Field of Glory 2 Army List Descriptions

Field of Glory II
Army List Descriptions
Last Updated: v1.5.28 (Wolves at the Gate DLC)

Used with permission. Slitherine© All Rights Reserved
Table of Contents
Introduction................................................................................................................................................. 9
Arab 1000-313 BC...................................................................................................................................... 10
Median 836-627 BC, Median 626-550 BC.................................................................................................. 10
Elamite 815-539 BC.................................................................................................................................... 11
Cimmerian 750-600 BC.............................................................................................................................. 11
Mannaean 750-610 BC.............................................................................................................................. 12
Skythian 750-551 BC.................................................................................................................................. 12
Kushite Egyptian 727-656 BC..................................................................................................................... 13
Thracian (Triballi) 700-351 BC, Thracian (Triballi) 350 BC-46 AD ............................................................... 14
Lydian 687-551 BC..................................................................................................................................... 14
Assyrian 681-609 BC.................................................................................................................................. 15
Hebrew 681-586 BC................................................................................................................................... 16
Phoenician 681-539 BC.............................................................................................................................. 16
Urartian 681-585 BC.................................................................................................................................. 17
Cypriot 680-550 BC, Cypriot 549-490 BC................................................................................................... 17
Greek 680-461 BC, Spartan 680-461 BC, Greek (Mercenary) 460-281 BC, Greek 460-281 BC, Spartan 461-
281 BC........................................................................................................................................................ 18
Illyrian 680 BC - 25 AD............................................................................................................................... 18
Thracian 680-461 BC, Thracian 460-351 BC............................................................................................... 19
Thracian (Getae) 680-330 BC, Thracian (Hellenistic Getae) 329-281 BC, Thracian (Getae) 279 BC-46 AD . 19
Egyptian 664-571 BC, Egyptian 570-525 BC, Egyptian 405-343 BC ............................................................ 20
Kyrenean Greek 630-461 BC, Kyrenean Greek 460-322 BC, Kyrenean Greek 321-276 BC .........................21
Babylonian 626-539 BC.............................................................................................................................. 21
Achaemenid Persian 553-546 BC, Achaemenid Persian 547 BC (Thymbra), Achaemenid Persian 545-481
BC, Achaemenid Persian 480-461 BC......................................................................................................... 22
Lydian 550-546 BC..................................................................................................................................... 23
Skythian or Saka 550-301 BC, Saka 300 BC - 50 AD, Skythian 300 BC - 50 AD ............................................ 23
2
Libyan 549-301 BC, Libyan 300 BC - 70 AD................................................................................................ 24
Babylonian Revolts 522-482 BC................................................................................................................. 24
Indian 500 BC - 319 AD, Indian 320-545 AD............................................................................................... 25
Mountain Indian 492-170 BC..................................................................................................................... 25
Carthaginian 490-411 BC........................................................................................................................... 26
Etruscan 490-331 BC.................................................................................................................................. 26
Italian Hill Tribes 490-275 BC..................................................................................................................... 27
Latin 490-338 BC........................................................................................................................................ 27
Roman 490-341 BC.................................................................................................................................... 28
Umbrian 490-260 BC.................................................................................................................................. 28
Ligurian 480-145 BC................................................................................................................................... 29
Achaemenid Persian 460-420 BC............................................................................................................... 29
Apulian 420-203 BC................................................................................................................................... 30
Bruttian or Lucanian 420-203 BC............................................................................................................... 30
Campanian 420-281 BC, Campanian 280-203 BC....................................................................................... 31
Achaemenid Persian 419-329 BC............................................................................................................... 31
Syracusan 412-281 BC, Syracusan 280-211 BC.......................................................................................... 32
Carthaginian 410-341 BC, Carthaginian 340-281 BC, Carthaginian 280-263 BC, Carthaginian 262-236 BC,
Carthaginian 235-146 BC, Carthaginian (Hannibal in Italy) 218-217 BC, Carthaginian (Hannibal in Italy)
216-203 BC, Carthaginian (Hannibal in Africa) 202 BC ............................................................................... 32
Thessalian 404-352 BC............................................................................................................................... 33
Gallic 390-301 BC....................................................................................................................................... 33
Macedonian 355-329 BC, Macedonian 328-321 BC................................................................................... 34
Samnite 355-272 BC.................................................................................................................................. 34
Rhoxolani 350 BC - 24 AD, Sarmatian 350 BC - 24 AD, Alan 25-650 AD, Sarmatian 25-375 AD .................35
Thracian (Hellenistic) 350-281 BC.............................................................................................................. 35
Bosporan 348-85 BC, Bosporan 84 BC - 10 AD, Bosporan 11-375 AD ........................................................ 36
Numidian or Moorish 341-56 BC, Numidian or Moorish 55 BC - 6 AD ....................................................... 36
3
Roman 340-281 BC.................................................................................................................................... 37
Armenian 331 BC - 252 AD, Armenian (Tigranes) 83-69 BC ....................................................................... 37
Georgian 331 BC - 252 AD.......................................................................................................................... 38
Etruscan 330-280 BC.................................................................................................................................. 38
Antigonid 320-301 BC................................................................................................................................ 39
Atropatene 320-145 BC, Atropatene 144 BC - 226 AD ............................................................................... 39
Caucasian 320 BC - 476 AD........................................................................................................................ 40
Lysimachid 320-281 BC.............................................................................................................................. 40
Macedonian 320-261 BC, Macedonian 260-148 BC................................................................................... 41
Ptolemaic 320-218 BC, Ptolemaic 217-167 BC, Ptolemaic 166-56 BC, Ptolemaic 55-30 BC .......................41
Seleucid 320-303 BC, Seleucid 302-301 BC, Seleucid 300-206 BC .............................................................. 42
Arab 312 BC - 299 AD................................................................................................................................. 42
Gallic 300-101 BC, Gallic 100-50 BC........................................................................................................... 43
Spanish (Celtiberian) 300-10 BC, Spanish (Lusitanian) 300-10 BC, Spanish (Iberian) 300-10 BC, Spanish
(Sertorius) 80-70 BC................................................................................................................................... 43
Bithynian 297-74 BC.................................................................................................................................. 44
Pontic 281-111 BC, Pontic 110-85 BC, Pontic 84-47 BC ............................................................................. 44
Galatian 280-63 BC, Galatian 63-25 BC...................................................................................................... 45
Greek 280-228 BC, Greek 227-146 BC, Spartan 280-228 BC, Spartan 227-222 BC, Spartan 221-146 BC ...45
Greek (Western) 280-49 BC....................................................................................................................... 46
Pyrrhic 280-275 BC, Pyrrhic 274-272 BC.................................................................................................... 46
Roman 280-220 BC, Roman 219-200 BC, Roman 199-106 BC .................................................................... 47
Thracian (Gallic) 280-212 BC...................................................................................................................... 47
Pergamene 262-191 BC, Pergamene 190-129 BC...................................................................................... 48
Kappadokian 260 BC - 17 AD..................................................................................................................... 48
Nabataean 260 BC - 106 AD....................................................................................................................... 49
Graeco-Bactrian 250-130 BC...................................................................................................................... 49
Parthian 250 BC - 225 AD........................................................................................................................... 50
4
Thracian 211-51 BC.................................................................................................................................... 50
Seleucid 205-167 BC, Seleucid 166-125 BC, Seleucid 124-63 BC ................................................................ 51
Indo-Greek 175 BC - 10 AD........................................................................................................................ 51
Jewish 167-164 BC, Jewish 163-111 BC, Jewish 110-64 BC, Jewish 64 BC - 6 AD, Jewish Revolt 66-135 AD
................................................................................................................................................................... 52
Kushan 130 BC - 476 AD............................................................................................................................. 52
Germanic Foot Tribes 105 BC - 259 AD, Germanic Foot Tribes 260-599 AD .............................................. 53
Roman 105-25 BC...................................................................................................................................... 53
Indo-Skythian 95 BC - 50 AD...................................................................................................................... 54
Slave Revolt 73-71 BC................................................................................................................................ 54
Ancient British 60 BC - 80 AD..................................................................................................................... 55
Indo-Parthian 60 BC - 130 AD.................................................................................................................... 55
Dacian 50 BC - 88 AD, Dacian 89-106 AD, Dacian (Carpi) 107-380 AD ....................................................... 56
Scots-Irish 50 BC - 476 AD, Scots-Irish 477-899 AD .................................................................................... 56
Thracian (Roman Client) 50 BC - 46 AD...................................................................................................... 57
Roman 24 BC - 196 AD, Roman 197-284 AD.............................................................................................. 57
Caledonian 50-225 AD............................................................................................................................... 58
Pictish 210-476 AD, Pictish 477-850 AD..................................................................................................... 58
Sassanid Persian 224-349 AD, Sassanid Persian 350-476 AD, Sassanid Persian 477-590 AD, Sassanid
Persian 591-628 AD, Sassanid Persian 629-651 AD.................................................................................... 59
Hunnic (Western) 250-375 AD, Hunnic (Western) 376-454 AD, Hunnic (Western) 455-559 AD ................60
Armenian 253-476 AD, Armenian 477-627 AD.......................................................................................... 60
Palmyran 258-273 AD................................................................................................................................ 61
Frankish 260-495 AD.................................................................................................................................. 61
Germanic Horse Tribes 260-492 AD........................................................................................................... 62
Palmyran 272-273 AD................................................................................................................................ 62
Roman 285-312 AD, Roman 313-378 AD................................................................................................... 63
Arab (City) 300-633 AD.............................................................................................................................. 63
5
Arab (Bedouin) 300-636 AD....................................................................................................................... 64
Hephthalite 350-570 AD............................................................................................................................ 64
Moorish 350-698 AD.................................................................................................................................. 65
Roman 379-424 AD.................................................................................................................................... 65
Romano-British 407-599 AD...................................................................................................................... 66
Breton 411-579 AD.................................................................................................................................... 66
Visigothic 419-621 AD................................................................................................................................ 67
Roman 425-492 AD.................................................................................................................................... 67
Vandal 442-499 AD, Vandal 500-534 AD.................................................................................................... 68
Anglo-Saxon 449-599 AD........................................................................................................................... 69
Kingdom of Soissons 461-486 AD.............................................................................................................. 69
Hunnic (Sabir) 463-558 AD......................................................................................................................... 70
Welsh 477-599 AD, Welsh 600-1049 AD.................................................................................................... 70
Byzantine 493-550 AD............................................................................................................................... 71
Gepid 493-567 AD...................................................................................................................................... 71
Lombard 493-567 AD................................................................................................................................. 72
Ostrogothic 493-561 AD............................................................................................................................ 73
Frankish 496-599 AD.................................................................................................................................. 74
Slav 500-832 AD......................................................................................................................................... 75
Indian 546-599 AD..................................................................................................................................... 75
Byzantine 551-578 AD, Byzantine 579-599 AD.......................................................................................... 76
Turkish 552-599 AD................................................................................................................................... 76
Avar 553-557 AD, Avar 558-631 AD, Avar 632-826 AD .............................................................................. 77
Lombard 568-569 AD, Lombard 570-649 AD............................................................................................. 78
Khazar 568-737 AD, Khazar 738-969 AD.................................................................................................... 78
Breton 580-931 AD.................................................................................................................................... 79
Anglo-Saxon 600-870 AD, Anglo-Saxon 871-949 AD, Anglo-Saxon 950-1016 AD ...................................... 80
6
British 600-1030 AD................................................................................................................................... 81
Byzantine 600-649 AD............................................................................................................................... 81
Frankish 600-750 AD.................................................................................................................................. 82
Indian (Hindu North) 600-1049 AD, Indian (Hindu South) 600-1049 AD .................................................... 83
Saxon (Continental) 600-804 AD................................................................................................................ 83
Turkish 600-1036 AD................................................................................................................................. 84
Visigothic 622-717 AD................................................................................................................................ 84
Croatian 625-849 AD, Croatian 850-1102 AD............................................................................................ 85
Serbian 625-849 AD, Serbian 850-1039 AD............................................................................................... 85
Arab (Conquest) 629-637 AD, Arab (Conquest) 638-684 AD...................................................................... 86
Bulgar 631-679 AD, Bulgar (Volga) 675-1237 AD, Bulgar (Danube) 680-851 AD, Bulgar (Danube) 852-1018
AD.............................................................................................................................................................. 87
Armenian 639-717 AD............................................................................................................................... 88
Dabuyid 642-760 AD.................................................................................................................................. 88
Byzantine 650-739 AD, Byzantine 740-903 AD, Byzantine 904-962 AD ..................................................... 89
Indian (Rajput) 650-1049 AD..................................................................................................................... 90
Lombard 650-775 AD, Lombard 776-1049 AD........................................................................................... 90
Alan 651-1049 AD...................................................................................................................................... 91
Arab (Umayyad) 685-750 AD..................................................................................................................... 92
Spanish 718-899 AD, Spanish 900-1049 AD............................................................................................... 92
Arab (Abbasid) 747-793 AD, Arab (Abbasid) 794-814 AD, Arab (Abbasid) 815-835 AD, Arab (Abbasid) 836-
873 AD, Arab (Abbasid) 874-946 AD.......................................................................................................... 93
Frankish 751-887 AD.................................................................................................................................. 94
Andalusian 756-1049 AD........................................................................................................................... 95
Navarrese 778-899 AD, Navarrese 900-1049 AD....................................................................................... 95
Arab (North Africa) 789-999 AD, Arab (North Africa) 1000-1160 AD ......................................................... 96
Viking 790-899 AD, Viking (Ireland) 795-899 AD, Viking 900-1049 AD, Viking (Ireland) 900-1049 AD .......97
Khorasanian 821-1003 AD......................................................................................................................... 98
7
Magyar 830-1049 AD................................................................................................................................. 98
Moravian 833-907 AD................................................................................................................................ 99
Pecheneg 850-1122 AD............................................................................................................................ 100
Scots 851-1051 AD................................................................................................................................... 100
Rus 860-959 AD, Rus 960-1053 AD.......................................................................................................... 101
Armenian 885-1045 AD........................................................................................................................... 102
French 888-1049 AD................................................................................................................................ 102
German 888-932 AD, German 933-1049 AD............................................................................................ 103
Arab (Syria/Iraq) 890-1008 AD, Arab (Syria/Iraq) 1009-1150 AD............................................................. 104
Irish 900-1049 AD.................................................................................................................................... 104
Norman 923-1040 AD.............................................................................................................................. 105
Dailami 928-1055 AD............................................................................................................................... 106
Breton 936-1049 AD................................................................................................................................ 107
Ghaznavid 962-1187 AD.......................................................................................................................... 107
Byzantine 963-987 AD, Byzantine 988-1041 AD...................................................................................... 108
Polish 966-1057 AD.................................................................................................................................. 109
Fatimid Egyptian 978-1073 AD................................................................................................................ 109
Georgian 1008-1049 AD........................................................................................................................... 110
Anglo-Danish 1017-1041 AD.................................................................................................................... 110
8
Introduction
One of my favorite sections of the Field of Glory II manual is “Factions”, which gives a historical overview
and description of each major playable faction represented in the core game (Rise of Rome, 280 to 25
BC). I appreciate being able to review the rivalries and alliances, army compositions and characteristics
in a historical context. The images from Osprey Publishing and in-game screenshots enhance the
experience by providing additional flavor to many of the units and factions.
With the addition of each new DLC, the number of playable factions grows steadily (at the time of
writing this introduction, there are 5 DLCs available and a total of 281 army lists - almost four times as
many when compared to the core game alone). Although each new army list includes an in-game
description, to my knowledge this information has not previously been available outside of the game in
any way comparable to the "Factions" section of the original manual. This document attempts to
address this in at least a small way by providing the descriptions of all army lists available in the game in
a single reference.
I decided to organize the army lists chronologically, to better show where each faction fits within the
historical timeline. The army lists associated with each entry all share the same description (e.g. the
same text is used to describe five of the Greek lists 680-281 BC, so they are all included in the same
section). The screenshots included with each entry are intended primarily to highlight the most
commonly encountered units, but I have also taken the opportunity to showcase units that provide
national flavor even if they represent a very small proportion of the list (such as Persian Immortals).
When considering which entries should include screenshots, I decided that even though many lists with
similar backgrounds share the same unit pool and are barely distinct from one another, I still wanted to
include one image per entry to provide some indication of typical army configuration.
With the exception of this introduction, none of the text in this document is my own. All text that
follows was obtained directly from the game data files and is the property of Byzantine Games /
Slitherine. I hope there are those who find this document entertaining and useful!
Matthew Gardner
June 3, 2019
9
Arab 1000-313 BC
Irregular Foot, Arab Camelry, Light Javelinmen

From about the start of the first millennium BC, early proto-Arab tribes such as the Midianites and
Amalekites started to use camels in warfare.
Map set: Desert
Median 836-627 BC, Median 626-550 BC
Iranian Armoured Cavalry (Bow), Mede Spearmen, Nomad Horse Archers

The Iranian Medes first appear in history in 836 BC when they are recorded as paying tribute to the
Assyrian king Shalmaneser III. At this stage their lands were situated in the Zagros Mountains in modern
northern Iran and they were divided into many separate groups under local chieftains. Despite frequent
rebellions, they continued to pay tribute to the Assyrians well into the 7th century BC. For part of that
century they may have been under Skythian domination.
Under Cyaxares (Uvaxštra) (625-585) the Medes were united and the Skyths either overthrown or
incorporated. In 615 he invaded Assyria and in 612 an alliance of the Medes and Babylonians took the
Assyrian capital, Nineveh. The Assyrian Empire rapidly collapsed, with the Babylonians eventually taking
over most of its former territory, while the Medes controlled the highland regions to the north and east.
Cyaxares then came into conflict with the Kingdom of Lydia in western Anatolia (in modern Turkey). The
border was eventually drawn on the River Halys in central Anatolia. By the end of his reign the Median
Empire included modern Iran, Armenia, Azerbaijan, northern Iraq and eastern Turkey.
10
The next king Astyages (Ištovigu) (585-550), however, was overthrown by his daughter's son, the
Achaemenid Cyrus (Kuruš) II of Persia, who thus transformed the Median Empire into the Achaemenid
Persian Empire. The Medes continued to enjoy high status in the Persian Empire, which can properly be
regarded as a continuation of the Median Empire under a new dynasty.
Map set: Middle East
Elamite 815-539 BC
Elamite Chariots, Massed Archers, Unarmoured Horse Archers

Elam was the region south-east of Mesopotamia, in modern Iran. Its history dates back before 3,000 BC.
Elam was frequently allied with Babylon against Assyria. Under King Urtaku (676-664) a brief
rapprochement with Assyria was followed by further war. Elamite assistance to the rebel Shamash-
shum-ukin was rewarded by the Assyrian invasion of Elam and sack of Susa circa 646. Following this
Elam was fragmented into a number of small kingdoms. By 539 Susa was in the hands of the
Achaemenids.
Elamite armies relied almost entirely on archery.
Cimmerian 750-600 BC
Nomad Horse Archers, Cimmerian/Skythian nobles, Nomad Light Horse Archers

According to Herodotus, the nomadic Cimmerians were driven from the steppe north of the Caucasus
into Anatolia (modern Turkey) by the Skythians in the mid-8th century BC. They then fought both for
11
and against the Assyrians. Circa 695 they conquered Phrygia in central Anatolia, therafter continuing to
attack Assyrian territory. Circa 653 they attacked the kingdom of Lydia in western Anatolia, killing the
Lydian king Gyges and causing great destruction to the Lydian capital of Sardis. Ten years later they
briefly captured Sardis. They were finally defeated by King Alyattes II of Lydia circa 600, and thereafter
ceased to be a power.
Their main strength was in horse archers.
Map set: Mediterranean
Mannaean 750-610 BC
Assyrian-Style Heavy Chariots, Irregular Foot, Early Cavalry

The Mannaeans were a pre-Iranian people living in the highland regions of modern NW Iran, south of
Lake Urmia - east of Assyria and south of Urartu.
Skythian 750-551 BC
Nomad Horse Archers, Cimmerian/Skythian nobles, Nomad Light Horse Archers

According to Herodotus, the Skythians drove the Cimmerians from the steppe north of the Caucasus in
the mid-8th century BC. They thereafter ruled the western steppe until they came under pressure from
the Sarmatians from the mid-4th century BC onwards. Their raids were a persistent threat to the settled
12
nations, including Assyria. They were part of the alliance with the Medes and Babylonians that finally
brought down the Assyrian Empire between 616 and 609 BC.
Their main strength was in horse archers.
Map set: Steppe
Kushite Egyptian 727-656 BC
Egyptian-style Heavy Chariots, Nubian Archers, Nubian Cavalry

Circa 732 BC the King of Kush (Nubia) south of Egypt, Piye, invaded Egypt and established the 25th
dynasty, ruling from Napata in Nubia.In the reign of Taharqa (690-664), King Esarhaddon of Assyria
conquered Lower (northern) Egypt, but allowed the local dynasts to retain their small kingdoms as a
counterbalance to Kushite power. Following Esarhaddon's death, Taharqa persuaded the Lower
Egyptian kinglets to revolt. They were defeated by Esarhaddon's successor Ashurbanipal, however, and
deported to Assyria. Necho I, a grandson of the last pharaoh of the 24th dynasty, was set up by the
Assyrians as ruler of Memphis and Sais.
In 664 Taharqa's successor, Tantamani, invaded Lower Egypt and killed Necho. The Assyrians counter-
invaded and advanced into Upper (southern) Egypt where they sacked Thebes. In 656 Necho's son and
successor Psamtik I took a fleet to Thebes, where he forced the High Priestess of Amun to recognise his
daughter as her successor. This marked the re-unification of Egypt and the expulsion of the Kushite
dynasty, who nevertheless remained in power in Nubia.
Kushite armies of the 25th dynasty fielded some native Egyptian troops, and some heavy chariots, but
their greatest strength was in Nubian cavalry and foot archers
13
Thracian (Triballi) 700-351 BC, Thracian (Triballi) 350 BC-46 AD
Thracian Spearmen, Light Horse Archers, Massed Thracian Peltists

The Triballi were a troublesome tribe from north-western Thrace that was never included in the
Thracian empire. Two Thracian kings died fighting them, and they also wounded Philip II of Macedon.
They were strongly influenced by the Skythians, Illryrians, and Celts and were known for their ferocity
and length of their spears. Celtic swords have been found in their graves. They are said to have drawn
up in four ranks, with the rearmost rank being made up of their women, who encouraged the men to
fight with cheers and taunts. When fighting Alexander, their skirmishers were successful but they had
nothing that could stand up to the Macedonian heavy infantry.
Map set: Northern Europe
Lydian 687-551 BC
Lydian Hoplites, Lydian Cavalry, Irregular Foot

The Kingdom of Lydia in western Asia Minor (modern Turkey) developed after the decline of the Hittite
Empire in the 12th century BC. Gyges (c.687-652), the first king of the Lydian Mermnad dynasty, gained
the throne by assassinating his predecessor Candaules. He moved the capital to Sardis and devoted
himself to consolidating the kingdom and making it a military power, beginning the subjection of the
Greek colonies of western Asia Minor. Towards the end of his reign he sent Carian and Ionian hoplites to
assist Psamtik I in ousting the Assyrians from Egypt. However, he was then killed attempting to repel a
Cimmerian invasion.
His grandson Alyattes II was at war with the Medes under Cyaxares for several years before fighting
them to a standstill in 585 at the battle of the Halys River, which ended with an eclipse of the sun. The
border was then established on the River Halys. He also decisively defeated the Cimmerians, destroying
them as a power.
14
Alyattes's son Croesus completed the subjection of the Ionian Greek cities, but then attacked the
Persian Empire. His defeat by Cyrus the Great resulted in the Persian annexation of Lydia.
The Lydian army was built about a core of excellent spear-armed cavalry and Lydian, Carian and Ionian
hoplites, supplemented by lighter troops supplied by the inland parts of the kingdom.
Assyrian 681-609 BC
Assyrian-style Heavy Chariots, Assyrian-style Guard Foot, Expert Assyrian-style Cavalry

From 745 BC, Tiglath-Pileser III of Assyria made sweeping reforms of the government. Henceforth vassal
states were annexed and directly administered as provinces. A regular standing army was formed,
backed up by reservists in time of war.
Assyrian policy was one of relentless expansion. Babylon was conquered in 729, Lower (northern) Egypt
in 671. In between these two conquests, most of the remaining independent states in the Levant had
been annexed. At its greatest extent, at the end of the reign of Esarhaddon (681-669) the Empire
stretched from Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) in the East to Cilicia (in southern Turkey) in the north-west,
and Lower Egypt in the south-west. In the north and east, however, the Cimmerians, the Kingdom of
Urartu, the Medes and the Kingdom of Elam were a constant threat - often defeated but never
conquered.
The cracks started to appear in the reign of Ashurbanibal (669-c.631/627). Ashurbanipal's elder brother,
Shamash-shum-ukin, King (governor) of Babylon, revolted in 652 with the aid of the local Chaldaean
tribes and the King of Elam. His revolt was not suppressed until 648. Following this Elam was invaded
and its capital Susa leveled. During the war, however, Egypt took the opportunity of seceding under
Psamtik I.
Following Ashurbanipal's death the situation rapidly deteriorated. In 626, the Chaldaean Nabopolassar
(Nabû-apal-usur), governor of the Sea-Land, rose in revolt and was in control of Babylon by 625. A
desultory war ensued.
Between 616 and 609 the Assyrian empire was destroyed by an alliance of the Medes and the
Babylonians. Ashur fell in 614. The Assyrians sought Egyptian help, but this did not arrive in time to
15
prevent the Assyrian capital, Nineveh, falling to the allies in 612. The last major Assyrian centre, Harran,
fell in 610. An attempt to recover it with Egyptian help in 609 failed.
Assyrian armies were well-balanced all-arms forces centred around heavy chariots, effective armoured
bow and spear cavalry and mixed infantry units with ranks of spearmen backed up by ranks of archers.
Hebrew 681-586 BC
Hebrew Foot, Gibborim, Hebrew Light Archers

Circa 920 BC the United Kingdom of the Israelites split into Israel in the north and Judah in the south.
Israel, with its capital Samaria, fell to the Assyrians circa 722. Judah persisted until the fall of Jerusalem
to the Babylonians in 586.
Phoenician 681-539 BC
Phoenician Spearmen, Heavy Chariots, Phoenician-style Foot

Phoenicia was the coastal region of northern Canaan, in modern Lebanon, Syria and Israel. The
Phoenicians were great sailors and traders, trading as far away as the British Isles, and planting many
colonies in Cyprus and the western Mediterranean. Phoenicia was divided into a number of city-states,
of which Tyre and Sidon were the greatest. Phoenicia was ultimately incorporated into the Achaemenid
Persian Empire in 539 BC, subsequently providing much of the Persian fleet. Possibly boosted by
emigration from the homeland following the Persian conquest, Tyre's largest colony in North Africa,
Carthage, grew in power until it ruled an empire in the western Mediterranean before ultimately
succumbing to Rome.
16
Urartian 681-585 BC
Expert Assyrian-style Cavalry, Assyrian-style Medium Foot, Nomad Light Horse Archers
The Kingdom of Urartu (or Van) in modern Armenia was formed in the mid-9th century BC by the
unification of a number of smaller Nairi states. Its main enemies were the Cimmerians and Assyrians.
Urartu was annexed by the Median king Astyages circa 585 BC.
Urartian armies mainly consisted of Assyrian-style mixed spearmen and archer units, and good quality
Assyrian-style cavalry.
Cypriot 680-550 BC, Cypriot 549-490 BC
Phoenician-style Foot, Heavy Chariots, Raw Hoplites

Due to its position in the eastern Mediterranean, Cyprus was successively colonised by Mycenaeans, Sea
Peoples, Dorian Greeks and Phoenicians. It was divided into a number of city-states, which were
successively tributary to Assyria, Egypt and finally Persia.
17
Greek 680-461 BC, Spartan 680-461 BC, Greek (Mercenary) 460-281
BC, Greek 460-281 BC, Spartan 461-281 BC
Greek Peltasts, Citizen Hoplites, Mercenary Hoplites

The city states of Greece were at constant war with each other. Their armies were based on the phalanx
of hoplite spearmen, equipped with spear, large shield, helmet, greaves and metal or fabric armour. The
most militaristic Greek state, Sparta, had the most feared and respected hoplites.
Illyrian 680 BC - 25 AD
Thureophoroi, Light Javelin Horse, Light Javelinmen

The ancient Illyrians, living in the mountainous regions east of the Adriatic Sea, were at constant war
with each other as well as raiding the neighbouring nations. In equipment and fighting style they more
or less corresponded to the thureophoroi spearmen fielded by the Hellenistic nations. They were
unusual in that their slaves fought alongside the free tribesmen. Most of the region was annexed as a
Roman province in 167 BC.
18
Thracian 680-461 BC, Thracian 460-351 BC
Thracian Spearmen, Light Javelin Horse, Massed Thracian Peltists

The Thracians spent much of their time fighting among themselves, but in the middle of the 5th century
BC they were combined into a huge kingdom that extended from the shores of the Black Sea to the
Aegean. The Thracian king had an income similar to that of the Athenian empire and had an army
supposedly 150,000 strong. This list represents that army. There were only a few armoured noble
cavalry, but Thracian light cavalry was numerous and well regarded. Thracian infantry were also famous
for their fighting qualities, the most numerous being the Thracian peltasts. Heavy infantry was available
from their allies the Athenians, and the coastal cities.
Thracian (Getae) 680-330 BC, Thracian (Hellenistic Getae) 329-281

BC, Thracian (Getae) 279 BC-46 AD
Thracian Spearmen, Nomad Horse Archers, Massed Thracian Peltists

The Getae were called 'the bravest and most noble of the Thracians' by Herodotus. They inhabited the
plains on both sides of the Istros (Danube) river. They were often confused with the Skythians and had
many horse archers in their ranks. Their nobles are shown armoured from head to toe. They had a
close relationship with the Dacians, eventually merging with them. In the Hellenistic era they built the
city of Hellis and wore Macedonian garb. After Hellis was destroyed by the Gauls they changed by a
poorly understood process into the Dacians, but were still called the Getae by the Romans and often
troubled the borders of Roman occupied Thrace.
19
Egyptian 664-571 BC, Egyptian 570-525 BC, Egyptian 405-343 BC
Egyptian Spearmen, Egyptian-style Heavy Chariots, Egyptian Irregular Foot

In 667 BC the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal defeated the Kushite (Nubian) 25th dynasty pharaoh Taharqa
and the Egyptian kinglets he had persuaded to rebel against Assyrian rule. Necho I, a grandson of the
last pharaoh of the 24th dynasty, was set up by the Assyrians in Sais as puppet pharaoh of Egypt.
In 664 Taharqa's successor, Tantamani, invaded Lower (northern) Egypt and killed Necho. The Assyrians
counter-invaded and advanced into Upper (southern) Egypt where they sacked Thebes. In 656 Necho's
son and successor Psamtik I took a fleet to Thebes, where he forced the High Priestess of Amun to
recognise his daughter as her successor. This marked the re-unification of Egypt and the expulsion of the
Kushite dynasty, who nevertheless remained in power in Nubia. Circa 650 Psamtik seceded from Assyria,
becoming the first pharaoh of the 26th dynasty.
In 525 Egypt was conquered by the Achaemenid Persians under Cambyses II - forming the 27th dynasty.
However, in 405 Egypt successfully revolted against Persian rule, remaining independent under the
28th, 29th and 30th dynasties until reconquered by the Persian king Artaxexes II in 343 BC - forming the
31st dynasty.
Egyptian armies of the 26th, 28th, 29th and 30th dynasties used native close-fighting infantry and
archers, but also often included large numbers of Greek mercenary hoplites, plus a few cavalry. 26th
dynasty armies also had heavy chariots.
20
Kyrenean Greek 630-461 BC, Kyrenean Greek 460-322 BC, Kyrenean
Greek 321-276 BC
Armoured Veteran Hoplites, Light Javelinmen, Citizen Hoplites

Kyrene was the oldest and most important of several Greek colonies on the coast of Libya. The main
difference between Kyrenean and mainland Greek armies was the use of 3-man 4-horse chariots. Kyrene
was annexed by the Ptolemaic kingdom circa 322 BC.
Babylonian 626-539 BC
Assyrian-style Heavy Chariots, Massed Archers, Expert Assyrian-style Cavalry

In 626, the Chaldaean Nabopolassar (Nabû-apal-usur), governor of the Sea-Land, rose in revolt against
the Assyrian Empire. By the following year he was in control of Babylon. A desultory war ensued.
Between 616 and 609 the Assyrian Empire was destroyed by an alliance of the Medes and Babylonians.
Under Nebuchadrezzar II (605-562) the Egyptians were decisively defeated at the Battle of Carchemish
(605), ending Egyptian attempts to regain control of Palestine and Syria. Nebuchadrezzar went on to
conquer an empire including most of the territory of the former Assyrian Empire, excluding Egypt itself.
In 539 the Persians under Cyrus (Kuruš) II the Great invaded Babylonia. After winning a minor victory
over the Babylonian army near Opis, the Persians were able to capture Babylon by a surprise attack by a
detachment of their army while the two main armies continued to face each other off. The Babylonian
King Nabonidus (Nabû-na'id) (556-539) was captured when he left his army to return to Babylon, not
realising it had been taken. His army then surrendered, so that Cyrus was able to enter Babylon
21
peacefully shortly afterwards. The Persians then incorporated all the former territories of the
Babylonian Empire into their own Empire.
Babylonian armies were similar to those of the Assyrians, except that they relied much more heavily on
foot archers.
Achaemenid Persian 553-546 BC, Achaemenid Persian 547 BC

(Thymbra), Achaemenid Persian 545-481 BC, Achaemenid Persian
480-461 BC
Persian Immortals, Iranian Armoured Cavalry (Bow), Sparabara Foot

By the mid-6th century BC the Achaemenid Persian dynasty ruled two small kingdoms on the Persian
Gulf, Parsa and Anshan. In 559 BC, Cambyses I was succeeded as King of Anshan by his son Cyrus II. At
some point his cousin Arsames, King of Parsa, abdicated in Cyrus's favour, thus reuniting the two
kingdoms. In 553 Cyrus revolted against his overlord and grandfather, the Median King Astyages. By 550
he had defeated and captured Astyages, transforming the Median Empire into the Achaemenid Persian
Empire, which can properly be regarded as a continuation of the Median Empire under a new dynasty.
The Medes continued to enjoy high status.
In 547 King Croesus of Lydia (in western Asia Minor) made the fatal mistake of attacking the Persian
Empire. Cyrus was quick to respond and by 546 Lydia was defeated and incorporated into the empire. By
540 Cyrus had conquered Elam and in 539 he invaded and conquered the Babylonian Empire. Cyrus was
killed in 530 while fighting the nomadic Massagetae in the north east.
His son Cambyses II conquered Egypt in 525. This made the Achaemenid Persian Empire the largest the
world had yet known, stretching from the Bosporus to western India. Its next target was mainland
Greece.
The Early Achaemenid Persian army consisted mainly of archers, on horse and on foot. The foot archers
were protected by front ranks with pavise and spear.
22
Lydian 550-546 BC
Lydian Hoplites, Lydian Cavalry, Irregular Foot

The kingdom of Lydia in western Asia Minor had prospered for several centuries and was in the
processing of expanding to create an empire when it came into conflict with the expanding Persian
Empire. This resulted in defeat and annexation. The Lydian army was built around a core of armoured
hoplites and high quality spear-armed cavalry.
Skythian or Saka 550-301 BC, Saka 300 BC - 50 AD, Skythian 300 BC

- 50 AD
Nomad Light Horse Archers, Eastern Archers, Nomad Horse Archers

The nomadic Skythian and Saka tribes ruled the steppes at the beginning of this era. Their periodic raids
and invasions were much feared. Their armies were composed primarily of unarmoured horse archers
with a core of more heavily armed nobility. When any enemy attempted punitive action against them
they simply retreated into the steppes until the enemy was forced to retreat. On the battlefield as well
as strategically they excelled at hit and run tactics.
Map set: Steppe
23
Libyan 549-301 BC, Libyan 300 BC - 70 AD
Irregular Foot, Light Javelin Horse, Light Javelinmen

The independent Libyan tribes between Carthage and Egypt mostly relied on javelin armed infantry.
Babylonian Revolts 522-482 BC
Massed Archers, Sparabara Foot, Poorly Armed Rabble

The Babylonians revolted against Achaemenid Persian rule in 522 BC and again in 482. Both revolts were
rapidly suppressed.
24
Indian 500 BC - 319 AD, Indian 320-545 AD
Indian Heavy Chariots, Indian Forest Tribesmen, Indian Cavalry

Indian armies of the classical period were based on a fourfold division into infantry, cavalry, chariots and
elephants, in order of increasing prestige. Most of the numerous infantry were archers, though some
were armed with javelins and shields.
Map set: Tropical
Mountain Indian 492-170 BC
Massed Archers, Indian Elephants, Irregular Foot

This covers the tribes of the NW mountain border of India, who fought in a different style to the lowland
Indians.
25
Carthaginian 490-411 BC
Phoenician-style Foot, African Spearmen, Balearic Slingers

The North African city of Carthage, now a suburb of Tunis, was a colony of the Phoenician city of Tyre.
Carthage expanded to create a large mercantile empire in the southern Mediterranean and Spain. Prior
to coming into conflict with Rome in 264 BC, Carthage's main opponents were the Greek cities of Sicily.
The Carthaginian army mostly consisted of an eclectic mixture of mercenaries from all over the western
Mediterranean.
Etruscan 490-331 BC
Armoured Hoplites, Veteran Armoured Cavalry, Raw Hoplites

The origin of the powerful Etruscan civilisation in northern and central Italy is uncertain. In the late 4th
century BC it came into conflict with the nascent power of Rome, and was eventually overwhelmed. Its
army, at least until influenced by Rome, consisted principally of hoplite-style spearmen, supported by
cavalry and skirmishers.
26
Italian Hill Tribes 490-275 BC
Veteran Italian Foot, Armoured Cavalry, Italian Foot

Italian hill tribes included the Aequi, Aurunci, Hernici, Picentes, Sabines, Sidicini and Volsci. The last of
them were conquered by Rome in the early 3rd century BC. Their armies consisted mainly of javelin-
armed foot.
Latin 490-338 BC
Armoured Hoplites, Light Javelinmen, Citizen Hoplites

The Latin League comprised the cities of Latium near Rome. Like the Romans at this time, the Latins
fought as hoplites. They were allied with Rome from 493 BC. However, over the following 150 years,
Rome gradually came to dominate the League. This eventually led to rebellion in the Latin War of 340-
338 BC. Following their defeat in this war, the Latin towns were directly ruled from Rome.
27
Roman 490-341 BC
Armoured Veteran Hoplites, Light Javelinmen, Citizen Hoplites

The Romans threw off their monarchy circa 509 BC. Prior to the end of the 1st Samnite War in 341 BC ,
Roman infantry fought as a hoplite phalanx.
Umbrian 490-260 BC
Citizen Hoplites, Light Javelinmen, Italian Foot

Umbria was an area of central Italy between the Romans, Latins and Etruscans. It was conquered by the
Romans between 310 and 260 BC. Umbrian armies probably consisted mainly of javelin-armed foot with
some hoplites.
28
Ligurian 480-145 BC
Irregular Foot, Noble Cavalry, Light Javelinmen

Once occupying much of NW Italy and SE France, by this period the Ligurians were largely confined to
the hills of modern Liguria and Piedmont. They fought almost entirely on foot, with javelins.
Achaemenid Persian 460-420 BC
Persian Immortals, Iranian Armoured Cavalry (Bow), Sparabara Foot

Following the failure of their invasions of Greece, the Achaemenid Empire fell back on the defensive. At
first, they continued to rely on massed foot and horse archers.
29
Apulian 420-203 BC
Italian Foot, Veteran Armoured Cavalry, Light Javelinmen

The armies of Apulia in southern Italy consisted of javelin-armed infantry and high quality cavalry.
Bruttian or Lucanian 420-203 BC
Veteran Italian Foot, Veteran Armoured Cavalry, Italian Foot

The Oscan-controlled regions of Bruttia and Lucania in southern Italy allied with Hannibal during the
Second Punic War. Their armies consisted mainly of javelin-armed foot.
30
Campanian 420-281 BC, Campanian 280-203 BC
Citizen Hoplites, Veteran Armoured Cavalry, Italian Foot

Following the Oscan conquest of Greek Campania in southern Italy in the late 5th century BC,
Campanian armies consisted of a mixture of hoplites and Oscan javelin-armed foot. Campania was
subjected to Rome in 340 BC, but rebelled and allied with Hannibal during the Second Punic War.
Achaemenid Persian 419-329 BC
Scythed Chariots, Takabara Foot, Iranian Armoured Cavalry

Following the failure of their invasions of Greece, the Achaemenid Empire fell back on the defensive.
Some time later they abandoned their system of massed archery, replacing their battle-line foot with
Greek mercenary hoplites and re-arming most of their cavalry with spears. In 334 BC Alexander the
Great of Macedon invaded and within five years had conquered the once mighty empire.
31
Syracusan 412-281 BC, Syracusan 280-211 BC
Citizen Hoplites, Mercenary Hoplites, Raw Hoplites

The Greek city of Syracuse in Sicily was a colony of Corinth. Under the rule of a series of tyrants,
Syracuse contested with Carthage for control of the island, and even brought the war to North Africa.
However, during the Second Punic War, Syracuse switched sides following the Carthaginian victory over
the Romans at Cannae. This was a mistake, and led to the conquest of the city by the Romans. The
Syracusan army mostly consisted of Greek hoplites, supplemented by various mercenaries.
Carthaginian 410-341 BC, Carthaginian 340-281 BC, Carthaginian 280-

263 BC, Carthaginian 262-236 BC, Carthaginian 235-146 BC,
Carthaginian (Hannibal in Italy) 218-217 BC, Carthaginian
(Hannibal in Italy) 216-203 BC, Carthaginian (Hannibal in Africa)
202 BC
Elephants, Spanish Scutarii, Noble Cavalry

The North African city of Carthage, now a suburb of Tunis, was a colony of the Phoenician city of Tyre.
Carthage expanded in the centuries preceding this era to create a large mercantile empire in the
southern Mediterranean and Spain. Rome's greatest opponent, from 264 BC Carthage fought a series of
32
epic wars against the Romans, ultimately being destroyed by them in 146 BC. The Carthaginian army
mostly consisted of an eclectic mixture of mercenaries from all over the western Mediterranean.
Thessalian 404-352 BC
Mercenary Hoplites, Massed Thracian Peltasts, Cretan Archers

The city states of Thessaly in Northern Greece enjoyed a brief period of relative organisation and
nascent power under the leadership of the tyrants of Pherae, particularly Jayson of Pherae, who ruled
from circa 380 to 370 BC. Phillip II of Macedon overthrew Jayson's sons in 352 BC. Thessalian armies
were renowned for the quality and quantity of their cavalry.
Gallic 390-301 BC
Superior Warband (Close Order), Celtic Chariots, Warband (Loose Order)

The Celtic tribes of Gaul (modern France) and northern Italy were fierce warriors. They inflicted several
humiliating defeats on the Romans, and sacked Rome in 387 BC. At this time Gallic armies consisted of
fierce foot warbands, sometimes supported by chariots.
33
Macedonian 355-329 BC, Macedonian 328-321 BC
Xystophoroi, Veteran Pike Phalanx, Prodromoi

Under King Philip II, the Macedonian army was enlarged and reorganised. Instead of hoplites the
infantry were equipped with a long pike wielded in both hands. This would easily outreach the hoplite
spear, and allowed five ranks of pike heads to project beyond the front rank men. The cavalry were
reorganised too, as lancers. With this army he seized hegemony over Greece. His son, Alexander the
Great, invaded the Persian Empire in 334 and had conquered it by 329. He then marched on into India,
before dying on the way back to Europe in 323.
Samnite 355-272 BC
Veteran Samnite Foot, Armoured Cavalry, Samnite Foot

Rome's greatest Italian foes, the fierce Samnites fought a series of wars against Rome from 343 to 272
BC. Their infantry were organised into legions and cohorts, but were more lightly equipped than the
Romans and did not use a triple-line system.
34
Rhoxolani 350 BC - 24 AD, Sarmatian 350 BC - 24 AD, Alan 25-650
AD, Sarmatian 25-375 AD
Rhoxolani Cavalry, Barbarian Archers, Armoured Noble Lancers

The Sarmatian tribes that replaced the Skythians in the western steppes were more heavily equipped.
Some tribes, such as the Iazygians, fielded massed armoured lancers on non-metallic-armoured horses.
Other tribes had a core of such lancers but also fielded large numbers of more lightly-equipped cavalry -
with bow and spear in the case of the early Rhoxolani and with bow in the case of the Alans. The charge
of the Sarmatian lancers was much feared, though steady Roman infantry could repel them.
Thracian (Hellenistic) 350-281 BC
Thracians with Rhomphaia, Xystophoroi, Mercenary Hoplites

With the growth of the Macedonian state and Greek influence, the Thracians became more Hellenised,
wore Macedonian and Greek style clothes, and built a Greek style city, Seuthopolis, as their capital. The
murals from that time show Thracian cavalry using long lances and their infantry using rhomphaias.
After various periods of independence, revolts, Macedonian rule, and alliance with Macedonia, the
Hellenistic Thracian state disappeared with the Celtic invasion in 279 BC, when Seuthopolis was burnt
down.
35
Bosporan 348-85 BC, Bosporan 84 BC - 10 AD, Bosporan 11-375 AD
Armoured Noble Lancers, Irregular Foot, Nomad Light Horse Archers

The Bosporan kingdom, ruled initially by the Hellenized Thracian Spartokid dynasty, and subsequently by
Mithridates VI of Pontus and his descendants, latterly as clients of Rome, was based around the Greek
colonies of the Crimean and Taman peninsulas north of the Black Sea. Its armies consisted of a mix of
mercenaries, local militia, and nobles equipped as Sarmatian-style lancers.
Numidian or Moorish 341-56 BC, Numidian or Moorish 55 BC - 6 AD
Light Javelin Horse, Elephants, Light Javelinmen

The Numidian and Moorish kingdoms of western North Africa were under Carthaginian influence prior
to the fall of Carthage. From 112 BC they came into conflict with Rome. Numidia was annexed by Rome
in 25 BC and Mauretania in 44 AD. Numidian and Moorish armies mainly consisted of unarmoured light
horse and foot javelinmen. At various times they attempted to imitate Roman legions.
36
Roman 340-281 BC
Hastati/Principes, Triarii, Raw Legionaries

Following the 1st Samnite War, the Romans re-equipped most of their infantry with heavy javelin
(pilum) instead of thrusting spear. Each legion was usually deployed in a four line chequerboard
formation, with light infantry (leves) in front and then three lines of heavy infantry, the hastati, principes
and triarii. The hastati and principes were armed with pilum and sword, the veteran triarii with spear.
Each legion also had a small body of attached cavalry. During this period the Romans expanded their
control over central Italy.
Armenian 331 BC - 252 AD, Armenian (Tigranes) 83-69 BC
Massed Archers, Cataphracts, Irregular Foot

The mountainous kingdom of Armenia maintained a precarious independence through most of this era.
During the reign of Tigranes the Great in the first century BC it conquered a short-lived empire, but the
Romans soon put paid to that. The core of the Armenian army consisted of armoured cataphracts on
armoured horses. These were supported by large numbers of unarmoured horse archers and lightly
equipped foot.
37
Georgian 331 BC - 252 AD
Slingers, Armoured Noble Lancers, Irregular Foot

The Iberian and Colchian kingdoms were early Georgian states. Not much is known about their armies,
but it is believed that the Iberians at least used a combination of Sarmatian-style lancers and infantry
with javelins.
Etruscan 330-280 BC
Imitation Legionaries, Raw Hoplites, Raw Legionaries

The origin of the powerful Etruscan civilisation in northern and central Italy is uncertain. In the late 4th
century BC it came into conflict with the nascent power of Rome, and was eventually overwhelmed. Its
army, at least until influenced by Rome, consisted principally of hoplite-style spearmen, supported by
cavalry and skirmishers. Some time after Rome re-organised its infantry to fight with pilum and sword,
the Etruscans probably began to follow suit.
38
Antigonid 320-301 BC
Pike Phalanx, Xystophoroi, Thureophoroi

Following the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, his generals began to fight over his empire. After
the initial round of wars, Antigonos I Monophthalmos held the centre of the empire, Asia Minor, and
seemed the most powerful of the successors. This provoked the others to form a grand alliance against
him. In 301 BC he was killed by the combined armies of Lysimachos and Seleukos at the Battle of Ipsus in
Phrygia. The Antigonid army was a typical Hellenistic army, based on the pike phalanx.
Atropatene 320-145 BC, Atropatene 144 BC - 226 AD
Irregular Foot, Iranian Armoured Cavalry, Eastern Archers

The northern part of Media, in modern Iran and Azerbaijan, seceded from the Seleucid kingdom circa
320 BC, becoming the kingdom of Atropatene. This maintained a precarious independence until briefly
annexed to Tigranes the Great of Armenia's short-lived empire in the second quarter of the 1st century
BC, and thereafter became a vassal of the Parthian empire.
39
Caucasian 320 BC - 476 AD
Iranian Armoured Cavalry, Irregular Foot, Iranian Cavalry

This list covers the Albanians and other non-Georgian peoples of the Caucasus.
Lysimachid 320-281 BC
Veteran Pike Phalanx, Xystophoroi, Thracians with Rhomphaia

Following the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, his generals began to fight over his empire.
Lysimachos, governor of Thrace, later claimed the title of King. Together with Seleukos I, he defeated
Antigonos I and gained control of western Asia Minor in the division of the spoils. He subsequently also
seized Macedon. Eventually he fell out with Seleukos and was killed at the Battle of Corupedion. The
Lysimachid army was a typical Hellenistic army, based on the pike phalanx.
40
Macedonian 320-261 BC, Macedonian 260-148 BC
Thorakitai, Elephants, Pike Phalanx

On the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, his generals began to fight over his empire. After
changing hands several times, Alexander's original kingdom of Macedon, north of Greece, was finally
secured by the Antigonid dynasty. The Antigonid kingdom lasted until 148 BC. Macedon was annexed by
the Romans in 146 BC. The Macedonian army was a typical Hellenistic army, based on the pike phalanx.
Ptolemaic 320-218 BC, Ptolemaic 217-167 BC, Ptolemaic 166-56 BC,

Ptolemaic 55-30 BC
Militia Thureophoroi, Xystophoroi, Pike Phalanx

On the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, his generals began to fight over his empire. When the
dust settled, Ptolemy held Egypt. The Ptolemaic kingdom lasted until it was annexed by the Romans in
30 BC following the defeat of Cleopatra VII and Mark Antony at the Battle of Actium. The Ptolemaic
army was a typical Hellenistic army, based on the pike phalanx.
41
Seleucid 320-303 BC, Seleucid 302-301 BC, Seleucid 300-206 BC
Iranian Armoured Cavalry, Irregular Foot, Elephants

dust settled, Seleukos held the bulk of the former Persian Empire except Egypt, his kingdom stretching
from the Eastern Aegean to India. The Seleucid kingdom lasted until 63 BC when its last bastion, Syria,
was made into a Roman province. The Seleucid army was a typical Hellenistic army, based on the pike
phalanx.
Arab 312 BC - 299 AD
Arab Camelry, Irregular Foot, Light Javelin Horse

This list covers the tribal forces of Arabia outside the Nabataean Kingdom.
Map set: Desert
42
Gallic 300-101 BC, Gallic 100-50 BC
Celtic Chariots, Warband (Close Order), Noble Cavalry

The Celtic tribes of Gaul (modern France) and northern Italy were fierce warriors. Prior to this era they
inflicted several humiliating defeats on the Romans, and sacked Rome in 387 BC. Several Gallic tribes
joined Hannibal in his invasion of Italy in the Second Punic War. Following the defeat of Carthage, the
Romans steadily conquered the Gallic tribes in Italy and southern Gaul. From 58 to 50 BC the rest of
Gaul was conquered by Julius Caesar. Gallic armies consisted of foot warbands and excellent cavalry.
Chariots were already becoming obsolete by the start of our era, and were no longer in use by the time
of Caesar's Gallic War.
Spanish (Celtiberian) 300-10 BC, Spanish (Lusitanian) 300-10 BC,

Spanish (Iberian) 300-10 BC, Spanish (Sertorius) 80-70 BC
Spanish Scutarii, Celtiberian Warband, Caetrati

Ancient Spanish armies were relatively lightly equipped, in keeping with the terrain of their country. The
weaponry of their infantry was similar to that of the Romans, a heavy throwing spear and short stabbing
sword, but they lacked armour. They also had many light javelinmen, and light and heavier horsemen.
Some of the tribes, termed Celtiberians, were of Celtic origin and fought in a style more similar to the
Gauls.
43
Bithynian 297-74 BC
Massed Thracian Peltasts, Thracian with Rhomphaia, Thureophoroi

The small Thracian kingdom of Bithynia in the NW corner of Asia Minor maintained an independent
existence from 297 BC until 74 BC when the last king bequeathed his kingdom to Rome.
Pontic 281-111 BC, Pontic 110-85 BC, Pontic 84-47 BC
Eastern Archers, Iranian Armoured Cavalry, Thureophoroi

Pontus was a small Hellenistic kingdom south of the eastern Black Sea which secured its independence
during the wars of the diadochi circa 281 BC. From 115 BC, under the rule of Mithridates VI, it began to
expand, taking control of the Bosporan Kingdom in the Crimea. When Mithridates began to encroach on
his neighbours in Asia Minor, he was forced to withdraw by decree of the Roman senate. Open war
broke out in 88 BC, when an attempted invasion of Pontus by local Roman and allied forces was soundly
defeated, and the victorious Pontic armies went on to annexe the whole of Asia Minor and advance into
Greece. There, however, they were defeated by the Romans, and Mithridates was forced to withdraw
and accept peace. Two more Mithridatic wars followed, Mithridates eventually fleeing to the Bosporus
where he committed suicide when his son Pharnaces staged a coup in 63 BC. Pharnaces attempted to
regain Pontus during the Roman Civil War, but was defeated by Caesar at Zela in 47 BC. The Pontic army
consisted of a mix of local Hellenistic and Iranian troops, supplemented by mercenaries from many of
the surrounding tribes. After his initial defeats, Mithridates reorganised his infantry as imitation legions.
44
Galatian 280-63 BC, Galatian 63-25 BC
Warband (Close Order), Noble Cavalry, Imitation Legionaries

The Galatians originated as several Celtic tribes who invaded Greece in 281 BC. They were eventually
repelled, but meanwhile three tribes split off from the main horde and invaded Asia Minor. There they
proved impossible to dislodge and formed a new Galatian state in the central plateau. With a reputation
for exceptional ferocity, they were much in demand as mercenaries by the Hellenistic kingdoms. Their
armies consisted of foot warbands and cavalry, though they did make use of scythed and non-scythed
chariots on occasion. Galatia was eventually peacefully incorporated into the Roman Empire in 25 BC,
their imitation legions being directly adopted into the Roman army.
Greek 280-228 BC, Greek 227-146 BC, Spartan 280-228 BC, Spartan
227-222 BC, Spartan 221-146 BC
Thureophoroi, Pike Phalanx, Greek Peltasts

In the third century BC the Greek city states began to replace their traditional hoplites, first with the
more lightly equipped thureophoroi and later with a Macedonian-style pike phalanx.
45
Greek (Western) 280-49 BC
Citizen Hoplites, Mercenary Hoplites, Raw Hoplites

The scanty evidence suggests that the Greeks of Sicily, Massilia and other Western Mediterranean
colonies continued to use the hoplite phalanx long after it was obsolete in mainland Greece.
Pyrrhic 280-275 BC, Pyrrhic 274-272 BC
Pike Phalanx, Veteran Armoured Cavalry, Citizen Hoplites

Pyrrhos of Epeiros, one of history's Great Captains, had a meteoric career, which, however, led to no
lasting success. Epeiros was a small kingdom located in modern north-west Greece and Albania. Yet,
through his genius, Pyrrhos was able to contend on equal terms with Rome, Carthage and the other
Macedonian successors, fighting wars in Italy, Sicily and Greece. He was killed by a thrown roof-tile
during street-fighting in the Greek city of Argos. The Pyrrhic army was a typical Hellenistic army, based
on the pike phalanx.
46
Roman 280-220 BC, Roman 219-200 BC, Roman 199-106 BC
Italian Foot, Veteran Hastati/Principes, Velites

During the period from 280 to 106 BC the Romans conquered much of their future empire. The legions
were organised into maniples of 120 men. Each legion was usually deployed in a four line chequerboard
formation, with light infantry (leves or velites) in front and then three lines of heavy infantry, the hastati,
principes and triarii. The hastati and principes were armed with pilum and sword, the veteran triarii with
spear. Each legion also had a small body of attached cavalry.
Thracian (Gallic) 280-212 BC
Thracians with Rhomphaia, Noble Cavalry, Superior Warband (Close Oder)

In 281 BC the Gauls swept through Thrace, destroying the cities of Hellis and Seuthopolis, and stamping
out the Thracians' burgeoning Hellenised culture. Some crossed the Dardenelles to become the
Galatians while others formed the Kingdom of Tylis in south-eastern Thrace. This is the army of that
kingdom, which is assumed to have lost much of its original character and become more Thracian when
it started employing the local people. This kingdom was eventually destroyed in 212 BC by the
Thracians.
47
Pergamene 262-191 BC, Pergamene 190-129 BC
Thureophoroi, Cataphracts, Irregular Foot

The kingdom of Pergamum, in western Asia Minor, became independent under the Attalid dynasty
following the defeat and death of Lysimachos in 281 BC. From 214 BC Pergamum became Rome's
staunchest ally, and gained large swathes of new territory after helping the Romans to defeat
Anctiochos III of the Seleucid kingdom at Magnesia in 190 BC. The kingdom was eventually bequeathed
to Rome by Attalus III in 133 BC. Prior to gaining access to military colonies post-Magnesia, the
Pergamene army lacked a pike phalanx, relying instead on thureophoroi, Galatian mercenaries and
excellent lancers.
Kappadokian 260 BC - 17 AD
Irregular Foot, Iranian Armoured Cavalry, Eastern Archers

The small kingdom of Kappadokia in east central Asia Minor secured its independence from the Seleucid
kingdom circa 260 BC and remained independent, apart from brief periods of occupation by Mithridates
VI of Pontus, until it was converted from a client kingdom to a Roman province in 17 AD. Its army
consisted of lightly equipped infantry and excellent cavalry.
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Nabataean 260 BC - 106 AD
Light Horse Archers, Massed Archers, Arab Camelry

The Arab Nabataean kingdom in northern Arabia arose in the late 4th century BC and survived as an
independent state until it was annexed by the Romans in 106 AD. Its capital, Petra, remains one of the
wonders of the world. It armies were largely based on horse and foot archers.
Map set: Desert
Graeco-Bactrian 250-130 BC
Light Horse Archers, Cataphracts, Armoured Noble Lancers

The Graeco-Bactrian kingdom, north-west of India, was founded by Diodotos I when as governor of
Bactria he seceded from the Seleucid Empire circa 250 BC. Subsequent Seleucid attempts at reconquest
were repelled, and the kingdom expanded into India. The army had a core of Hellenistic troops, but its
main strength was the Bactrian cavalry, armoured lancers and unarmoured horse archers. The kingdom
eventually fell to the nomadic Yuezhi circa 130 BC.
49
Parthian 250 BC - 225 AD
Light Horse Archers, Cataphracts, Unarmoured Horse Archers

The Parthian Empire was founded by Arsaces I who, as leader of the nomadic Parni tribe, conquered the
Seleucid province of Parthia in 247 BC while it was in revolt. From there the Parthians steadily expanded
at the expense of the Seleucid kingdom until they became neighbours of the Roman Empire following
the Roman annexation of the remnants of the Seleucid kingdom in 63 BC. They inflicted their first defeat
on an invading Roman army at Carrhae in 53 BC, and thereafter repelled multiple Roman invasions until
they fell to the army of their Sassanid vassals in 224 AD. The Parthian army mainly consisted of
unarmoured horse archers, supported by fully armoured cataphract lancers and sometimes infantry
levies.
Thracian 211-51 BC
Massed Thracian Peltists, Light Javelin Horse, Warband (Loose Order)

This list covers the period between the ousting of the Celts from Tylis and the establishment of the
Roman client kingdom. Although the Celts were no longer in charge, it is evident that they had strongly
influenced Thracian culture, and this is reflected in the army choices.
50
Seleucid 205-167 BC, Seleucid 166-125 BC, Seleucid 124-63 BC
Pike Phalanx, Cataphracts, Romanized Argyraspids

dust settled, Seleukos held the bulk of the former Persian Empire except Egypt, his kingdom stretching
from the Eastern Aegean to India. The Seleucid kingdom lasted until 63 BC when its last bastion, Syria,
was made into a Roman province. The Seleucid army was a typical Hellenistic army, based on the pike
phalanx. After 205 BC the lancers were reorganised as fully armoured cataphracts on armoured horses.
Indo-Greek 175 BC - 10 AD
Indian Archers, Indian Cavalry, Indian Javelinmen

The Indo-Greek kingdoms were formed when the Graeco-Bactrian king Demetrios I invaded India circa
180 BC. The Indo-Greek territories soon broke up into a number of independent kingdoms. The last of
these fell to the Yuezhi circa 10 AD. Indo-Greek armies included Hellenistic and Indian troops.
Map set: Tropical
51
Jewish 167-164 BC, Jewish 163-111 BC, Jewish 110-64 BC, Jewish 64
BC - 6 AD, Jewish Revolt 66-135 AD
Irregular Foot, Zealots, Archers

In 167 BC the Jews of Judaea revolted against the Seleucid kingdom. A successful guerrilla war led to
Judaean independence under the Hasmonean dynasty. After the purification of the Temple in 164 BC,
cavalry were fielded and probably a pike phalanx. Circa 110 BC John Hyrcanus replaced the former ad-
hoc forces with a greatly enlarged army, modelled on the Hellenistic system. In 63 BC Judaea became a
protectorate of Rome, with a Roman governor but a local king - initially Hasmonean but replaced by the
Idumaean Herodian dynasty in 37 BC. The army then probably came to include imitation legions. In 6 AD
the region came under direct Roman rule. Between 66 and 136 AD there were three major Jewish
revolts that were harshly suppressed by the Romans, eventually leading to the scattering of the Jewish
population around the known world.
Kushan 130 BC - 476 AD
Nomad Horse Archers, Indian Elephants, Cataphracts

The Yuezhi conquered the Graeco-Bactrian kingdom circa 130 BC, although the Kushan Empire was not
founded until 30 BC when the Kushan tribe gained supremacy over the other Yuezhi tribes. The empire
then expanded into India, annexing the Indo-Greek and many native kingdoms. The Kushan Empire and
its successor states survived until the late 5th century when they were overcome by the Hephthalite
Huns and the rise of the Gupta Empire. The Kushan army consisted of unarmoured horse archers and
fully armoured cataphracts, supported by elephants and other Indian levies.
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Map set: Tropical
Germanic Foot Tribes 105 BC - 259 AD, Germanic Foot Tribes 260-599
AD
Superior Warband (Close Order), Barbarian Light Javelinmen, Warband (Loose Order)
The Germanic tribes first came into conflict with Rome in 113 BC. Thereafter they became a major
concern of Roman foreign policy right through until the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD.
They included, amongst many others, the Cimbri, Teutones, Marcomanni, Alamanni, Franks, Burgundi,
Visigoths and early Vandals. Their main strength was in their infantry warbands, supplemented by small
numbers of cavalry.
Roman 105-25 BC
Veteran Roman Legionaries, Roman Legionaries, Mediocre Roman Legionaries

From 107 BC the Roman general Gaius Marius undertook a major reform of the Roman army. No longer
were the legions divided into 120-men maniples, but into cohorts of 480 men. These still formed up in a
chequerboard formation. All of the legionaries were now equipped the same, with pilum and sword.
Light troops and cavalry were no longer supplied by the legions, but by allied or subject nations. This
army continued the expansion of the Roman state almost to its final boundaries, before that state
dissolved into a series of civil wars that would end with Octavius becoming the first emperor of the
Roman Empire under the name of Augustus.
53
Indo-Skythian 95 BC - 50 AD
Nomad Horse Archers, Indian Archers, Cataphracts

Driven south by the advancing Yuezhi at the start of the 1st century BC, the Saka migrated south into
India where they rapidly conquered a large swathe of territory. In the 1st century AD they were in turn
replaced or vassalized by the Yuezhi Kushans.
Map set: Tropical
Slave Revolt 73-71 BC
Well-Armed Slaves, Light Javelinmen, Poorly-Armed Slaves

The Slave Revolt led by the Thracian gladiator Spartacus from 73 to 71 BC was the third in a series of
major slave revolts that had to be put down by military force in the later Roman Republic. The revolt
started when 200 gladiators escaped from the gladiator school of Lentulus Batiatus in Capua. Equipping
themselves with gladiatorial armour and weapons, they defeated the initial force sent after them and
thus acquired more weapons and armour. This pattern repeated itself as the slave army increased to
about 120,000 men, women and children. When eventually they were defeated, the Romans exacted a
horrible revenge - the 6,000 who were not killed on the battlefield were crucified along the Appian Way
from Rome to Capua.
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Ancient British 60 BC - 80 AD
Picked Warband (Loose Order), Celtic Chariots, Barbarian Slingers

The Ancient British tribes at the time of Julius Caesar's British expeditions of 55 and 54 BC, and
Claudius's successful invasion of 43 AD, were somewhat behind the times compared with their Gallic
cousins. They still made much use of chariots and massed slingers. In addition they had the usual
infantry warbands, plus light horse.
Indo-Parthian 60 BC - 130 AD
Cataphracts, Indian Elephants, Unarmoured Horse Archers

About the middle of the 1st century BC the Surens invaded the Indus Valley, conquering the last Indo-
Greek principalities and breaking the power of the Sakas. Suren supremacy in NW India lasted until the
Kushan invasion in the 1st century AD.
Map set: Tropical
55
Dacian 50 BC - 88 AD, Dacian 89-106 AD, Dacian (Carpi) 107-380 AD
Warband (Loose Order), Falxmen, Armoured Noble Lancers

The Dacians were the descendants of the earlier Thracians, living in an area of Eastern Europe centred
around modern Romania. In the late first and early second century AD the Romans fought a series of
wars against them, eventually making the southern half of Dacia into a Roman province. This was
abandoned again in the late third century. Like their Thracian ancestors, Dacian armies included men
armed with the dreaded falx, a curved blade with the cutting edge on the inside of the curve, on the end
of a long handle, capable of lopping off limbs. Dacian armies could also include allied Sarmatian lancers.
Scots-Irish 50 BC - 476 AD, Scots-Irish 477-899 AD
Picked Scots-Irish Foot, Barbarian Light Javelinmen, Scots-Irish Foot

Scotti was the Roman name for the Irish. The Irish forces that fought amongst themselves in Ireland and
raided Britain were mostly very lightly equipped javelinmen with a few chariots. They did not start
colonising western Scotland until the end of this era.
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Thracian (Roman Client) 50 BC - 46 AD
Massed Thracian Peltists, Imitation Legionaries, Thracians with Rhomphaia

The Romans set up a client kingdom in Thrace, that was often racked with dynastic squabbles and
rebellions. The Thracians took to wearing Roman and Celtic dress, and one of the last kings formed his
men into disciplined units that used Roman weapons and military standards.
Roman 24 BC - 196 AD, Roman 197-284 AD
Praetorian Guard, Roman Cavalry, Roman Auxilia

Under Augustus, the first Roman Emperor, the Roman army was reorganised. In addition to the legions,
there were now regular auxiliary infantry and cavalry units recruited from the non-citizens of the
provinces. Future expansion of the empire was relatively minor and not always long-lasting.
57
Caledonian 50-225 AD
Picked Warband (Loose Order), Celtic Chariots, Warband (Loose Order)

The Caledonians were similar to the southern Britons but mostly fielded infantry warbands with a few
chariots.
Pictish 210-476 AD, Pictish 477-850 AD
Pictish Spearmen, Barbarian Light Javelin Horse, Barbarian Archers

Picti (meaning 'painted' or 'tattooed') was the Roman name for the inhabitants of Scotland from the
third century AD. Their infantry carried small shields and fought with spears.
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Sassanid Persian 224-349 AD, Sassanid Persian 350-476 AD, Sassanid
Persian 477-590 AD, Sassanid Persian 591-628 AD, Sassanid Persian
629-651 AD
Elephants, Sassanid Heavy Foot, Expert Armoured Horse Archers

In 224 AD the Persians under the Sassanian Ardashir I overthrew their Parthian overlords and took over
the Parthian Empire. They were much more aggressive than the Parthians and the eastern border of the
Roman Empire became a much more dangerous place. Warfare between the Sassanid and
Roman/Byzantine empires continued until the Sassanids were conquered by the Muslim Arabs in the 7th
century.
Early Sassanid armies probably bore a strong resemblance to their Parthian predecessors, but later
armies, although they included cataphracts and elephants, relied for their main strength on their
armoured horse archers. Early Sassanid infantry was no match for the Romans, but by the mid 4th
century Sassanid armies could include better quality close-fighting foot.
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Hunnic (Western) 250-375 AD, Hunnic (Western) 376-454 AD, Hunnic
(Western) 455-559 AD
Fierce Nomad Horse Archers, Armoured Noble Lancers, Fierce Nomad Light Horse Archers
The westward advance of the fierce nomadic Huns across the steppe provoked the barbarian migrations
that made such a major contribution to the fall of the Western Roman Empire. Under Attila, who ruled
the Huns from 434 AD until his death in 453, they conquered a mighty empire, including the Ostrogoths,
Gepids and many other Germanic tribes amongst their vassals and raiding in force as far as Rome.
Following the death of Attila, however, their vassals successfully rebelled and the Huns sank back into
obscurity. The Huns fought exclusively as horse archers, though their vassals supplied Germanic lancers,
foot warbands and archers.
Armenian 253-476 AD, Armenian 477-627 AD
Massed Archers, Expert Armoured Horse Archers, Irregular Foot

The mountainous kingdom of Armenia maintained a precarious independence through most of this era.
In the 3rd century AD, under Sassanid Persian influence, the Armenian heavy cavalry probably at least
partly converted to Sassanid-style armoured horse archers. These were supported by unarmoured horse
archers and lightly equipped foot.
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Palmyran 258-273 AD
Roman Legionaries, Cataphracts, Massed Eastern Archers

In 260 AD the Sassanian King Shapur I defeated the Romans at the Battle of Edessa, capturing the
Emperor Valerian and subsequently using him as a mounting block. Odenathus, ruler of the rich trading
city of Palmyra (Tadmor in modern Syria), successfully campaigned against Shapur on behalf of the
Romans for several years. When he was assassinated in 267, however, his wife Queen Zenobia annexed
Roman Arabia and Egypt. In 272 the Emperor Aurelian defeated the Palmyrans and restored the eastern
provinces to the Empire. The Palmyran army had a core of cataphract lancers, supported by large
numbers of unarmoured horse and foot archers. Under Odenathus, it also included local Roman units.
Frankish 260-495 AD
Superior Warband (Close Order), Barbarian Archers, Warband (Close Order)

The Franks were a federation of German tribes living on the Lower and Middle Rhine from at least the
3rd century AD. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire they began to expand into Roman Gaul. In
486 AD King Clovis I defeated Syagrius, ruler of a Roman rump-state in northern Gaul (modern France)
known as the kingdom of Soissons, and thus gained control of most of northern Gaul.
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Germanic Horse Tribes 260-492 AD
Warband (Close Order), Noble Lancers, Barbarian Archers

In the third century AD some of the eastern Germanic tribes began to adopt Sarmatian style tactics,
converting their cavalry into charging lancers and vastly increasing their numbers. Along with the
Germanic foot tribes, these tribes made a major contribution to the fall of the Western Roman Empire.
Amongst others, they included the Ostrogoths, Gepids and later Vandals.
Palmyran 272-273 AD
Cataphracts, Massed Eastern Archers, Light Horse Archers

This is an alternative army list for the latter part of Queen Zenobia's regency, for those who take the
view that she would not have access to local Roman troops during the war against Aurelian. Those who
take the opposite view can use the previous army list.
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Roman 285-312 AD, Roman 313-378 AD
Legio Palatina, Roman Lancers (Late), Limitanei

At the end of the third century AD there was another major military reorganisation of the Roman
Empire. Instead of the army being almost entirely deployed on the frontiers, grand strategy turned to
defence in depth, with the formation of mobile field armies able to travel rapidly to repel any barbarian
incursion. Field army legions were much smaller than the original legions and were accompanied by elite
auxilia palatina units and cavalry. The emphasis became more on defence than attack. Infantry were
equipped with lighter javelins and lead-weighted throwing darts, as well as each unit being supported by
its own integral archers. Cavalry now included fully-armoured cataphracts, especially in the east.
Arab (City) 300-633 AD
Bedouin Foot, Bedouin Cavalry, Pre-Islamic City Arab Foot

This list represents the armies of the central Arabia oasis cities such as Mecca and Medina, and the
Sabaean-Himyaritic kingdoms of the south. Armies would often include large numbers of allied Bedouin
cavalry.
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Arab (Bedouin) 300-636 AD
Bedouin Cavalry, Arab Camelry, Bedouin Light Horse

From the early 5th century AD both the Romans and Sassanid Persians placed increasing reliance on
allied Arab tribes to guard their desert frontiers against other raiding Arabs. As a result, large
federations of Arab tribes evolved under the aegis of imperial patronage, fielding substantial forces of
lance-armed cavalry. The Salih, and their successors the Ghassanids, were allied to the Romans, the
Lakhmids to the Persians. This list represents the contingents supplied to their allies.
Map set: Desert
Hephthalite 350-570 AD
Fierce Nomad Horse Archers, Indian Archers, Fierce Nomad Light Horse Archers
The Hephthalites were a nomadic confederation who invaded the eastern provinces of the Sassanid
Empire in the fifth century AD and conquered their own empire in southern Central Asia and India. Their
forces included numerous horse archers plus Indian troops including elephants.
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Moorish 350-698 AD
Irregular Foot, Light Javelin Horse, Light Javelinmen

This list covers Moorish armies from the revolts against the Romans of the mid-4th century AD until the
Arab conquest at the end of the 7th century.
Moorish armies still consisted mainly of horse and foot skirmishers with javelins.
Roman 379-424 AD
Roman Auxilia Sagitarriorum, Veteran Roman Cavalry, Auxilia Palatina

Following the disastrous Roman defeat by the Goths at Adrianopolis in 378 AD, large numbers of Goths
and other Germanic tribesmen were recruited into the Eastern Roman army to make up the numbers.
Some also served as foederati, often for a single campaign, fighting in their native style.
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Romano-British 407-599 AD
Sub-Roman Foot, Noble Cavalry, Brythonic Foot

This list covers British armies from the departure of Constantine III's field army until 599 AD. The
composition of Sub-Roman British armies is largely conjectural.
Breton 411-579 AD
Armoured Noble Lancers, Brythonic Foot, Nomad Horse Archers

In the 5th century, large numbers of Britons emigrated from south-west Britain to Armorica (modern-
day Britanny) to get away from Saxon and Scots-Irish incursions. There may already have been veteran
Roman troops of British origin settled there in the late 4th century. Thus early Breton language and
culture was very similar to Welsh. In addition a large number of Alans also settled in the region. This
army list is somewhat speculative but reflects what is known of early Breton armies.
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Visigothic 419-621 AD
Armoured Noble Lancers, Warband (Close Order), Noble Cavalry

In 418 AD, following their campaign, at Roman instigation, against the Vandals, Alans and Suebi in the
Iberian peninsula (modern Spain), the Visigoths were rewarded with land in Gallia Aquitania (modern
south-west France). By 475 the kingdom had achieved full independence. By 500, it had extended its
territory to include most of modern southern France and most of Spain.
In 507, however, the Visigoths were defeated by the Franks and lost most of their territory in modern
France. The capital was moved first to Barcelona, then to Toledo.
In 554, the Byzantines reoccupied the south of the Iberian peninsula after being called in to help one
side in a Visigothic civil war. In 585, the Visigoths conquered the Suebic kingdom in the north-west and
incorporated it into their kingdom. The south was reconquered from the Byzantines by 624.
Roman 425-492 AD
Auxilia Palatina, Noble Lancers, Warband (Close Order)

By the second quarter of the fifth century AD the regular Roman army was much depleted. The shortfall
was made up by foederati recruited from the barbarian tribes who were wandering through the
territories of the Empire. In 476 the last Emperor of the Western Roman Empire was deposed by his
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foederati. The Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire, however, with its capital at Constantinople, rallied
and recovered, and did not fall until Constantinople was captured by the Ottoman Turks in 1453.
Vandal 442-499 AD, Vandal 500-534 AD
Nomad Horse Archers, Armoured Noble Lancers, Nomad Light Horse Archers
In 429 AD political machinations in the Roman high command led to the Roman commander in North
Africa, Boniface, inviting the Vandals under King Geiseric to cross over from modern Spain to Africa to
aid him against the central government. Once there they could not be dislodged. By 439 they had
captured Carthage itself and made it the capital of their new kingdom. In 442 the Romans, in order to
secure the corn supply from Africa, recognised the status quo.
As 'King of the Vandals and Alans', Geiseric used his large fleet to conquer Sardinia, Corsica, the Balearic
Islands and the western end of Sicily, and to pillage at will the coasts of the Mediterranean. In 455 the
Vandals sacked Rome itself. In 468 they defeated a large East Roman fleet sent against them, then
attempted unsuccessfully to invade southern Greece. On the way back to Carthage they slaughtered 500
hostages and threw them overboard. Despite this, a peace treaty was concluded in 476.
In 533 the Byzantines (East Romans) invaded under the command of Belisarius. The Vandals were
defeated at the Battles of Ad Decimum and Tricamarum. In 534 King Gelimer surrendered to the
Byzantines, thus ending the Vandal Kingdom.
The Vandal armies fielded against the Byzantines in Africa consisted entirely of cavalry.
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Anglo-Saxon 449-599 AD
Superior Warband (Close Order), Barbarian Archers, Warband (Close Order)

Jutes, Angles and Saxons began to settle in SE Britain from the middle of the 5th century AD. In this
period they fought entirely on foot.
Kingdom of Soissons 461-486 AD
Limitanei, Roman Cavalry, Warband (Close Order)

The so-called 'Kingdom of Soissons' was a Roman enclave in northern Gaul which existed from 461,
when the Magister Equitum per Gallias, Aegidius, seceded following the murder of the Emperor
Majorian, until the defeat of his son Syagrius by the Franks under Clovis I at the Battle of Soissons in 486.
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Hunnic (Sabir) 463-558 AD
Fierce Nomad Horse Archers (D), Warband (Close Order), Fierce Nomad Light Horse Archers
The Sabir occupied the Caspian Depression north of the Caspian Sea following the fall of the Western
Hunnic Empire in 454 AD. They supplied mercenary allied contingents to the Sassanids until 552, when
they switched sides to the Byzantines. Soon after, they were conquered by the Avars. Sabir armies
mostly comprised horse archers, but they also fielded fierce and effective foot.
Welsh 477-599 AD, Welsh 600-1049 AD
Brythonic Foot, Noble Cavalry, Barbarian Light Javelinmen

Following the contraction of Roman control of Britain in the late 4th century AD, the various Christian
British states in Wales were left to govern themselves. The country was divided into a number of
separate kingdoms, the largest being Gwynedd in the north west and Powys in the east. As the British
kingdoms of southern and eastern Britain fell to the Anglo-Saxons, pressure came to be felt by the
Welsh. At the Battle of Chester (613 or 616), the forces of Powys and other British kingdoms were
defeated by the Northumbrians under Æthelfrith. After this battle land contact was severed between
Wales and the northern British kingdoms of Elmet, Gododdin, Rheged and Strathclyde.
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Byzantine 493-550 AD
Veteran Byzantine Lancers, Limitanei, Byzantine Flankers

This list covers the armies of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire, from the final demise of the
Western Empire in 493 AD until the widespread adoption of lances for some ranks of the line cavalry
circa 550. Between 533 and 555 the Emperor Justinian I's generals, principally Belisarius (and later
Narses), reconquered the province of Africa (modern Tunisia) from the Vandals, Italy and modern
Slovenia, Croatia and Bosnia from the Ostrogoths, and southern Hispania from the Visigoths.
Infantry could still be fielded in substantial quantities, but the mainstay of the army was armoured horse
archers. The best of these, the generals' bucellarii units, were also armed with lance. While bucellarii
may or may not all have been double armed with lance and bow, the slightly later Byzantines found it
impossible to train all the men in a unit up to the same standard with both weapons. Thus such units are
given only 50% bow capability.
Gepid 493-567 AD
Warband (Close Order), Noble Lancers, Barbarian Archers

The Gepids were an East Germanic tribe first mentioned circa 260 AD, when they invaded Dacia
(modern Romania) together with the Goths. They occupied the Carpathian basin from this time until
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their final demise. In the 4th century they became tributary first to the Ostrogoths, then to the Huns.
They fought under King Arderic for Attila at the Battle of Campus Mauriacus in 451. Together with the
Ostrogoths, they overthrew Hunnic power at the Battle of Nedao in 454, following the death of Attila.
From 546 they were defeated several times by the Lombards. They were finally conquered by the
Lombards' Avar allies in 567.
The Gepids fielded large numbers of lancer cavalry, together with warband and archer foot.
Lombard 493-567 AD
Noble Lancers, Barbarian Archers, Armoured Noble Lancers

The Lombards were a Germanic tribe living near the mouth of the Elbe, until they began to migrate
during the upheavals of the late 4th century AD. By the early 6th century they were living west of the
Gepids, against whom they fought a series of wars before inciting the Avars to finally overthrow the
Gepid kingdom in 567. They themselves migrated into Italy in 568.
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Ostrogothic 493-561 AD
Spearmen, Armoured Noble Lancers, Massed Barbarian Archers

In 488, under King Theodoric the Great, the Ostrogoths set out, at the request of the Eastern Roman
Emperor Zeno, to conquer Italy from King Odoacer, the Sciri foederate who had deposed the last
Western Roman Emperor in 476. By 493 Odoacer was defeated and killed and Theoderic became King of
Italy, ruling modern Italy, Slovenia, Croatia and Bosnia.
In theory he acted as viceroy for the Roman Emperor in Constantinople, and he scrupulously observed
the outward forms of this, but in reality he was an entirely independent ruler. The Goths, who were
mostly settled in the north, kept largely separate from the native population, were subject to Gothic law
and formed the army of the kingdom. The civil administration, however, was staffed by Romans, the
Senate functioned as before, and the native population continued to be subject to Roman law.
Theoderic also exercised suzerainty over the Visigothic Kingdom in modern southern France and Spain.
When the Visigoths were defeated by the Franks in 507, the Ostrogothic army campaigned against the
Franks and managed to save a coastal strip for the Visigoths as well as gaining control of Provence for
the Ostrogothic kingdom. Theoderic died in 526.
In 535, the Byzantine (East Roman) Emperor Justinian sent an invasion force under Belisarius. This was
initially successful, the Gothic capital Ravenna fell in 540, and the kingdom was ostensibly conquered,
apart from Ticinum and Verona, north of the Po. Following the recall of Belisarius to command against a
new attack by the Sassanid Persians in the East, however, the Goths began to recover, aided by the lack
of cooperation between the Byzantine generals left in Italy. Under King Totila, the Goths defeated
several Roman forces and regained much of the kingdom.
Belisarius returned in 544, but with inadequate forces he was unable to achieve any great success.
Justinian then sent the eunuch Narses with larger forces. The Goths were defeated at Taginae in 552 and
Mons Lactarius in 553.
The Byzantines did not enjoy their victory for long. In 568 the Lombards invaded and conquered more
than half of Italy.
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Frankish 496-599 AD
Warband (Close Order), Noble Cavalry, Sub-Roman Foot

In 486 AD, Clovis I, King of the Salian Franks and founder of the Merovingian dynasty, defeated Syagrius,
“King” of a Roman rump-state in north-west modern France. In 496 he converted to Catholic
Christianity. In 507 he defeated the Visigoths in southern France and forced them to retreat to their
Iberian possessions. During his long reign he also conquered the Ripuarian Franks (on the Rhine) and the
Alamanni, and reduced the Bretons to vassal status. At his death in 511, his rule extended over most of
modern France and well into modern Germany.
On his death, as was the Frankish custom, his Kingdom was divided between his four sons, Chlothar I in
Soissons, Childebert I in Paris, Chlodomer in Orleans and Theuderic I in Rheims. During their reigns, the
Thuringians (532), Burgundi (534), and Saxons and Frisians (circa 560) were conquered and incorporated
into the Frankish kingdoms.
In 558 the Kingdom was (briefly) reunited under Chlothar I, but on his death in 561, it was divided again
between his four sons. Fratricidal civil war followed, and this was the pattern in succeeding generations.
The main divisions of Francia came to be Neustria (northern France), Austrasia (Germany), Burgundy
(south-east France) and Aquitaine (south-west France).
In this period Frankish and Alemannic infantry, like other Germanic warriors, still fought in the
traditional warband style of their ancestors. Gallo-Roman troops were also incorporated into the army,
sometimes fighting under Roman standards. Circa 600 AD there was a widespread change throughout
western Europe to shieldwall tactics.
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Slav 500-832 AD
Barbarian Archers, Irregular Foot, Barbarian Light Javelinmen

The Slavic tribes of the Venets, the Antes and the Sklavens (Sklavinoi) first appear in Byzantine records in
the early 6th century AD, invading the Danubian provinces of the Empire. By the end of their migratory
movements, Slavic territory included most of the former Yugoslavia, the interior of central Greece and
even much of the Peloponnese.
This list also covers the Slavic tribes of Northern, Central and Eastern Europe up to 832 AD.
Indian 546-599 AD
Indian Archers, Indian Elephants, Indian Javelinmen

The era following the fall of the Gupta Empire was a period of chaos, especially in the northern region of
the sub-continent, with a multitude of smaller city-states all vying for power.
Map set: Tropical
75
Byzantine 551-578 AD, Byzantine 579-599 AD
Byzantine Lancers, Dismounted Noble Lancers, Noble Lancers (Dismountable)

By 555 AD, the Emperor Justinian's ambitious project to reconquer the Western Roman Empire from the
Germanic tribes had reached its fullest success - Africa (modern Tunisia), Italy, modern Slovenia, Croatia
and Bosnia, and the south of modern Spain were back under Roman (Byzantine) control. Justinian and
his great general, Belisarius, both died in 565.
In 568, the majority of Italy was conquered by the Lombards. The Byzantine possessions in Spain were
reduced by the Visigoths to a narrow coastal strip by 575, and finally lost by 624.
Byzantine organisation of this period is described in the Strategikon of the Emperor Maurikios (582-
602). Although the ideal was for all ranks of the cavalry to be armed with lance and bow, it was soon
found impossible to train all the men up to the same standard with both weapons. Thus such units are
given only 50% bow capability.
Turkish 552-599 AD
Nomad Horse Archers, Expert Armoured Horse Archers, Nomad Light Horse Archers
The Göktürks, a confederation of nomadic Turkic tribes, rose in the mid 6th century to become the
dominant power in Central Asia. They are attributed with forcing the westward migration of the Avars
into Europe, as well as engaging in conflict with Sassanid Persia and China.
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Avar 553-557 AD, Avar 558-631 AD, Avar 632-826 AD
Bulgar Horse Archers, Irregular Foot, Expert Armoured Horse Archers

Migrating westwards in the mid 6th century AD, as a result of pressure from the Göktürks, the nomadic
Avars rapidly subjugated the Sabir and Kutrigur Huns (Bulgars) and the various Slavic tribes. Having been
bought off by the Byzantine (East Roman) Emperor Justinian I, they invaded Germany and reached as far
north as the Baltic before being fought to a standstill by the Franks. They then turned their attention to
the Pannonian plain (modern Hungary), allying with the Lombards against the Gepids, who were
subjugated in 567. Pressure on the Lombards then caused them to migrate into Italy in 568.
The Avars then took to raiding the Balkan provinces of the Byzantine Empire. The Emperor Maurikios
was campaigning against them beyond the Danube when his refusal to withdraw for the winter caused
the army to mutiny. His subsequent murder provided the pretext for a Sassanid Persian invasion, which
gave the Avars a free hand in the Balkans. In 626 the Avars and Persians besieged Constantinople from
each side of the Bosporus, but failed to capture it. The Avars then retreated to Pannonia, leaving their
former Slav subjects in control of most of the former modern Yugoslavia, the interior of central Greece
and much of the Peloponnese. The Bulgars threw off Avar control circa 631.
At the beginning of the 9th century the Avar state was finally destroyed by the Franks under
Charlemagne and the Bulgars under Krum.
Although most Avar cavalry carried lance as well as bow, it is clear from the Strategikon that they were
primarily horse archers, preferring to fight at a distance, so most of them have not been given lancers
capability and are depicted without lances to make this more obvious. Units classified as lancers in the
army list could be Avars, Bulgars or Gepids.
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Lombard 568-569 AD, Lombard 570-649 AD
Armoured Noble Lancers (Dismountable), Warband (Close Order), Bulgar Light Horse Archers
In 568 AD the Lombards, under King Alboin, invaded Italy. The invasion force also included Bavarians,
Saxons, Suebi, Gepids and Bulgars. The country had not yet recovered from the Gothic wars, and the
Byzantine forces were inadequate to defend it against this horde. The Lombards swiftly conquered
northern Italy, creating a Lombard Kingdom there, with its capital at Pavia. They also pressed on into
central and southern Italy, forming the Lombard duchies of Spoleto and Benevento, which soon became
semi-independent.
The Byzantines retained control of a narrow corridor from Ravenna to Rome (between the Lombard
Kingdom and the Duchies of Spoleto and Benevento), Calabria (the toe of Italy), part of Apulia (the heel
of Italy) and Sicily. Together, the mainland territories formed the Exarchate of Ravenna.
Khazar 568-737 AD, Khazar 738-969 AD
Armoured Noble Lancers (Dismountable), Khazar Guard Infantry, Nomad Horse Archers
The Khazars first enter history as subjects of the Göktürks, but by the middle of the 7th century AD they
were fully independent. Their empire was based on the Volga river basin and stood astride a number of
important trade routes from which they drew their wealth and much of their power. In addition to Turks
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the Khazars ruled Eastern Slavs and Alans amongst their subject populations. The Khaganate was
decisively defeated circa 968 by the Kiev Rus led by Sviatoslav. The Khazars are possibly most famous for
their conversion to Judaism, around the middle of the 8th century.
Although of Turkish descent the Khazars are noted, and depicted, as using lances rather than being
mainly horse archers. Khazar grave finds show what appear to be dismounted noble cavalrymen fighting
on foot with their lances held in both hands.
At some time in the 8th century, possibly following their defeat by the Arabs in 737, the Khazars
recruited a standing army based around Arsiyah who were armoured horse archers rather like the later
Abbasid ghilman. These were recruited from Moslems, mainly from Khwarism, on condition that they
did not have to fight other Moslems.
Map set: Steppe
Breton 580-931 AD
Noble Cavalry, Barbarian Light Javelin Horse, Armoured Noble Cavalry

Later Breton armies consisted almost entirely of javelin armed cavalry.
79
Anglo-Saxon 600-870 AD, Anglo-Saxon 871-949 AD, Anglo-Saxon
950-1016 AD
Shieldwall (Offensive), Mounted Hirdsmen, Hirdsmen

By the early 7th century AD, Anglo-Saxon England had stabilised into a number of rival kingdoms, the
more important of which were Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, Kent and Wessex. Christianity was
adopted, the last pagan king, Penda of Mercia, dying in 655.
Viking raids on Britain began in 793, but Danish settlement started in 865 when a large army of Danish
Vikings wintered in East Anglia. In 867 they captured York and conquered Northumbria, placing a puppet
English king on the throne. King Æthelred of Wessex and his brother, Alfred (later King Alfred the Great),
counterattacked at Nottingham, but the Danes remained safely behind fortifications and no battle
occurred. King Burgred of Mercia then made peace with them, recognising their rule over the area
around Nottingham in return for them leaving the rest of Mercia alone.
In 870 the Danes defeated and killed King Edmund of East Anglia and conquered that kingdom. Æthelred
and Alfred continued the fight, but suffered more defeats than victories. By the winter of 877, Alfred,
now king following his brother's death, was forced into hiding at Athelney in the marshland of the
Somerset Levels. In 878, however, he gathered a new army, defeated the Danes at Chippenham, and
forced their leader Guthrum to accept peace and Christianity. After a further Danish defeat in 884, the
area of the Danelaw (the area controlled by the Danes) was permanently fixed - comprising the whole of
England north of a line drawn from London to Chester, excluding eastern Northumbria.
The standard Anglo-Saxon battle formation was the shieldwall (bord-weal or scyld-burh) much as
described under the Viking list, though less use was made of axes and archery.
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British 600-1030 AD
Shieldwall (Defensive), Brythonic Foot, Raw Shieldwall

Following the collapse of the lowland kingdoms at the end of the 6th century, the remaining British
kingdoms included, in the north, Elmet (annexed by Northumbria in 616 or 626), Gododdin (annexed by
Bernicia circa 638), Rheged (annexed by Northumbria some time before 730), and Strathclyde (annexed
by the Scots between 1019 and 1053). Also the south-western kingdoms of Dumnonia and Cornwall
(finally annexed by England by the reign of Edward the Confessor 1042-1066).
Byzantine 600-649 AD
Byzantine Massed Archers, Veteran Byzantine Lancers, Skoutatoi

The deposition and murder of the Emperor Maurikios (582-602) by Phokas (602-610) formed the pretext
for a Sassanid Persian invasion by Khosrau II. The eastern provinces of the Empire, including
Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine and Egypt, were quickly conquered, and in 626 Constantinople was
besieged on the Asian side by the Persians and on the European side by their allies the Avars. However,
the walls of Constantinople were strong, and the Emperor Herakleios (610-641) adopted the strategic
master-stroke of sailing up the Black Sea to attack Persia from the rear. Herakleios's campaign into the
Persian heartland sapped Persian morale, already exhausted by the long war. Khosrau II was
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assassinated in 628 and the lost provinces were restored to the Empire. By then, however, most of
Illyria, the interior of central Greece and even much of the Peloponnese had been lost to the Slavs.
From 634, the Arabs, newly united by Mohammed, invaded and had conquered Syria, Palestine, Egypt
and Mesopotamia from the Byzantines by 646. These provinces were never to be recaptured.
Byzantine organisation of this period is described in the Strategikon of the Emperor Maurikios. Although
the ideal was for all ranks of the cavalry to be armed with lance and bow, it was soon found impossible
to train all the men up to the same standard with both weapons. Thus such units are given only 50%
bow capability.
The heavy foot normally formed up with long spear and large shield, with their attached archers either
behind or within the files. For fighting in wooded regions, rough terrain and narrow passes they were re-
equipped with short spear and medium sized shield.
Frankish 600-750 AD
Shieldwall (Offensive), Armoured Lancers, Dsmtd Armoured Lancers

By the 7th century AD, Merovingian Francia was divided into the kingdoms of Neustria (northern
France), Austrasia (Germany), Burgundy (south-east France) and Aquitaine (south-west France).
By the end of the century, the Merovingian kings were largely puppets, real power being held by
successive Mayors of the Palace. Under the rule of Charles Martel (the Hammer), Mayor of the Palace of
both Austrasia (from 714) and Neustria (from 717), the Frankish kingdoms were reunited. In 732 he led
the army that defeated the invading Arabs at the Battle of Tours. His son Pepin was crowned King of the
Franks in 751. The last puppet Merovingian, Childeric III, was deposed and forced to enter a monastery.
An earlier skirmishing style of cavalry combat seems to have been replaced circa 600 by the fierce
charge for which the Franks became famous. By then infantry of tribal or Gallo-Roman descent were
probably indistinguishable from each other, and had adopted a shield-wall style of combat.
This list can also be used for Bavarian armies.
82
Indian (Hindu North) 600-1049 AD, Indian (Hindu South) 600-1049 AD
Indian Close Fighters, Superior Indian Lancers, Indian Archers

The era following the fall of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century AD was a period of chaos, especially in
the north. For a brief period, the Vardhan Empire under Harsa (606-647) provided some stability for
most of the region. However, the fall of the Vardhan Empire resulted in more division of territory into a
multitude of smaller city-states who were all vying for power.
In 712, the Arab Muslim general Muhammad bin Qasim conquered most of the Indus region (in modern
Pakistan) for the Umayyad Caliphate, incorporating it as the 'As-Sindh' province. After several incursions,
the Hindu kings east of the Indus were able to halt Arab expansion and contain them in Sindh.
Several Islamic sultanates under both foreign and converted Rajput rulers were established across the
north-west over next few centuries. From the 10th century, Sindh was ruled by Muslim Rajput dynasties.
Notable Hindu empires during this period included the Gurjara-Pratihara Empire in the north-west from
the 8th to the 11th century, the Pala Empire in the north-east from the 8th to the 12th century, the
Chalukya kingdom in the west from the 6th to the 8th century, replaced by the Rashtrakuta kingdom
from the 8th to the 10th century; also the First Pandyan Empire in the south from the 6th to the 10th
century, followed by the Chola Empire, which lasted until the 13th century.
Map set: Tropical
Saxon (Continental) 600-804 AD
Shieldwall (Offensive), Mounted Hirdsmen, Raw Shieldwall

This list covers the Continental Saxons of North Germany from 600 AD until their final conquest by
Charlemagne in 804. It can also be used for Frisian armies.
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Turkish 600-1036 AD
Turkish Light Horse, Turkish Cavalry, Expert Armoured Horse Archers

This list covers non-Khazar Turkish tribes such as the Qarluqs, pre-Seljuq Oghuzz, and Türgesh.
Visigothic 622-717 AD
Armoured Noble Lancers, Shieldwall (Defensive), Noble Cavalry

By 624 AD the south of Spain had been reconquered from the Byzantines.
In 711 King Roderic (Rodrigo) was defeated and killed at the Battle of Guadalete by the invading
Ummayad Muslims under the command of Tariq ibn Ziyad. The Muslims soon conquered the whole of
the Iberian peninsula apart from a small strip in the north.
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Croatian 625-849 AD, Croatian 850-1102 AD
Armoured Cavalry, Irregular Foot, Lancers

The Croats arrived in modern Croatia in the 7th century, initially forming two dukedoms, which were
combined into a kingdom in the 10th century. After the defeat and death in 1097 of the last Croatian
king, Petar Svacic, at the Battle of Gvozd Mountain against King Coloman I of Hungary, Croatia accepted
dynastic union with Hungary under King Coloman in 1102. This lasted until 1918.
Serbian 625-849 AD, Serbian 850-1039 AD
Armoured Lancers, Irregular Foot, Lancers

The Serbs entered modern Serbia in the early 7th century, one of their first states being Raška, which
eventually became a kingdom in 1217 and the Serbian Empire in 1346.
85
Arab (Conquest) 629-637 AD, Arab (Conquest) 638-684 AD
Veteran Muslim Spearmen, Armoured Muslim Lancers, Massed Muslim Archers

Between 622 and 750 AD Islamic Arab armies conquered first Arabia, then the Sassanid Persian Empire
and the Levantine and North African provinces of the Byzantine Empire, and finally Visigothic Spain. The
territories of the Caliphate then stretched from Spain to India.
Non-Muslims faced by an Arab army would traditionally be offered three alternatives - to convert to
Islam with the same rights and responsibilities as any other Muslim, to remain in their current religion
but pay a higher rate of tax, or war to the finish.
Until circa 638 Muslim armies relied mainly on their infantry. Whilst swords played an important part in
Arab fighting, the new Muslim faith gave them much greater discipline and cohesion, the benefits of
which are demonstrated by their victories over numerically larger Roman and Persian forces such as at
the battles of Yarmouk and Qadisiyya in 636, and Nihawand in 642. Classifying them as Offensive
Spearmen gives the correct results.
With the acquisition of large numbers of horses in 638, many of the foot warriors were upgraded to
cavalry in the new standing Jund forces settled in permanent camps in the conquered areas. Following
the conquest of Persia a number of Sassanid troops joined the Arab army but continued to fight in their
usual manner. Dailami represent the former guard of the Sassanid governor of Iraq who also joined the
Arabs.
86
Bulgar 631-679 AD, Bulgar (Volga) 675-1237 AD, Bulgar (Danube)
680-851 AD, Bulgar (Danube) 852-1018 AD
Nomad Horse Archers, Armoured Noble Lancers, Expert Armoured Horse Archers
The Bulgars were initially a coalition of Hunnic tribes (Kutrigurs and Utigurs). The Khanate of Greater
Bulgaria (around the Sea of Azov) was formed circa 631 AD, when they threw off Avar rule. However,
following defeat by the Khazars circa 668, part of the horde fled north and part fled west. The western
branch, under Khan Asparukh, formed the Danubian Bulgar kingdom circa 680, incorporating the local
Slavic tribes. The northern branch fled up the Volga and formed the Volga Bulgar state.
Khan Krum (803-814) of the Danubian Bulgars conquered large chunks of Byzantine territory and
advanced to the walls of Constantinople, but died before he could press the assault. Between 968 and
1008 the Danubian Bulgar kingdom was gradually reconquered by the Byzantines.
Bulgar boyars were charging lancers by the early 9th century at the latest - whether they fought in this
way earlier or were more influenced by Avar tactical methods is uncertain.
Map set: Steppe (Northern Europe for both Danube army lists)
87
Armenian 639-717 AD
Armoured Noble Lancers, Irregular Foot, Light Horse Archers

Following separate defeats of the Byzantines and Sassanids by the Muslim Arabs in the 630s AD,
Armenia had to look to its own defences against the Arabs, led by Theodore Rshtuni, the former
Sassanid-appointed marzban (warden of the marches) of Persarmenia.
Alongside the Byzantine general Procopius, he repelled the first Arab attack into Armenia in 640. He was
unable to prevent the Arabs from pillaging the capital of Dvin in 642, but following a subsequent victory,
he was recognized as ruler of Armenia by the Emperor Constans II in 643.
A treaty was negotiated with the Arabs, which left Armenia with a degree of autonomy until the turn of
the 8th century, when the Umayyad Caliphate took over direct control of the country.
Dabuyid 642-760 AD
Veteran Dailami Foot, Armoured Horse Archers, Sassanid Heavy Foot

Following the Arab conquest of Sassanid Persia, the Zoroastrian Dabuyid dynasty maintained a
precarious independence In Tabaristan (south of the Caspian Sea) and parts of western Khorasan until
the Abbasid conquest in 760 AD.
88
Byzantine 650-739 AD, Byzantine 740-903 AD, Byzantine 904-962 AD
Tagmatic Lancers & Archers, Raw Skoutatoi, Thematic Lancers & Archers
The thematic system was initiated by the Emperor Herakleios (610-641) in response to the dangers
besetting the Byzantine (East Roman) Empire in the first half of the 7th century AD. The Empire was
divided into a number of administrative areas termed themes. The soldiers in each theme were granted
plots of land to farm, in return for part-time military service. They did not own their land, which was still
owned by the state, but pay requirements were correspondingly reduced. Moreover, their descendants
would be expected to follow them as thematic soldiers, removing the need for unpopular conscription
from the general population. The commander of each theme adopted the dual role of military
commander and civil governor - thus reversing the division between civil and military government
instituted by Diocletian in the 3rd century. The thematic system gave the Empire a new resilience that
allowed it to prosper for centuries.
Centrally based professional Tagmatic units were introduced circa 740. The kataphraktoi, introduced
circa 904, formed in a deep wedge, designed to break into the enemy army.
Large numbers of sectarians and deserters from the Caliphate came over to the Byzantines in the second
quarter of the 9th century. They were probably later assimilated into normal Byzantine units, but we
assume that initially at least they would have retained their previous fighting style.
89
Indian (Rajput) 650-1049 AD
Indian Elephants, Indian Archers, Superior Indian Lancers

Rajput-ruled kingdoms started to appear in Rajasthan in NW India from the middle of the 7th century
AD. All Rajputs claimed to be descended from the Kshatriya class, the traditional military order of the
Vedic people. The Rajputs were chronically unable to unite, and as they bore the brunt of the Muslim
invasions of India, they tended to suffer greatly despite many acts of great heroism. When facing defeat
the men would often ride to battle to die whilst the women would commit mass suicide, ritually
throwing themselves onto funeral pyres. Despite repeated defeats, they proved very resilient, re-
establishing their kingdoms when they had the chance, and some kingdoms were still in existence to
meet the Moghul invasion of the early 16th century.
Map set: Tropical
Lombard 650-775 AD, Lombard 776-1049 AD
Raw Shieldwall, Armoured Lancers, Massed Archers

In the 6th century the Lombards conquered northern Italy, creating a Lombard Kingdom there, with its
capital at Pavia, and pressed on into central and southern Italy, forming the Lombard duchies of Spoleto
and Benevento, which soon became semi-independent. The Byzantines retained control of a narrow
corridor from Ravenna to Rome, Calabria (the toe of Italy), part of Apulia (the heel of Italy) and Sicily.
Together, the mainland territories formed the Exarchate of Ravenna.
Ravenna fell to the Lombards in 751. In 754 the Pope called in the Frankish King Pepin III, who defeated
the Lombards and drove them out of the exarchate. In 756, accepting the forged 'Donation of
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Constantine' at face value, Pepin recognised the Pope's right to rule over the central Italian territories of
the Exarchate of Ravenna, thus creating the Papal States.
The Lombards went back on the offensive, recaptured Ravenna, and in 772 captured Rome. The Pope,
Hadrian I, appealed for help to the great Frankish king Charlemagne. The latter invaded in 773 and had
conquered the Lombard Kingdom by 774, taking the title 'King of the Lombards'. In 776 the Duchy of
Spoleto was also conquered. The Duchy of Benevento became an independent Principality, although
forced to accept Frankish suzerainty in 787. In the mid 9th century the Principality split up into
Principalities of Benevento, Salerno and Capua. Despite attacks by the Franks, the Byzantines and later
the Holy Roman Emperor, these survived until finally conquered by the Normans under Robert Guiscard
between 1053 and 1077.
Alan 651-1049 AD
Armoured Noble Lancers, Axemen, Nomad Horse Archers

By this time largely confined to the Caucasus, and at various times subject to the Avars, Bulgars, Khazars
or Georgians, the Alans always bounced back and continued to maintain their traditional Iranian
costume throughout the period.
91
Arab (Umayyad) 685-750 AD
Muslim Light Horse (Javelins), Raw Muslim Spearmen, Armoured Muslim Lancers
Although the Umayyads came to power in 661 there was no change to the Arab army until the reign of
'Abd al-Malik (685-705) who, as part of the continuing attempt to centralise the caliphate, reformed the
army so that it was no longer tribal in basis. Troops remained broadly the same although increasing
reliance was placed on cavalry, with the infantry adopting a more defensive tactical role. The quality of
the Jund troops outside of the Syrian Ahl al-Sham declined over time.
Despite continuing instability within the caliphate the Umayyads maintained the wars of conquest.
Visigothic Spain was invaded in 711 and even France was subject to raids in force until the Battle of
Tours (Poitiers) in 732. In the east, Khurasan was finally secured with the defeat of the Turkish Khazars
and Türgesh. The main military failure of the Umayyads was the abortive siege of Constantinople which
lasted from 717 to 718.
Spanish 718-899 AD, Spanish 900-1049 AD
Shieldwall (Defensive), Armoured Lancers, Irregular Foot

Don Pelayo, the first Asturian king, was a former member of the Visigothic court in Toledo who found
shelter in the Cantabrian Mountains after the Umayyad invasion of the Iberian Peninsula. From there he
began the Reconquista, leading local forces and Visigothic troops who had maintained resistance to the
invading Moslems in the mountains. During the 9th and 10th centuries AD, the Astur-Leónese kingdom
had to fight off several Viking raids and suffered from internal dynastic disputes, but nevertheless
managed to maintain its southwards expansion. In the early 11th century the kingdom was weakened by
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renewed internal conflicts, the attacks of the Andalusians led by Al-Mansur, and the expansionistic
policy of Sancho III of Navarre.
After the death of Sancho III in 1035 AD, his possessions were split between his four sons. Ramiro I
received the county of Aragon, now converted into a brand new kingdom. Garcia Sánchez II became the
new king of Navarre. Fernando inherited the County of Castile, and soon became King of León after a
short civil war against Bermudo III. Gonzalo Sánchez received the counties of Sobrarbe and Ribagorza,
also converted into a kingdom, but it was incorporated into Aragon at his death ten years later.
Catalonia had its origin in the Hispanic March, created by Charlemagne as a border region south of the
Pyrenees between the Frankish Kingdom and Umayyad Al-Andalus. The Franks conquered Barcelona in
801 and it became the capital of its most important county. After the death of the last Carolingian king
in 987, the Count of Barcelona Ramon Borrell did not recognise the new Capetian dynasty and
proclaimed independence.
Arab (Abbasid) 747-793 AD, Arab (Abbasid) 794-814 AD, Arab

(Abbasid) 815-835 AD, Arab (Abbasid) 836-873 AD, Arab
(Abbasid) 874-946 AD
'Abid al-shira, Armoured Muslim Lancers (Mediocre), Naffatun

Instability within the Umayyad caliphate eventually led to a revolution in favour of the caliph being a
member of the family of the Prophet. Despite expectation that this would be a descendant of the fourth
caliph, 'Ali, it turned out that the Khurasan based family of the Prophet's uncle, 'Abbas ibn Abd al-
Muttalin seized power, ruling as the Abbasid dynasty. To bolster their revolt, the Abbasids adopted black
flags to fulfil a prophesy that an army would come from the east under black banners.
Initial Abbasid armies were very similar to Umayyad ones, but in 794 a new army known as the Abbasiya
was raised in Khurasan. This probably included traditional armoured horse archers. The biggest change
to Muslim armies came in the wake of the civil war of 811-813 when the future caliph al-Mu'tasim
started to recruit Turkish slaves into the army. These became the famous ghilman (ghulam) cavalry,
soon coming to dominate the Abbasid military. Subsequently, they were the backbone of the armies of
many of the Muslim successor states. Similar professional troops were raised from non-slave recruits in
the East. From circa 874 black slave infantry were recruited in large numbers - the 'Abid al-shira.
Naffatun were armed with naphtha bombs - the medieval equivalent of Molotov cocktails.
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The last list also covers the Tulunid and Ikhshidid Egyptian states created by Abbasid governors who
assumed independence as Abbasid authority failed. The Tulunids ruled independently from 874 to 905
when the Abbasids regained control. The Ikhshidids ruled independently from 937 to 969 when they
were conquered by the Fatimids. Their armies were based on Turkish ghilman and black slave troops.
Frankish 751-887 AD
Armoured Lancers, Shieldwall (Defensive), Lancers

In 751 Pepin the Short was crowned King of the Franks, the first king of the Carolingian dynasty. In 759
he drove the Arabs out of southern France and annexed Aquitaine. In 768 he died, and was succeeded
by his sons Charles (Charlemagne) and Carloman.
Carloman died suddenly in 771, leaving Charlemagne as sole king. During his reign, which lasted 46
years, he conquered the Lombard kingdom in northern Italy (774), Saxony (777-797), Bavaria and
Carinthia (788). In 778 he conquered a strip of northern Spain, but failed to conquer the rest of the
Iberian peninsula from the Muslims. Beyond the eastern frontiers of his Empire, he forced the Avars and
various Slavic peoples to accept vassal status. In 800 he was crowned “Emperor of the Romans” by Pope
Leo III.
Following the death of Charlemagne's son Louis the Pious in 840, the empire was partitioned between
his sons. Though reunited briefly in 884, the Carolingian Empire was finally partitioned in 888 into the
kingdoms of West Francia (France), East Francia (Germany), Aquitaine, Italy, Upper and Lower Burgundy.
By this time cavalry had become the decisive arm. West Frankish cavalry were renowned among their
contemporaries for the fierceness of their charge, but were also willing to dismount and fight on foot
when necessary. East Frankish cavalry continued to use skirmishing tactics when mounted, but often
preferred to fight on foot.
This list can also be used for Bavarian armies up until the annexation of Bavaria by Charlemagne in 788.
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Andalusian 756-1049 AD
Muslim Cavalry (Light Spear), Muslim Irregular Foot, Muslim Light Horse (Javelins)
The Emirate of Cordoba was founded in 756 by Abd ar-Rahman I, the last survivor of the Umayyad
dynasty after the Abbasid revolution. Leading an army of Syrian Jund troops supported by North African
Berber tribesmen, he ended the internal disputes between different Muslim factions that had afflicted
Al-Andalus since the original invasion of Visigothic Spain in 711, and established a centralised power
independent from Baghdad with its capital at Cordoba.
In 929 Abd ar-Rahman III declared himself a Caliph, defeating his Muslim opponents and converting
Cordoba into the largest and richest city of Western Europe, in direct competition with Baghdad and
Constantinople. He failed, however, to defeat the Christian kingdoms in the north.
At the end of the 10th century the Caliphate reached its maximum extent under the military dictatorship
of the Hajib (Grand Vizier) Al-Mansur. After his death and that of his sons, from 1009 the Caliphate was
fragmented by civil war, encouraged by Christian interference, and was finally abolished in 1031. The
Andalusian state was then divided into a number of small kingdoms called Taifa kingdoms.
Navarrese 778-899 AD, Navarrese 900-1049 AD
Armoured Lancers, Irregular Foot, Light Javelin Horse

In the late 8th century AD, Charlemagne seized control over the Pyrenees in order to secure the
southern border of his empire against the Muslims. In 778, retiring from a failed expedition against
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Saragossa, he destroyed Pamplona on the way back north as a punishment for Navarrese sympathies
towards the Banu Qasi, a Muslim dynasty of Visigothic origin that ruled over the upper Ebro Valley. In
revenge, the local troops ambushed the rearguard of the Frankish army a couple of days later at
Roncesvalles, inflicting a severe defeat that inspired the famous Chanson de Roland.
Although the Franks nominally recovered control over Pamplona, this defeat was the beginning of the
process that led to the independence of Navarre with the final expulsion of the Franks by the
Andalusians with local support in 816, and the creation of the Kingdom of Pamplona in 824. In 859
Viking raiders sacked Pamplona and captured King García I.
Navarre reached its maximum expansion under Sancho III. He took control of Castile after the murder of
his father-in-law the Count, and conquered the capital of León in 1034. To the east, he took over the
Counties of Aragon, Ribagorza and Sobrarbe. At his death in 1035, however, he split his possessions
between his four sons.
Arab (North Africa) 789-999 AD, Arab (North Africa) 1000-1160 AD
Muslim Light Horse (Javelins), Raw Muslim Spearmen, Bedouin Cavalry

These lists cover the armies of the North African emirates, from their assumption of independence from
the Abbasid Caliphate until the rise of the Murabits. The Idrisids formed their own rival Shiite caliphate
in Morocco in 789 which lasted until about 926. The Aghlabids in Tunisia achieved de facto
independence by about 820. They subsequently conquered Sicily, which they held until conquered by
the Normans between 1060 and 1091.
The Shiite Fatimids replaced the Aghlabids in Tunisia in 909 and the earlier list represents their army
from this date until their Egyptian state started to employ Turks and Dailami circa 978. After the Fatimid
conquest of Egypt, the Zirid dynasty ruled Tunisia as their clients from 972. They were finally conquered
by the Almohades circa 1160. The Maghrawanids ruled Morocco from the early 11th century until about
1064 when they were conquered by the Murabits.
Armies were based around converted (albeit initially only nominally) Berber tribesmen fighting in a
similar style to the Arabs, although the Aghlabids, Fatimids and Zirids also recruited black slave troops as
guards and to provide a standing army.
96
Viking 790-899 AD, Viking (Ireland) 795-899 AD, Viking 900-1049
AD, Viking (Ireland) 900-1049 AD
Berserkers, Shieldwall (Offensive), Huscarls (Spear)

From the late 8th century AD the Scandinavian peoples of Denmark, Norway and Sweden erupted forth
from their homeland in their famous longships as raiders, merchants, invaders and settlers. Their travels
took them as far afield as Russia and Constantinople in the east, Spain and North Africa in the south and
Newfoundland in the west. Their raids terrorized the coastal areas of western Europe and often probed
far up the larger rivers. Their settlements played a major role in the history of England, Scotland, Ireland
and Russia. Viking settlers in France became the Normans, who had a major part to play in English,
French and Italian history and the First Crusade. The term Viking comes from Old Norse “vikingr” (“one
who came from the fjords”).
The standard Viking battlefield formation was the shieldwall (skjaldborg), comprising men armed with
various combinations of sword, axe, throwing spears and thrusting spears. This formation is best
represented under the rules as Offensive Spearmen. Archers would form up in the rear ranks. They are
assumed to be included in the overall effect of the shieldwall. The famous two-handed Viking axe came
into use from about 900. Units with Heavy Weapon capability are those with a high proportion of men
armed with two-handed axe. Vikings often rode to battle on horses, but usually dismounted to fight.
Berserkers were a class of warrior who habitually worked themselves up into a frenzy in battle,
becoming immune to fear and fighting with the strength of madmen, heedless of wounds. They were
often used as chieftain's bodyguards or placed in the front of the shieldwall, but sometimes fought as a
separate assault force.
97
Khorasanian 821-1003 AD
Muslim War Elephants, Veteran Dailami Foot, Ghilman

This list covers the Tahirid (821-873), Saffarid (861-1003) and Samanid (875-999) dynasties in the
eastern provinces of the former Abbasid Empire.
The Samanids were the most successful of these. Descended from a Persian family they presided over a
renaissance of Persian tradition although they remained staunchly Muslim. They fell to the expanding
power of the Ghaznavids under Mahmud the Great.
Khorasanian armies relied heavily on the local Dihqan class of landowners fighting in a style similar to
that of their Sassanid forebears. However, the Saffarids and Samanids, particularly the latter, also
recruited Turkish ghilman in large numbers.
Magyar 830-1049 AD
The Finno-Ugrian Magyars erupted into European history in the 9th century AD. Prior to 830 they lived
around the Don River south west of the Ural mountains in modern Russia, subject to the Khazar
98
Khaganate. Following a civil war in the Khaganate (or possibly as a result of attacks by the Pechenegs),
three Kabar tribes of the Khazars joined the Magyars and the combined horde migrated west to the
modern Ukraine between the Carpathians and the Dnieper River. From 862 they launched a series of
raids against the Eastern Frankish (German) Empire, Great Moravia and Bulgaria.
In the 890s, probably as a result of attacks by the Bulgarians and the Pechenegs, they moved under their
leader Árpád into the Carpathian basin (modern Hungary and Romania). From there they continued
their raids across continental Europe, defeating German armies at Pressburg (907) and Augsburg (910),
and plundering Alsace, Basle, Burgundy, Provence and Saxony. They overran much of the Slovakian
territory of Great Moravia by 925.
The Magyar defeat by the Germans at Lechfield in 955 ended their threat to Western Europe, although
they continued to raid the Balkans until 970. In 1000 their High Prince, Vajk, accepted Christianity. He
was recognised as King of Hungary by Pope Sylvester II and ruled under his Christian name of István
(Stephen) I.
Magyar armies consisted almost entirely of mounted horse archers. Even after their conquest of the
Carpathian basin they made little use of their Slav subjects as troops.
Moravian 833-907 AD
Shieldwall (Defensive), Cavalry, Massed Archers

Founded by Prince Mojmír I in 833, the Great Moravian Empire was a Slavic state in Central Europe. At
its greatest extent, under King Svätopluk I (871-894), it included modern Slovakia and the Czech Republic
as well as parts of Austria, Germany, Hungary, Romania, Poland, Serbia, Slovenia, Croatia and Ukraine.
Weakened by war with the Kingdom of Germany (Eastern Francia) and internal dynastic disputes, it was
overrun by the Magyars in the early 10th century.
This list can also be used for other Northern and Central European Slav armies.
99
Pecheneg 850-1122 AD
The Pechenegs (Patzinaks) were a nomadic or semi-nomadic Turkic people who defeated the Magyars in
the mid-9th century AD, pushing them westwards, and occupied much of the south-western Eurasian
steppe.
They were commonly used as allies or mercenaries by the Byzantines. They came into frequent conflict
with the Rus, besieging Kiev in 968, though sometimes they allied with the Rus against the Byzantines. In
1036 they were decisively defeated by the Rus, following which they were driven from the steppe by the
Cumans and migrated to the north bank of the Danube. In 1091 they were severely defeated at
Levounion by a combined Byzantine and Cuman army under the Emperor Alexios I Komnenos. They
were again defeated by the Cumans in 1094 and the Byzantines under John II Komnenos at Beroia in
1122. Thereafter they survived only as remnant populations.
Map set: Steppe
Scots 851-1051 AD
Pictish Spearmen, Cavalry, Huscarls (Spear)

Traditionally, the Picts and Scots were united by Kenneth MacAlpin (Cináed mac Ailpín) in the middle of
the 9th century AD, but this tradition was developed some considerable time after the events. It was his
grandson Constantine II (Constantín mac Áeda) who was the first recorded King of Alba (Scotland), from
circa 900. Initially the kingdom only ruled north of the Forth and Clyde rivers. The south-west of modern
Scotland was the British kingdom of Strathclyde and the south-east was the English kingdom of Bernicia,
100
a sub-kingdom of Northumberland. Moreover, in the north and west, Caithness, Sutherland and the
Western Isles were in the hands of the Viking Jarls of Orkney.
Bernicia may have been ceded to Scotland by the English King Edgar the Peaceful in 973, but was
certainly Scottish after their victory at Carham-on-Tweed in 1018. Strathclyde was conquered some time
between 1019 and 1053.
Rus 860-959 AD, Rus 960-1053 AD
Shieldwall (Offensive), Armoured Cavalry, Massed Archers

By the mid 9th century AD, Vikings (mainly of Swedish origin) had long been established as traders and
raiders along the major rivers of Russia. In 860 they sailed across the Black Sea with 200 ships and raided
Constantinople itself. About the same time, a Viking named Rurik was selected as ruler by several Slavic
and Finno-Ugrian tribes in north-west Russia, establishing himself first at Novgorod, and later at Kiev,
and ending the tribute to the Khazar Khaganate. His dynasty provided the princes that ruled Russia
throughout the Middle Ages.
By the reign of Svyatoslav I (945-972) Kievan princes had adopted Slavic names, but their druzhina
(huscarls) were still mainly of Scandinavian origin. Circa 968 Svyatoslav decisively defeated the Khazar
Khaganate and sacked the Khazar capital Atil. Around the same time he also invaded the Danubian
Bulgar kingdom and dealt it a series of defeats from which it would never recover.
Vladimir the Great (980-1015) adopted Orthodox Christianity. By the mid 11th century the Kievan state
included modern Belarus, Ukraine and western Russia. Thereafter endemic internecine strife between
the steadily increasing numbers of Rurikid princes broke the state up into numerous rival principalities.
The standard Rus battlefield formation was the shieldwall, comprising men armed with various
combinations of sword, axe, throwing spears and thrusting spears. This formation is best represented as
Offensive Spearmen. Druzhina usually fought on foot, but sometimes fought mounted. From the mid
10th century nomad horse archers were hired as mercenaries.
101
Armenian 885-1045 AD
Armoured Noble Lancers, Skoutatoi, Light Horse Archers

Armenia re-emerged as an independent nation with the recognition of Ashot I Bagratuni by the Abbasid
Caliph in 885 AD and the Byzantine Emperor in 887. Where possible the Armenians tried to steer a
neutral course between the Byzantines and the Arabs. Over the course of the 10th century the kingdom
became divided into multiple polities. The last independent Armenian state was absorbed by the
Byzantines in 1045.
French 888-1049 AD
Armoured Lancers, Crossbowmen, Lancers

Between 888 and 987 France was intermittently ruled by scions of the Carolingian dynasty. In 911
Charles III granted the lower Seine area, henceforth known as Normandy, to the Viking leader Rollo
(Rolf).
Following the untimely death of Louis V the Indolent in 987, Hugh Capet, the dominant force in the
kingdom for the preceding decade, was elected King. He was the founder of the Capetian dynasty who
ruled France until 1328 in the main line, and in collateral lines until the end of the French monarchy. His
actual power, however, extended only over a small part of France around Paris and Orleans, the rest
being under the control of the great nobles. This weakness was a characteristic of the French monarchy
102
in the early Capetian period, to the extent that in the late 12th century the Angevin Kings of England
ruled more territory in France than the King of France himself.
German 888-932 AD, German 933-1049 AD
Armoured Lancers, Shieldwall (Defensive), Lancers

Following the death of Charles the Fat in 888, the Frankish Empire was permanently divided. East
Francia (Germany) fell to Arnulf of Carinthia, an illegitimate son of the late Carolingian King Carloman of
Bavaria. On his death in 899, he was succeeded by his six year old son, Louis the Child. During Louis'
reign East Francia was ravaged by the Magyars, German armies suffering defeats at Pressburg in 907 and
Augsburg in 910. Louis died in 911, at the age of eighteen, the last Carolingian King of East Francia.
Following his death, Conrad I, Duke of Franconia was elected King, and on his death in 918, Henry I the
Fowler, Duke of Saxony. After a defeat in 924, Henry won a victory over the Magyars at Riade in 933. On
his death in 936, he was succeeded by his son Otto I the Great.
After suppressing the rebellious dukes of Germany, Otto invaded Italy in 951 and established control
over the Kingdom of Italy. In 955 he decisively defeated the Magyars at Lechfield and the West Slavic
Obodrite confederation at Recknitz. As a matter of policy, Otto strengthened the ecclesiastical
authorities in Germany, subject to the monarchy, at the expense of the secular nobility. In 962 he was
crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope John XII. In 972 this title was recognised by the Byzantine
Emperor John I Tzimiskes. The Saxon (Ottonian) dynasty lasted until the death of Henry II in 1024.
Thereafter Conrad II was elected King and Emperor, the founder of the Salian dynasty that ruled
Germany until 1125.
103
Arab (Syria/Iraq) 890-1008 AD, Arab (Syria/Iraq) 1009-1150 AD
Bedouin Cavalry, Bedouin Foot, Bedouin Light Horse

These lists cover the local Arab dynasties in Syria and Iraq that flourished during and after the
disintegration of Abbasid power. The main dynasties were the Hamdanids in Mosul (890-991) and
Aleppo (944-1008), the Iqaylids in Mosul (996-1096), the Mazyadids in southern Iraq (997-1150) and the
Mirdassids in Aleppo (1008-1079).
For 20 years following his seizure of power in Aleppo in 944 Sayf al-Dawla was the darling of the Muslim
world as he undertook regular raids against the Christian Byzantines, so fulfilling the Muslim
requirement of jihad against non-believers. This also provided an opportunity for others to do so; the
city of Tarsus on the border had accommodation for ghazis and was a regular starting point for Sayf's
raids. However, his credibility fell off as the Byzantines under the Phokas family started to conquer
Muslim territory from the mid-century onwards.
The Mazyadids, Mirdassids and later Iqaylids did not have access to ghilman (armoured horse archers) or
Dailami.
Irish 900-1049 AD
Picked Irish Foot, Irish Kerns, Irish Foot

Viking raids on Ireland began in 795 AD, but from the 840s the Vikings were wintering in Ireland and
establishing permanent settlements. These included Dublin, Limerick, Waterford, Wexford, Cork and
Arklow. They used these as bases from which to raid inland. In between fighting among themselves, the
native Irish kingdoms resisted the Vikings. Eventually the Viking settlements became part of the
confused political scene in Ireland, with alliances between Irish and Vikings against other Vikings and/or
104
Irish commonplace. In the course of this interaction, Irish warriors came to adopt the Viking axe as their
favourite weapon.
At Clontarf in 1014, the Irish army under High King Brian Boru defeated a combined army of Leinster
Irish under King Maelmordha and Vikings under Jarls Brodir of Man and Sigurd of Orkney. The Irish army
also included a small force of Manx Vikings. Following this defeat, Viking power in Ireland declined.
Warriors were variously armed with short thrusting spear, javelins and big axes. The axe was sometimes
used one-handed and sometimes two-handed. Giraldus Cambrensis states that neither helmet nor mail
was any protection against it. Units graded as light spear, swordsmen are those with a low proportion of
men using two-handed axes. Although wealthier men often rode to battle, they fought on foot.
Norman 923-1040 AD
Dismtd Armoured Lancers, Armoured Lancers, Shieldwall (Defensive)

Normandy (in northern France) was created by the treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte in 911 AD by which the
King of France granted lands around the lower Seine to Rollo (Rolf), leader of the Vikings who had
settled there. Following this the Normans rapidly assimilated to the French language and military
system, to which they added their native Viking fierceness. Over the course of the 10th century the
County of Normandy expanded at the expense of its neighbours. The ducal title became established
circa 1000, the first Duke being Richard II. In the 11th century Norman adventurers hired themselves out
as mercenaries in southern Italy (where they subsequently carved out a kingdom) and in the Byzantine
Empire.
In 1066 Duke William the Bastard invaded England where he defeated and killed King Harold at the
Battle of Hastings. He was subsequently crowned King of England, though he also remained Duke of
Normandy owing (increasingly theoretical) fealty to the King of France.
This list covers the Normans until the somewhat arbitrary date at which we reclassify their cavalry as
Knights, based on their especially fierce charge at the Battle of Monte Maggiore against the Byzantines
in 1041.
105
Dailami 928-1055 AD
Ghilman, Dailami Foot, Bedouin Cavalry

This list covers the armies of the dynasties from the northern Iranian Caspian Sea provinces of Dailam
and Gilan whose people are usually grouped together as Dailamites. Never fully subdued by the Arab
conquests they did not convert to Islam until the early 10th century when 'Alid missionaries finally
succeeded.
The most important Dailami dynasty was that of the Buwayhids (Buyids). In 934 AD they took power in
Fars, the old centre of the Sassanid Empire, whose riches formed the basis of their takeover of most of
the Iraqi and Iranian provinces of the decaying Abbasid caliphate. They took Baghdad in 946 and
thereafter ruled as a family confederation of emirates until circa 1055 when the emirates fell to the
Seljuk Turks. Heavily influenced by the Persian past they even gave their most senior member the title
Shahanshah.
Dailami infantry were fierce fighters, armed with large shields and heavy 'zupin' javelins. They were
sought after as mercenaries throughout the Islamic world. Although they came to power through the
strength of their Dailami infantry, the Buwayhids quickly realised that outside of the mountains they
needed cavalry support and so recruited Turkish ghilman to meet this need. They may also have
occasionally used small numbers of elephants.
The list also covers the Ziyarids in the Caspian provinces of Gorgan and Mazandaran from 928 to 1043,
and the Musafirids in Azerbaijan from 941 to 984. Unlike the Buwayhids these dynasties did not use
ghilman or elephants and had to rely on Kurds and Bedouin for cavalry when they needed them.
106
Breton 936-1049 AD
Shieldwall (Defensive), Armoured Lancers, Dismtd Armoured Lancers

The Breton Kingdom was destroyed by the Vikings circa 931 AD. The new Duchy of Brittany created by a
Breton counter-invasion from England in 936 adopted the Norman military system.
Ghaznavid 962-1187 AD
Turkish Cavalry, Muslim War Elephants, Ghilman

In 962 AD Alp Tigin, a Turkic ghulam general, acquired power at Ghazna in eastern Afghanistan. Alp
Tigin's successor Sebük Tigin conquered most of Afghanistan and the Punjab. His son, Mahmud the
Great, conquered the remainder of the Samanid territory and much of northern India between 997 and
1024. The final piece of expansion was the acquisition of Rayy from the Buwayhids in 1027, pushing his
empire to just south of the Caspian Sea. Mahmud and his successors continued to raid deep into India
on a regular basis for the next 140 years, obtaining great booty at the cost of much suffering and
slaughter amongst the Indian population. Although held in high regard by Moslems as a ghazi (fighter for
the faith) he is remembered as a bloody-handed barbarian by Indians.
By the second quarter of the 11th century, however, the empire was under pressure from the rising
power of the Seljuq Turks. In 1040, at the Battle of Dandanaqan, Mahmud's son Mas'ud was decisively
107
defeated and nearly all of Khurasan was lost. Following this the Ghurids, an Afghan dynasty, rebelled
and pushed the Ghaznavids back to their Indian possessions. The last territories, in Lahore, fell to the
Ghurids in 1187.
Ghaznavid armies were noted for their use of very large numbers of elephants.
Map set: Tropical
Byzantine 963-987 AD, Byzantine 988-1041 AD
Byzantine Klibanophoroi, Varangian Guard (Spear), Tagmatic Lancers & Archers

Under the Macedonian dynasty (867-1056 AD) the Byzantine Empire was once again strong enough to
go on the offensive. Initially the attempted reconquest met with mixed success. However, the soldier
emperors Nikephoros II Phokas (963-969) and John I Tzimiskes (969-976) reconquered Crete, Cyprus and
parts of Syria. Basil II (976-1025) conquered the Bulgar Empire after a campaign lasting nearly twenty
years. The Bulgars finally surrendered in 1018 and were incorporated into the empire, restoring the
Danube frontier last held 400 years before.
The kataphraktoi formed in one or occasionally two deep wedges, designed to break into the enemy
army. The proportion of archers in skoutatoi units was greatly increased.
In 988 Vladimir I of Kiev supplied the Emperor Basil II with 6,000 Varangian (Rus) mercenaries, to assist
him in a civil war. The best of these became the famous Varangian Guard. Initially they fought in
traditional Rus style as a mainly spear-armed shieldwall, only switching to the famous two-handed axe in
the later 11th century, possibly after the recruitment of large numbers of exiled Englishmen following
the Norman conquest of England.
108
Polish 966-1057 AD
Massed Archers, Armoured Cavalry, Shieldwall (Defensive)

In 966 AD Mieszko I, leader of the Slavic tribe of Polans, accepted Christianity. This marked the creation
of the Polish state and the foundation of the Piast dynasty. By the end of his reign he had transformed
Poland into one of the strongest states in Eastern Europe. His son Boleslaw the Brave continued his work
and became the first King of Poland in 1025.
Polish cavalry in this period often relied on hit and run tactics, including feigned flight.
Fatimid Egyptian 978-1073 AD
Ghilman, 'Abid al-shira, Armoured Muslim Lancers (Mediocre)

The Fatimid Caliphate was a Shi'a dynasty originating in North Africa (modern Tunisia and eastern
Algeria), replacing the Aghlabids in 909 AD. They claimed descent from Fatimah, the Prophet's daughter.
In 969 they conquered Egypt from the Iqshidid dynasty. Soon after, they founded a new capital at Cairo
(al-Qahirat). They also advanced their control into Palestine and parts of Syria. In 1040 they lost control
of their North African territories when the Zirid dynasty declared its independence and conversion to
Sunni Islam. From about 1070, they progressively lost their Syrian and Palestinian territories, first to the
Seljuk Turks, then to the Crusaders, so that their territory shrank until it consisted only of Egypt. In the
wake of King Amalric of Jerusalem's interventions in Egypt, the Fatimid dynasty was suppressed by
Saladin in 1171.
109
From circa 978 they started to employ Turkish ghilman and Dailami infantry. Their earlier armies are
covered by the Arab (North Africa) 789-999 list.
Georgian 1008-1049 AD
Massed Eastern Archers, Armoured Noble Lancers, Shieldwall (Defensive)

In 1008 AD the Kingdoms of Abkhazia and Iberia were united under the rule of Bagrat III, becoming the
Kingdom of Georgia.
Anglo-Danish 1017-1041 AD
Well-Equipped Shieldwall (Offensive), Mtd Huscarls (Dsmt with axe), Huscarls (Axe)
In 1013 King Sweyn Forkbeard of Denmark invaded England. The English King, Æthelred the Unready,
fled to Normandy and Sweyn was accepted as King of England by the Witan. He was succeeded as King
of England in 1014 by his younger son Cnut. When the Danish army returned to Denmark, King Æthelred
returned and was restored to the throne. In 1015, however, Cnut reinvaded and by the end of 1016 was
in control of the whole of England. Following his brother Harald's death in 1018, he was also King of
Denmark.
In 1042 Cnut's son Harthacnut died, having already recognised his English half-brother, Edward the
Confessor, as his heir. Thus the English royal line of Wessex was restored to the throne.
110

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Field of Glory II

Army List Descriptions

Last Updated: v1.5.28 (Wolves at the Gate DLC)

Arab 1000-313 BC...................................................................................................................................... 10

Median 836-627 BC, Median 626-550 BC.................................................................................................. 10

Elamite 815-539 BC.................................................................................................................................... 11

Cimmerian 750-600 BC.............................................................................................................................. 11

Mannaean 750-610 BC.............................................................................................................................. 12

Skythian 750-551 BC.................................................................................................................................. 12

Kushite Egyptian 727-656 BC..................................................................................................................... 13

Thracian (Triballi) 700-351 BC, Thracian (Triballi) 350 BC-46 AD ............................................................... 14

Lydian 687-551 BC..................................................................................................................................... 14

Assyrian 681-609 BC.................................................................................................................................. 15

Hebrew 681-586 BC................................................................................................................................... 16

Phoenician 681-539 BC.............................................................................................................................. 16

Urartian 681-585 BC.................................................................................................................................. 17

Cypriot 680-550 BC, Cypriot 549-490 BC................................................................................................... 17

Illyrian 680 BC - 25 AD............................................................................................................................... 18

Thracian 680-461 BC, Thracian 460-351 BC............................................................................................... 19

Egyptian 664-571 BC, Egyptian 570-525 BC, Egyptian 405-343 BC ............................................................ 20

Babylonian 626-539 BC.............................................................................................................................. 21

Lydian 550-546 BC..................................................................................................................................... 23

Babylonian Revolts 522-482 BC................................................................................................................. 24

Indian 500 BC - 319 AD, Indian 320-545 AD............................................................................................... 25

Mountain Indian 492-170 BC..................................................................................................................... 25

Carthaginian 490-411 BC........................................................................................................................... 26

Etruscan 490-331 BC.................................................................................................................................. 26

Italian Hill Tribes 490-275 BC..................................................................................................................... 27

Latin 490-338 BC........................................................................................................................................ 27

Roman 490-341 BC.................................................................................................................................... 28

Umbrian 490-260 BC.................................................................................................................................. 28

Ligurian 480-145 BC................................................................................................................................... 29

Achaemenid Persian 460-420 BC............................................................................................................... 29

Apulian 420-203 BC................................................................................................................................... 30

Bruttian or Lucanian 420-203 BC............................................................................................................... 30

Campanian 420-281 BC, Campanian 280-203 BC....................................................................................... 31

Achaemenid Persian 419-329 BC............................................................................................................... 31

Syracusan 412-281 BC, Syracusan 280-211 BC.......................................................................................... 32

Thessalian 404-352 BC............................................................................................................................... 33

Gallic 390-301 BC....................................................................................................................................... 33

Macedonian 355-329 BC, Macedonian 328-321 BC................................................................................... 34

Samnite 355-272 BC.................................................................................................................................. 34

Thracian (Hellenistic) 350-281 BC.............................................................................................................. 35

Bosporan 348-85 BC, Bosporan 84 BC - 10 AD, Bosporan 11-375 AD ........................................................ 36

Numidian or Moorish 341-56 BC, Numidian or Moorish 55 BC - 6 AD ....................................................... 36

Armenian 331 BC - 252 AD, Armenian (Tigranes) 83-69 BC ....................................................................... 37

Georgian 331 BC - 252 AD.......................................................................................................................... 38

Etruscan 330-280 BC.................................................................................................................................. 38

Antigonid 320-301 BC................................................................................................................................ 39

Atropatene 320-145 BC, Atropatene 144 BC - 226 AD ............................................................................... 39

Caucasian 320 BC - 476 AD........................................................................................................................ 40

Lysimachid 320-281 BC.............................................................................................................................. 40

Macedonian 320-261 BC, Macedonian 260-148 BC................................................................................... 41

Seleucid 320-303 BC, Seleucid 302-301 BC, Seleucid 300-206 BC .............................................................. 42

Arab 312 BC - 299 AD................................................................................................................................. 42

Gallic 300-101 BC, Gallic 100-50 BC........................................................................................................... 43

Bithynian 297-74 BC.................................................................................................................................. 44

Pontic 281-111 BC, Pontic 110-85 BC, Pontic 84-47 BC ............................................................................. 44

Galatian 280-63 BC, Galatian 63-25 BC...................................................................................................... 45