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Skeleton Manual
Part 1 – In the Field
Editor: Ray Carpenter

Seventh Edition
Second Revision - May 2013
 Copyright Notice
Copyright © 2013. This manual is the Copyright © of Raymond Carpenter, Stephen Crane and Carla Burrell
who have asserted their right to be identified as the authors of the work in accordance with the Copyright,
Design and Patent Act 1988.

Poulton Skeleton Manual -ii- 17-Aug-2013

Table of Contents
List of Contributors 1
Editor’s Note 1
1 Introduction 3
1.1 Legal and Ethical Considerations 3
1.2 Overview of Human Remains at Poulton 3
1.3 Disarticulated Bone 3
1.4 Articulated Burials 4
2 Excavation 5
2.1 Cleaning In-Situ 5
2.2 Recording 5
2.3 Lifting and Bagging the Skeleton 8
3 Post-Excavation Cleaning 11
3.1 Skeletons 11
4 Cremations 13
4.1 Cremation Pits 13
4.2 Vessels 13
4.3 Recording 13
4.4 Post-Excavation Treatment 15
5 References and Bibliography 17
6 Appendices 19
Appendix A – Bones of the Human Skeleton 21
Appendix B – Skeleton Context sheet: Worked example 23
Appendix C – Standard Context sheet for Grave Cut: Worked example 25
Appendix D – Standard Context sheet for Grave Fill: Worked example 27
Appendix E – Cremation sheet: Worked example 29

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Poulton Skeleton Manual -iv- 17-Aug-2013
List of Contributors
Steve Crane, ex-Poulton Research Project
Carla Burrell, Liverpool John Moores University

Editor’s Note
As Editor, I take full responsibility for this document. Everything correct belongs to Steve and/or Carla;
the mistakes are all mine.

Ray Carpenter
May 2013

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Poulton Skeleton Manual -2- 17-Aug-2013
1 Introduction
Ray Carpenter & Steve Crane
This Skeleton Manual is a stand-alone companion to the Poulton Research Project Site Manual [Emery,
2005]. It provides a detailed handbook for the treatment of human remains at all stages of the
archaeological process. It is in two parts: ‘In the Field’ and ‘In the Laboratory’. This, Part 1, covers
excavation and cleaning. It focuses on the types of human remains that have been found to date at
Poulton, together with the procedures developed by the Poulton Research Project to handle these
remains. It is not a general guide to the processing of human remains.

1.1 Legal and Ethical Considerations

The overriding principle is that human remains must always be treated with respect, care and dignity.
It is a privilege to be allowed to excavate the remains of another human being. We adhere strictly to the
code of ethics published by the British Association for Biological Anthropology and Osteoarchaeology
[BABAO Code of Ethics, 2010].
There are important legal restrictions on the excavation and subsequent processing of human remains.
This is an area where the legal situation is currently under review by the Ministry of Justice (MoJ), and
may be subject to change in the near future [MoJ, 2011]. Excavation at Poulton is at present licensed by
the Ministry of Justice under the terms of the 1857 Burial Act.

1.2 Overview of Human Remains at Poulton

Most of the human remains found at Poulton are from Christian inhumations dating to the medieval
period. This manual concentrates on the processing of such material. However, some cremations from
much earlier periods have also been found (see Section 4) and it is always possible that material from
other epochs will be found in the future.
Human bones found at Poulton can be classified into two categories:
a) Articulated Burials: where bones are still recognisably in place in the correct position. A
single grave may contain the remains of one or more individuals. Each articulated burial is
assigned a skeleton number.
b) Disarticulated Bones: where bones have been disturbed and can no longer be associated with
an individual burial. Disarticulated bones may be found completely out of context (for example,
where they have been disturbed by ploughing), or in the fill of an articulated burial (for
example, where that burial disturbed an earlier one), or deposited in a specially dug charnel pit.
Disarticulated bones are identified by year of excavation and the context in which they are
found.
Note: A skull is always treated in the same way as an articulated burial, even if no other bones can be
associated with it.

1.3 Disarticulated Bone

Where disarticulated bones are found in the fill of an articulated burial, they should be cleaned, and
bagged as disarticulated human bone from the grave fill context. If there is any doubt whether bones
belong to the skeleton or not, bag them as part of the articulated bones and let the Human Remains
Team resolve the issue.
Where significant quantities of disarticulated bone are found in their own charnel pit, they should be
cleaned, photographed and recorded as part of the standard context sheet for the fill of that pit. In any
other situation, they do not need to be recorded in detail, but should be treated as ordinary finds and
placed in the finds tray for that particular context.
A disarticulated bone may be of special interest, for example, if it shows some medical abnormalities or
if it appears to have been deliberately deposited in a disarticulated state (for example, material in
Neolithic long barrows). In this case, ask the supervisor if special procedures are needed.
Animal bones are common at Poulton and care is needed to differentiate them from human bones,
particularly where the remains are fragmentary. Guidance is given in [Brothwell, 1981: 36-43] and [Bass,
1995: 309-317]. If in doubt, treat the material as human and let the Human Remains Team resolve the
issue.

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1.4 Articulated Burials
The diagram below gives an overview of the process for handling an articulated burial

Identify a burial and define edges

Acquire context numbers for grave

cut, fill & skeleton and skeleton tag
(Part 1: Section 2)

Clean burial
(Part 1: Section 2.1)

Record burial - context sheets, plans,

photographs
(Part 1: Section 2.2)

Lift & bag bones, clean grave cut

(Part 1: Section 2.3)

Clean bones and place in store

(Part 1: Section 3)

Inventory and dentition record

(Part 2: Section 3.1)

Basic post-excavation analysis - age

at death, sex, stature
(Part 2: Section 3.2)

Extended post-excavation analysis.

Taphonomy and pathology
(Part 2: Section 4)

Disposal
(Part 2: Section 5)

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2 Excavation
Ray Carpenter & Steve Crane
When bones are first discovered in the ground, it may not be obvious whether they are part of an
articulated burial or disarticulated. The area should be carefully cleared to discover the extent of the
bones and to try to identify the edges of the grave cut.
Once it is clear it is an articulated burial, obtain the following:
 Skeleton number – from the Skeleton Register.
 Context numbers for the grave fill, skeleton and grave cut (preferably in that order) – from the
Context Register. (The fill and the skeleton itself are assigned separate context numbers, as they
represent distinct archaeological events.)
 The skeleton’s ID/photographic tag.
Ideally, a skeleton should be excavated in a single day to minimise damage. Avoid starting late in the
day. If it is not possible to complete the excavation in a day, cover the skeleton overnight to keep it
damp.
Graves must be excavated stratigraphically (deposit by deposit in reverse order of deposition) and in
plan: they must not be sectioned. They must be excavated by hand and the work kept scrupulously clean
as it proceeds. Great care must be taken to recover all of the bones present in as good a condition as
possible; this directly affects the quality of the post-excavation analysis.

Gloves MUST always be worn when excavating a skeleton (and whenever else bones are
handled), to minimise contamination that might compromise future DNA analysis.

2.1 Cleaning In-Situ

The skeleton must be carefully cleaned prior to recording, using a variety of tools such as a leaf trowel,
small paintbrushes, dental tools and wooden sticks. The cleaning of small bones such as hands, feet and
ribs can cause disturbance and it is often best to excavate only the minimum amount of soil necessary to
show their position. Do not excavate any soil from cavities within the skull (eye sockets, ears and jaw)
as this can damage the bones. If the soil is hard, it may be lightly sprayed with water to help soften it.
Individual bones may not always appear where you expect them! This may be a feature of the original
burial, or due to later disturbance or deposition of disarticulated bone.
Note: Be aware that a grave could contain multiple burials, or that the remains of a foetus could be present
with (inside) an adult skeleton.
Any metal nails that are found during excavation should be treated as potentially in-situ coffin nails.
They should be left exactly as found and their positions recorded.

2.2 Recording
Digital photography is our preferred method of recording a skeleton in-situ: it is both rapid and accurate.
The traditional approach of site drawings of skeletons at 1:10 is time-consuming and often inaccurate.

2.2.1 Planning
The skull, pelvis and long bones of the skeleton should be recorded precisely on the plan of the grave cut
(at the usual 1:20 scale). This will enable the photographs (see below) to be accurately located in relation
to the site grid.

2.2.2 Context Sheets

Each skeleton should normally have at least 3 associated context sheets:
 Standard cut-type sheet for the grave cut – see worked example in Appendix C.
 Standard fill-type sheet for the grave fill – see worked example in Appendix D.
 Specialised skeleton sheet – see worked example in Appendix B.
However, in the event of multiple contemporary burials, there may only be one cut context sheet and
one fill context sheet covering several skeletons.
If the remains of a coffin are found, this should have its own context sheet.

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Detailed notes on filling in the skeleton context sheet are given below:
Site Code POU/CHF/ followed by the last two digits of the year, for example,
POU/CHF/12.
Trench Number of the trench containing the burial.
SW Grid The south-western grid co-ordinates of the 5-metre grid square in which the
grave is situated (if the grave spans more than one 5-metre square, give the
SW co-ordinates of all the squares).
Skeleton No Unique skeleton reference number.
Skeleton Context Context number of skeleton.
Grave Cut Context Context number of the grave cut.
Grave Fill Context Context number of the grave fill.
Shade bones present Shade all the bones which are present in the grave. (Note: this may have to
be updated as the bones are lifted.) Indicate any breaks in long bones.
Position Sketch the attitude of the skull and limbs in relation to the pelvis and spine.
Define the orientation of the burial by indicating the end of the grave at
which the head is placed (for example, W).
Prone = face down, lying on the front
Supine = face up, lying on the back
Extended = laid out in approximately straight line
Flexed = leg joints bent by < 90
Crouched = leg joints bent by > 90
Contracted = knees hard up against chest (foetal position)
Preservation Note the condition of the bone, For example, well preserved, friable
(crumbly), weathered.
Disturbance by roots, animals, erosion, etc. should be noted and also shown
on the sketch plan (see below).
Truncation (cutting away by a later feature) – where skeleton is truncated,
indicate on bones diagram (above) and on sketch plan (below) with
truncating context features.
Post-mortem damage (for example, breaks in long bones, crushing of skull)
should be noted.
Additional Pathology – any evidence of disease and/or ante-mortem fractures of the
Description bones. At this stage, it is only possible to identify obvious pathologies,
which should be briefly described. More detailed study of pathology will be
performed during post-excavation analysis.
Shroud/Coffin: Presence – indicate if there is any evidence for a shroud
(for example, pins) or a coffin. If a coffin was present, then define:
Type – For example, wooden (nailed), wooden (dowelled), lead,
stone.
Context No – number assigned to coffin
Any other points of interest (for example, assemblies of stones) – any other
aspects of the burial which may be of interest or are unusual, for example,
associated burials, female with foetus in place, or any other complex burial
situation. These should also be shown on the sketch plan (see below).
Of particular interest are assemblies of stones, which have been found in
several burials, predominantly around the skull. These should also be
photographed before and after lifting the bones.
Stratigraphic Matrix List all the contexts which come immediately before and after the skeleton
context in the Harris matrix.
Those below (before) the skeleton context will include the grave cut context.
Those above (after) the skeleton context will include the grave fill context.

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Environmental List the sample numbers and where they were taken from (see Section
Samples 2.3.4).
Sketch Plan Draw a sketch of the burial (with the skeleton in simple outline only),
including its relationship to surrounding layers, features and other burials,
associated finds and grave goods.
Ensure the plan is correctly oriented to the site grid.
Note: This is not a substitute for accurate plans!
Levels & Co- Wherever possible, the grid co-ordinates and levels of the skull, pelvis and
ordinates ankle(s) should be measured: the positions of these points are shown on the
bones diagram above. Other points may be measured, for example, if any of
the ‘standard’ locations is not present or if the skeleton is in an unusual
configuration: in such a case, indicate the points which were measured on
the bones diagram.
TBM = Temporary Bench Mark height
BS = Backsight to Temporary Bench Mark
IH = Instrument Height (TBM + BS)
FS = Foresight to point of interest
RL = Reduced Level of point of interest (IH – FS)
Measure the overall length of the skeleton (as an approximation to the
stature of the individual, if the burial is extended).
Associated Finds and Any finds associated directly with the burial (but not general constituents
Small Finds of the grave fill such as building rubble, which will be recorded on the fill
context sheet). These finds will often be treated as Small Finds and assigned
their own numbers.
Plan Nos The drawing numbers of all plans which show the skeleton (see Section
2.2.1).
Digital Photos The ‘film’ and ‘frame’ numbers of all the photographs which show the
skeleton (see Section 2.2.3).
Interpretation A brief interpretation of the burial as a whole, including comments about
the coffin, grave and grave goods (if any).
The estimated sex and age should only be recorded where this is obvious or
where the person completing the sheet has some expertise in this area
(otherwise it can be a good source of amusement for the post-excavation
team). More detailed analysis will be carried out by the Human Remains
Team.
Recorded By / Date Name of person completing the form and date completed.
Checked By / Date Name of supervisor and date form checked.

2.2.3 Photography
The photographs are the primary visual record of the skeleton. Photographs should be taken as soon as
possible after the skeleton has been exposed. The usual site guidelines for photography apply, but in
addition:
 If the bones are well preserved, then they can be cleaned with a small sponge and water to
improve definition. If poorly preserved, a fine water spray may achieve the same result.
However, skeletons are not to be repeatedly wetted and allowed to dry; this damages the bones.
 Photographs of the entire skeleton should be taken from not too oblique an angle and from the
feet end of the grave where possible.
 Close-up photographs should also be taken of any abnormalities, particularly if the bone is
fragile and may be damaged on lifting. Any stone assemblies associated with the burial should
also be photographed.

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 Each photograph must show the skeleton context and skeleton number. Specifically, the
skeleton’s ID tag should be clearly visible in all photographs. When dealing with multiple
burials, ensure that all the ID tags are present and clearly identify the correct remains.
 Digital photographs should be taken and their ‘film’ and ‘frame’ numbers recorded on the
skeleton context sheet.

2.3 Lifting and Bagging the Skeleton

Once the skeleton has been cleaned and all recording completed, it may be lifted.

2.3.1 Equipment
1. Skeleton number, context numbers of skeleton and fill
2. Finds tray for any finds within the fill
3. Trowel, small tool, picks, etc.
4. Plastic bags for bones and other finds. The number of bags required and their sizes depend on
the number of bones surviving and their dimensions: there is no point using large bags for the
remains of a very young child. Potentially, up to 8 large and 12 medium bags might be required
for a complete adult skeleton (see Section 2.3.3).
5. Permanent marker pen
6. Large boxes or trays for transporting filled bags
7. Skeleton context sheet, in case it needs updating during lifting, for example, if more bones are
found

2.3.2 Procedure
When in doubt, ask the supervisor!
1. Work systematically through the skeleton, as defined in ‘Order of Lifting’ below (Section 2.3.3.).
2. Choose an appropriate size bag, write on the outside the skeleton number, skeleton context
number and description of bones, for example, ‘SK 102 (1503) Right Arm’.
3. Using the tools, fully expose and undermine the bones, gently lift, carefully remove any large
clods of attached earth and place bones in bag. If the soil is hard, it can be lightly sprayed with
water to help soften it. As many fragments of bone should be recovered as possible.
Notes:
a) Don’t scrape the bones, or attempt to remove earth from holes (particularly from the skull!).
b) Don’t forget the epiphyses on juveniles & infants – these may resemble small stones!
c) If possible, lift the skull and mandible together as a single piece.
d) Skulls must always be supported by both hands and never picked up by the eye orbits – the weight of
an earth-filled skull should not be underestimated.
e) Long bones should always be lifted by both hands to avoid breakage.
f) Beware of vertebrae or other bones which may be fused by disease. Do not try to separate them.
4. If additional bones are found during lifting, update the diagram on the skeleton context sheet.
5. When each bag is full, seal it (if possible) and place gently in a box.
6. Any finds within the fill should be placed in the finds tray. At the end, transfer the finds to their
own bag and label it with the fill context number.
7. Gently trowel over the area where the skeleton laid, in case there are further small bones or
finds.
8. Fully excavate the grave cut and record it on its own context sheet.
9. Transport the filled bags to the washing tent.

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2.3.3 Order of Lifting
There is no ‘correct’ order, but a suggested order is given below (maximum bag size is indicated by L =
large bag [46 x 33 cm], M = medium [28 x 20 cm]):
1. Right hand (M)
2. Right arm (L)
3. Left hand (M) – if the hands cannot be easily separated, then bag together
4. Left arm (L)
5. Right foot (M)
6. Right leg (L)
7. Left foot (M) – if the feet cannot be easily separated, then bag together
8. Left leg (L)
9. Skull and hyoid cartilage (L)
10. Mandible (M) – only if easily separated from the rest of the skull, otherwise bag together
11. Loose teeth (M)
12. Sternum & Manubrium (M)
13. Right Ribs (M)
14. Left Ribs (M)
15. Right Clavicle & Scapula (M)
16. Left Clavicle & Scapula (M)
17. Pelvis including Sacrum (L)
18. Vertebrae (L)
19. Miscellaneous loose bones (as necessary)
20. Finally, lift the skeleton ID tag and bag it with the skull (or the largest bone if no skull)
Notes:
a) If the loose bones are definitely not associated with the articulated skeleton (for example, a third femur),
then they should be bagged separately and labelled as part of the fill context rather than the skeleton
context. If there is any doubt then they should be treated as part of the skeleton.
b) The terms left and right above mean the siding of the item as in life. Hands/arms, and sometime feet, are
often crossed as part of the ‘laying out’ process and the left hand is often on the right side of the skelelton and
vice-versa.

2.3.4 Environmental Samples and Other Organic Material

Environmental samples can tell us about the overall environment at the time of the burial (for example,
from pollen and snails), as well as about the individual (for example, food remains and kidney stones).
The supervisor will determine whether or not environmental samples are required for each skeleton.
This will depend on the needs of the research programme and the likelihood that organic material has
been preserved. If required, they should be taken from some or all of the following areas:
 Skull
 Neck
 Chest
 Abdomen
 Pelvis
The usual guidelines for environmental samples apply, but in addition:
 Sample size is 1Kg.
 Sample numbers and locations are entered on the skeleton context sheet.

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The excavator should also be aware of other material which is associated with the skeleton and which
should be retrieved if not specifically included in environmental samples. These include:
1. Kidney, bladder, sinus and gallstones. These resemble small pebbles and are therefore difficult
to recognise.
2. Hyatid cysts, produced as a reaction to the tapeworm parasite, can be found in many regions,
most commonly in the abdomen, thorax and cranium. These are normally of a thin calcareous
nature and roughly spherical.
3. Biological material – stomach contents and coprolites. These may contain cereal fragments,
seeds of food plants and the eggs of intestinal parasites. These are most likely to occur in
waterlogged deposits and hence are rare at Poulton.

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3 Post-Excavation Cleaning
Ray Carpenter & Steve Crane
Much of the material in this section comes from [Anderson, 1993] and [BABAO Code of Practice, 2010].
Excavated human bones need to be cleaned, both to prevent them from going mouldy and to aid post-
excavation analysis. Although some sources recommend dry brushing as a means of removing soil, this
is generally ineffective with the clay soil typical of Poulton: instead, the bones must be washed.
Bones must not be treated with any sort of chemicals. In certain circumstances, broken bones may be
glued together on a medium term basis using HMG acrylic adhesive B72. This adhesive may be safely
removed with solvents. For short term use (such as photography), 3M Scotch® Magic™ Tape may be
used.
Note: Bones should only be glued for specific research purposes (for example, reconstruction of a fragmented
skull), and with the prior agreement of the Human Remains Team.

Gloves MUST be worn when cleaning a skeleton (and whenever else bones are handled), to
minimise contamination that might compromise future DNA analysis.

3.1 Skeletons
Wash the bones before the clay soil dries out completely, otherwise it becomes too hard. The bones
should be carefully washed in lukewarm water using a soft toothbrush, without being soaked, in the
same way as other finds. If there are incomplete and/or damaged bones, soil can be carefully removed
from the broken ends using picks or other fine tools, but great care must be taken to avoid damaging the
bone. The skull may fall apart when washed (often it is only the soil inside which holds it together), but
as long as all the pieces are saved this is not a major problem. The facial bones in particular are very
fragile. Care should also be taken not to remove any deposits from teeth.
When changing the water, ensure that small bones and bone fragments are not thrown away. Change the
water frequently and always before starting a new skeleton.
The bones should now be laid out to dry in clean trays lined with newspaper and with the original bag
(which is the only form of identification) turned inside out so that it can dry thoroughly too. Do not
overload the trays; ensure the bones have plenty of ‘air’ around them. If required, use two or more trays.
In that case, ensure that each and every tray contains either the bag or a label which identifies both the
component and skeleton. The bones should now normally be transferred to the bone cabin for drying
and further processing. If this is not possible or practicable, transfer the trays to another secure location
with a fairly consistent and moderate temperature. Do not leave the bones in direct sunlight or apply
artificial heat

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.

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4 Cremations
Steve Crane
A cremation consists of the burnt remains of a human body. In most cases, only fragments of bones
remain. The average human body reduces to about 3kg of ash, but it is rare to find this quantity. The
bone are often be fragmented (sometimes deliberately) and is very fragile.
Burnt bones are not necessarily human: animal bones may be found on their own or mixed with human
bone. However, unless it is obvious that the bones are animal, they should always be treated as human
bone during excavation and recording, leaving differentiation to the post-excavation phase.
Although smoking is not permitted on site in any case, this ban is particularly important when working
on cremations, as tobacco ash can easily contaminate the cremation material.

4.1 Cremation Pits

Most cremations will have been deposited in a small hole in the ground, known as the cremation pit. As
with inhumations, the burial should be excavated stratigraphically (that is, deposit by deposit in
reverse order of deposition) and in plan. Where a vessel is found containing the burnt bones, then the
backfill round this vessel will be excavated first: on the other hand, if the cremation pit has simply been
backfilled with the ashes, then they will be treated as a fill. Cremated bone is very fragile. Every effort
must be made not to break it during excavation, as this makes identification more difficult: frequent
dampening of the soil can make it easier to lift the bone.
All deposits removed from cremation pits should be treated as environmental samples and will be
processed later to remove all the burnt bone, carbonised wood and other materials. Where a vessel is
broken or the soil is disturbed, great care may be needed to ensure that all the cremation material is
recovered.
Sometimes the pit will contain grave-goods, which may or may not have been burnt together with the
body. The fill may also contain nails and fragments of carbonised wood, which may be from a coffin or
the funeral pyre. All of these should be collected along with the pit fill and noted on the appropriate
context sheet(s).
Special finds such as jewellery should be recovered separately and treated as ordinary small finds. They
should also be noted on the context sheet of the fill in which they were contained.

4.2 Vessels
Any vessel (or urn) containing burnt bone is assigned a separate context number and the contents left
intact for later off-site excavation. The vessel must be completely exposed before any attempt to lift it.
Sometimes there will also be cremated bone outside the vessel; such bone should be collected as part of
the cremation pit backfill.
The cremation pit may also hold other vessels which do not contain any bone. These are also assigned
individual context numbers and their contents left intact as they may have contained food offerings to
the deceased. Again, they must be completely exposed before any attempt at lifting.
Extreme care is required if a vessel is broken, to ensure that none of its contents are lost. It may be
helpful to bandage the vessel to provide extra support. If the vessel is badly smashed, then it may have to
be excavated in-situ.

4.3 Recording
An overall plan at a scale of 1:10 should show the general areas in which bone fragments are found,
together with larger individual fragments and the locations of vessels and other finds. However, there is
no need to plan every bone revealed during excavation.
Digital photographs should be taken.
An appropriate standard context sheet should be completed for each of the following:
 Cremation pit (cut) – one sheet
 Each layer of fill in the pit – one sheet for each layer
 Vessel(s) containing ashes and accessory vessels without ashes – one sheet for each vessel

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In addition to the context sheets, a separate cremation record sheet should be completed, providing a
summary of the contents of the burial. See Appendix E for a worked example. Detailed notes on filling in
the cremation record sheet are given below:
Site Code POU/CHF/ followed by the last two digits of the year, for example, POU/CHF/12.
Trench Number of the trench containing the cremation.
SW Grid The southwestern grid co-ordinates of the 5-metre grid square in which the
cremation is situated (if the cremation spans more than one 5-metre square, give
the SW co-ordinates of all the squares).
Context No Context number assigned to the bone: this will be either the number of the pit fill (if
unurned) or the number of the cremation urn (if inurned).
Cremation Pit Context Context number of the cremation pit.
Fill Context(s) Context numbers of all the fills of the cremation pit.
Vessel Context(s) Context numbers of all the vessels in the cremation pit.
Inurned / Unurned Inurned = bones contained within a vessel (may also be bones outside the vessel)
Unurned = no bones inside a vessel
Level at Surface Level at top of the cremation pit (in metres, to nearest cm).
Level at Base Level at base of the cremation pit (in metres, to nearest cm).
Sketch Plans Draw a sketch of the cremation, including its relationship to surrounding layers,
features, associated vessels and finds.
Ensure that the plan is correctly oriented to the site grid and that the co-ordinates
of the grid squares are shown.
Note: This is not a substitute for accurate plans!
Additional A written description of the cremation pit and its contents.
Description Note any discolouration of the sides of the pit suggestive of burning or scorching.
Interpretative comments should not be included here, but under ‘Interpretation’
below.
Vessels Number of vessels in the cremation pit, the material of which they are made
(pottery, glass, wood, etc.), their condition (whole, broken, crushed, burnt, etc.) and
a description of each vessel.
Each vessel should be given a reference number keyed to the sketch plan.
Material Outside Note type and quantity of any bone (burnt or unburnt), or other significant
Vessels material such as charcoal and slag, found in the fill outside of any vessels.
Record maximum size of bone fragments prior to lifting.
Stratigraphic Matrix List all the contexts which come immediately before and after the bone context in
the Harris matrix.
Those below (before) the bone context will include the cremation pit context.
Environmental List the sample numbers assigned to the fill(s).
Samples
Associated Finds & Any finds associated directly with the cremation (but not general constituents of
Small Finds the fills such as bone and charcoal, which will be recorded on the relevant fill
context sheet). These finds will often be treated as Small Finds and assigned their
own numbers.
Plan Nos The drawing numbers of all plans which show the cremation.
Section Nos The drawing numbers of all sections which show the cremation.
Photos The ‘film’ and ‘frame’ numbers of all the photographs which show the cremation.
Interpretation A brief description of the cremation as a whole, including comments about the
bone, vessels and finds (if any).
Excavation Method Cremations should be excavated in plan: give reasons if any other method was
used.
Excavation Tools List all the tools used in the excavation.

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Risk of Contamination Assess the risk of contamination of the bones as Low, Medium or High.
Recorded By / Date Name of person completing the form and date completed.
Checked By / Date Name of supervisor and date form checked.

4.4 Post-Excavation Treatment

The processing of cremated bone (including the emptying of vessels) is a specialised task which would
normally be performed by external experts. See [Brickley and McKinley, 2004: 9-13], [McKinley and
Roberts, 1993: 7], [Brothwell, 1981: 14] and [Mays, 2010: 311].

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5 References and Bibliography
The most important reference book for anyone with a professional archaeological interest in human
remains is [Brothwell, 1981]. [Mays, 2010] is also essential reading. For those with a more general
interest, [Stirland, 1999] is an accessible and affordable introduction.

Anderson, S., 1993 Digging Up People: Guidelines for Excavation and Processing of
Human Skeletal Remains.
http://www.spoilheap.co.uk/pdfs/digbone.pdf. Date accessed 26-
Jan-2013.
BABAO Code of Ethics, 2010 2010 BABAO Code of Ethics. British Association for Biological
Anthropology and Osteoarchaeology and
http://www.babao.org.uk/index/ethics-and-standards. Date
accessed 26-Jan-2013.
BABAO Code of Practice, 2010 2010 BABAO Code of Practice. British Association for Biological
Anthropology and Osteoarchaeology and
http://www.babao.org.uk/index/ethics-and-standards. Date
accessed 26-Jan-2013
Bass, W.M., 1995 Human Osteology: A Laboratory and Field Manual (4th ed.). Special
Publication No. 2 of the Missouri Archaeological Society.
Brickley, M. and McKinley, J.I. Guidelines to the Standards for Recording Human Remains. IFA
(eds.), 2004 Paper No. 7, Reading.
Brothwell, D., 1981 Digging Up Bones (3rd ed.). British Museum (Natural History),
London/Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Emery, M., 2005 Poulton Research Project Site Manual (v0.2). Poulton.
Mays, S., 2010. The Archaeology of Human Bones (2nd ed). Routledge, London.
McKinley, J.I. and Roberts, C., 1993 Excavation and Post-Excavation Treatment of Cremated and
Inhumed Human Remains. IFA Technical Paper No. 13,
Birmingham.
MoJ, 2011 Statement on the exhumation of human remains for archaeological
purposes http://www.justice.gov.uk/downloads/burials-and-
coroners/statement-exhumation-human-remains-
archaeological.pdf. Date accessed 26-Jan-2013
Stirland, A., 1999 Human Bones in Archaeology. Shire, Princes Risborough.
White, T.O. and Folkens, P.A., 2005 The Human Bone Manual. Elsevier, London.

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6 Appendices
A Bones of the human skeleton

B Skeleton Context sheet: Worked example

C Standard Context sheet for Grave Cut: Worked example

D Standard Context sheet for Grave Fill: Worked example

E Cremation sheet: Worked example

Note: The pro-forma sheets are always being revised and those in current use may differ in detail from those
shown in these appendices.

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Appendix A – Bones of the Human Skeleton

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Bones of the Adult Skeleton
from [Mays, 2010: 2-3]
Skull: 28 (including mandible & ear ossicles)
Hyoid 1
Spinal column: Vertebrae 24 (7 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar)
Sacrum 1
Coccyx 1
Thoracic cage: Rib 24 (12 pairs)
Sternum 1
Pectoral girdle: Clavicle 2
Scapula 2
Pelvic girdle: Pelvic bone 2
Limb bones: Arm bones: Humerus 2
Radius 2
Ulna 2
Wrist/hand: Carpal 16
Metacarpal 10
Phalanx 28
Leg bones: Femur 2
Patella 2
Tibia 2
Fibula 2
Ankle/foot: Tarsal 14
Metatarsal 10
Phalanx 28
Total 206

In addition, there are a variable number of small bones (sesamoids) embedded in the tendons of the
hands and feet.
Although this list shows the ‘standard’ number of bones in an adult skeleton, extra bones are not
uncommon, for example, 13 rather than 12 thoracic vertebrae, or 6 rather than 5 lumbar vertebrae.
Detailed descriptions and photographs of all the bones can be found in [White & Folkens, 2005].

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Appendix B – Skeleton Context sheet: Worked example

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Appendix C – Standard Context sheet for Grave Cut: Worked example

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Appendix D – Standard Context sheet for Grave Fill: Worked example

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Appendix E – Cremation sheet: Worked example

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