contact............................................................................................. 53
2. Friction: ........................................................................................................................................... 55
2.1 Types of Friction: .................................................................................................................... 56
2.2 History: ................................................................................................................................... 59
2.3 Factors affecting on the friction ............................................................................................. 60
2.4 Coefficient of Friction( ):....................................................................................................... 61
2.5 Applications ............................................................................................................................ 62
2.6 Measurement ........................................................................................................................... 63
3. Wear : .............................................................................................................................................. 64
3.1 Wear analysis .......................................................................................................................... 64
3.2 Types of wear:......................................................................................................................... 64
1. Adhesive Wear: ........................................................................................................................... 64
2. Abrasive Wear (Scratching): The harder material scratches the softer material (for example,
sand particles between contact surfaces, or hard asperities on an opposing surface). ........................ 66
3. Erosion Wear: ............................................................................................................................. 67
4. Polishing Wear: ........................................................................................................................... 69
5. Contact fatigue: ........................................................................................................................... 70
6. Corrosive wear: ........................................................................................................................... 72
7. Electro-Corrosive wear: .............................................................................................................. 73
8. Fretting wear: .............................................................................................................................. 75
9. Electrical discharge wear: ........................................................................................................... 76
10. Cavitation damage: ................................................................................................................. 78
5
11. False brinelling........................................................................................................................ 80
3.3 Microscopic Observation (Wear debris analysis): .................................................................. 81
4. Lubrication: ..................................................................................................................................... 82
4.1 Introduction: ............................................................................................................................ 82
4.2 History: ................................................................................................................................... 82
4.3 The lubrication regimes .......................................................................................................... 83
4.4 Lubrication Fundamentals: ..................................................................................................... 87
4.5 Lubricant Types and Characteristics: ...................................................................................... 87
CHAPTER 3 .................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Mechanical behavior and metal forming ....................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.1 Introduction:....................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.2 Mechanical Properties ........................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.3 Stress: ................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.4 Strains: ............................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.5 Tension:.............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.5.1 Stress-Strain Curves ................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.5.2 Yield Strength ............................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.5.3 Ultimate Tensile Strength: ......................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.5.4 Elastic and Plastic Regions: ....................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.5.5 Ductile and Brittle materials: ..................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.5.6 Hard and soft materials: ............................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.6 Effects of temperature on properties of materials: ............................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.7 Metal forming and Mechanical properties: ........................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
No............................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Main classification ..................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Partial classification ................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
1 ................................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Forging ....................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
1- Closed-die forging with flash. ............................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
plastic deformation..................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
2- Closed-die forging without flash........................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
6
3- Coining............................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Elastic, and plastic deformation ................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
4- Electro-upsetting. ............................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
5- Forward extrusion forging. ................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
6- Backward extrusion forging. .............................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
7- Hobbling process. .............................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
8- Isothermal forging. ............................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
9- Nosing. ............................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
10- Open-die forging ............................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
11- Rotary (orbital) forging. ................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
12- Precision forging. ........................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
13- Metal powder forging..................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
14- Radial forging. ............................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
15- Upsetting. ....................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Rolling ....................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
1- Sheet rolling. ...................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
2- Shape rolling. ..................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
7
3- Tube rolling........................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
4- Ring rolling ........................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
5- Rotary tube piercing ........................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
6- Gear rolling ........................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
7- Roll forging ........................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
8- Cross rolling ....................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
9- Surface rolling .................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
10- Shear forming................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
11- Tube reducing ................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Extrusion .................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
1- Non lubricated hot extrusion .............................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
2- Lubricated direct hot extrusion .......................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
3- Hydrostatic extrusion ......................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Drawing ..................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
1- Drawing ................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
2-Drawing with rolls .................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
8
3-Ironing .................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
4-Tube sinking ........................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Drawing of rods, wires and tubes................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.1 Introduction .................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.2 Classification of Metal forming Processes:.................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.2.1 Drawing (manufacturing):...................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Objectives of drawing process: .............................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
1. Wire, bar (rod), and tube drawing: For wire, bar, and tube drawing the starting stock is drawn
through a die to reduce its diameter and increase its length................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
2. Sheet metal drawing: The specific definition for sheet metal drawing is that it involves plastic
deformation over a curved axis. ............................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
I. Drawing Equipment ....................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
II. Process of drawing: .................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
1.1 Fundamentals of rods, wires and tubes the processes: ............... Error! Bookmark not defined.
1. Wire drawing (Dif.) ........................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Comparison between the wire drawing and extrusion: .......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Wire drawing die: .................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
The effect of die angle: .......................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Lubrication ............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Heat treatment in wire drawing process ................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Drawing equipment and use of drawn wires: ......................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
2. Rod or (bar) drawing process(Dif.): .................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Heat treatment in rod drawing process .................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Rod or Bar drawing processes: .............................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Standard sizes throughout a supply chain: ............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Defects in rod and wiredrawing: ............................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
3. Tube-drawing processes (Dif.): ......................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
The reasons for the difference between the tube drawing and hot rolling: ........... Error! Bookmark not
defined.
9
Tube Drawing Processes and Classification of tube drawing processes:.............. Error! Bookmark not
defined.
Defects in tubes drawing: ....................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Defects in cold drawn products:............................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Metal extrusion processes .............................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.2 What is extrusion (Definition): ............................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.3 History : ......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.4 Fundamentals of extrusion process (Only Three): ................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.5 Classification of extrusion processes: ............................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
1. Direct / Indirect extrusion: ............................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
A) Direct extrusion : ....................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
B) Indirect extrusion: ..................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
2. Forward / backward extrusion........................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
A) Forward extrusion : ................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
B) Backward extrusion : ................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
2. Classifications of extrusion process By operating temperature: .... Error! Bookmark not defined.
1. Cold extrusion: ............................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Advantages of cold extrusion process:................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
2. Hot extrusion process:.................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
The principal variables influencing the force required to cause extrusion; .......... Error! Bookmark not
defined.
Effects of temperature on hot extrusion: ................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
3. Classifications of extrusion process By equipment: ...................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
1) Presses:........................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
1. Horizontal extrusion presses: ......................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Disadvantages of horizontal extrusion presses: ..................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
2. Vertical extrusion presses: ............................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Advantages Vertical extrusion presses: ................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Requirements: ........................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
2) Extrusion dies: ............................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
10
3) Tools: ............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Ram speed: ............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Die design: ............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Die design consideration ........................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Die materials .......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Heat treatments ...................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Extrusion ratio:....................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Velocity of the extruded product ........................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Extrusion force ....................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Extrusion defects :.................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Rolling of metals ............................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
6.2 Rolling Process (Definition): ................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
6.3 History: .......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
6.4 Fundamentals of Rolling Process(Only Three) : ............................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
6.5 Classification of Rolling Process: .................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
6.6 Ingot terminology of rolling process:............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
6.7 Types of rolling processes: ............................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
6.8 Grain structure in rolling: ............................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
6.9 Typical arrangement of rollers for rolling mills :........................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
1) Two-high mill, pullover: .................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
2) Two-high mill, reversing : ................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
3) Three-high mill .................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
4) Four-high mills................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
5) Cluster mill or Sendzimir mill : ......................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
6) Continuous rolling ............................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
7) Planetary mill : ................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
6.10 Problems and defects in rolled products ........................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
High Energy Rate metal Forming (HERF) ...................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
11
7.2 High energy rate forming Process (HERF) (Definition): ...................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
7.3 Effects of strain rates during forming: ........................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
7.4 Principles or important features of HERF processes: (Only five) ......... Error! Bookmark not defined.
7.5 Advantages of HERF Processes: (Only five) ........................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
7.6 Limitations: (Only Three) ...................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
7.7 Applications: .................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
7.8 Factors to be considered while selecting an HERF process: (Only five) ............. Error! Bookmark not
defined.
7.9 Classifications of high energy rate forming processes:.................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
1- Explosive forming(Dif.) .................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
1.1 Explosives materials used during Explosive forming: ............... Error! Bookmark not defined.
1.2 Types of explosive forming : ..................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
1) Unconfined type (or Standoff technique):...................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Role of water in “Unconfined type (or Standoff technique)”: ............... Error! Bookmark not defined.
2) Confined System or “Contact Technique”: ................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Applications of Confined System or “Contact Technique” in explosive forming process; .......... Error!
Bookmark not defined.
2- Electro Hydraulic Forming (EHF): ................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
3- Electromagnetic forming “EMF”(Dif.) ............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
12
CHAPTER 1
Fundamentals of metal forming processes
1. Definitions and classification of Metal forming processes:
1.1 Introduction:
Metal forming is a very important manufacturing operation. It enjoys industrial
importance among various production operations due to its advantages.
1.2 Advantages of Metal Forming Process:
1- Cost effectiveness.
2- Improve the mechanical properties.
3- Flexible operations.
4- Higher productivity.
5- Considerable material saving.
The objects and articles that we use in our daily life are man-made, engineered
parts, which are obtained from some raw material through some manufacturing
process. All these objects are made of a number of small components assembled
into finished product. The pen that we use for writing, for example is made of
several small parts, assembled together. An automobile is supposed to be an

13
assembly of more than 15000 parts, produced through various manufacturing
operations.
Manufacturing of finished parts and components from raw materials is one of the
most important steps in production. Production encompasses all types of
manufacturing processes. Manufacturing refers to the conversion of raw materials
into finished products employing suitable techniques. There are several methods of
manufacturing such as metal casting, metal forming, metal machining, metal
joining and finishing. Some of the modern methods of manufacturing include
micro machining, nano-fabrication, ultra precision manufacturing etc.
In order to fulfill the requirements of the ever-increasing demands of various types
of industries, the manufacturing engineer has to choose the right type of material
and the right type of equipment for manufacture so that the cost of production and
the energy consumption are minimum.
The selection of suitable manufacturing process should also include concerns for
environmental impacts such as air pollution, waste disposal etc.
Modern concepts such as lean manufacturing, adaptive control, agile
manufacturing, group technology etc. have considerable influence on cost
reduction and quality improvements of products.
Computers and robots play important role in modern manufacturing techniques,
today. Modeling and simulation of the process prior to mass production helps the
14
manufacturing engineer fix up the best operating parameters and hence achieve the
finished product to the utmost level of quality and cost-effectiveness.
1.3 Disadvantages of Metal Forming Process:
1- Higher mount of force and energy is required for metal forming process
compared to other manufacturing methods.
2- Except the forging operation, all other metal forming processes are used for
producing uniform cross sectioned components only.
3- The components with cross holes cannot be produced easily using metal
forming process.
1.4 Metals and Nonmetals
At some point in life, you stumble across the words metals and nonmetals, “metal,
like copper, conducts electricity, and nonmetal, like wood, does not.” You might
have some general conceptions about metals and nonmetals from personal
experience, but there are several more characteristics that contribute to their own
uniqueness. On the periodic table, the elements can be divided into two broad
categories: metals and nonmetals. There are also subgroups in each category that
further accounts for all the properties of the elements.
15
1.4.1 Engineering Materials
To be able to define metal forming, one must know the engineering materials’
family up to the point when to the metal forming. Engineering materials refer to
all materials used in construction sites or industries or both. The following table
can be referred to, in order to learn more about engineering materials (Figure1).
Engineering Materials
Non-Metallic Materials Metal Materials
Non-Organic Materials Organic Materials Non-Ferrous Materials Ferrous Materials
Ceramic Wood Aluminum Cast Iron
Cement Rubber Copper Wrought Iron
Glass Petroleum Nickel Steel
Others Others Tin
Magnesium
Manganese
Titanium
Chromium
Others
Figure 1.1: Engineering Materials
16
1.5 Metal forming – definition:
Materials are converted into finished products though different manufacturing
processes. Manufacturing processes are classified into shaping [casting], forming,
joining, and coating, dividing, machining and modifying material property.
Figure 1.2: Various manufacturing operations on materials
Of these manufacturing processes, forming is a widely used process which finds
applications in automotive, aerospace, defense and other industries.
1.6 Historical of Metal Forming:
The oldest archaeological evidence of copper mining and working was the
discovery of a copper pendant in northern Iraq from 8,700 BCE. The historic
development of metal forming goes back to ancient times. The earliest examples
can be noted coming from the Bronze Age. It was discovered then, that two metals
17
mixed, which is also termed as alloys, were stronger together than any of the
metals taken individually. This was perhaps discovered at about the same time
when the extractive metallurgy was discovered. The finding that the addition of tin
alloy can solidify copper was the main highlight of the era. The Sumerians, in 3000
B.C, during the Bronze Age in Ur (Iraq), swords- metal joint was made using the
hard soldering technique. Gold was, found in the Queen Puabi tomb, in
Mesopotamian plain in Iraq (Figure 3). Also they found a gold bowls with a wire
twisted handle that was brazed to the external wall. The Egyptians heated iron ore
in a charcoal fire and consequently it was reduced to sponge iron; the particles that
had been welded by hammering. This "pressure" welding or alternatively "solid-
phase" welding was the first to have been recorded. Cobalt has been used for many
centuries approximately 2250 B.C., when Persians made use of cobalt to color
glass. Small, circular gold boxes were made by pressuring the welding lap joints. It
is hypothesized that these boxes had been around for more than 2000 years ago.
Figure 1.3: Bust of Lady Puabi
18
The summary of the discovery years of some metals and is as shown in (Table 1.6).
Table 1.6: Elements discovered table
Name of Chemical Year of

Symbol Natural State Inventor
Element Discovered
Carbon was known in prehistoric times in the form of charcoal and later as
Carbon C Solid
peat and coal deposits
Copper Cu Solid A few copper beads were found in Iraqi and Egyptian tombs 9000 BCE
Lead Pb Solid Egyptian tombs and the ancient Romans 5000 BCE
4000 To
Gold Au Solid Iraqi and Egyptian tombs
2000 BCE
Silver Ag Solid Silver jewelry was found in Egyptian tombs 4000 BCE
Tin Sn Solid written records of the Mediterranean region 3500 BCE
Antimony Sb Solid Egyptian women used it as an eyeliner for both themselves and their 3000 To
Iron Fe Solid children
Archeological artifacts made from smelted iron 2000
3000 BCETo
Mercury Hg Liquid The Chinese used mercury 1000
2000 BCE
BCE
Arsenic As Solid German alchemist Albertus Magnus 1250
Zinc Zn Solid Johann Rudolf Glauber 1659
Bismuth Bi Solid Johann Rudolf Glauber 1659
Phosphorus P Solid Hennig Brand 1669
Niobium Nb Solid first governor of Connecticut ,John Winthrop the Younger 1734
Platinum Pt Solid Antonio de Ulloa and Charles Wood 1735
Cobalt Co Solid Georg Brandt 1739
Nickel Ni Solid Baron Axel Fredrick Cronstedt 1751
Nitrogen N Gas Daniel Rutherford 1772
*Barium(oxid Ba Solid Carl Wilhelm Scheele 1774
e)
Manganese Mn Solid Johan Gottlieb Gahn and Carl Wilhelm Scheele 1774
Oxygen O Gas Joseph Priestley 1774
Sulfur S Solid Antoine Lavoisier 1777
Molybdenum Mo Solid Peter Jacob Hjelm and Carl Wilhelm Scheele 1781
Tellurium Te Solid Franz-Joseph Müller von Reichenstein 1782
Hydrogen H Gas Antoine Lavoisier 1783
Tungsten W Solid Don Fausto de Elhuyar and his brother Don Juan Jose de Elhuyar 1783
Yttrium Y Solid Johan Gadolin 1789-1794
Uranium U Solid Martin Heinrich Klaproth 1789
Strontium Sr Solid Dr. Adair Crawford 1790
Titanium Ti Solid Reverend William Gregor 1791
Chromium Cr Solid Louis-Nicolas Vauquelin 1797
Beryllium Be Solid Louis-Nicolas Vauquelin 1798
Tantalum Ta Solid Anders Gustav Ekeberg 1802
Rhodium Rh Solid William Hyde Wollaston 1803
Palladium Pd Solid William Hyde Wollaston 1803
Osmium Os Solid Smithson Tennant 1803
Iridium Ir Solid Smithson Tennant 1803
Cerium Ce Solid Jöns Jacob Berzelius, Wilhelm Hisinger and Martin Klaproth 1803
Sodium Na Solid Sir Humphry Davy 1807
Potassium K Solid Sir Humphry Davy 1807
19
*Barium Ba Solid Sir Humphry Davy 1808
Magnesium Mg Solid Sir Humphry Davy 1808
Calcium Ca Solid Sir Humphry Davy 1808
Boron B Solid Sir Humphry Davy 1808
Chlorine Cl Gas Sir Humphry Davy 1810
Iodine I Solid Bernard Courtois 1811
Lithium Li Solid Johan August Arfwedson 1817
Cadmium Cd Solid Friedrich Strohmeyer 1817
Selenium Se Solid Jöns Jacob Berzelius and Wilhelm Hisinger 1817
Zirconium Zr Solid Baron Jöns Jacob Berzelius 1824
Silicon Si Solid Baron Jöns Jacob Berzelius 1824
Aluminum Al Solid Hans Christian Oersted 1825
Bromine Br Liquid Carl Jacob Löwig and Antoine Jerome Balard 1825-1826
Thorium Th Solid Baron Jöns Jacob Berzelius 1829
Vanadium V Solid Nils Gabriel Sefstrom 1830
Lanthanum La Solid Carl Gustav Mosander 1839
Terbium Tb Solid Carl Gustav Mosander 1843
Erbium Er Solid Carl Gustaf Mosander 1843
Ruthenium Ru Solid Karl Karlovich Klaus 1844
Cesium Cs Solid Gustav Kirchhoff and Robert Bunsen 1860
Rubidium Rb Solid Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff 1861
Thallium Tl Solid Sir William Crookes 1861
Indium In Solid Ferdinand Reich and Theodor Richter 1863
Gallium Ga Solid Paul-Emile Lecoq de Boisbaudran 1875
Ytterbium Yb Solid Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac 1878
Scandium Sc Solid Lars Fredrik Nilson 1879
Samarium Sm Solid Paul-Emile Lecoq de Boisbaudran 1879
Holmium Ho Solid Per Theodor Cleve 1879
Thulium Tm Solid Per Theodor Cleve 1879
Gadolinium Gd Solid Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac and Paul-Emile Lecoq de Boisbaudran 1880-1886
Praseodymiu Pr Solid Carl Auer Baron von Welsbach 1885
m
Neodymium Nd Solid Carl Auer Baron von Welsbach 1885
Germanium Ge Solid Dmitri Mendeleev and Clemens Alexander Winkler 1886
Fluorine F Gas Ferdinand Frederich Henri Moissan 1886
Dysprosium Dy Solid Paul-Emile Lecoq de Boisbaudran 1886
Argon Ar Gas John William Strutt and Sir William Ramsay 1894
Helium He Gas Sir William Ramsay, Per Theodor Cleve and Nils Abraham Langlet 1895
Radium Ra Solid Marie Sklodowska Curie and her husband, Pierre Curie 1898
Polonium Po Solid Marie Sklodowska Curie and her husband, Pierre Curie 1898
Neon Ne Gas Sir William Ramsay and Morris William Travers 1898
Krypton Kr Gas Sir William Ramsay and Morris William Travers 1898
Xenon Xe Gas Sir William Ramsay and Morris William Travers 1898
Radioactive
Actinium Ac Andre-Louis Debierne 1899
Solid
Radon Rn Gas Friedrich Ernst Dorn 1900
Europium Eu Solid Eugene-Anatole Demarcay 1901
Lutetium Lu Solid Georges Urbain, Carl Auer von Welsbach and Charles James 1907
Protactinium Pa Solid Otto Hahn, Lise Meitner, Frederick Soddy and John A. Cranston 1918
Hafnium Hf Solid Georg Karl von Hevesy and Dirk Coster 1923
20
Rhenium Re Solid Walter Noddack and Otto Carl Berg 1925
Technetium Tc Solid Emilio Gino Segre and Carlo Perrier 1937
Solid,
Francium Fr unstable Marguerite Catherine Perey 1939
,radioactive
Astatine At Solid Dale Raymond Corson , Kenneth Ross MacKenzie and Emilio Gino Segre 1940
Neptunium Np Solid Edwin Mattison McMillan and Philip Hauge Abelson 1940
Plutonium Pu Solid Dr. Glenn T. Seaborg, Joseph W. Kennedy, and Arthur C. Wahl 1941
Americium Am Solid Dr. Glenn T. Seaborg, Ralph A. James, Leon O. Morgan, and Albert 1944
Ghiorso
Curium Cm Solid Dr. Glenn T. Seaborg, Ralph A. James, Leon Morgan, and Albert Ghiorso 1944
Promethium Pm Solid Jacob A. Marinsky, Lawrence E. Glendenin, and Charles D. Coryell 1944-1946
Berkelium Bk Solid Dr. Glenn T. Seaborg, Albert Ghiorso and Stanley G. Thompson 1949-1950
Stanley G. Thompson, Kenneth Street, Jr., Albert Ghiorso, and Dr. Glenn T.
Californium Cf Solid 1950
Seaborg,
Gregory R. Choppin, Stanley G. Thompson, and Albert Ghiorso and

Einsteinium Es Solid 1952
Bernard Harvey
Gregory R. Choppin, Stanley G. Thompson, and Albert Ghiorso and
Fermium Fm Solid 1952
Bernard Harvey
Albert Ghiorso, Dr. Glenn T. Seaborg, Stanley G. Thompson, Bernard G.
Mendelevium Md Solid 1955
Harvey, and Gregory R. Choppin
Albert Ghiorso, Dr. Glenn T. Seaborg, John Walton, and Torbjorn

Nobelium No Solid 1958
Sikkeland
Albert Ghiorso, Torbjorn Sikkeland, Almon E. Larsh, and Robert M.

Lawrencium Lr Solid 1961
Latimer
Dubnium Db Solid Scientists of the Joint Institute of Nuclear Research in Dubna, Russia 1967
Rutherfordium Rf Solid Researchers at the University of California Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory 1969-1973
Seaborgium Sg Solid Researchers at the University of California Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory 1974
Peter Armbruster and Gottfried Munzenberg (Nuclear laboratory in

Bohrium Bh Solid 1981
Darmstadt, Germany)

Meitnerium Mt Solid 1982
Darmstadt, Germany)

Hassium Hs Solid 1984
Darmstadt, Germany)

Darmstadtium Ds Solid 1994
Darmstadt, Germany)
Assumed to Peter Armbruster and Sigurd Hofmann
Röentgenium Rg 1994
be solid metal (Nuclear laboratory in Darmstadt, Germany)
Ununbium Assumed to
(112UUB- Uub, International group led by Peter Armbruster (Nuclear laboratory in
be liquid 1996
285) Cn Darmstadt, Germany)
metal
Copernicium
Ununtrium
Collaboration between (Nuclear Research Laboratory in Dubna, Russia, and
(113UUT- Uut Solid 2003
the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in California, USA )
284)
21
Ununquadium Uuq
Assumed to Scientists of the Joint Institute of Nuclear Research in Dubna, Russia
(114UUQ) 1999-2007
be solid The name (Flerovium) was adopted by IUPAC on May 30, 2012
Flerovium Fl
Ununpentium Assumed to Collaboration between (Nuclear Research Laboratory in Dubna, Russia, and
(115UUP) Uup 2004
be solid metal the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in California, USA )
Ununhexium Uuh Presumed to The Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna, Russia, in cooperation
(116UUH) be a colorless with personnel of the Lawrence-Livermore Berkeley Group 2000
Livermorium Lv gas The name (Livermorium) was adopted by IUPAC on May 31, 2012
Expected to
Ununseptium Collaboration between (Nuclear Research Laboratory in Dubna, Russia, and
Uus be a solid 2010-2012
(117UUS) the Oak Ridge National Laboratory in the United States)
silvery metal
Researchers Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory of California, USA
Ununoctium Expected to From 2000
Uuo Since 2002, only three or possibly four atoms of the isotope 294Uuo have
(118UUO) be a gas until now
been detected
*IUPAC: International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.
Metalworking is the process of working with metals to create individual parts,
assemblies, or large-scale structures. The term covers a wide range of work from
large ships and bridges to precise engine parts and delicate jewelry. It therefore
includes a correspondingly wide range of skills, processes, and tools.
Forming processes:
These forming processes modify metal or workpiece by deforming the object, that
is, without removing any material. Forming is done with a system of mechanical
forces and, especially for bulk metal forming, with heat.
Plastic deformation involves using heat or pressure to make a workpiece more
conductive to mechanical force. Historically, this and casting were done by
blacksmiths (Figure 4), though today the process has been industrialized. In bulk
metal forming, the workpiece is generally heated up.
22
Figure 1.5: Blacksmith's workshop Figure 1.4: Blacksmiths mane
Forging is one of the oldest known metalworking processes. Traditionally,
forging was performed by a smith using hammer and anvil, though introducing
water power to the production and working of iron in the 12th century drove the
hammer and anvil into obsolescence. The smithy or forge has evolved over
centuries to become a facility with engineered processes, production equipment,
tooling, raw materials and products to meet the demands of modern industry
(Figure 4, and 5).
The discovery of the rolling mill in Europe may be attributed to Leonardo da
Vinci in his drawings. The earliest rolling mills in crude form but the same basic
principles were found in Middle East and South Asia as early as 600 BCE. Earliest
rolling mills were slitting mills, which were introduced from what is
now Belgium to England in 1590.
23
In 1797, Joseph Bramah patented the first extrusion process for making lead
pipe. It involved preheating the metal and then forcing it through a die via a hand-
driven plunger. The process was not further developed until 1820 when Thomas
Burr constructed the first hydraulic powered press. At this time the process was
called "squirting". In 1894, Alexander Dick expanded the extrusion process to
copper and brass alloys.
Drawing is a metalworking process which uses tensile forces to stretch metal. As
the metal is drawn (pulled), it stretches thinner, into a desired shape and thickness.
Cold drawing is primarily used in manufacturing plastic fibers. The process was
discovered by Julian Hill (1904–1996) in 1930 while trying to make fibers from
polyester.
The historic development of Friction drilling goes back to 1920s. In 1923, the
Frenchman Jean Claude de Valière tried making a tool that could make holes in
metal by friction heat, instead of by machining. It was only a moderate success,
because at that time the right materials were not yet available. Moreover, he had
not yet discovered the right shape for this kind of tool. It was not until the 1980s
that a useful tool could be produced.
24
1.7 Classification of Forming:
Figure 1.6: Classification of metal forming processes
Typically, metal forming processes can be classified into two broad groups.
1- Bulk or massive, forming operations.
2- Sheet forming operations.
In both types of process, the surfaces of the deforming metal and the tools are
in contact, and friction between them may have a major influence on material flow.
In bulk forming, the input material is in billet, rod, or slab form, and the surface to-
volume ratio in the formed part increases considerably under the action of largely
compressive loading.
25
In sheet forming, on the other hand, a piece of sheet metal is plastically deformed
by tensile loads into a three-dimensional shape, often without significant changes
in sheet thickness or surface characteristic.
Processes that fall under the category of bulk forming have the following
distinguishing features:
1- The deforming material, or workpiece, undergoes large plastic (permanent)
deformation, resulting in an appreciable change in shape or cross section.
2- The portion of the workpiece undergoing plastic deformation is generally
much larger than the portion undergoing elastic deformation; therefore,
elastic recovery after deformation is negligible.
Examples of generic bulk forming processes are extrusion, forging, rolling, and
drawing. Specific bulk forming processes are listed in Table 2 and figure7.
26
Table 2: Specific bulk forming processes
No. Main classification Partial classification

1- Closed-die forging with flash.
2- Closed-die forging without flash.
3- Coining.
4- Electro-upsetting.
5- Forward extrusion forging.
6- Backward extrusion forging.
7- Hobbling process.
1 Forging 8- Isothermal forging.
9- Nosing.
10- Open-die forging
11- Rotary (orbital) forging.
12- Precision forging.
13- Metal powder forging.
14- Radial forging.
15- Upsetting.
1. Sheet rolling.
2. Shape rolling.
3. Tube rolling
4. Ring rolling
5. Rotary tube piercing
2 Rolling 6. Gear rolling
7. Roll forging
8. Cross rolling
9. Surface rolling
10. Shear forming
11. Tube reducing
1. Nonlubricated hot extrusion
3 Extrusion 2. Lubricated direct hot extrusion
3. Hydrostatic extrusion
1. Drawing
2. Drawing with rolls
4 Drawing
3. Ironing
4. Tube sinking
27
2
1
1
2 4
3
3
4
1
2
2 1
3 3
4
Figure 1.7: Various metal forming processes
Figure 1.8: Tube reducing processes Figure 1.9: Coining
28
Figure 1.10: Different types of drawing processes
The characteristics of sheet metal forming processes are as follows:
1- The workpiece is a sheet or a part fabricated from a sheet.
2- The deformation usually causes significant changes in the shape, but not
the cross-sectional area, of the sheet.
3- In some cases, the magnitudes of the plastic and the elastic (recoverable)
deformations are comparable; therefore, elastic recovery or springback may
be significant.
29
Examples of processes that fall under the category of sheet metal forming are
deep drawing, stretching, bending, and rubber-pad forming. Other processes are
listed in Table 3.
Table 3: Sheet metal forming processes
No. Main classification partial classification

Bending and straight 1. Brake bending
1
flanging 2. Roll bending
1. Contour stretch forming (stretch forming).
2. Hydroforming
3. Age forming.
4. Creep forming.
2 Surface contouring of sheet 5. Die-quench forming.
6. Bulging.
7. Vacuum forming.
8. Linear stretch forming (stretch forming).
9. Linear roll forming (roll forming).
1. Spinning (and roller flanging)
2. Deep drawing
3. Rubber-pad forming
3 Deep recessing and flanging
4. Marform process
5. Rubber-diaphragm hydroforming (fluid cell forming
or fluid forming)
1. Dimpling
2. Drop hammer forming
4 Shallow recessing 3. Electromagnetic forming
4. Explosive forming
5. Joggling
30
Figure 1.11: Different types of flanging process
Figure 1.12: hydroforming process
The classification of deformation processes can be done in one of several ways.
The more common classification schemes are based on temperature, flow

31
behavior, and stress state. The temperature of the deformation process is under
direct control of the operator and has a profound effect on the viability of the
process and the resulting shape and microstructure of the finished product. The
flow behavior and the stress state differ from temperature in that they are a result
of the actual deformation process that one chooses.
a. Temperature Classification:
The temperature classification is normally divided into two primary regions-
cold working and hot working. Cold working occurs at relatively low temperatures
relative to the melting point of the metal. Hot working occurs at temperatures
above the recrystallization temperature of the metal. There is a third temperature
range, warm working, which is being critically examined due to energy savings
and is, in some cases, used by industries.
i. Cold Working Temperatures
Cold working usually refers to metal deformation that is carried out at room
temperature. The phenomenon associated with cold work occurs when the metal is
deformed at temperatures that are about 30% or less of its melting temperature on
an absolute temperature scale. During cold work, the metal, experiences an
increased number of dislocations and entanglement of these dislocations, causing
32
strain hardening. With strain hardening, the strength of the metal increases with
deformation. To recrystallize the metal, a thermal treatment, called an anneal, is
often needed. During annealing, the strength of the metal can be drastically
reduced with a significant increase in ductility. The ductility increase often allows
further deformation to occur before fracture. The final surface finish and
dimensional tolerances can be well controlled in a cold work process.
ii. Hot Working Temperatures:
Hot working occurs at temperatures of 60% or above of the melting
temperature of the metal on an absolute scale. At elevated temperatures, the metal
has decreased strength, hence the forces needed for deformation are reduced.
Recrystallization occurs readily, causing new grains to continually form during
deformation. The continual formation of new grains causes the ductility of the
metal to remain high, allowing large amounts of deformation to be imparted
without fracture. Control of final dimensions is more difficult in a hot-worked
metal due to scale formation and volumetrical changes in the part during
subsequent cooling.
33
iii. Warm Working Temperatures:
Warm working occurs between hot working and cold working. It occurs in the
approximate temperature range of 30-60% of the melting temperature of the
metal on an absolute scale. The forces required to deform metal in the warm
working regime are higher than during hot working. The final finish and
dimensional tolerances are better than hot working but not nearly as good as a cold
working process. Although warm work seems to have drawbacks, the primary
driver for warm working is economic. There is significant cost in heating a metal
up to hot working temperatures. If the working temperature is lowered, there can
be major cost savings in the process.
b. Flow Behavior Classification:
The flow behavior of a metal or alloy during bulk deformation processes falls
into one of two categories:-
1- Continuous flow.
2- Quasi-static.
The easiest way to distinguish between these two types of flow is to imagine a
movie being made of the deformation region during processing. If the shape of the
deformation region changes during each frame of the movie, the process is a
continuous-flow process. If in each frame of the movie the shape of the
34
deformation region remains the same, even though a different material is in the
region, it is a quasi-static-flow process.
The bulk deformation process of forging is an example of a continuous-flow
process. As the metal is being shaped in the forging die cavity, the deforming
region, which is often the entire amount of metal, is continuously undergoing
change. Processes such as rolling, wire drawing, and extrusion are examples of
quasi-static flow. For example, in rolling, the deformation region is the metal
being squeezed between two rolls. The shape of the deformation region does not
vary, aside from initial startup and final finish, although different material flows
into and out of the region. The classification based on flow is useful in determining
what type of modeling scheme can be used to simulate the bulk deformation
process. For a quasi-static-flow process, the deformation region can often be
handled as a single region and a steady-state type of analysis can be applied. For a
continuous-flow process, a more complex analysis needs to be used to simulate the
process accurately. The complex analysis needs to account for the continually
changing shape of the deformation region.
35
c. Stress State Classification
In all bulk deformation processes, the primary deformation stress is compressive in
nature. This is in contrast to sheet metal forming where tensile stresses are often
used. Stress state classification consists of two categories :-
1- Direct compression :
In direct compression, the tools or dies directly squeeze the workpiece.
Forging, extrusion, and rolling are examples of direct compression processes.
2- Indirect compression:
In indirect compression, the deformation region of the workpiece is in a
compressive stress state but the application of these compressive stresses occurs by
indirect means. Wire drawing is an example of an indirect compression process,
where the wire is pulled through a die.
The workpiece contacts the converging surfaces of the dies, creating high forces
normal to the die surface. The dies react to these forces by pushing back on the
workpiece, causing a compressive stress state to exist in the deforming region of
the metal. Thus although the equipment action is of a tensile (pulling) nature, the
plastic deforming region is being squeezed. It should be noted that although the
stress state for bulk deformation is compressive, there are situations where tensile
stress components may be present within the workpiece and fracture may occur.
The metal forming engineer needs to be aware of these types of situations and to
36
properly design the' process to avoid the potential fracturing that can occur on the
workpiece due to the tensile stress components. For example, in the forging of a
right circular cylinder between two flat dies in the axial direction, if friction on the
top and bottom surfaces is high, the sides of the cylinder will bulge and some
tensile hoop stress may occur on the outside surface of the workpiece. A more
insidious example is an extrusion process where a small reduction is performed
through a die with a high die angle. For this situation, the deformation region may
be limited to the surface region of the workpiece, causing some internal tensile
stress components along the centerline of the workpiece. If the internal tensile
stress components become excessively high, they can cause an internal fracture in
the workpiece. This fracture is referred to as central burst. The worst aspect of
central burst is that it cannot be detected via visual methods.
Forming Processes Variables:
Forming processes consist of independent and dependent variables
1- Independent Variables:
Independent variables are the aspects of the processes that the engineer or operator
has direct control. (Dif.)
1- Starting material
2- Starting geometry of the workpiece
3- Tool or die geometry
37
4- Lubrication
5- Starting temperature
6- Speed of operation
7- Amount of deformation
2- Dependent Variables
Dependent variables are those that are determined by the independent variable
selection. (Dif.)
1- Force or power requirements
2- Material properties of the product
3- Exit or final temperature
4- Surface finish and precision
5- Nature of the material flow
38
CHAPTER 2
Metal Forming Tribology and Surfaces Engineering:
Introduction:
1. Tribology
Tribology is the science and technology of interacting surfaces in
relative motion (and the practices related thereto), including the subject
of friction, wear and lubrication.
1.1. Etymology
Tribology comes from the Greek word, “tribos”, meaning “rubbing”
or “to rub”, and from the suffix, “ology” means “the study of”.
Therefore, Tribology is the study of rubbing, or… “The study of things
that rub”.
It was coined by the British physicist David Tabor, and also by Peter
Jost in 1964, a lubrication expert who noticed the problems with
increasing friction on machines, and started the new discipline of
tribology.
39
1.2 Fundamentals
The tribological interactions of a solid surface's exposed face with
interfacing materials and environment may result in loss of material
from the surface. The process leading to loss of material is known as
"wear". Major types of wear include abrasion, friction
(adhesion and cohesion), erosion, and corrosion. Wear can be minimized
by modifying the surface properties of solids by one or more "surface
engineering" processes (also called surface finishing) or by use
of lubricants (for frictional or adhesive wear).
Estimated direct and consequential annual loss to industries in the USA
due to wear is approximately 1-2% of GDP. Engineered surfaces extend
the working life of both original and recycled and resurfaced equipment,
thus saving large sums of money and leading to conservation of
material, energy and the environment. Methodologies to minimize wear
include systematic approaches to diagnose the wear and to prescribe
appropriate solutions. Important methods include:
40
1- Point like contact theory was established by Heinrich Hertz (1857-1894) in
1880s.
2- Fluid lubrication dynamics was established by Arnold Johannes Sommerfeld
(1868-1951) in 1900s.
3- Terotechnology, where multidisciplinary engineering and management
techniques are used to protect equipment and machinery from degradation
(Peter Jost, 1972)
4- Horst Czichos's systems approach, where appropriate material is selected by
checking properties against tribological requirements under operating
environment (H. Czichos,1978)
5- Asset Management by Material Prognosis - a concept similar to terotechnology
which has been introduced by the US Military (DARPA) for upkeep of
equipment in good health and start-ready condition for 24 hours. Good health
monitoring systems combined with appropriate remedies at maintenance and
repair stages have led to improved performance, reliability and extended life
cycle of the assets, such as advanced military hardware and civil aircraft.
In recent years, micro- and Nano tribology have been gaining ground.
Frictional interactions in microscopically small components are becoming
increasingly important for the development of new products in electronics, life
sciences, chemistry, sensors and by extension for all modern technology.

41
1.3 History:
Duncan Dowson surveyed the history of tribology in his book "History
of Tribology (2nd edition)". This comprehensive book covers
developments from prehistory, through early civilizations
(Mesopotamia, Egypt) and finally the key developments up to the end of
the twentieth century.
The first recorded tribologist - 2400 B.C. was pouring lubricant (water)
in front of the sledge in the transport of the statue of Ti - from a tomb at
Saqqara, Egypt (Figure 2.1, 2.2).
Figure 2.1: The First Recorded Tribologist – 2400 B.C.

42
Figure 2.2: Transporting the statue of Ti – from a tomb at Saqqara, Egypt
Historically, Leonardo da Vinci (Figure2.3) (1452–1519) was the first
to enunciate two laws of friction.
Guillaume Amontons rediscovered the classic rules (1699). They were
further developed by Charles-Augustin de Coulomb (1785).
43
Charles Hatchett (1760–1820) carried out the first reliable test on
frictional wear using a simple reciprocating machine to evaluate wear on
gold coins. He found that compared to self-mated coins, coins with grits
between them wore at a faster rate.
Figure 2.3: Leonardo Da Vinci
1.4 Tribological problems
Probably more failures are caused by tribological problems than
fracture, fatigue, plastic deformation, etc. Tribological problems are
often related to system issues. Examples of tribological problems:
1- International Space Station Beta Gimbal Assembly Failure.
2- Drive sprockets, idlers, rollers, Grouser shoes.
3- Pin Joints.
4- Electrical Connectors.
44
1.5 Applications and Fields which Encompass Modern
Tribology:
Tribology is all around us, In Applications from Simple to Complex and
Scales from Small to Large.
1- Individual Components (Figure 2.4).
2- Assemblies or Products (Figure 2.5).
3- Manufacturing Processes (Figure 2.6).
4- Construction/Exploration (Figure 2.7).
5- Natural Phenomena (Figure 2.8).
Figure 2.4: Individual Components
45
Figure 2.5: Assemblies or Products
Figure 2.6: Manufacturing Processes

46
Figure 2.7: Construction/Exploration
Figure 2.8: Natural Phenomena

47
In parallel to these different scales, there are many areas of engineering
and industry which have a need to use/understand tribology. Tribology is
also in virtually every area of engineering and industry.
1- Aerospace
2- Agriculture
3- Automotive:
3.1 Engine: Piston ring/cylinder, Bearings, valve seats, injectors
Brakes/clutch.
3.2 Tooling/Machining/Sheet metal forming
4- Coatings Providers:
4.1 Low Friction
4.2 Wear Resistant ( Thin Films or Hard facings)
5- Cosmetics/Personal Care
6- Dental Implants
7- Energy:
7.1 Nuclear
7.2 Wind
48
7.3 Fossil
7.4 Solar
8- Fabric/Clothing
9- Flooring
10- Food Processing
11- Highway/Transportation Depts.
12- Lubricant Manufacturers
13- Medical Diagnostics
14- Medical Implants
15- Military
16- Pharmaceutical
17- Shoe Manufacturers
18- Sports Equipment Companies
19- Universities/Educators:
19.1 Mechanical Engineering.
19.2 Materials Science Engineering.
19.3 Physics
19.4 Chemistry .
49
1.6 Commonality in Tribology:
What do All These Diverse Fields and Applications have in
Common? What do we need to think about as engineers and scientists
when we design products or friction/wear experiments?
Every Application has Surfaces in Contact, and in Relative Motion (e.g.
sliding, rolling, and impacting). So let’s begin by looking closely at
surfaces.
Figure 2.9: Smooth surface
Figure 2.10: Rough surface
50
All engineering surfaces have a roughness, and this roughness plays an
important role in tribology. Surface Roughness comes from all prior
history of the part: Manufacturing, handling and prior use in application.
1.7 Aspects of a Surface:
1- Physical : Surface Roughness
 Dictates Contact Area
 Dictates Contact Stresses
 Lubricant Paths or Reservoirs
2- Chemical - Intervening Layers
 Chemical Compatibility
 Shear Strength
 Lubricant Properties, e.g. Viscosity, EP or boundary-forming
51
1.8 Surface Characterization
Variety of Methods available
1- Physical Characterization
1.1 Roughness
 Macro – Waviness and Form (CMM)
 Micro – Surface Roughness
 Stylus Profilometers (contact)
 Optical Profilometers (non-contact)
 AFM (sub-micron)
1.2 Hardness
 Indent, Scratch
2- Chemical Characterization
 Infrared, XPS, Raman, Auger
 Lubricant Shear properties → Viscometry
52
1.9 Surface Engineering : Definition
Changing the properties of the surface of a material to give performance
which cannot be achieved by the surface layer or bulk alone.
Surface Engineering Processes
1- Mechanical treatment (e.g. peening, shot blasting).
2- Surface transformation (e.g. induction hardening, laser treatment).
3- Surface composition changes (e.g. thermo chemical treatment, ion
implantation).
4- Chemical treatment (e.g. conversion coatings).
5- Coating (e.g. painting, spraying, plating, vapor deposition).
6- Surface activation (etching, plasma treatment of polymers).
1.10 Summary of Surfaces in Contact
1- Tribo-forces are dictated by interaction of asperities.
 Asperities have mechanical and chemical properties.
 Methods exist to characterize these properties.
53
2- Asperity geometry and distribution result from manufacturing
method, handling and prior rubbing history.
3- The tribology including
 Friction.
 Wear.
 Lubrication.
54
2. Friction:
Friction is the resistance to relative motion between two bodies in
contact. There are several types of friction:
Figure 2.11: Friction in surfaces
Figure 2.12: Friction Fundamentals
55
2.1 Types of Friction:
1. Dry friction: Dry friction resists relative lateral motion of two
solid surfaces in contact. Dry friction is subdivided into static
friction ("stiction") between non-moving surfaces, and kinetic
friction between moving surfaces.
Figure 2.13: Dry Friction
Where:
N= Reaction of surface.
F = Friction force
56
2. Fluid friction: Fluid friction describes the friction between layers of
a viscous fluid that are moving relative to each other.
Figure 2.14: Fluid Friction
3. Lubricated friction: Lubricated friction is a case of fluid friction
where a lubricant fluid separates two solid surfaces.
Figure 2.15: Lubricated Friction
57
4. Skin friction: Skin friction is a component of pull process, the
force resisting the motion of a fluid across the surface of a body.
Figure 2.16: Example of Skin Friction Drag
5. Internal friction: Internal friction is the force resisting motion
between the elements making up a solid material while it
undergoes deformation.
Figure 2.17: Internal Friction
58
When surfaces in contact move relative to each other, the friction
between the two surfaces converts kinetic energy into thermal
energy (that is, it converts work to heat). This property can have
dramatic consequences, as illustrated by the use of friction created by
rubbing pieces of wood together to start a fire. Kinetic energy is
converted to thermal energy whenever motion with friction occurs, for
example when a viscous fluid is stirred. Another important consequence
of many types of friction can be wear, which may lead to performance
degradation and/or damage to components. Friction is a component of
the science of tribology.
2.2 History:
The classic rules of sliding friction were discovered by Leonardo da
Vinci (1452–1519), but remained unpublished in his notebooks. They
were rediscovered by Guillaume Amontons (1699). Amontons
presented the nature of friction in terms of surface irregularities and the
force required to raise the weight pressing the surfaces together.
Augustin de Coulomb (1785) was studied the influence of four main

59
factors on friction: the nature of the materials in contact and their surface
coatings; the extent of the surface area; the normal pressure (or load);
and the length of time that the surfaces remained in contact (time of
repose).
The focus of research during the last century has been to understand the
physical mechanisms behind friction. The development of the atomic
force microscope (1986) has recently enabled scientists to study friction
at the atomic scale.
2.3 Factors affecting on the friction
Friction is affected by the following
1. Presence of wear particles: externally introduced particles at the
sliding interface
2. Relative hardness: of the materials in contact.
3. Applied load and displacement.
4. Environmental conditions: such as temperature and lubricants.
5. Surface topography.
6. Microstructure or morphology of materials.

60
7. Apparent contact area.
8. Kinematics of the surfaces in contact: such as the direction and
the magnitude of the relative motion between the surfaces.
2.4 Coefficient of Friction( ):
The coefficient of friction (COF), often symbolized by the Greek letter
, is a dimensionless scalar value which describes the ratio of the force
of friction between two bodies and the force pressing them together. The
coefficient of friction depends on the materials used.
Where:
F= Friction Force.
N= Reaction of surface
= coefficient of friction (COF).
61
Table 1 has typical values of static and kinetic friction for different
material combinations.
Table 1: Coefficients of static and kinetic friction
Coefficients of Static Coefficients of Kinetic

Materials Friction (  s ) Friction (  k )
Steel on Steel 0.74 0.57
Aluminum on Steel 0.61 0.47
Copper on Steel 0.53 0.36
Rubber on Concrete 1.0 0.8
Wood on Wood 0.25-0.5 0.2
Glass on Glass 0.94 0.4
Waxed wood on Wet snow 0.14 0.1
Waxed wood on Dry snow - 0.04
Metal on Metal (lubricated) 0.15 0.06
Ice on Ice 0.1 0.03
Teflon on Teflon 0.04 0.04
Synovial joints in humans 0.01 0.003
2.5 Applications
Friction is an important factor in many engineering disciplines.
1. Transportation
 Automobile brakes.
 Rail adhesion.
 Road slipperiness.
62
2.6 Measurement
1. Tribometer: A tribometer is an instrument that measures friction
on a surface.
Figure 2.18: Static Friction Tribometer
2. Profilograph: A profilograph is a device used to measure
pavement surface roughness.
Figure 2.19: Different types of Profilograph
63
3. Wear :
Wear is a process of gradual removal of a material from surfaces of
solids subject to contact and sliding.
3.1 Wear analysis
1. In analyzing a wear problem in a machine, it is necessary to
determine the kind of wear that occurred.
2. Analysis requires microscopic examination of the worn area and
a close look at the used lubricant.
3. Wear is generally proportional to the applied load and the
amount of sliding.
3.2 Types of wear:
1. Adhesive Wear:
The removal of material due to adhesion between surfaces, Can
divided in two types:
1- Mild adhesion: is the removal of surface films, such as oxides, at
a low rate.
64
2- Severe adhesion: the removal of metal due to tearing, breaking,
and melting of metallic junctions. This leads to scuffing or galling
of the surfaces and even seizure.
The consequences are cold welding, scuffing, scoring, pits, seizing,
built-up edges, tool breakage.
1.1 Prevention of Adhesive Wear:
a. Mechanical:
1. Reduce load, speed and temperature.
2. Improve oil cooling.
3. Use compatible metals.
4. Apply surface coatings such as phosphating.
b. Lubricant:
1. Use more viscous oil to separate surfaces.
2. Use "extreme pressure" (anti-scuff) additives such as a sulfur-
phosphorous or borate compounds.
65
Figure 2.20: Adhesive Wear
2. Abrasive Wear (Scratching): The harder material scratches the
softer material (for example, sand particles between contact
surfaces, or hard asperities on an opposing surface).
Cause: Hard particles contaminating oil hard metal with rough
surface against soft metal.
Scratching
Figure 2.21: Abrasive Wear

66
2.1 Prevention of Abrasive Wear:
a. Mechanical:
1. Remove abrasive by improved air and oil filtering, clean oil
handling practices, improved seals, flushing and frequent oil
changes.
2. Minimize shot peening, beading, or sand blasting of surfaces
because abrasives cannot be completely removed.
3. Increase hardness of metal surfaces.
b. Lubricant:
1. Use oil free of abrasive particles.
2. Use more viscous oil.
3. Erosion Wear:
In the erosion wear the cutting of furrows on a surface by hard particles
contained in a fluid traveling at high velocity.
67
Figure 2.22: Erosion Wear
3.1 Prevention of Erosion Wear:
a. Mechanical:
1. Remove abrasive by improved air and oil filtering, clean oil
handling practices, improved seals, flushing and frequent oil
changes.
2. Reduce impact angle to less than 15 degrees.
3. Increase hardness of metal surfaces.
b. Lubricant:
1. Use oil free of abrasive particles.
68
4. Polishing Wear:
The continuous removal of surface films, laid down via a chemical
reaction from an additive in oil or by very fine hard particles in the
lubricant. Polishing wear is characterized by very shiny, very smooth,
the surfaces of metal mirror like.
Figure 2.23: Polishing Wear
69
4.1 Prevention of Polishing Wear:
a. Mechanical:
1. None.
b. Lubricant:
1. Choose less chemically active additive.
2. Remove corrosive contaminant.
3. Remove abrasive.
5. Contact fatigue:
Contact fatigue is most common in rolling element bearings, gear teeth,
and cams. The cracking, pitting, and spalling of a surface in sequence
due to cyclic stresses in a contact.
5.1 Prevention of Contact fatigue:
a. Mechanical:
1. Reduce contact pressures and frequency of cyclic stress.
2. Use high quality vacuum melted steels.
3. Use less abusive surface finish.
70
b. Lubricant:
1. Use clean, dry oil.
3. Use oil with higher-pressure viscosity coefficient.
Figure 2.24: Contact fatigue
71
6. Corrosive wear:
Small adhesive pull-outs occur at the boundary. Often these oxidize, so
sometimes called “fretting corrosion”, the removal of corrosion
products from a surface by motion, such as the rubbing off of rust.
Cause: water contamination most common cause.
6.1 Prevention of Corrosive wear:
a. Mechanical:
1. Use more corrosion resistant metal (not stainless).
2. Reduce operating temperature.
3. Eliminate corrosive material.
b. Lubricant:
1. Remove corrosive material such as too chemically active
additive and contaminates.
2. Use improved corrosion inhibitor.
3. Use fresh oil.
72
Figure 2.25: Corrosive wear
7. Electro-Corrosive wear:
Electro-Corrosive Wear the removal of metal by dissolution in a
corrosive liquid with the aid of electric currents. One source of currents
is streaming potential from high velocity fluids. To reduce electro-
corrosive wear by using oil serves as the electrolyte
73
7.1 Prevention of Electro-Corrosive wear:
a. Mechanical:
1. Decrease liquid velocity and velocity gradients.
2. Use corrosion-resistant metals.
3. Eliminate stray currents.
b. Lubricant:
1. Decrease or increase electrical conductivity of lubricants or
hydraulic fluids.
Figure 2.26: Electro-Corrosive wear
74
8. Fretting wear:
It’s a Localized wear of lubricated surfaces due to exchange sliding of
very low amplitude because of vibration.
Figure 2.27: Fretting wear
75
8.1 Prevention of Fretting wear:
a. Mechanical:
1. Reduce or stop vibration by tighter fit or higher load.
2. Improve lubrication between surfaces by rougher (then
honed) surface finish.
b. Lubricant:
1. Use oil of lower viscosity.
2. Re-lubrication frequently.
3. Use oxidation inhibitors in oil.
9. Electrical discharge wear:
The removal of molten metal from surfaces due to electrical sparks
between them. High static voltages are sometimes generated by large
rotating machinery and these are relieved by sparking to regions of
lower potential.
76
9.1 Prevention of Electrical discharge wear:
a. Mechanical:
1. Improve electrical insulation of bearings.
2. Degauss magnetic rotating parts.
3. Install brushes on shaft.
4. Improve machine grounding.
b. Lubricant:
1. Use of oil of higher electrical conductivity.
Figure 2.28: Electrical discharge damage from an improperly installed

grounding brush damage a shaft hub.
77
10. Cavitation damage:
It’s a removal of material due to cracking and pitting caused by high
energy implosions of vacuous cavities in a cavitating liquid. Liquids
cavitate when suddenly subjected to low pressures.
Propeller Valve
Figure 2.29: Cavitation damage
(A)
78
(B)
Figure 2.30: Emergence of Cavitation
10.1 Prevention of Cavitation damage wear:
a. Mechanical:
1. Use hard, tough metals, such as tool steel.
2. Reduce vibration, flow velocities and pressures.
3. Avoid restriction and obstructions to liquid flow.
b. Lubricant:
1. Avoid low vapor pressure, aerated, wet oils.
2. Use noncorrosive oils.
79
11. False brinelling
It's a localized wear in lubricated rolling element bearings due to slight
rocking motion of rollers against raceways.
Figure 2.31: False brinelling
11.1 Prevention of False brinelling wear:
a. Mechanical:
1. Reduce or eliminate impact.
2. Rotate bearings occasionally.
b. Lubricant:
1. Change viscosity.
80
3.3 Microscopic Observation (Wear debris analysis):
a) Rubbing wear.
b) Cutting wear.
c) Fatigue wear.
d) Scuffing wear.
e) Corrosive wear.
f) Abrasive wear.
Figure 2.32: Wear debris analysis
81
4. Lubrication:
Lubrication is the technique process to reduce friction between the surfaces.(Def.)
4.1 Introduction:
The primary purpose of lubrication is to reduce wear and heat between
contacting surfaces in relative motion. While wear and heat cannot be
completely eliminated, they can be reduced to negligible or acceptable
levels. Because heat and wear are associated with friction, both effects
can be minimized by reducing the coefficient of friction between the
contacting surfaces. Lubrication is also used to reduce oxidation and
prevent rust; to provide insulation in transformer applications; to
transmit mechanical power in hydraulic fluid power applications; and to
seal against dust, dirt, and water.
4.2 History:
The modern period of lubrication began with the work of Osborne Reynolds
(1842-1912). Reynold’s research was concerned with shafts rotating in bearings
and cases this show in Fig. 2.32. When a lubricant was applied to the shaft,
Reynolds found that a rotating shaft pulled a converging wedge of lubricant
between the shaft and the bearing. He also noted that as the shaft gained velocity,
82
the liquid flowed between the two surfaces at a greater rate. This, because the
lubricant is viscous, produces a liquid pressure in the lubricant wedge that is
sufficient to keep the two surfaces separated. Under ideal conditions, Reynolds
showed that this liquid pressure was great enough to prevent direct contact
between the metal surfaces.
Figure 2.33: Three positions of shaft in a bearing
4.3 The lubrication regimes
Successful operation of modern machinery over long periods of time is
critically dependent on the use of appropriate lubricants at
contacting interfaces. Intervening layers as small as a few molecular
diameters are already capable of producing major improvements in
83
tribological system performance. Major additional improvements in
tribological performance are possible through judicious application of
lubrication engineering principles. The many available lubricant choices
are associated with a few specific lubrication regimes. These are in turn
differentiated by the film associated film thickness as follows:
1. Hydrodynamic Fluid Film:
The layer completely separates and prevents direct contact of the solid
surfaces involved. The film thickness is usually of the order of 100
micrometers.
Figure 2.34: Hydrodynamic Fluid Film
84
2. Elastohydrodynamic:
The layer is severely compressed and thinned by the applied load.
Direct contact is still prevented but contacting solids deform
elastically because of the high film pressure. The film thickness is
only slightly larger than the magnitude of hydrodynamic fluid film.
It’s usually of the order of 1 micrometer.
Figure 2.35: Elastohydrodynamic
3. Transition or Mixed Lubrication:
The film thickness becomes of the order of the surface asperities (i.e. of
the order of 0.1 micrometer) and intermittent contact is obtained.
85
Figure 2.36: Mixed Lubrication
4. Boundary Lubrication:
The film can be as small as a single adsorbed layer. Intermittent solid
contact may take place.
Figure 2.37: Boundary Lubrication
86
4.4 Lubrication Fundamentals:
The role of a lubricant is to:
1. Reduce Friction
2. Prevent / Minimize Wear
3. Transport Debris away from Interface
4. Provide Cooling
4.5 Lubricant Types and Characteristics:
According to their physical characteristics lubricants are classified as
follows:
1. Mineral Oils: A complex mix byproduct of fractional distillation
of crude oil.
2. Synthetic Oils: Produced by polymerization of low molecular
weight hydrocarbons.
3. Greases: Mixtures of lubricating oils and thickeners obtained by
adding alkali and fatty acid to oil.
4. Boundary Lubricants: Molecules with strong affinity towards
the surface being lubricated.

87
5. Solid Lubricants. Layered and non-layered lattice solids;
fullerenes.
In fluid film hydrodynamic lubrication both mineral and synthetic oils
are commonly used.
Key properties of these lubricants which must be considered in
engineering design include
1. Viscosity: dynamic and kinematic.
2. Physical properties: density, conductivity, specific heat, surface
tension, refractive index, additive compatibility and solubility,
impurity content.
3. Stability: pour, cloud, flash and fire points; volatility, oxidation
rate.
88

Lecture Notes Book: Metal Forming

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Lecture Notes Book: Metal Forming

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Lecture Notes Book: Metal Forming

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

METAL FORMING

Lecture Notes Book

Dr. Yassin M. Ahmed

Fundamentals of metal forming processes

1. Definitions and classification of Metal forming processes:

Metal forming is a very important manufacturing operation. It enjoys industrial

importance among various production operations due to its advantages.

1.2 Advantages of Metal Forming Process:

2- Improve the mechanical properties.

5- Considerable material saving.

several small parts, assembled together. An automobile is supposed to be an

most important steps in production. Production encompasses all types of

manufacturing processes. Manufacturing refers to the conversion of raw materials

manufacturing such as metal casting, metal forming, metal machining, metal

joining and finishing. Some of the modern methods of manufacturing include

micro machining, nano-fabrication, ultra precision manufacturing etc.

In order to fulfill the requirements of the ever-increasing demands of various types

the energy consumption are minimum.

environmental impacts such as air pollution, waste disposal etc.

Modern concepts such as lean manufacturing, adaptive control, agile

manufacturing, group technology etc. have considerable influence on cost

reduction and quality improvements of products.

Computers and robots play important role in modern manufacturing techniques,

finished product to the utmost level of quality and cost-effectiveness.

1.3 Disadvantages of Metal Forming Process:

compared to other manufacturing methods.

producing uniform cross sectioned components only.

1.4 Metals and Nonmetals

further accounts for all the properties of the elements.

Non-Metallic Materials Metal Materials

Non-Organic Materials Organic Materials Non-Ferrous Materials Ferrous Materials

Ceramic Wood Aluminum Cast Iron

Cement Rubber Copper Wrought Iron

Glass Petroleum Nickel Steel

Others Others Tin

Figure 1.1: Engineering Materials

Materials are converted into finished products though different manufacturing

processes. Manufacturing processes are classified into shaping [casting], forming,

joining, and coating, dividing, machining and modifying material property.

Figure 1.2: Various manufacturing operations on materials

Of these manufacturing processes, forming is a widely used process which finds

applications in automotive, aerospace, defense and other industries.

1.6 Historical of Metal Forming:

had been welded by hammering. This "pressure" welding or alternatively "solid-

Figure 1.3: Bust of Lady Puabi

Table 1.6: Elements discovered table

Name of Chemical Year of

Gregory R. Choppin, Stanley G. Thompson, and Albert Ghiorso and

Albert Ghiorso, Dr. Glenn T. Seaborg, John Walton, and Torbjorn

Albert Ghiorso, Torbjorn Sikkeland, Almon E. Larsh, and Robert M.

Peter Armbruster and Gottfried Munzenberg (Nuclear laboratory in

Peter Armbruster and Gottfried Munzenberg (Nuclear laboratory in

Peter Armbruster and Gottfried Munzenberg (Nuclear laboratory in

Peter Armbruster and Gottfried Munzenberg (Nuclear laboratory in

Metalworking is the process of working with metals to create individual parts,

includes a correspondingly wide range of skills, processes, and tools.

forces and, especially for bulk metal forming, with heat.