Calculation of surface runoff and design of

rain water harvesting

Presented By:-
Rakesh Yadav (1742800016)
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Acknowledgements, truly is an act of sincere thanks giving and indebtedness to them
who have guided and helped in the preparation process of a projects as the present
one. I take this opportunity to thank all those who have had a key role in the success
of this project. They have inspired, mentored, directed and seen the project through to
its completion. Firstly I would like to acknowledge Mr A.K. Saxena (Director,
KIT) and again humble thanks to Mr. Ishaan Pandey (H.O.D, Civil Department)
took great pain in going through the entire process and made valuable comments and
suggestions
with constant encouragement.
I would like to special thanks to our Manager Mr. Parvej Sir who provided me with
sample ideas when we got stuck during the project. He also helped us to collect all
the relevant information. We can’t forget to thank to sir who were very helpful to us
directly or indirectly during development of this project.

Ashutosh Kumar Pandey

B.Tech Civil 4th Year
ROLL NO: 174280000
PLACE: VARANASI
 CONTENT

1. RAINWATER HARVESTING FOR AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION

1.1. Methods of Rainwater Harvesting

1.1.1 Surface runoff harvesting

1.1.2 Roof Top rainwater harvesting

1.2 Micro-catchment Systems
1.3 Macro-catchments

1.3.1 Water storage and purpose

1.3.2 Most common technologies

1.3.3 Applicability

1.3.4 Resilience to climate variability

 RAINWATER HARVESTING FOR AGRICULTURAL
PRODUCTION

Rainwater harvesting (RWH): is the technology used for collecting and storing
rainwater for human use from rooftops, land surfaces or rock catchments. RWH is a
decentralised, environmentally sound solution, which can avoid many environmental
problems often caused in centralised conventional large-scale water supply projects.
 Rainwater is an important water source in many areas with significant rainfall but
lacking any kind of conventional, centralised supply system.
 Rainwater is also a good option in areas where good quality fresh surface water or
groundwater is lacking.
 It could be used as a supplement to piped water supply e.g. for toilet flushing,
washing and garden spraying
1.1 Methods of Rainwater Harvesting

Broadly there are two ways of harvesting rainwater

1. Surface runoff harvesting

2. Roof top rainwater harvesting

Rainwater harvesting is the collection and storage of rainwater for reuse on-site,
rather than allowing it to run off. These stored waters are used for various purposes
such as gardening, irrigation etc. Various methods of rainwater harvesting are
described in this section.

1.1.1 Surface run off harvesting

In both urban and rural areas, rainwater flows away as surface runoff. This runoff
could be caught and used for recharging aquifers by adopting appropriate methods.
Types of surface RWH systems include:
i. Ground catchments (man-made)
ii. Rock catchments (natural, impervious outcrops)
iii. Collection of storm water in urbanized catchments for recharge
 Run off measurement methods

1. Rational Method

Q=1/360*CIA

Where,
Q =Peak rate of runoff, m3/sec;
I =Intensity of rainfall, mm/hour (time of concentration)
C =runoff coefficient
A =Area of the catchment, ha

2. Curve number method

F/s=Q/p-Ia

F =Actual retention, mm;

S =Potential maximum retention, mm;
Q =accumulated runoff depth, mm;
P =accumulated rainfall depth, mm
Ia =Initial abstraction, mm

Runoff coefficient (C)

1.1.2 Roof Top rainwater harvesting

It is a system of catching rainwater where it falls. In rooftop harvesting, the roof

becomes the catchments, and the rainwater is collected from the roof of the
house/building. It can either be stored in a tank or diverted to artificial recharge
system. This method is less expensive and very effective and if implemented properly
helps in augmenting the ground water level of the area.
Types of roof top RWH systems include:
 Simple roofwater collection system for households
 Larger systems for educational institutions, stadiums, airports, and other
facilities
 Roofwater collection systems for high-rise buildings in urbanised areas

Components of the roof top rainwater harvesting

The illustrative design of the basic components of roof top rainwater harvesting
system is given in the typical schematic diagram shown in Fig .

Fig 1a: Components of Rooftop Rainwater harvesting

The system mainly constitutes of following sub components:

 Catchments
 Transportation
 First flush
 Filter
 i. Catchments
The surface that receives rainfall directly is the catchment of rainwater harvesting
system. It may be terrace, courtyard, or paved or unpaved open ground. The terrace
may be flat RCC/stone roof or sloping roof. Therefore the catchment is the area,
which actually contributes rainwater to the harvesting system.

ii. Transportation
Rainwater from rooftop should be carried through down take water pipes or drains to
storage/harvesting system. Water pipes should be UV resistant (ISI HDPE/PVC
pipes) of required capacity. Water from sloping roofs could be caught through gutters
and down take pipe. At terraces, mouth of the each drain should have wire mesh to
restrict floating material.

iii. First Flush

First flush is a device used to flush off the water received in first shower. The first
shower of rains needs to be flushed-off to avoid contaminating storable/rechargeable
water by the probable contaminants of the atmosphere and the catchment roof. It will
also help in cleaning of silt and other material deposited on roof during dry seasons
Provisions of first rain separator should be made at outlet of each drainpipe.

iv. Filter
There is always some skepticism regarding Roof Top Rainwater Harvesting since
doubts are raised that rainwater may contaminate groundwater. There is remote
possibility of this fear coming true if proper filter mechanism is not adopted.
Secondly all care must be taken to see that underground sewer drains are not
punctured and no leakage is taking place in close vicinity. Filters are used fro
treatment of water to effectively remove turbidity, colour and microorganisms. After
first flushing of rainfall, water should pass through filters. A gravel, sand and ‘netlon’
mesh filter is designed and placed on top of thestorage tank. This filter is very
important in keeping the rainwater in the storage tankclean. It removes silt, dust,
leaves and other organic matter from entering the storage tank. The filter media
should be cleaned daily after every rainfall event. Clogged filters prevent rainwater
from easily entering the storage tank and the filter may overflow. The sand or gravel
media should be taken out and washed before it is replaced in the filter.
A typical photograph of filter is shown in Fig 2.
 Fig 2: Photograph of typical filter

There are different types of filters in practice, but basic function is to purify water.
Different types of filters are described in this section.

a) Sand Gravel Filter

These are commonly used filters, constructed by brick masonry and filleted by
pebbles, gravel, and sand as shown in the figure. Each layer should be separated by
wire mesh. A typical figure of Sand Gravel Filter is shown in Fig 3.

Fig 3: Sand Gravel Filter

b) Charcoal Filter
Charcoal filter can be made in-situ or in a drum. Pebbles, gravel, sand and charcoal as
shown in the figure should fill the drum or chamber. Each layer should be separated
by wire mesh. Thin layer of charcoal is used to absorb odor if any. A schematic
diagram of Charcoal filter is indicated in Fig 4.
 Fig 4: Charcoal Filter

c) PVC –Pipe filter

This filter can be made by PVC pipe of 1 to 1.20 m length; Diameter of pipe depends
on the area of roof. Six inches dia. pipe is enough for a 1500 Sq. Ft. roof and 8 inches
dia. pipe should be used for roofs more then 1500 Sq. Ft. Pipe is divided into three
compartments by wire mesh. Each component should be filled with gravel and sand
alternatively as shown in the figure. A layer of charcoal could also be inserted
between two layers. Both ends of filter should have reduce of required size to connect
inlet and outlet. This filter could be placed horizontally or vertically in the system. A
schematic pipe filter is shown in Fig 5.

Fig 5: PVC-Pipe filter

d) Sponge Filter

It is a simple filter made from PVC drum having a layer of sponge in the middle of
drum. It is the easiest and cheapest form filter, suitable for residential units. A typical
figure of sponge filter is shown in Fig 6.
 Fig 6: Sponge Filter

Methods of roof top rainwater harvesting

Various methods of using roof top rainwater harvesting are illustrated in this section.

a) Storage of Direct Use

In this method rain water collected from the roof of the building is diverted to a
storage tank. The storage tank has to be designed according to the water
requirements, rainfall and catchment availability. Each drainpipe should have mesh
filter at mouth and first flush device followed by filtration system before connecting
to the storage tank. It is advisable that each tank should have excess water over flow
system.

Excess water could be diverted to recharge system. Water from storage tank can be
used for secondary purposes such as washing and gardening etc. This is the most cost
effective way of rainwater harvesting. The main advantage of collecting and using
the rainwater during rainy season is not only to save water from conventional
sources, but also to save energy incurred on transportation and distribution of water at
the doorstep. This also conserves groundwater, if it is being extracted to meet the
demand when rains are on. A typical fig of storage tank is shown in Fig 7.
 Fig 7: A storage tank on a platform painted white

b) Recharging ground water aquifers

Ground water aquifers can be recharged by various kinds of structures to ensure

percolation of rainwater in the ground instead of draining away from the surface.
Commonly used recharging methods are:-
i. Recharging of bore wells
ii. Recharging of dug wells.
iii. Recharge pits
iv. Recharge Trenches
v. Soak ways or Recharge Shafts
vi. Percolation Tanks

c) Recharging of bore wells

Rainwater collected from rooftop of the building is diverted through drainpipes to

settlement or filtration tank. After settlement filtered water is diverted to bore wells to
recharge deep aquifers. Abandoned bore wells can also be used for recharge.

Optimum capacity of settlement tank/filtration tank can be designed on the basis of

area of catchment, intensity of rainfall and recharge rate. While recharging, entry of
floating matter and silt should be restricted because it may clog the recharge
structure. First one or two shower should be flushed out through rain separator to
avoid contamination. A schematic diagram of filtration tank recharging to bore well
is indicated in Fig 8 .
 Fig 8 :Filtration tank recharging to bore well

d) Recharge pits

Recharge pits are small pits of any shape rectangular, square or circular, contracted
with brick or stone masonry wall with weep hole at regular intervals. Top of pit can
be covered with perforated covers. Bottom of pit should be filled with filter media.

The capacity of the pit can be designed on the basis of catchment area, rainfall
intensity and recharge rate of soil. Usually the dimensions of the pit may be of 1 to 2
m width and 2 to 3 m deep depending on the depth of pervious strata. These pits are
suitable for recharging of shallow aquifers, and small houses. A schematic diagram of
recharge pit is shown in Fig 9.

Fig 9: Recharge pit

e) Soak way or Recharge shafts

Soak away or recharge shafts are provided where upper layer of soil is alluvial or less
pervious. These are bored hole of 30 cm dia. up to 10 to 15 m deep, depending on
depth of  pervious layer. Bore should be lined with slotted/perforated PVC/MS pipe
to prevent collapse of the vertical sides. At the top of soak away required size sump is
constructed to retain runoff before the filters through soak away. Sump should be
filled with filter media. A schematic diagram of recharge shaft is shown in Fig 10.

Fig 10 : Schematic Diagram of Recharge shaft

f) Recharging of dug wells

Dug well can be used as recharge structure. Rainwater from the rooftop is diverted to
dug wells after passing it through filtration bed. Cleaning and desalting of dug well
should be done regularly to enhance the recharge rate. The filtration method
suggested for bore well recharging could be used. A schematic diagram of recharging
into dug well is indicated in Fig 11shown below.

Fig 11: Schematic diagram of recharging to dug well

g) Recharge trenches

Recharge trench in provided where upper impervious layer of  soil is shallow. It is a
trench excavated on the ground and refilled with porous media like pebbles, boulder
or brickbats. it is usually made for harvesting the surface runoff. Bore wells can also
be provided inside the trench as recharge shafts to enhance percolation. The length of
the trench is decided as per the amount of runoff expected. This method is suitable
for small houses, playgrounds, parks and roadside drains. The recharge trench can be
of size 0.50 to 1.0 m wide and 1.0 to 1.5 m deep. A schematic diagram of recharging
to trenches is shown in Fig below 12.

Fig 12: Recharging to trenches.

h) Percolation tank

Percolation tanks are artificially created surface water bodies, submerging a land area
with adequate permeability to facilitate sufficient percolation to recharge the ground
water. These can be built in big campuses where land is available and topography is
suitable.

Surface run-off and roof top water can be diverted to this tank. Water accumulating
in the tank percolates in the solid to augment the ground water. The stored water can
be used directly for gardening and raw use. Percolation tanks should be built in
gardens, open spaces and roadside green belts of urban area.
 Classification of water-harvesting systems

1.2 Micro-catchment Systems

Micro-catchment systems are those in which surface runoff is collected from a small
catchment area with mainly sheet flow over a short distance. Runoff water is usually
applied to an adjacent agricultural area, where it is either stored in the root zone and
used directly by plants, or stored
in a small reservoir for later use. The target area may be planted with trees, bushes, or
with annual crops. The size of the catchment ranges from a few square meters to
around 1000 m2. Land catchment surfaces may be natural, with their vegetation
intact, or cleared and treated in some way to induce runoff, especially when soils are
light. Non-land catchment surfaces include the rooftops of buildings, courtyards and
similar impermeable structures.
a. On-Farm Systems
On-Farm micro-catchment systems are simple in design and may be constructed at
low cost, making them easily replicable and adaptable. They have higher run off
efficiency than macro-catchment systems and do not usually need a water
conveyance system. They allow soil erosion to be controlled and sediments to be
directed to settle in the cultivated area. Suitable land-based micro-catchment
techniques exist for any slope or crop. However, these systems generally require
continuous maintenance with a relatively high labor input.
Unlike macro-catchment systems, the farmer has control within his farm over both
the catchment and the target areas.
All the components of the system are constructed inside the farm boundaries. This is
an advantage from the point of view of maintenance and management, but because of
the loss of productive land it is only in the drier environments, where cropping is
most risky, that farmers are willing to allocate part of their farm to acatchment.
Some important land-based micro-catch mentor on-farm water-harvesting systems in
the dry areas listed here below.
i. Contour ridges
These are bunds or ridges constructed along the contour line, usually spaced between
5 and 20 m apart. The first 1–2 m above the ridge is for cultivation, where as the rest
is the catchment. The height of each ridge varies according to the slope’s gradient
and the expected depth of the runoff water retained behind it. Bunds maybe
reinforced by stones if necessary.
Ridging is a simple technique that can be carried out by farmers. Ridges can be
formed manually, with an animal-driven implement, or by tractors with suitable
implements. They may be constructed on a wide range of slopes, from 1% to
50%.The key to the success of these systems is to locate the ridge as precisely as
possible along the contour. Otherwise water will flow along the ridge, accumulate at
the lowest point, eventually break through and destroy the whole down slope system.
Surveying instruments, or an A-Frame and hand tools, can be used for contouring,
but these methods are too sophisticated and time-consuming for most small-scale
farmers.
The simplest method is a transparent, flexible tube 10–20 m long, fixed on two scaled
poles. The tube is filled with water so that the two water levels are clear on the scale.
Two people can trace the contour by adjusting the position of one of the poles so that
their water levels are the same.
If precise contouring is not feasible, small cross-bunds (ties) may be added at suitable
spacing along the ridge to stop the flow of water along the ridge. Contour ridges are
one of the most important techniques for supporting the regeneration and new
plantations of forages, grasses and hardy trees on gentle to steep slopes in the steppe.
In the semi-arid tropics, they are used for arable crops such as sorghum, millet,
cowpeas and beans.
A special form of contour ridge may be constructed for use with stone bunds on
gentle slopes. Stone bunds are permeable structures working only to slow down sheet
flow and promote infiltration. Earth can be excavated and added to the upstream side
of the bund to turn it into an impermeable contour ridge.
Theses tone bund systems can be used only if suitable large stones are available in
the vicinity.
ii. Semi-circular and trapezoidal bunds
These are usually earthen bunds in the shape of a semi-circle, a crescent, or a
trapezoid facing directly upslope. They are created at a spacing that allows sufficient
catchment to provide the required runoff water, which accumulates in front of the
bund, where plants are grown. Usually they are placed in staggered rows.
The diameter or the distance between the two ends of each bund varies between1 and
8 m and the bunds are 30–50 cm high. Cutting the soil to form the bund depression.
Runoff is intercepted here and stored in the plant root zone. If soil is cutup stream the
slope is increased and this
raises the runoff coefficient; in this way the technique can be used on level land, but
it can also be used on slopes up to 15%.
These bunds are used mainly for the rehabilitation of rangeland or for fodder
production, but may also be used for growing trees, shrubs and in some cases field
crops(e.g. sorghum) and vegetables (e.g. watermelons).
An eyebrow terrace is a form of semicircular bund supported by stones on the
downstream side. The greater the slope, the more the bunds have to be strengthened
with stones. The establishment and maintenance of this system is labor-intensive.
iii. Small pits/ planting pits (Zai, Zay, Chololo, Matengo, Ngoro)
The planting pit system is a Micro catchment technique. Pitting is a very old
technique used mainly in Western and Eastern Africa. It is excellent for rehabilitating
degraded agricultural lands. The pits are 0.3–2 m in diameter. The most famous
pitting system is the zay system used in Burkina Faso.
Planting pits are made on land which low permeability to allow for runoff collection.
Planting pits are holes dug to catch runoff and allow time for infiltration and they are
usually fertilized with organic matter in the form of plant debris or compost.
Pitting systems are generally used for cultivation of annual and perennial crops for
example sorghum, maize, millet, cowpeas, sweet potatoes, groundnuts and bananas.
However, if the pits are dug on flat instead of sloping ground, they may be regarded
more as an in situ moisture-conservation technique than as a water-harvesting one.
Useful design guidelines:
The Zay form are dug with approximately 80 cm apart to a depth of 5 to 15 cm, with
a diameter of between 15 and 50cm, but the planting pits also exists in much greater
size and with different spacing.
The labor requirement for digging a zay system is high and may constitute a
considerable investment in the first and even in subsequent years since, after each till
age, the pits have to be restored. A special disk-plow may be adapted to create small
pits for range rehabilitation.
Limitation:
The planting pits will not maintain runoff water in sandy soils.
iv. Small runoff basins
Sometimes called negarim, small runoff basins consist of small diamond- or
rectangular-shaped structures surrounded by low earth bunds. They are oriented to
have the maximum land slope parallel to the long diagonal of the diamond, so that
runoff flows to the lowest corner, where the plant is placed.
The negarim is best used on even ground. The usual dimensions are 5–10 m in width
and 10–25 m in length. Small runoff basins can be constructed on almost any
gradient, including plains with 1–2 %slopes; but on slopes above 5 %, soil erosion
may occur and the bund height should be increased. They are most suitable for
growing tree crops, but may be used for other crops. When they are used for trees, the
soil should be deep enough to hold sufficient water for the whole dry season.
If the catchment is well maintained, 30–80 % of the rain can be harvested and used
by the crop. Soil conservation is a positive side-effect of negarims. Once the negarim
system is constructed, it lasts for years with little maintenance. Plowing to control
weeds may not be practical within the small space of each basin, so weeding may
have to be done by hand or with chemicals.
If the negarimis built on heavy or crusting soils, a high runoff coefficient may be
achieved. However, since the system supports high value crops, it can be economical
to take measures to induce additional runoff.
Layout of diamond-shaped Negarims, the common variation which is single, open-
ended structures in "V", and planting of 2 seedlings which will experience different
moisture conditions to make sure that one will survive (Critchley et al, 1991).
v. Runoff strips
The technique of runoff strips is suitable for gentle slopes. The strips are used to
support field crops in the drier environments, where production is risky yields are
low. The farm is divided into strips along the con tour. An upstream strip is used as a
catchment, while a downstream strip supports crops. The downstream strip should
not be too wide (1–3 m), while the catchment
width is determined in accordance with the amount of runoff water required. Runoff
strip-cropping can be fully mechanized and needs only a relatively low input of labor.
The same cropped strips are cultivated every year. Clearing and compaction may be
needed to improve runoff.
Agricultural inputs such as fertilizers and pesticides are applied to the cultivated area,
as well as water. Under good management, continuous cultivation of the cropped
strip can build up soil fertility and improve soil structure, making the land more
productive. This technique is highly recommended for barley cultivation. The
catchment area can be used for grazing after the crop has been harvested.
One problem the farmer may face, however, is that the distribution of water across
the strip may not be uniform. This happens especially on gentle slopes when the
cropped strip is too wide or if a small ridge is formed during cultivation along the
upstream edge of the cropped strip. To overcome this problem, it is recommended
that the cropped strip should not exceed 2 m in width, and that water distribution
should be helped by good preparation of the strip surface.
vi. Inter-row systems
Inter-row systems, also called “roaded catchments,” may be the best technique to
apply on flat lands. Triangular cross sectional bunds or levees are constructed along
the main slope of the land. When high-value crops such as fruit trees and vegetables
are involved, the bunds may be compacted or possibly covered with plastic sheets or
treated with water repellent materials to induce more runoff. The bunds, with a height
ranging from 40 to 100 cm, are built at distances of
2–10 m. collected between the ridges and either directed to a reservoir at the end of a
feed canal or to a crop cultivated between the ridges.
The catchment area has to be weeded and compacted on a regular basis to maintain
high runoff output.
vii. Contour-bench terraces
Contour-bench terraces are constructed on very steep slopes to combine soil and
water conservation with water-harvesting techniques. Cropping terraces are usually
built level and at times, supported by stone walls to slow down the flow of water and
control erosion. They are supplied with additional runoff water from steeper, non-
cropped areas between the terraces. The terraces are usually provided with drains to
release excess water safely.
Since they are constructed on steep mountainsides, most of the work is done by
manual labor. The drawback of this system is that construction and maintenance
costs could be high.
There could be many others depending on the country and the farming traditions***
viii. Meskat
Meskat is a term used in Tunisia for an indigenous water-harvesting system
supporting mainly olives and figs. This system consists of a catchment, or meskat,
occupying the slope adjacent to a flat cultivated area..Sometimes, the catchment areas
are surrounded by a bund and may be provided with spillways to let runoff flow
between plots without causing erosion.
b. Rooftop Systems
Rooftop systems are also micro-cathcment systems. They collect and store rain water
from the roofs of houses or large buildings ,greenhouses, courtyards, and similar
impermeable surfaces, including roads. Most of the rain can be collected and stored.
How the harvested water will be used depends on the type of surface used and it’s
cleanliness as well as users’ needs. Modern roofing materials and gutters, for
example, allow the collection of clean water suitable for drinking and other domestic
uses, especially in rural areas without tap water.
1.3 Macro-catchments
Macro catchment water harvesting (Macro WH) systems usually consist of four
components :the catchment area, the runoff conveyance system, the storage system
and the application area. In the catchment area, rainwater runoff is collected from
compacted surfaces, including hillsides, roads, rocky areas, open rangelands,
cultivated and uncultivated land and natural slopes. Most Macro WH practices have a
catchment area of less than 2 ha, in some cases however runoff is collected from
catchments as large as 200 ha. The runoff is conveyed through overland, rill, gully or
channel flow and either diverted onto cultivated fields (where water is stored in the
soil) or into specifically designed storage facilities. There where concentrated runoff
is directly diverted to fields, the application area is identical with the storage area, as
plants can directly use the accumulated soil water. The application or cropping area is
either terraced or
located in flat terrain. The ratio of the catchment to the application area (usually
cultivated) varies between 10:1 and 100:1. In the second case, a great variety of
designed storage systems keep the water till it is used either adjacent to the storage
facilities or further away (involving a conveyance system). The classification of
technologies into Flood WH or Macro WH is not always straight forward. It depends
on the catchment size (Flood WH>Macro WH), the size of rainfall event (Flood
WH>Macro WH) and concentration/ size of runoff which is tapped (Flood WH
harvest from the channel flow ,Macro WH collects sheet and rill flow and short-
distance channel flow).

1.3.1 storage and purpose

Water stored in the soil Water is directly used for plant and crop growth prolonging
the growing season and bridging the dry spells allowing to produce crops and yields
without demanding irrigation systems. Designed storage facilities cover a broad
range of open or closed structures. Open storage include farm ponds and different
types of dams (often earth dams). Closed structures can be groundwater dams or
above and below-ground tanks or reservoirs. Such storage structures are often
characterized by multipurpose use, prioritising domestic and livestock consumption.
During dry spells the water may sometimes used for supplementary irrigation.
1.3.2 Most common technologies
These are: hillside runoff / conduit systems; large semi-circular or trapezoidal
bunds(earth or stone); road runoff systems and open surface water storage in dams,
ponds and pans; groundwater dams (subsurface, sand and perculation dams); above-
or below-ground tanks (cisterns); horizontal and injection wells.

1.3.3 Applicability
Macro WH practices are applicable in arid, semi-arid to sub-humid zones where it is
necessary to store water to bridge the dry season or to mitigate the impact of dry
spells. They are often situated in natural or man-made depressions, or even in
ephemeral riverbeds. Macro WH is required in areas with long dry periods and where
rainfall fluctuates widely over time.

1.3.4 Resilience to climate variability

Macro WH systems are resilient to climate change as long as there is at least some
precipitation and runoff. Several consecutive drought years always pose a problem
,depending on the size of the storage system: they may lead to reservoirs failing to
fill. During short dry spells Macro WH systems provide an adaptation option for land
users, as they can use the stored water for supplementary irrigation.
Main benefits
 Improved crop yields.
 Improved year-round access to water for domestic and livestock consumption,
as well as for supplementary irrigation.
  Reduced risk of crop failure by bridging prolonged dry periods and as such
contribute to food security and climate change adaptation.
 Reduced damage from soil erosion and flooding by storing excess runoff
water.
Main disadvantages
 Open and shallow rainwater ponds and dams may dry out after the rainy
seasons, as the water is lost via seepage (except for rock catchment and sand
dams) and evaporation.
 Health risks: open storage structures can be contaminated by animals and can
provide a breeding ground for disease-carrying insects. Sand dams are often
contaminated as they are seldom protected from animals.