CHAPTER 3

Mechanical behavior and metal forming

1.1 Introduction:

In manufacturing operations, numerous parts and components are

formed into different shapes by applying external forces to the

workpiece, typically by means of various tools and dies. Common

examples of such operations are forging turbine disks, extruding various

components of aluminum ladders, drawing wire for making nails, and

rolling metal to make sheets for car bodies. Forming operations may be

carried out at room temperature or at elevated temperatures, and at a low

or a high rate of deformation. These operations are also used in forming

and shaping nonmetallic materials such as plastics and ceramics, as

described throughout this chapter.

This chapter is concerned with the mechanical behavior of materials.

The term mechanical behavior refers to the response of materials to

forces. Under load, a material may either deform or break. The factors

1
that govern a material’s resistance to deformation are very different from

those governing its resistance to fracture. The word strength may refer

either to the stress required to deform a material or to the stress required

to cause fracture; therefore, care must be used with the term strength.

When a material deforms under small stresses, the deformation may be

elastic. In this case, when the stress is removed, the material will revert

to its original shape. Most of the elastic deformation will recover

immediately. There may be, however, some time dependent shape

recovery. This time-dependent elastic behavior is called an elastic or

viscoelastic.

Larger stresses may cause plastic deformation. After a material

undergoes plastic deformation, it will not revert to its original shape

when the stress is removed. Usually, high resistance to deformation is

desirable, so that a part will maintain its shape in service when stressed.

On the other hand, it is desirable to have materials deform easily when

they are being formed by rolling, extrusion, or other methods. Plastic

deformation usually occurs as soon as the stress is applied. At high

2
temperatures, however, time-dependent plastic deformation called creep

may occur.

Fracture is the breaking of a material into two or more pieces. If

fracture occurs before much plastic deformation occurs, we say that the

material is brittle. In contrast, if there has been extensive plastic

deformation preceding fracture, the material is considered ductile.

Fracture usually occurs as soon as a critical stress has been reached;

however, repeated applications of a somewhat lower stress may cause

fracture. This is called fatigue.

The amount of deformation that a material undergoes is described by

strain. The forces acting on a body are described by stress.

On The other hand there are a wide variety of metallic and nonmetallic

materials is now available, with an equally wide range of properties, as

shown qualitatively in Table 3.1. This chapter covers those aspects of

mechanical properties and behavior of metals that are relevant to the

design and manufacturing of products and includes commonly used test

methods employed in assessing various properties.

3
Table 3.1: Mechanical properties of various materials at room temperature, in

decreasing order. Metals are in their alloy form.

Strength Hardness Toughness Stiffness Strength/Density

Glass fibers Diamond Ductile metals Diamond Reinforced
plastics
Carbon fibers Cubic boron Reinforced Carbides Titanium
nitride plastics
Kevlar fibers Carbides Thermoplastics Tungsten Steel
Carbides Hardened Wood Steel Aluminum
steels
Molybdenum Titanium Thermosets Copper Magnesium
Steels Cast irons Ceramics Titanium Beryllium
Tantalum Copper Glass Aluminum Copper
Titanium Thermosets ‫ـــــــــــ‬ Ceramics Tantalum
Copper Magnesium ‫ـــــــــــ‬ Reinforced ‫ـــــــــــ‬
plastics
Reinforced Thermoplastics ‫ـــــــــــ‬ Wood ‫ـــــــــــ‬
thermosets
Reinforced Tin ‫ـــــــــــ‬ Thermosets ‫ـــــــــــ‬
thermoplastics
Thermoplastics Lead ‫ـــــــــــ‬ Thermoplastics ‫ـــــــــــ‬
Lead ‫ـــــــــــ‬ ‫ـــــــــــ‬ Rubbers ‫ـــــــــــ‬

1.2 Mechanical Properties

The mechanical properties of a material describe how it will react to

physical forces. Mechanical properties occur as a result of the physical

properties inherent to each material, and are determined through a series

of standardized mechanical tests.

4
Figure 3.1: Illustrate the mechanical testing of materials. a) tension, b)

compression, c) indentation hardness, d) cantilever flexure, e) three-point

flexure(bending), f) four-point flexure and g) torsion.

Samples of engineering materials are subjected to a wide variety of

mechanical tests to measure their strength, elastic constants, and other

material properties as well as their performance under a variety of actual

use conditions and environments. The results of such tests are used for

5
two primary purposes: 1) engineering design (for example, failure

theories based on strength, or deflections based on elastic constants and

component geometry) and 2) quality control either by the materials

producer to verify the process or by the end user to confirm the material

specifications.

1.3 Stress:

Stress, σ, is defined as the intensity of force at a point:

Or
Is the amount of force "pressure or tension" exerted on a material object?

(3.1)

If the state of stress is the same everywhere in a body,

(3.2)

6
 1.4 Strains:

Strain is defined by the change of length, L, of a line compared with

original length.

(3.3)

1.5 Tension:

The tension test is the most common method for determining the

mechanical properties of materials, such as strength, ductility,

toughness, elastic modulus, and strain hardening capability. The tension

test first requires the preparation of a test specimen, as shown in Fig. 3.2.

Although most tension-test specimens are solid and round, they can also

be flat or tubular. The specimen is prepared generally according to

7
ASTM specifications; various other specifications are also available

from corresponding organizations around the world.

Figure 3.2: Standard tensile-test specimen

Figure 3.3: Tension testing machine

8
Typically, the specimen mounted in the jaws of a tension-testing

machine (Fig. 3.3) equipped with various accessories and controls so

that the specimen can be tested at different temperatures and rates of

deformation.

1.5.1 Stress-Strain Curves

The relationship between the stress and strain that a particular material

displays is known as that particular materials stress–strain curve. It is

unique for each material and is found by recording the amount of

deformation (strain) at distinct intervals of tensile or compressive

loading (stress). These curves reveal many of the properties of a material

(including data to establish the Modulus of Elasticity, E).

Typical deformation sequence in a tension test is shown in Fig. 3.4.

When the load is first applied, the specimen elongates in proportion to

the load, called linear elastic behavior. If the load is removed, the

specimen returns to its original length and shape, in a manner similar to

stretching a rubber band and releasing it. The engineering stress

9
(nominal stress) is defined as the ratio of the applied load, P, to the

original cross-sectional area, Ao, of the specimen:

Figure 3.4: A typical stress-strain curve obtained from a tension test, showing
various features (Non- Ferrous Metals).

The engineering strain is defined as

10
1.5.2 Yield Strength

The yield strength is the minimum stress which produces permanent

plastic deformation. This is perhaps the most common material

property reported for structural materials because of the ease and

relative accuracy of its measurement. The yield strength is usually

defined at a specific amount of plastic strain, or offset, which may

vary by material and or specification. The offset is the amount that

the stress-strain curve deviates from the linear elastic line. The most

common offset for structural metals is 0.2%.

1.5.3 Ultimate Tensile Strength:

The ultimate tensile strength is an engineering value calculated by

dividing the maximum load on a material experienced during a tensile

test by the initial cross section of the test sample. When viewed in

light of the other tensile test data the ultimate tensile strength helps to

provide a good indication of a material's toughness but is not by itself

a useful design limit. Conversely this can be construed as the

minimum stress that is necessary to ensure the failure of a material.

11
1.5.4 Elastic and Plastic Regions:

If we load specimen up to any point along line OA- or even a bit

beyond- and then start unloading, we find that we retrace the stress-

strain curve and return to point O. In this elastic region, the material

regains its original shape when the applied force is removed.

If we start unloading only after reaching point C, however, then we

will come down the straight line FC, which will be parallel to line

OA. At point F, the stress is Zero, but strain is nonzero. C thus lies in

the plastic region of the stress-strain curve, in which the material is

deformed permanently, and the permanent strain at point F is the

plastic strain. The region in which the martial deforms permanently is

called plastic region. The total strain at point C is sum the plastic

strain (OF) and an additional elastic strain (FG).

The point demarcating the elastic form the plastic region is called the

yield point. The stress at yield point is called the yield stress. In

practice, the yield point may lie anywhere in the region AB, although

for most metal it is close to the proportional limit. For many materials

12
 it may not even be clearly defined. For such material, we make a

prescribed value of offset strain recommended by ASTM to get point

H in Figure 3.5. Starting from H we draw a line (HI) parallel to the

linear part (OA) of the stress- strain curve. Offset yield stress would

correspond to a plastic strain at point I. Usually the offset is given as

a percentage. A strain of 0.2% equal E= 0.002.

Figure 3.5: A typical stress-strain curve obtained from a tension test, showing
various features (Ferrous Metals).

13
 Permanent (plastic) deformation occurs when the yield stress, Y, of

the material is reached. The yield stress and other properties of

various metallic and nonmetallic materials are given in Table 3.2.

Table 3.2: Mechanical Properties of Various Materials at Room Temperature

Metals Elongation Poisson’s

E (GPa) Y (MPa) UTS (MPa)
(wrought) in50 mm (%) ratio (v)
Aluminum and
its alloys
69-79 35-550 90-600 45-4 0.31-0.34
Copper and its
alloys
105-150 76-1100 140-1310 65-3 0.33-0.34
Lead and its
alloys
14 14 20-55 50-9 0.43
Magnesium and
its alloys
41-45 130-305 240-380 21-5 0.29-0.35
Molybdenum
and its alloys
330-360 80-2070 90-2340 40-30 0.32
Molybdenum
and its alloys
180-214 105-1200 345-1450 60-5 0.31
Steels 190-210 205-1725 415-1750 65-2 0.28-0.33
Titanium and its
alloys
80-130 344-1380 415-1450 25-7 0.31-0.34
Tungsten and its
alloys
350-400 550-690 620-760 0 0.27
Zinc and its
alloys
50 25-180 240-550 65-5 0.27
Nonmetallic materials
Ceramics 70-1000 ‫ـــــ‬ 140-2600 0 0.2
Diamond 820-1050 ‫ـــــ‬ 60.000 ‫ـــــ‬ 0.2
Glass and
porcelain
70-80 ‫ـــــ‬ 140 0 0.24

14
Silicon carbide
(SiC)
200-500 ‫ـــــ‬ 310-400 ‫ـــــ‬ 0.19
Silicon nitride
(Si2N4)
280-310 ‫ـــــ‬ 160-580 ‫ـــــ‬ 0.26
Rubbers 0.01-0.1 ‫ـــــ‬ ‫ـــــ‬ ‫ـــــ‬ 0.5
Thermoplastics 1.4-3.4 ‫ـــــ‬ 7-80 1000-5 0.32-0.40
Thermoplastics,
reinforced
2-50 ‫ـــــ‬ 20-120 10-1 0.0.5
Thermosets 3.5-17 ‫ـــــ‬ 35-170 0 0.34-0.5
Boron fibers 380 ‫ـــــ‬ 3500 0 0.27
Carbon fibers 275-415 ‫ـــــ‬ 2000-3000 0 0.21-0.28
Glass fibers 73-85 ‫ـــــ‬ 3500-4600 0 0.22-0.26
Kevlar fibers 62-117 ‫ـــــ‬ 2800 0 0.36
Spectra Fibers 73-100 ‫ـــــ‬ 2400-2800 3 0.46

Figure 3.6: Examples of nonlinear and brittle materials. (a) Soft rubber. (b) Glass.

15
1.5.5 Ductile and Brittle materials:

Ductile materials - extensive plastic deformation and energy

absorption (“toughness”) before fracture.

Brittle materials - little plastic deformation and low energy

absorption before fracture.

Figure 3.7: Brittle vs. Ductile materials.

16
Ductile materials, such as aluminum and copper, can undergo large

plastic deformation before fracture. (Soft rubber can undergo large

deformation but it is not a ductile material). Glass, on the other hand,

is brittle: it exhibits little or no plastic deformation as show in figure

3.6.b. A material’s ductility is usually described as percent elongation

before rupture. The elongation value of 17% for aluminum and 35%

for copper before rupture reflect the large plastic strains these

materials undergo before rupture, although they show small elastic

deformation as well.

Recognizing ductile and brittle material is important in design. A

ductile material usually yields when the maximum shear stress

exceeds the yield shear stress. A brittle material usually ruptures

when maximum tensile normal stress exceeds the ultimate tensile

stress.

17
 Figure 3.8: Brittle vs. Ductile Fracture:

A. Very ductile, soft metals (e.g. Pb, Au) at room temperature, other metals,

polymers, glasses at high temperature.

B. Moderately ductile fracture, typical for ductile metals.

C. Brittle fracture, cold metals, ceramics.

18
1.5.6 Hard and soft materials:

A material hardness is its resistance to scratches and indention (not

its strength). The depth of indention is measured and assigned a

numerical scale for comparing hardness of different materials.

A soft material can be made harder by gradually increasing its yield

point by strain hardening. As we have seen, at point C in Figure 3.5

the material has a permanent deformation even after unloading. If the

material now is reload, point C becomes the new yield point, as

additional plastic strain will be observed only after stress exceeds this

point. Strain hardening is used, for example, to make aluminum pots

and pans durable. In the manufacturing processes, known as deep

drawing, the aluminum undergo large plastic deformation. Of course,

as the yield point increases, the remaining plastic deformation before

fracture decreases, so the materials become more brittle.

19
 1.6 Effects of temperature on properties of materials:

Thermal effects are those caused by a redistribution of internal energy in

a system, and they may be grouped in natural and artificial more often.

However, instead of considering a generic compound system out of

equilibrium, a system at equilibrium is assumed, and thermal effects are

understood as those caused by a temperature variation forced from

outside or due to internal processes.

Thermal behavior of materials is a broader subject, more directly related

to their general thermal properties than to thermal effects of specific

interest; e.g. heat transfer processes, or the fact that when energy is

added to a material it gets hotter, are general thermal behavior of matter,

usually not included in the analysis of thermal effects. Thermal effects

on materials may be used advantageously (all kind of thermometers

relay on them), or a nuisance (shape and dimension distortions due to

heating or cooling, malfunction of electronic equipment).

Thermal effects are understood to focus just on materials, and to deal

with the effects of a non-comfort working temperature (cold or hot) on

20
some material properties (structural, electronic, etc.), including the

thermal processes used to produce, change or dispose of those

materials. Sometimes it is also said ‘the effect of heat on materials’,

meaning the effect of heating so as to increase the internal energy. Of

course, the effects of cooling are also relevant thermal effects.

The traditional thermal effects are:

1- Phase change, basically melting and boiling (phase transition

temperatures).

2- Glass transition temperature.

3- Dimensional change, basically thermal expansion (in general,

contraction if negative).

4- Elastic/plastic changes, due to thermal stresses.

5- Brittle/ductile transition temperature.

6- Chemical change, decomposition, oxidation, ignition.

7- Other physical changes as drying, segregation, outgassing, and

colour change, etc.

8- Thermal effects due to non-thermal causes: frictional heating,

electrical heating, chemical heating, nuclear heating.

21
Table 3.3: Melting temperature of some materials and its alloy

Elements Symbol Melting Point Celsius

Aluminum Al 659
Brass (85 Cu 15 Zn) Cu +Zn 900-940
Bronze (90 Cu 10 Sn) Cu +Zn 850-1000
Cast Iron C +Si+Mn+Fe 1260
Carbon C 3600
Chromium Cr 1615
Copper Cu 1083
Gold Au 1063
Hydrogen H -259
Inconel Ni + Cr + Fe 1393
Iron Fe 1530
Lead Pb 327
Magnesium Mg 670
Manganese Mn 1260
Nickel Ni 1452
Phosphorous P 44
Silicon Si 1420
Silver Ag 961
Stainless Steel Cr+Ni+Mn+C 1363
Steel-High Carbon Cr+Ni+Mn+C 1353
Medium Carbon Cr+Ni+Mn+C 1427
Low Carbon Cr+Ni+Mn+C 1464
Tin Sn 232
Titanium Ti 1795
Tungsten W 3000
Zinc Zn 419

22
 1.7 Metal forming and Mechanical properties:

The table below shows the correlation of metal forming processes and

type of deformation.

Table 3.4: The correlation between metal forming processes and deformations.

Metal forming Processes

No. Main Type of deformation.
Partial classification
classification
1- Closed-die forging with flash. plastic deformation
2- Closed-die forging without flash. plastic deformation
3- Coining. Elastic, and plastic deformation
4- Electro-upsetting. Elastic, and plastic deformation
5- Forward extrusion forging. plastic deformation
6- Backward extrusion forging. plastic deformation
7- Hobbling process. plastic deformation

1 Forging 8- Isothermal forging. plastic deformation

9- Nosing. plastic deformation
10- Open-die forging plastic deformation
11- Rotary (orbital) forging. plastic deformation
12- Precision forging. plastic deformation
13- Metal powder forging. plastic deformation
14- Radial forging. plastic deformation
15- Upsetting. plastic deformation
1- Sheet rolling. Elastic, and plastic deformation
2- Shape rolling. Elastic, and plastic deformation
2 Rolling 3- Tube rolling plastic deformation
4- Ring rolling Elastic, and plastic deformation

23
 5- Rotary tube piercing plastic deformation
6- Gear rolling plastic deformation
7- Roll forging plastic deformation
8- Cross rolling plastic deformation
9- Surface rolling plastic deformation
10- Shear forming Elastic, and plastic deformation
11- Tube reducing plastic deformation
1- Non lubricated hot extrusion plastic deformation

3 Extrusion 2- Lubricated direct hot extrusion plastic deformation

3- Hydrostatic extrusion plastic deformation
1- Drawing plastic deformation
2-Drawing with rolls plastic deformation
4 Drawing 3-Ironing plastic deformation
4-Tube sinking plastic deformation

24
 CHAPTER 4

Drawing of rods, wires and tubes

“Manufacturing by Metal Forming Processes”

1.1 Introduction

METALWORKING consists of deformation processes in which a

metal billet or blank is shaped by tools or dies. The design and control

of such processes depend on an understanding of the characteristics of

the workpiece material, the conditions at the tool/workpiece interface,

the mechanics of plastic deformation (metal flow), the equipment used,

and the finished-product requirements. These factors influence the

selection of tool geometry and material as well as processing conditions

(for example, workpiece and die temperatures and lubrication). Because

of the complexity of many metalworking operations, models of various

types, such as analytic, physical, or numerical models, are often relied

upon to design such processes.

25
1.2 Classification of Metal forming Processes:

The most common types of metal forming:

1.2.1 Drawing (manufacturing):

Drawing is a metalworking process which uses tensile forces to stretch

metal. As the metal is drawn (pulled), it stretches thinner, into a desired

shape and thickness.

Objectives of drawing process:

The drawing process has the following objectives

1. Manufacturing drawn products in the form of bars or wires to a very

specific and precise cross sectional dimensions.

2. Improving the finished surface and removing scale from the rod or

bar. Obtaining a smooth and bright surface.

3. Improving tensile strength and getting specific mechanical

properties in the finished steel material

4. Providing more consistent round shape to the finished steel material.

26
 Figure 4.1: The basic drawing process for a wire, bar or tube.

Drawing is classified in two types:

1. Wire, bar (rod), and tube drawing: For wire, bar, and tube

drawing the starting stock is drawn through a die to reduce its

diameter and increase its length.

2. Sheet metal drawing: The specific definition for sheet metal

drawing is that it involves plastic deformation over a curved axis.

Drawing is usually are classified a cold working process, however it

may be performed at elevated temperatures to hot work large wires,

27
rods or hollow sections in order to reduce forces. Drawing is one type of

extrusion.

Drawing differs from rolling in that the pressure of drawing is not

transmitted through the turning action of the mill but instead depends

on force applied locally near the area of compression. This means the

amount of possible drawing force is limited by the tensile strength of the

material, a fact that is particularly evident when drawing thin wires.

I. Drawing Equipment

Drawing equipment can be of several designs. These designs can be

classified into two basic types:

1- Draw bench.

2- Bull block.

A draw bench (Fig. 4.2) uses a single die and the pulling force is

supplied by a chain drive or by hydraulic means. Draw bench is used

for single length drawing of rod or tube with diameter greater than

20mm. Length can be as much as 30 m. The drawing speed attainable

on a draw bench ranges from 5 m/min to 50 m/min. Draw benches are

available having capacities to provide pull force of up to 1 minute.

28
 Figure 4.2: Tube drawing equipment’s.

Bull block or rotating drum (Fig.4.3) is used for drawing rods or wires of

very long length.

Figure 4.3: Bull block wire drawing machine

29
II. Process of drawing:

The process of drawing has the following three steps

i. Preliminary operations: The preliminary operations include:

1- initially the surface cleaning of the bar or rod from scales

which are due to the earlier metallurgical processes like rolling or

heat treatment etc., is carried out. The usual method is the

mechanical cleaning, acid pickling, rinsing, and drying.

2- After the scale removal, the diameter reduction of the head end

is done by forming or forcing through. End pointing can be done

e.g. by machining, push broaching in a horizontal hydraulic press

or rolling. Pointed ends are cut off after drawing. The preliminary

straightening of bar and rod is then carried out.

ii. Drawing process: Depending on the input material and

deployed equipment the drawing process can be performed –

bar to bar, bar to rod, wire rod to bar or wire rod to wire in a

coil.

iii. Finishing operations: Finishing operations include cutting and

cropping, straightening, finishing ends like chamfering,

30
 inspection like NDT etc., anti-corrosion protection, and packing

and dispatching.

1. Drawing of rods, wires and tubes(Dif.):

Rod, tube, and wire drawing all work upon the same principle: the

starting stock drawn through a die to reduce the diameter and increase

the length.

Usually the die is mounted on a draw bench. The end of the

workpiece is reduced or pointed to get the end through the die. The

end is then placed in grips and the rest of the workpiece is pulled

through the die. Steels, copper alloys, and aluminum alloys are

common materials that are drawn.

1.1 Fundamentals of rods, wires and tubes the processes:

The drawing of the metals is used in manufacturing of small sections

and relatively long length products such as wire, rods, tubes (Fig.4.1).

The pointed end of the rod is pushed through the conical hole of the

tool (drawing die), is clamped at the die exit by clips or spooled and

under the action of applied force is drawn through the die with

31
reduction of cross section area and corresponding elongation. The

drawing permits to obtain the products with exact dimensions and

good quality of surface. The fundamentals of rod, tube, and wire

drawing can be summarized through (Only fife):

1. The operations involve pulling metal through a die by means of a

tensile force applied to the exit side of the die.

2. The operations involve reducing the diameter of a rod or wire by

passing through a series of drawing dies or plates.

3. The operations involve reducing the diameter through plastic

deformation while the volume remains the same.

4. The materials should have high ductility and good tensile strength.

5. The operations are usually "cold work" or carried out at room

temperature, except for large deformation, which leads to

considerable rise in temperature during drawing.

6. The metal usually has a circular symmetry (but not always,

depending on requirements).

7. Same principles for drawing bars, rods, and wire but equipment are

different in sizes depending on products.

32
 1. Wire drawing (Dif.)

Wire drawing is a metalworking process used to reduce the cross-section

of a wire by pulling the wire through a single, or series of, drawing

die(s). The subsequent drawing die must have smaller bore diameter

than the previous drawing die (Fig. 4.4).

Figure 4.4: Continuous drawing of wire

There are many applications for wire drawing, including electrical

wiring, cables, tension-loaded structural components, springs, paper

clips, spokes for wheels, and stringed musical instruments.

33
Comparison between the wire drawing and extrusion:

The comparison between the drawing and extrusion can summarize

through:

drawing extrusion
similar in process similar in process
in drawing the wire is pulled In extrusion the materials are pushed
through the die
Drawing is usually performed at room Extrusion are usually classified as a
temperature, thus classified as a cold working hot working process
process, but it may be performed at elevated
temperatures for large wires to reduce forces.
Drawing is usually performed to metals. Extrusion usually performed to
metals, and nonmetals like plastic,
polymers.

Wire drawing die:

Wire drawing dies are typically made of tool steel, tungsten carbide, or

diamond, with tungsten carbide and manufactured diamond being the

most common. For drawing very fine wire a single crystal diamond die

is used. For hot drawing, cast-steel dies are used. For steel wire drawing,

a tungsten carbide die is used. The dies are placed in a steel casing,

which backs the die and allow for easy die changes. Die angles usually

range from 6–15 ° and each die has at least 2 different angles: the

entering angle and approach angle.

34
 Figure 4.5: Diagram of a carbide wire drawing die

The effect of die angle:

The effect of die angle on the total energy required to cause deformation

it's very important during wire drawing processes. The required tensile

force, friction, and total energy during the process depend upon it. Ideal

work of plastic deformation “UP” independent of die angle α.

Figure 4.6: Relationship between ultimate tensile stress and die angles.

35
1. Increasing the die angle leads to decreasing the friction that mea "Work to

overcome friction Uf"

2. Increasing the die angle leads to Increasing the total energy during the process

that required "Redundant work Ur".

3. Adjust of die angles leads to obtain soft surface products.

Figure 4.7: The effect of die angles.

Lubrication

Lubrication in the drawing process is essential for maintaining good

surface finish and long die life. The following are different methods of

lubrication:
36
1- Wet drawing: the dies and wire or rod are completely immersed in

lubricant.

2- Dry drawing: the wire or rod passes through a container of lubricant

which coats the surface of the wire or rod.

3- Metal coating: the wire or rod is coated with a soft metal which acts

as a solid lubricant.

4- Ultrasonic vibration: the dies and mandrels are vibrated, which

helps to reduce forces and allow larger reductions per pass.

5- Rollers die Drawing (also referred as Roll drawing): roller dies are

used instead of fixed dies to convert shear friction to rolling friction

with dramatic reduction in the drawing forces. When roller dies are

adopted, the drawing stages are composed by 2-4 idle rolls and he

wire is pulled within the rolls clearance. This type of solution can be

easily adopted also to produce flat or profiled drawn wires.

6- Various lubricants, such as oil, are employed. Another lubrication

method is to immerse the wire in a copper sulfate solution, such that

a film of copper is deposited which forms a kind of lubricant. In

some classes of wire the copper is left after the final drawing to
37
 serve as a preventive of rust or to allow easy soldering. The best

example of copper coated wire is in MIG wire used in welding.

Heat treatment in wire drawing process

Heat treatment is an operation or combination of operations involving

heating at a specific rate, soaking at a temperature for a period of time

and cooling at some specified rate. The aim is to obtain a desired

microstructure to achieve certain predetermined properties (physical,

mechanical, magnetic or electrical).

In wire drawing process, if the reduction in area is greater than 50%, the

process may require an intermediate step of annealing before it can be

redrawn.

Uses: Make for drawing wires smoothly in wire drawing process, or to

obtain the special products required by clients:

1. Remove work-hardening after wire cold-drawing to make for the

next wire cold-drawing process smoothly.

2. Make hot-finished steel wire rod have appropriate organizations to

ensure the drawing can be carried out normally.

38
3. Make steel wire have a special organization.

4. Make steel wire after cold-drawing have good performance.

5. Make finished steel wire have special organizations and

performance required by customers.

Main process of common Steel wire Heat Treatment continues

Production line (Be mainly used for heat treatment before steel wire

drawing and the surface treatment.): The maps of process wire

Pay-off → Hot water washing → Heat treatment furnace (annealing

furnace) → Lead quenching bath → Take-up or Ultrasonic cleaning

(or traditional acid washing) → phosphor zing (Boron zing) →Take

up.

Figure 4.8: Main process of common Steel wire Heat Treatment.

39
Drawing equipment and use of drawn wires:

There are several types of drawing machines. These have been grouped

as follows.

1- Drawing frames

2- Bull blocks and motor block

3- Multiple drawing machines

4- Fine wire machines

5- Turk’s head shaped wire drawing machines

6- Draw benches.

7- The auxiliary equipment’s to be attached with wire drawing

machines consist of pay off reels, safety stop, welders, pointer,

straightening and cutting machines, rotary straighteners, and roll

straighteners etc.

40
2. Rod or (bar) drawing process(Dif.):

Rod or (Bar) drawing work upon the same principals for drawing bars,

rods, and wire but equipment is different in sizes depending on products.

The starting stock drawn through a die to reduce the diameter or (the

dimensions) and increase the length.

Figure 4.9: Illustrate diagram of rod drawing process

Drawing can also be used to produce a cold formed shaped cross-

section. Cold drawn cross-sections are more precise and have a better

surface finish than hot extruded parts. Inexpensive materials can be used

instead of expensive alloys for strength requirements, due to work

hardening.

41
The reduction in area is usually restricted to between 20 and 50%,

because greater reductions would exceed the tensile strength of the

material, depending on its ductility. To achieve a certain size or shape

multiple passes through progressively smaller dies or intermediate

anneals may be required.

Heat treatment in rod drawing process

Annealing: This is a thermal treatment generally used to soften the

material being drawn, to modify the microstructure, the mechanical

properties and the machining characteristics of the steel and/or to

remove internal stresses in the product. Depending on the desired

characteristics of the finished product, annealing may be used before,

during (between passes) or after the cold drawing operation, depending

on material requirements.

42
Rod or Bar drawing processes:

Bars or rods that are drawn cannot be coiled therefore straight-pull draw

benches are used. Chain drives are used to draw workpieces up to 30 m

(98 ft.). Hydraulic cylinders are used for shorter length workpieces.

Figure 4.10: drawing bench and chain drives.

The main operations of cold drawing process for steel bars and wire

with carbide die cross section:

1- Raw Stock: Hot rolled steel bar or rod coils are used as raw

material. Because the hot rolled products are produced at elevated

temperatures (1700 - 2200 Deg. F. i.e. hot rolling), they generally

have a rough and scaled surface and may also exhibit variations in

section and size.

43
2- Cleaning: Abrasive scale (iron oxide) on the surface of the hot

rolled rough stock is removed.

3- Coating: The surface of the bar or coil is coated with a drawing

lubricant to aid cold drawing.

4- Pointing: Several inches of the lead ends of the bar or coil are

reduced in size by swaging or extruding, so that it can pass freely

through the drawing die. Note: This is done because the die opening

is always smaller than the original bar or coil section size.

5- Drawing: In this process, the material being drawn is at room

temperature (i.e. Cold-Drawn). The pointed/reduced end of the bar

or coil, which is smaller than the die opening, is passed through the

die where it enters a gripping device of the drawing machine. The

drawing machine pulls or draws the remaining unreduced section of

the bar or coil through the die. The die reduces the cross section of

the original bar or coil, shapes the profile of the product and

increases the length of the original product.

6- Finished Product: The drawn product, which is referred to as Cold

Drawn or Cold Finished, exhibits a bright and/or polished finish,

44
 increased mechanical properties, improved machining

characteristics and precise and uniform dimensional tolerances.

7- Multi-Pass Drawing: The cold drawing of complex shapes/profiles

may require that each bar/coil be drawn several times in order to

produce the desired shape and tolerances. This process is called

multi-pass drawing and involves drawing through smaller and

smaller die openings. Material is generally annealed between each

drawing pass to remove cold work and to increase ductility.

8- Annealing: This is a thermal treatment generally used to soften the

material being drawn, to modify the microstructure, the mechanical

properties and the machining characteristics of the steel and/or to

remove internal stresses in the product. Depending on the desired

characteristics of the finished product, annealing may be used

before, during (between passes) or after the cold drawing operation,

depending on material requirements.

45
 Figure 4.11: Example of carbide die cross section.

Figure 4.12: Wire, and rod drawing: A Draw Bench

Standard sizes throughout a supply chain:

Manufacture every size of rod possible size. Depending on American

standard “ASM Handbook Vol.14” the standard size of bars about 32

46
mm (1.25 in.) and smaller in diameter are cold drawn from coil stock by

various methods. With one method, cold-drawn coils of rod and wire

produced on the various machines described previously are straightened

and cut into bars in a separate operation on machines designed for that

purpose. Some in-line methods and equipment begin by unwinding the

starting coil, then pull the stock through a draw die without recoiling,

and finally straighten and cut the material into bars in a continuous

operation.

The distinction between wire and rod (or bar) is somewhat arbitrary.

The term wire generally refers to smaller-diameter products (<5 mm, or

0.2 in.) that can be rapidly drawn on multiple-die machines. Larger-

diameter rod and bar stock can be drawn on single-die machines or on

benches that do not require coiling of the as-drawn product. The terms

rod and wire will often be defined from a marketing perspective. In both

cases, the nature of the drawing process is similar.

47
 Figure 4.13: Different size of rod or bar drawing.

Defects in rod and wiredrawing:

In the process of drawing wire or rod there are ranges of die angle and

percent area reduction that should be used as guidelines. Straying from

these ranges can cause defects in the workpiece. In a range known as the

"danger zone" a defect known as a central burst can form (also called

chevroning or cup-and-cone fracture). This kind of defect occurs when

voids form in the center of the workpiece. Since it isn't apparent, 'from

the surface of the wire central bursts can be the cause of catastrophic

failure in the field. Chip and dead zone formation can also occur when

48
operational stress and area reduction is improperly prescribed. The graph

in Figure 14.15 displays the safe and unsafe ranges in conventional

drawing.

Figure 4.14: Safe and unsafe ranges in wire drawing.

In this figure represents the operational stress. Another defect

known as a seam can occur when folds or deep scratches form in the

drawing process. Seams and scratches can be a result of poorly rolled

49
wire or a result of improper die finish, especially if the entrance of the

die is galling or the transition to the relief angle is rough. This defect can

be especially troublesome when subsequent forming operations are

performed. Even if the workpiece is being drawn under propedy

configured geometric conditions improper lubrication can cause surface

scratching and premature die wear.

1. Defects in the starting rod (seams, slivers and pipe): This defect

will occur for low die angles at low reductions.

2. Defects from the deformation process, i.e., center burst or

chevron cracking (cupping): For a given reduction and die angle,

the critical reduction to prevent fracture increases with the friction.

Figure 4.15: Centre burst or chevron cracks

50
 3. Tube-drawing processes (Dif.):

Tube drawing is very similar to bar drawing, except the beginning stock

is a tube. It is used to decrease the diameter, improve surface finish and

improve dimensional accuracy.

The diameter and wall thickness of tubes that have been produced by

extrusion or other processes can be reduced by tube drawing process.

The process of tube drawing shown in Figure 4.2 is similar to wire or

rod drawing except that it usually requires a mandrel of the requisite

diameter to form the internal hole.

The reasons for the difference between the tube drawing and hot

rolling:

Production of tube is far beyond the reach of the hot rolling, and so a

substantial proportion of tubing is still cold drawn for the following

reasons (Only fife).

1. To produce tubes with thinner walls than can be hot rolled.

2. To produce tubes with smaller diameters.

3. To produce tubes longer than can be hot rolled in certain sizes.

4. To secure better surface finishes.

51
5. To obtain closer dimensional tolerances.

6. To increase certain mechanical properties, such as tensile strength.

7. To produce shapes other than round.

8. To produce tubes with varying diameters and wall thicknesses from

end to end.

9. To make small lots of tubing of odd sizes and gages those do not

justify a hot mill run.

Tube Drawing Processes and Classification of tube drawing

processes:

There are three basic types of tube-drawing:

1- Sinking

2- Plug drawing

2.1 Fixed plug

2.2 Floating plug

3- Mandrel drawing processes

The drawing process discussed above can be illustrated in the Figure

4.16.
52
 Figure 4.16: Tube drawing processes.

1- Sinking:

If it is not necessary to make a reduction in the wall thickness, or if

the dimensions and surface of the inside are not important. (the

mandrel may be omitted). The process to draw a pipe without any

mandrel is known as tube sinking.

The tube, while passing through the die, shrinks in outer radius from

the original radius Ro to a final radius Rof.

53
Characteristics of tube sinking method:

Some characteristics of this method can be summarized as follows:

1. No internal tooling (internal wall is not supported), the wall then

thicken slightly.

2. Uneven internal surface.

3. The final thickness of the tube depends on original diameter of the

tube, the die diameter and friction between tube and die.

4. Lower limiting deformation.

Figure 4.17: Tube sinking processes.

54
 2- Plug drawing (Exp. or Dif.):

When a hollow tube is drawn through a die, generally a mandrel or plug

is used to support the inside diameter of the tube, this process is called

tube drawing.

The function of the plug is to effect wall reduction and to control the

size of the hole.

2.1 Fixed plug.

2.2 Floating plug.

1.1 Fixed plug:

In drawing tubes over a stationary mandrel (Fixed), the maximum

practical sectional area reduction does not exceed 40 per cent per pass

the increased friction from the mandrel.

The characteristics of this method as showing below:

1. Use cylindrical / conical plug to control size/shape of inside diameter.

2. Use higher drawing loads than floating plug drawing.

3. Greater dimensional accuracy than tube sinking.

55
4. Increased friction from the plug limits the reduction in area (seldom >

30%).

5. Can draw and coil long lengths of tubing.

Figure 4.18: Fixed Plug drawing processes.

56
 1.2 Floating plug drawing:

If a carefully matched mandrel floats in the die throat of the die, it is

possible to achieve a reduction in area of 45 percent, and for the same

reduction the drawing loads are lower than for drawing with a fixed

plug. This style is called the drawing with floating plug.

The characteristics of floating plug:

1. A tapered plug is placed inside the tube.

2. As the tube is drawn the plug and the die act together to reduce

both the outside/inside diameters of the tube.

3. Improved reduction in area than tube sinking (~ 45%).

4. Lower drawing load than fixed plug drawing.

5. Long lengths of tubing are possible.

6. Tool design and lubrication can be very critical.

57
Figure 4.19: Floating Plug drawing processes.

58
3- Mandrel drawing processes:

The characteristics of moving mandrel drawing processes:

1. Draw force is transmitted to the metal by the pull on the exit

section and by the friction forces acting along the tube –mandrel

interface.

2. Minimized friction.

3. Volume of mandrel equal to the volume of tube.

Vmandrel = Vtube

4. The mandrel also imparts a smooth inside finish surface of the

tube.

5. Mandrel removal disturbs dimensional tolerance.

Figure 4.20: Moving mandrel drawing processes.

59
To be mentioned is that in this style, tool design and lubrication can be

very critical. Problems with friction in tube drawing are minimized in

drawing with a long mandrel. The mandrel consists of along hard rod

or wire that extends over the entire length of the tube and is drawn

through the die with the tube. In this design, the area reduction can be 50

per cent.

However, after drawing, the mandrel must be removed from the tube by

rolling (reeling), which increases the tube diameter slightly and disturbs

the dimensional tolerances.

60
 Figure 4.21: Tube drawing chamber.

Defects in tubes drawing:

The misapplication of the manufacturing process or lack of control at

any stage may introduce defects and residual stresses that can affect the

performance of structure in service, making it susceptible to failure. The

surface flaw of a drawn wire has a significant influence on the quality of

product. The defects of cold drawn tubes inherited from the tube rod

may be divided into two groups: those due to metallurgical processes;

and those due to rolling. The first group is formed in steel smelting and

casting; the second is formed in heating and deformation in the course of

61
rolling. Same is true for drawn wires. In this context considerable

amount of research has been carried out, some of which is reviewed

below. The major defects observed were fish scaling, premature burst,

diametral growth, micro cracks, and macro cracks. When we consider

the micromechanical point of view, it is a known fact that the drawing

process influences the microstructure of the material in the form of

progressive trend towards a closer packing and a more oriented

arrangement.

Defects in cold drawn products:

Firstly define the concept of defect:

Defects are flaws which due to their nature, size, position inside a piece

are considered by the standard or by the applicable inspection

specification to be detrimental to the material use.

Because most of the wire, rod and pipes similar principal, defects in cold

drawn products can be summarized as follows:

1. Longitudinal scratches (scored die, poor lubrication, or abrasive

particles).

62
2. Slivers (swarf drawn into the surface).

3. Internal cracks (pre-existing defects in starting material or

ruptures in the centre due to overdrawn).

4. Corrosion induced cracking due to internal residual stresses.

63