Analog Multiplexing: Frequency Division Multiplexing

• Frequency division multiplex (FDM) is a method

of allotting a unique band of frequencies in a
comparatively wide band frequency spectrum of
the transmission medium to each
communication channel on a continuous time
basis.
• The purpose of FDM is to send multiple source
signals through one single transmission channel
simultenously.
• The communication channel may be a voice
channel 4 kHz wide, a 15 kHz radio broadcast
channel, or a 5- MHz television channel.
 All multiplex systems work on a four-wire basis. The transmit and
receive paths are separate.

Multiplex Demultiplex
Four-wire unit unit Four-wire
voice channels (send) Transmission medium (receive) voice channels
(send) (receive)

Demultiplex Multiplex
Four-wire unit unit Four-wire
voice channels (receive) Transmission medium (send) voice channels
(receive) (send)

Simplified block diagram of a frequency division multiplex link

 Mixing

A Output
Mixer

The heterodyning or mixing of signals of frequencies A and B may

produce signals of frequency A, B, A + B, and A -B at the output of the
mixer. Such a mixing process is repeated many times in FDM.
• For a 3100 Hz voice channel, the edge
frequencies are 300 Hz and 3400 Hz.
• These frequencies can be considered as
simple tones of 300 Hz and 3400 Hz.
• If A=300 Hz and 3400 Hz; B = 20,000 Hz
• Then, output = 20,000 + 300 = 20,300 Hz
and output = 20,000 + 3400 = 23,400 Hz
for the case output = A + B
• Or, output = 20,000 – 300 = 19,700 Hz
and output = 20,000 – 3400 = 16,600 Hz
for the case output = B - A
 300-3400 Hz Output
Mixer

20 kHz

A simple low-pass filter could filter out all frequencies out all
frequencies below 20,300 Hz or 19,700 Hz. Now imagine that instead of
two frequencies we have a continuous spectrum of frequencies between
300 Hz and 3400 Hz (i.e., we have the ITU-T voice channel).
 We represent the voice spectrum as a triangle:

300 3400 Hz

As a result of the mixing process (translation), we have triangles as below:

20,300 23,400 Hz 16,600 19,700 Hz

 Upright and Inverted Sidebands
• When we take the sum and filter out all
other frequencies, we say we have
selected the upper sideband. Thus we
have a triangle facing to the right, termed
an upright or erect sideband.
• When we take the difference in the mixing
process, frequencies invert and we have
an inverted sideband represented by a
triangle facing left.
 ITU-T Modulation Plan

 A modulation plan introduces a band of frequencies called the line

frequency (i.e., ready for transmission on the line or other
transmission medium).
 The modulation plan usually is a diagram showing the necessary
mixing, local oscillator insertion frequencies, and the sidebands
selected in a step-by-step process from voice-channel input to line-
frequency output.
 The ITU-T has recommended a standardized modulation plan with a
common terminology allowing large telephone networks, in both
national and multinational systems, to interconnect.
 Channel 1
108 kHz

Channel 2
104 kHz

Channel 3
100 kHz

Channel 4
96 kHz

Channel 5
92 kHz
108 kHz
60
Channel 6
88 kHz

Channel 7
84 kHz

Channel 8
80 kHz

Channel 9
76 kHz

Channel 10
72 kHz

Channel 11
68 kHz

Channel 12
64 kHz

Formation of standard ITU-T group as per ITU-T Rec. G.232

 Single sideband suppressed carrier (SSBSC) modulation techniques
are used in all cases.

12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

60 64 68 72 76 80 84 88 92 96 100 104 108

kHz

Layout of standard ITU-T group

 Formation of Standard ITU-T Supergroup
 A supergroup contains five standard ITU-T groups, equivalent to 60
voice channels.
 The standard supergroup occupies the frequency band 312-552 kHz.
 Each group making up the supergroup translated in frequency to the
supergroup band by mixing with the proper carrier frequency.
 The carrier frequencies are 420 kHz for group 1, 468 kHz for group
2, 516 kHz for group 3, 564 kHz for group 4, and 612 kHz for group
5.
 In the mixing process the difference is taken (lower sidebands are
selected).
 Standard Carrier
groups frequencies

612

60 108
564

60 108
516

60 108
468

60 108
420

60 108

(see CCITT Rec. G.241)

Group 1 2 3 4 5

312 360 408 456 504 552

kHz

Formation of the standard ITU-T supergroup. Vertical arrows with solid lines are
level-regulating pilot tones; arrows with dashed lines are translation carrier
frequencies.
Formation of Standard ITU-T Basic Mastergroup and Super-mastergroup
 The basic mastergroup contains 5 supergroups (300 voice channels)
and occupies the spectrum 812-2044 kHz.

 It is formed by translating the five standard supergroups, each

occupying the 312-552-kHz band, by a process similar to that used
to form the supergroup from five standard ITU-T groups.

 The basic supermastergroup contains three mastergroups and

occupies the band 8,516-12,388 kHz.
 Carrier frequencies
2356

312 552
2108

312 552
1860

312 552
1612

312 552
1364

312 552

1552

Supergroup 4 5 6 7 8

8 8 1548 8 8

1796
1804
1556

2044
1052

1300
1308
1060
812

kHz

Formation of standard ITU-T mastergroup

 Carrier
1552 frequencies
13,200

812 2044
11,880

812 2044
10,560

812 2044
11096

Mastergroup 7 8 9

8 8 8 8
8,516

9,836
9,748

12,388
11,068
kHz 11,156

Formation of standard ITU-T supermastergroup

Digital Multiplexing: Time Division Multiplexing
• The sampling theorem enables us to transmit the
complete information contained in a band-limited
message signal by using samples of the message signal
taken uniformly at the Nyquist rate.
• The transmission of the message samples engages the
transmission channel for only a fraction of the sampling
interval on a periodic basis, and in this way some of the
time interval between adjacent samples is available for
use by other independent message sources on a time-
shared basis.
• We thereby obtain a time-division multiplex system
(TDM), which enables the joint use of a common
transmission channel by a number of independent
message sources without mutual interference.
• Digital multiplexers are applied wherever a high
transmission capacity with effective use of
transmission paths has to be realized.
• The basic idea of multiplexing is the time-
interleaving of digital signals of different sources
in order to form a common signal with a bit-rate
which is correspondingly higher (multiplex
process).
• On the system's receiving side the appropriate
separate signals are re-obtained from the sum
signal (demultiplex process). This means that
the original digital signals of the multiplexed
signal sources are available again at the outputs
of such a system.
Every 6th frame, the 8th bit is used for signaling in AT&T system.
12 frames multiframe 1.5 ms.
1
5.2 s =
24 x8000
Frame bit

Channel 1 Channel 2 Channel 24

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8* 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8* 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8*

193 bits, 125 s

(a) 0.65 s =
1
[8000 x(8 x 24  1)]

TDM frame: a) AT&T

slot 0- frame synchronization and service bits
slot 16- signaling information and multi-frame alignment.
16 frames  2 ms  multi-frame.

traffic channel 15

traffic channel 16

traffic channel 30
synchronisation

traffic channel 1

signaling
0.49 s

bit nos 1 3 5 7 1 3 5 7
2 4 6 8 2 4 6 8
time slot 0 1 15 16 17 31 0

frame preiod
(125 s)
(b) 1
3.9 s =
32 x8000

TDM frame: b) ITU-T

Bit rate 8000x8x32 = 2048 kbit/s
8000x(8x24+1) = 1544 kbit/s
Multiplex Hierarchy (CEPT)
Stage:
0 1 2 3 4 5
64 kbit/s channels:
1 30 120 480 1920 7680
Bit rate [kbit/s]:
64 2048 8448 34368 139264 564992

The european plesiochronous hierarchy (CEPT-standard) is based on a 2048 kbit/s

digital signal (stage 1) which may come for example from a PCM30 system, a
digital exchange or from any other device in accordance with this interface norm
(standard). Starting from this signal the next higher hierarchies are formed, each
having a transmission capacity which is four times the previous one.
The multiplying factor for the bitrates is greater than four, as for each hierarchy
level additional bits for pulse frame generation and other additional information
are inserted.
 Plesiochronous Hierarchy (PDH)

 Standardized Bit Rates (PDH, ITU-T G.702)

 Two multiplex hierarchies so far existed worldwide.

 In the USA and a number of other countries a hierarchy with a 1,544-

kbit/s basic bit rate was employed. '-
The bit rates employed were/are:

- 1,544 kbit/s
- 6,312 kbit/s
- 44,736 kbit/s
In Europe, Australia and several other regions a 2-Mbit/s basic bit rate was employed
in conformity with ETSI (European Telecommunications Standards Institute).
The following bit rates were used:

- 2,048 kbit/s
- 8,448 kbit/s
- 34,368 kbitJs
- 139,264 kbit/s

ITU-T incorporated both variants in Recommendation G.702 .(Plesiochronous Digital

Hierarchy).
 Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH)
= worldwide standard in transmission technology for the node interface
= ITU-T Standard

Synchronous Optical Network (SONET)

= USA standard for the node interface

Standardized Bit Rates for SDH (ITU-T G.702, G.708, G.709)

Basic bit rate: 155.52 Mbit/s (STM-1)
Multiplex bit rates: N x 155.52 Mbit/s (STM-N) (N integral; current standards: N
1; 4; 16; 64)

STM...Synchronous Transport Module

Synchronous Transport Module (STM) is the information structure used to
support section layer connections in the SDH. STM consists of information
payload and section overhead (SOH) information fields organized in a block
frame structure that repeats every 125 µs. The information is suitably
conditioned for serial transmission at a rate that is synchronized to the network.
Higher capacity STMs are formed at rates equivalent to N times multiples of the
basic STM rate.
STM-1 (Synchronous Transport Module level 1)

The base signal in the digital-synchronous hierarchy is the STM-1 with a

transmission bit rate of 155.52 Mbit/s.
The STM-1 signal is the lowest bit rate provided for line transmission in
the synchronous hierarchy.

Frame Structure

The STM-1 frame is composed of 2430 bytes and is usually shown in

two- dimensional form as 9 rows with 270 bytes respectively. The frame
duration is 125 µs, corresponding to a frame repetition frequency of 8000
Hz. The transmission capacity of a single byte in the frame is 64 kbit/s.
The STM –1 frame contains 3 blocks:
a) section overhead block (SOH)

b) tributary signal block (Payload)

c) Pointer block (PTR)

SOH ( Section Overhead): Transport information

PTR (Pointer): Initial address of payload
All data in bytes
STM –1 frame structure
The Single bytes in the STM-1 frame are transferred row-by-row,
beginning with the 1st row, and 1st column. Thus 9 bytes SOH (4th row:
9 bytes PTR) followed by 261 bytes payload are transmitted in alternation

Section overhead
The 8 x 9-byte SOH block includes the bytes necessary for service, e.g.
frame synchronism word, additional bytes for supervision, management
and control. A distinction is made between the regenerator section
overhead (RSOH) and the multiplex section overhead (MSOH).
Payload
The actual tributary signals - G.703 PDH signals between 2 and 140
Mbit/s - are transported in the 9 x 261-byte payload area. These signals,
are interleaved in the STM-1 block in conformity with a defined
specification .

Pointer
The phase relationship between payload and STM frame are recorded in
the pointer, which enables the tributary signals in the payload block to be
localized. Thus,, following interpretation of the appropriate pointer access
to a single user channel is possible at any time without the STM-1 signal
having to be completely demultiplexed.
3 PTRs, each with 3 bytes, are defined in the PTR block (row 4).
Representation of the STM –1 frame
STM-N (Synchronous Transport Module level N)

SDH multiplex signals with a higher bit rate are obtained by byte-by-byte
multiplexing of several STM-1 signals.
Through byte-interleaving of N x STM-1, one STM-N (Synchronous
Transport Module level N) is obtained. The bit rate of the STM-N
multiplex signal is N x 155.52 Mbit/s exactly, whereby N is an integral
number.

The multiplex levels 4 and 16 are currently provided for:

STM-4: 4 x 155.52 = 622.08 Mbit/s
STM – 16: 16 x 155.52 = 2.48832 Gbit/s
Synchronous hierarchy: transmission frame
 Advantages/disadvantages of Synchronous Hierarchy
Advantages
 Bit rates above 140 Mbit/s internationally standardized for first time.
 Code for transmission of optical signal over line is standardized, making line
equipment by diverse manufacturers compatible.
 Modular structure: multiplex bit rates are produced as integral multiples of the
basic bit rate. The frame structure of the multiplex signals is identical with the
frame structure of the base signal, meaning no new frame must be defined.
 Access to single channels in the multiplex signal is possible by evaluating a
pointer (data pointer). As only the required channels need be demultiplexed,
this method is advantageous in cross-connect systems as well as in branching
(add/drop multiplexer).
 Large number of overhead channels for network supervision, management and
control. This is particularly advantageous for the Telecommunications
Management Network.
Disadvantages

 Complex and elaborate technique due to the necessity of recording phase

relationship between different signals.
 Some inadequacies remain for transmission of the ETSI hierarchy signals and
US standard signals.
 Byte-by-byte justification leads to more inherent jitter than bit- by-bit
justification.
 No uniform multiplex structure for transmitting current plesiochronous signals
of the USA and ETSI hierarchies; several multiplex options, some demanding
different hardware implementations, are supported.
 Clock must be supplied externally.
 SONET/SDH Designations and bandwidths

Payload
bandwidth
(kbit/s)
SONET SONET SDH level
Line Rate (kbit/s)
Optical Frame and Frame
(actual data
Carrier Level Format Format
carrying
capacity)

OC-1 STS-1 STM-0 48 960 51 840

OC-3 STS-3 STM-1 150 336 155 520

OC-12 STS-12 STM-4 601 344 622 080

OC-24 STS-24 STM-8 1 202 688 1 244 160

OC-48 STS-48 STM-16 2 405 376 2 488 320

OC-96 STS-96 STM-32 4 810 752 4 976 640

OC-192 STS-192 STM-64 9 621 504 9 953 280

OC-768 STS-768 STM-256 38 486 016 39 813 120

OC-1536 STS-1536 STM-512 76 972 032 79 626 120

OC-3072 STS-3072 STM-1024 153 944 064 159 252 240